Faculty of Technology & Engineering

The Maharaja Sayajirao University ofBaroda

Year 2021–22

SUBJECT:
Materials in Fuel cell technology

Prepared by:Tejas Kadavala

PRN No.:2018033800122285
Exam no.: 801004
Guided By:
Mr.PallavPatel
Scanned with CamScanner
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere thanks to Head of the

Department of Chemical Engineering, Dr. Nitin Bhatefor granting the
permission to do work on my Seminarreport.

I express my deepest sense of gratitude to my respected guide Mr.

Pallav Patel, for his valuable guidance, constructive criticism and
constant encouragement during the entire course of studies, till the
completion of this Seminar report.

Finally, my grateful acknowledgements are of those who have

helped me directly or indirectly for preparing this Seminar report.

Submitted by
Tejas Kadavala
 ABSTRACT
Nowadays as because of their potential to reduce the environmental impact and geopolitical
consequences of the use of fossil fuels, fuel cells have emerged as tantalizing alternatives to
combustion engines. Like a combustion engine, a fuel cell uses some sort of chemical fuel as its
energy source but, like a battery, the chemical energy is directly converted to electrical energy,
without an often messy and relatively inefficient combustion step. In addition to high efficiency
and low emissions, fuel cells are attractive for their modular and distributed nature, and zero
noise pollution. They will also play an essential role in any future hydrogen fuel economy.
 • Table of Content

1.INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………..6
2.TYPES OF FUEL CELL……………………………………………...9
• Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells………………….……….9
• Phosphoric acid Fuel cell…………………...................................14
• Solid acid Fuel cell………………………………..…………..…..16
• Alkaline Fuel cell…………………………………………..…..…18
• Molten carbonate fuel cell………………………………….….…21
3.COMPARISON OF FUEL CELL…………………………...…….….22
4.EFFICIENCY OF FUEL CELL…………………………….......……23
5. APPLICATION………………………………………….……………24
6. MARKET ECONOMICS………………………………………….....29
7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT……………………..………..30
8. FUEL CELL CHALLENGES……………………………………….31
9. CONCLUSION………………………………………………….…….32
10. REFFERENCES…………………………………………………….33

LIST OF FIGURES:

• 1.Conventional Fuel Cell………………….……….…6

• 2.Block Diagram Of Fuel Cell……………...………...8
• 3.PEM Fuel Cell…………………...……………...……9
• 4.Construction Of PEMFC……………...……...…….10
• 5.Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell………………...………...14
• 6.Alkaline Fuel Cell………………...………….………18
 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction:

A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel and an oxidizing
agent into electricity through a pair of redox reactions. Fuel cells are different from most batteries
in requiring a continuous source of fuel and oxygen to sustain the chemical reaction, whereas in a
battery the chemical energy usually comes from metals and their ions or oxides that are
commonly already present in the battery, except in flow batteries. Fuel cells can produce
electricity continuously for as long as fuel and oxygen are supplied.

The primary components of a fuel cell are an ion conducting electrolyte, a cathode, and an anode,
as shown schematically in Fig. 1. In the simplest example, a fuel such as hydrogen is brought into
the anode compartment and an oxidant, typically oxygen, into the cathode compartment. There is
an overall chemical driving force for the oxygen and the hydrogen to react to produce water.

Fig. 1. Schematic of a conventional fuel cell employing a proton conducting electrolyte. Electro-oxidation
of H2 occurs at the anode, creating protons that then migrate across the electrolyte and participate in the
electro-reduction of O2 at the cathode. Electric power generation results from the flow of electrons
through an outside circuit, necessary for charge balance. The overall reaction isH2+1/2O2=H2O

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In the fuel cell, however, this simple chemical reaction is prevented by the electrolyte that
separates the fuel (H2) from the oxidant (O2). The electrolyte serves as a barrier to gas diffusion,
but permits ion transport. Accordingly, half cell reactions occur at the anode and cathode,
producing ions that can traverse the electrolyte. For example, if the electrolyte conducts protons,
H2 will be oxidized at the anode to form protons and electrons; the protons, after migrating across
the electrolyte, will react at the cathode with O2 and electrons (Fig. 1):

The first fuel cells were invented by Sir William Grove in 1838. The first commercial use of fuel
cells came more than a century later following the invention of the hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell by
Francis Thomas Bacon in 1932. The alkaline fuel cell, also known as the Bacon fuel cell after its
inventor, has been used in NASA space programs since the mid-1960s to generate power for
satellites and space capsules.

Fuel cells come in many varieties; however, they all work in the same general manner. They are
made up of three adjacent segments: the anode, the electrolyte, and the cathode. Two chemical
reactions occur at the interfaces of the three different segments. The net result of the two
reactions is that fuel is consumed, water or carbon dioxide is created, and an electric current is
created, which can be used to power electrical devices, normally referred to as the load.

At the anode a catalyst oxidizes the fuel, usually hydrogen, turning the fuel into a positively
charged ion and a negatively charged electron. The electrolyte is a substance specifically
designed so ions can pass through it, but the electrons cannot. The freed electrons travel through a
wire creating the electric current. The ions travel through the electrolyte to the cathode. Once
reaching the cathode, the ions are reunited with the electrons and the two react with a third
chemical, usually oxygen, to create water or carbon dioxide.

7
 1.2Design features in a fuel cell include:

Fig.2A block diagram of fuel cell

The electrolyte substance, which usually defines the type of fuel cell, and can be made from a
number of substances like potassium hydroxide, salt carbonates, and phosphoric acid.

The fuel that is used. The most common fuel is hydrogen.

The anode catalyst, usually fine platinum powder, breaks down the fuel into electrons and ions.

The cathode catalyst, often nickel, converts ions into waste chemicals, with water being the most
common type of waste.

Gas diffusion layers that are designed to resist oxidization.

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 2. TYPES OF FUEL CELL

2.1 Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells

Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), also known as polymer electrolyte membrane
(PEM) fuel cells, are a type of fuel cell being developed mainly for transport applications, as well
as for stationary fuel-cell applications and portable fuel-cell applications. Their distinguishing
features include lower temperature/pressure ranges (50 to 100 °C) and a special proton-
conducting polymer electrolyte membrane. PEMFCs generate electricity and operate on the
opposite principle to PEM electrolysis, which consumes electricity. They are a leading candidate
to replace the aging alkaline fuel-cell technology, which was used in the Space Shuttle.

diagram of PEM Fuel cell

9
Construction of a high-temperature PEMFC: Bipolar plate as electrode with in-milled gas channel
structure, fabricated from conductive composites, porous carbon papers; reactive layer, usually on
the polymer membrane applied; polymer membrane.

Reactions
At anode:

At cathode:

Overall reaction:

The reversible reaction is expressed in the equation and shows the reincorporation of the
hydrogen protons and electrons together with the oxygen molecule and the formation of one
water molecule. The potentials in each case are given with respect to the standard hydrogen
electrode.

10
Strength:

The PEMFC is a prime candidate for vehicle and other mobile applications of all sizes
down to mobile phones, because of its compactness.

Weaknesses:

Fuel Cells based on PEM still have many issues:

1. Water management

Water management is crucial to performance: if water is evaporated too slowly, it will

flood the membrane and the accumulation of water inside of field flow plate will impede
the flow of oxygen into the fuel cell, but if water evaporates too fast, the membrane will
dry and the resistance across it increases. Both cases will cause damage to stability and
power output. Water management is a very difficult subject in PEM systems, primarily
because water in the membrane is attracted toward the cathode of the cell through
polarization.

A wide variety of solutions for managing the water exist including integration of an
electroosmotic pump.

Another innovative method to resolve the water recirculation problem is the 3D fine
mesh flow field design used in the Toyota Mirai, 2014.

2. Vulnerability of the Catalyst

The platinum catalyst on the membrane is easily poisoned by carbon monoxide, which is
often present in product gases formed by methane reforming (no more than one part per
million is usually acceptable). This generally necessitates the use of the water gas shift
reaction to eliminate CO from product gases and form more hydrogen.[8] Additionally,
the membrane is sensitive to the presences of metal ions, which may impair proton
conduction mechanisms and can be introduced by corrosion of metallic bipolar plates,
metallic components in the fuel cell system or from contaminants in the fuel/oxidant.

11
PEM systems that use reformed methanol were proposed, as in Daimler Chrysler Necar
5; reforming methanol, i.e., making it react to obtain hydrogen, is however a very
complicated process, that also requires purification from the carbon monoxide the
reaction produces. A platinum-ruthenium catalyst is necessary as some carbon monoxide
will unavoidably reach the membrane. The level should not exceed 10 parts per million.
Furthermore, the start-up times of such a reformer reactor are of about half an hour.
Alternatively, methanol, and some other biofuels can be fed to a PEM fuel cell directly
without being reformed, thus making a direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC). These devices
operate with limited success.

Efficiency

The maximal theoretical efficiency applying the Gibbs free energy equation ΔG =
−237.13 kJ/mol and using the heating value of Hydrogen (ΔH = −285.84 kJ/mol) is 83%
at 298 K.

Equation:

The practical efficiency of a PEMs is in the range of 50–60%

Main factors that create losses are:

Activation losses

Ohmic losses

Mass transport losses

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Application:

The major application of PEM fuel cells focuses on transportation primarily because of
their potential impact on the environment, e.g., the control of emission of the greenhouse
gases (GHG). Other applications include distributed/stationary and portable power
generation. Most major motor companies work solely on PEM fuel cells due to their
high-power density and excellent dynamic characteristics as compared with other types
of fuel cells. Due to their light weight, PEMFCs are most suited for transportation
applications. PEMFCs for buses, which use compressed hydrogen for fuel, can operate at
up to 40% efficiency. Generally, PEMFCs are implemented on buses over smaller cars
because of the available volume to house the system and store the fuel. Technical issues
for transportation involve incorporation of PEMs into current vehicle technology and
updating energy systems. Full fuel cell vehicles are not advantageous if hydrogen is
sourced from fossil fuels; however, they become beneficial when implemented as
hybrids. There is potential for PEMFCs to be used for stationary power generation, where
they provide 5 kW at 30% efficiency; however, they run into competition with other
types of fuel cells, mainly SOFCs and MCFCs. Whereas PEMFCs generally require high
purity hydrogen for operation, other fuel cell types can run on methane and are thus more
flexible systems. Therefore, PEMFCs are best for small scale systems until economically
scalable pure hydrogen is available. Furthermore, PEMFCs have the possibility of
replacing batteries for portable electronics, though integration of the hydrogen supply is a
technical challenge particularly without a convenient location to store it within the device

13
 2.2 Phosphoric acid Fuel cell

Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC) are a type of fuel cell that uses liquid phosphoric acid as an
electrolyte. They were the first fuel cells to be commercialized. Developed in the mid-1960s and
field-tested since the 1970s, they have improved significantly in stability, performance, and cost.
Such characteristics have made the PAFC a good candidate for early stationary applications

Design:
Electrolyte is highly concentrated or pure liquid phosphoric acid (H3PO4) saturated in a silicon
carbide (SiC) matrix. Operating range is about 150 to 210 °C. The electrodes are made of carbon
paper coated with a finely dispersed platinum catalyst.

Electrode reaction:

Anode reaction: 2H2(g) → 4H+ + 4e‾

Cathode reaction: O2(g) + 4H+ + 4e‾ → 2H2O

Overall cell reaction: 2 H2 + O2 → 2H2O

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Advantages and disadvantage:

At an operating range of 150 to 200 °C, the expelled water can be converted to steam for air and
water heating (combined heat and power). This potentially allows efficiency increases of up to
70%.PAFCs are CO2-tolerant and can tolerate a CO concentration of about 1.5%, which
broadens the choice of fuels they can use. If gasoline is used, the sulfur must be removed. At
lower temperatures phosphoric acid is a poor ionic conductor, and CO poisoning of the platinum
electro-catalyst in the anode becomes severe. However, they are much less sensitive to CO than
proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) and alkaline fuel cells (AFC).

Disadvantages include rather low power density and chemically aggressive electrolyte

Application:

PAFC have been used for stationary power generators with output in the 100 kW to 400 kW
range and are also finding application in large vehicles such as buses.

Major manufacturers of PAFC technology include Doosan Fuel Cell America Inc. [6] (formerly
Clear Edge Power & UTC Power [7]) and Fuji Electric.

India's DRDO has developed PAFC based air-independent propulsion for integration into their
Kalvari-class submarines.

15
 2.3. Solid acid Fuel cell
Solid acid fuel cells (SAFCs) are a class of fuel cells characterized by the use of a solid
acid material as the electrolyte. Similar to proton exchange membrane fuel cells and solid
oxide fuel cells, they extract electricity from the electrochemical conversion of hydrogen-
and oxygen-containing gases, leaving only water as a byproduct. Current SAFC systems
use hydrogen gas obtained from a range of different fuels, such as industrial-grade
propane and diesel. They operate at mid-range temperatures, from 200 to 300 °C.

Design:

Solid acids are chemical intermediates between salts and acids, such as CsHSO4. Solid acids of
interest for fuel cell applications are those whose chemistry is based on oxyanion groups (SO42-,
PO43−, SeO42−, AsO43−) linked together by hydrogen bonds and charge-balanced by large
cation species (Cs+, Rb+, NH4+, K+).[1]

At low temperatures, solid acids have an ordered molecular structure like most salts. At warmer
temperatures (between 140 and 150 degrees Celsius for CsHSO4), some solid acids undergo a
phase transition to become highly disordered "superprotonic" structures, which increases
conductivity by several orders of magnitude. When used in fuel cells, this high conductivity
allows for efficiencies of up to 50% on various fuels.

The first proof-of-concept SAFCs were developed in 2000 using cesium hydrogen sulfate
(CsHSO4). However, fuel cells using acid sulfates as an electrolyte result in byproducts that
severely degrade the fuel cell anode, which leads to diminished power output after only modest
usage.

Current SAFC systems use cesium dihydrogen phosphate (CsH2PO4) and have demonstrated
lifetimes in the thousands of hours.[6] When undergoing a superprotonic phase transition,
CsH2PO4 experiences an increase in conductivity by four orders of magnitude in 2005, it was
shown that CsH2PO4 could stably undergo the superprotonic phase transition in a humid
atmosphere at an "intermediate" temperature of 250 °C, making it an ideal solid acid electrolyte
to use in a fuel cell. A humid environment in a fuel cell is necessary to prevent certain solid acids
(such as CsH2PO4) from dehydration and dissociation into a salt and water vapor.

16
Electrode reaction:

Anode: H2 → 2H+ + 2e−

Cathode: ½O2 + 2H+ + 2e− → H2O

Overall: H2 + ½O2 → H2O

Fabrication and Production

Sossina Haile developed the first solid acid fuel cells in the 1990s.

In 2005, SAFCs were fabricated with thin electrolyte membranes of 25 micrometer

thickness, resulting in an eightfold increase in peak power densities compared to earlier
models. Thin electrolyte membranes are necessary to minimize the voltage lost due to
internal resistance within the membrane.

According to Suryaprakash et al. 2014, the ideal solid acid fuel cell anode is a "porous
electrolyte nanostructure uniformly covered with a platinum thin film." This group used a
method called spray drying to fabricate SAFCs, depositing CsH2PO4 solid acid
electrolyte nanoparticles and creating porous, 3-dimensional interconnected
nanostructures of the solid acid fuel cell electrolyte material CsH2PO4

Application

Because of their moderate temperature requirements and compatibility with several types
of fuel, SAFCs can be utilized in remote locations where other types of fuel cells would
be impractical. In particular, SAFC systems for remote oil and gas applications have been
deployed to electrify wellheads and eliminate the use of pneumatic components, which
vent methane and other potent greenhouse gases straight into the atmosphere. A smaller,
portable SAFC system is in development for military applications that will run on
standard logistic fuels, like marine diesel and JP8.

In 2014, a toilet that chemically transforms waste into water and fertilizer was developed
using a combination of solar power and SAFCs

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 2.4 Alkaline Fuel cell

The alkaline fuel cell (AFC), also known as the Bacon fuel cell after its British inventor,
Francis Thomas Bacon, is one of the most developed fuel cell technologies. Alkaline fuel
cells consume hydrogen and pure oxygen, to produce potable water, heat, and electricity.
They are among the most efficient fuel cells, having the potential to reach 70%.

Diagram of an Alkaline Fuel Cell:

1. Hydrogen

2. Electron flow

3. Load

4. Oxygen

5. Cathode

6. Electrolyte

7. Anode

8. Water

9. Hydroxide Ions

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Half Reactions

The fuel cell produces power through a redox reaction between hydrogen and oxygen. At
the anode, hydrogen is oxidized according to the reaction:

Reaction:

producing water and releasing electrons. The electrons flow through an external circuit
and return to the cathode, reducing oxygen in the reaction:

producing hydroxide ions. The net reaction consumes one oxygen molecule and two
hydrogen molecules in the production of two water molecules. Electricity and heat are
formed as by-products of this reaction.

Advantages over acidic fuel cells

Alkaline fuel cells operate between ambient temperature and 90 °C with an electrical
efficiency higher than fuel cells with acidic electrolyte, such as proton exchange
membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), solid oxide fuel cells, and phosphoric acid fuel cells.
Because of the alkaline chemistry, oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) kinetics at the
cathode are much more facile than in acidic cells, allowing use of non-noble metals, such
as iron, cobalt, or nickel, at the anode (where fuel is oxidized); and cheaper catalysts such
as silver or iron phthalocyanines at the cathode, [due to the low overpotentials associated
with electrochemical reactions at high pH

An alkaline medium also accelerates oxidation of fuels like methanol, making them more
attractive. Less pollution results compared to acidic fuel cells.

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Commercial prospects

AFCs are the cheapest of fuel cells to manufacture. The catalyst required for the
electrodes can be any of a number of different chemicals that are inexpensive compared
to those required for other types of fuel cells.

The commercial prospects for AFCs lie largely with the recently developed bi-polar plate
version of this technology, considerably superior in performance to earlier mono-plate
versions.

The world's first fuel-cell ship, the Hydra, used an AFC system with 5 kW net output.

Another recent development is the solid-state alkaline fuel cell, utilizing a solid anion
exchange membrane instead of a liquid electrolyte. This resolves the problem of
poisoning and allows the development of alkaline fuel cells capable of running on safer
hydrogen-rich carriers such as liquid urea solutions or metal amine complexes

20
 2.5Molten carbonate fuel cell

Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) were developed for natural gas, biogas (produced
as a result of anaerobic digestion or biomass gasification), and coal-based power plants
for electrical utility, industrial, and military applications. MCFCs are high-temperature
fuel cells that use an electrolyte composed of a molten carbonate salt mixture suspended
in a porous, chemically inert ceramic matrix of beta-alumina solid electrolyte (BASE).
Since they operate at extremely high temperatures of 650 °C (roughly 1,200 °F) and
above, non-precious [dubious – discuss] metals can be used as catalysts at the anode and
cathode, reducing costs.

Improved efficiency is another reason MCFCs offer significant cost reductions over
phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs). Molten carbonate fuel cells can reach efficiencies
approaching 60%, considerably higher than the 37–42% efficiencies of a phosphoric acid
fuel cell plant. When the waste heat is captured and used, overall fuel efficiencies can be
as high as 85%.

Molten carbonate fuel cells are not prone to poisoning by carbon monoxide or carbon
dioxide — they can even use carbon oxides as fuel — making them more attractive for
fueling with gases made from coal. Because they are more resistant to impurities than
other fuel cell types, scientists believe that they could even be capable of internal
reforming of coal, assuming they can be made resistant to impurities such as sulfur and
particulates that result from converting coal, a dirtier fossil fuel source than many others,
into hydrogen. Alternatively, because MCFCs require CO2 be delivered to the cathode
along with the oxidizer, they can be used to electrochemically separate carbon dioxide
from the flue gas of other fossil fuel power plants for sequestration.

The primary disadvantage of current MCFC technology is durability. The high

temperatures at which these cells operate and the corrosive electrolyte used accelerate
component breakdown and corrosion, decreasing cell life. Scientists are currently
exploring corrosion-resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell designs that
increase cell life without decreasing performance.

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3.COMPARISON OF FUEL CELL

TABLE 1: COMPARISON OF FUEL CELL

22
 4. Efficiency of Fuel cell

The energy efficiency of a system or device that converts energy is measured by the ratio of the
amount of useful energy put out by the system ("output energy") to the total amount of energy
that is put in ("input energy") or by useful output energy as a percentage of the total input energy.
In the case of fuel cells, useful output energy is measured in electrical energy produced by the
system. Input energy is the energy stored in the fuel. According to the U.S. Department of
Energy, fuel cells are generally between 40 and 60% energy efficient. This is higher than some
other systems for energy generation. For example, the typical internal combustion engine of a car
is about 25% energy efficient

In practice:

In a fuel cell vehicle the tank-to-wheel efficiency is greater than 45% at low loads [69] and shows
average values of about 36% when a driving cycle like the NEDC (New European Driving Cycle)
is used as test procedure The comparable NEDC value for a Diesel vehicle is 22%. In 2008
Honda released a demonstration fuel cell electric vehicle (the Honda FCX Clarity) with fuel stack
claiming a 60% tank-to-wheel efficiency

It is also important to take losses due to fuel production, transportation, and storage into account.
Fuel cell vehicles running on compressed hydrogen may have a power-plant-to-wheel efficiency
of 22% if the hydrogen is stored as high-pressure gas, and 17% if it is stored as liquid hydrogen.
Fuel cells cannot store energy like a battery, except as hydrogen, but in some applications, such
as stand-alone power plants based on discontinuous sources such as solar or wind power, they are
combined with electrolyzers and storage systems to form an energy storage system

23
 5.Application

Power

Stationary fuel cells are used for commercial, industrial and residential primary and
backup power generation. Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations,
such as spacecraft, remote weather stations, large parks, communications centers, rural
locations including research stations, and in certain military applications.

Fuel cell electric vehicles

By year-end 2019, about 18,000 FCEVs had been leased or sold worldwideThree fuel cell electric
vehicles have been introduced for commercial lease and sale: the Honda Clarity, Toyota Mirai
and the Hyundai ix35 FCEV.

In 2015, Toyota introduced its first fuel cell vehicle, the Mirai, at a price of $57,000Hyundai
introduced the limited production Hyundai ix35 FCEV under a lease agreement in 2016.

Criticism:

Some commentators believe that hydrogen fuel cell cars will never become economically
competitive with other technologiesor that it will take decades for them to become
profitable Elon Musk, CEO of battery-electric vehicle maker Tesla Motors, stated in
2015 that fuel cells for use in cars will never be commercially viable because of the

24
inefficiency of producing, transporting and storing hydrogen and the flammability of the
gas, among other reasons

Buses:

As of August 2011, there were about 100 fuel cell buses in service around the world.
Most of these were manufactured by UTC Power, Toyota, Ballard, Hydrogenic, and
Proton Motor. UTC buses had driven more than 970,000 km (600,000 mi) by 2011. Fuel
cell buses have from 39% to 141% higher fuel economy than diesel buses and natural gas
buses.

Trucks:

In December 2020, Toyota and Hino Motors, together with Seven-Eleven (Japan),
FamilyMart and Lawson announced that they have agreed to jointly consider introducing
light-duty fuel cell electric trucks (light-duty FCETs).

Forklifts:

A fuel cell forklift (also called a fuel cell lift truck) is a fuel cell-powered industrial
forklift truck used to lift and transport materials

Most companies in Europe and the US do not use petroleum-powered forklifts, as these
vehicles work indoors where emissions must be controlled and instead use electric
forklifts. Fuel cell-powered forklifts can provide benefits over battery-powered forklifts
as they can be refueled in 3 minutes and they can be used in refrigerated warehouses,
where their performance is not degraded by lower temperatures. The FC units are often
designed as drop-in replacements

25
Motorcycle and bicycle:

In 2005, a British manufacturer of hydrogen-powered fuel cells, Intelligent Energy (IE),

produced the first working hydrogen-run motorcycle called the ENV (Emission Neutral
Vehicle). The motorcycle holds enough fuel to run for four hours, and to travel 160 km
(100 mi) in an urban area, at a top speed of 80 km/h (50 mph) In 2004 Honda developed
a fuel cell motorcycle that utilized the Honda FC Stack

Airplane:

In 2003, the world's first propeller-driven airplane to be powered entirely by a fuel cell
was flown. The fuel cell was a stack design that allowed the fuel cell to be integrated
with the plane's aerodynamic surfaces. Fuel cell-powered unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAV) include a Horizon fuel cell UAV that set the record distance flown for a small
UAV in 2007. Boeing researchers and industry partners throughout Europe conducted
experimental flight tests in February 2008 of a manned airplane powered only by a fuel
cell and lightweight batteries. The fuel cell demonstrator airplane, as it was called, used a
proton-exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell/lithium-ion battery hybrid system to power
an electric motor, which was coupled to a conventional propeller

Boats:

The world's first fuel cell boat HYDRA used an AFC system with 6.5 kW net output.
Amsterdam introduced fuel cell-powered boats that ferry people around the city's canals.

26
Submarine:

The Type 212 submarines of the German and Italian navies use fuel cells to remain
submerged for weeks without the need to surface.

The U212A is a non-nuclear submarine developed by German naval shipyard

Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft. The system consists of nine PEM fuel cells, providing
between 30 kW and 50 kW each. The ship is silent, giving it an advantage in the
detection of other submarines. A naval paper has theorized about the possibility of a
nuclear-fuel cell hybrid whereby the fuel cell is used when silent operations are required
and then replenished from the Nuclear reactor (and water).

27
 Other applications

Providing power for base stations or cell sites

Distributed generation

Emergency power systems are a type of fuel cell system, which may include lighting,
generators and other apparatus, to provide backup resources in a crisis or when regular
systems fail. They find uses in a wide variety of settings from residential homes to
hospitals, scientific laboratories, data centers

Telecommunication equipment and modern naval ships.

An uninterrupted power supply (UPS) provides emergency power and, depending on the
topology, provide line regulation as well to connected equipment by supplying power
from a separate source when utility power is not available. Unlike a standby generator, it
can provide instant protection from a momentary power interruption.

Base load power plants

Hybrid vehicles, pairing the fuel cell with either an ICE or a battery.

Notebook computers for applications where AC charging may not be readily available.

Portable charging docks for small electronics (e.g., a belt clip that charges a cell phone or
PDA).

Smartphones, laptops and tablets.

Small heating appliance

Food preservation, achieved by exhausting the oxygen and automatically maintaining

oxygen exhaustion in a shipping container, containing, for example, fresh fish.

Breathalyzers, where the amount of voltage generated by a fuel cell is used to determine
the concentration of fuel (alcohol) in the sample.

Carbon monoxide detector, electrochemical sensor.

28
 6.Markets and economics:

In 2012, fuel cell industry revenues exceeded $1 billion market value worldwide, with
Asian pacific countries shipping more than 3/4 of the fuel cell systems worldwide.
However, as of January 2014, no public company in the industry had yet become
profitable. There were 140,000 fuel cell stacks shipped globally in 2010, up from 11,000
shipments in 2007, and from 2011 to 2012 worldwide fuel cell shipments had an annual
growth rate of 85% Tanaka Kikinzoku expanded its manufacturing facilities in 2011
Approximately 50% of fuel cell shipments in 2010 were stationary fuel cells, up from
about a third in 2009, and the four dominant producers in the Fuel Cell Industry were the
United States, Germany, Japan and South Korea. The Department of Energy Solid State
Energy Conversion Alliance found that, as of January 2011, stationary fuel cells
generated power at approximately $724 to $775 per kilowatt installed. In 2011, Bloom
Energy, a major fuel cell supplier, said that its fuel cells generated power at 9–11 cents
per kilowatt-hour, including the price of fuel, maintenance, and hardware

Industry groups predict that there are sufficient platinum resources for future demand,
and in 2007, research at Brookhaven National Laboratory suggested that platinum could
be replaced by a gold-palladium coating, which may be less susceptible to poisoning and
thereby improve fuel cell lifetime. Another method would use iron and Sulphur instead of
platinum. This would lower the cost of a fuel cell (as the platinum in a regular fuel cell
costs around US$1,500, and the same amount of iron costs only around US$1.50). The
concept was being developed by a coalition of the John Innes Centre and the University
of Milan-Bicocca. PEDOT cathodes are immune to monoxide poisoning.

In 2016, Samsung "decided to drop fuel cell-related business projects, as the outlook of
the market isn't good".

29
 7.Research and development

2005: Georgia Institute of Technology researchers used triazole to raise the operating
temperature of PEM fuel cells from below 100 °C to over 125 °C, claiming this will
require less carbon-monoxide purification of the hydrogen fuel.

2008: Monash University, Melbourne used PEDOT as a cathode.

2009: Researchers at the University of Dayton, in Ohio, showed that arrays of vertically
grown carbon nanotubes could be used as the catalyst in fuel cells. The same year, a
nickel bisdiphosphine-based catalyst for fuel cells was demonstrated.

2013: British firm ACAL Energy developed a fuel cell that it said can run for 10,000
hours in simulated driving conditions. It asserted that the cost of fuel cell construction
can be reduced to $40/kW (roughly $9,000 for 300 HP).

2014: Researchers in Imperial College London developed a new method for regeneration
of hydrogen sulfide contaminated PEFCs.[202] They recovered 95–100% of the original
performance of a hydrogen sulfide contaminated PEFC. They were successful in
rejuvenating a SO2 contaminated PEFC too. This regeneration method is applicable to
multiple cell stacks.

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 8.Fuel Cell Challenges

The three main obstacles to the spread of fuel cells have been their price, the cost of producing
hydrogen, and the difficulty of storing hydrogen. Another challenge is the need for pure fuels.

Cost.Cost has long been the main obstacle to the widespread commercialization of fuel cells.
Most PEM fuel cells need platinum, an expensive and rare metal. However, the quantity of
platinum they require has fallen dramatically, and ongoing R&D efforts are seeking to further
reduce the amount required, or eliminate it entirely. Other types of fuel cells do not require
platinum or other expensive catalysts.

Producing hydrogen hydrogen is by far the most abundant element in the universe, accounting
for almost 75 percent of normal water, hydrogen does not exist in its natural, pure state on Earth.
It must be derived from compounds such as water (H2O) or hydrocarbons. This process is
energy-intensive, but can be powered by renewable energy sources. When hydrogen is extracted
from hydrocarbons, which is currently the cheapest method (via methane reformation), the
process emits harmful pollution and greenhouse gases, but less than would be emitted by burning
the hydrocarbon. The United States currently produces about 3 billion cubic feet of hydrogen per
day

Storing Hydrogen. Hydrogen is difficult to store. It is the lightest element, meaning it must be
heavily compressed in order to fit into a practical container. Storing hydrogen as a gas requires
high-pressure fiber-composite tanks. Storing it as a liquid requires keeping its temperature down
to cryogenic levels. Another alternative is to store it as a component of a hydrocarbon or alcohol,
releasing it with an onboard reformer. This extraction emits some pollution, but substantially less
than combustion based engine

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 9.Conclusion

Fuel cell are promising technology, with the potential to play an important role as the economy
weans itself away from fossil fuels. Their technical challenges can be addressed with more
research and development. Indeed, though fuel cells have been around for a long time, they have
had less investment than batteries or combustion engines, and so are a much less mature
technology. This means fuel cells will likely continue to improve. Manufacturers are already
reducing the quantity of platinum needed in their PEM systems, or eliminating it altogether. They
are also making fuel cell support systems cheaper, more reliable, and more compact. Once the
technical obstacles are overcome, more widespread commercialization will bring economiesof
scale, which will help push prices down

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 10. REFERENCES

• . How Stuff Works, accessed 4 August 2011

• "Types of Fuel Cells"Archived 9 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Department of

Energy EERE website, accessed 4 August 2011

• https://en.wikipedia.org

• Nice, Karim and Strickland, Jonathan. "How Fuel Cells Work: Polymer Exchange
Membrane Fuel Cells"

• Grove, W. R. (1838). "On a new voltaic combination". The London and Edinburgh
Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. 3rd series. 13 (84): 430–431.
doi:10.1080/14786443808649618 Retrieved 2 October 2013

• Grove, William Robert (1839). "On Voltaic Series and the Combination of
Gases by Platinum". Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. 3rd
series. 14 (86–87): 127–130.

• "Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles". Community Environmental Council. Retrieved

26 March 2018

• https://www.eesi.org/

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