CONSOLIDATION AND

DIRECT SHEAR
TESTS.
Please read through members of group c
 Shear strength soil tests and
consolidation tests are unavoidable
tests if one is to design for a
structural foundation?
Terminologies and Basic definitions.

 A sample: is the portion soil taken as being

representative of a particular deposit or stratum.
 A specimen is a portion of a sample on which the test is
carried out.
 Saturation is the condition in which all voids in a soil are
completely filled with water.
 Pore water pressure is the pressure of the water in the
voids between the solid particle.
 Excess pore water pressure: the increase in pore water
due to the application of an external pressure or stress.
CONSOLIDATION
 Definition. .

 Consolidation is a process by which soil particles are

packed more closely together over a period of time by
application of continued pressure.
 It is accompanied by drainage of water from the voids
between the solid particles..
 It can also be defined as the volume change in saturated
soils caused by the expulsion of pore water from loading
Introduction.

 When structures are built on saturated soils, the load

is presumed to be carried initially by the
incompressible water within the soil voids. Due to the
additional load on the soil, the water will tend to be
squeezed out from the voids, causing a reduction in
the void volume and consequently, settlement of the
structure will occur.
 In soils of high permeability,( coarse grained soils), the process takes a relatively
short time for completion, with the result that almost of all settlement will occur
during the construction period.
 In low permeability soils (clays), this process takes place slowly and continuously
over a long period of time, (months, years, or even decades) after completion of
construction
 In sands, since pore water pressure dissipates rapidly due to high permeability, it
is difficult to determine consolidation settlement due to loadings on structural
foundations in such soils.
 In clays, pore water pressure dissipates slowly due to low permeability and
consolidation settlement can be determined from the consolidation parameters
obtained from different consolidation tests.
 ONE DIMENSIONAL
CONSOLIDATION TEST
(Oedomenter)
Reference : BS 1377: Part 5:1990
Objective of the test

 To determine the consolidation characteristics of low

permeability soils when subjected to vertical loads.
 The results are used to calculate and estimate:
i. The compressibility of the soil: Coefficient of
volume compressibility, mv
ii. The time related parameter, Coefficient of
consolidation CV
Main principles.

 This method covers the determination of the magnitude and rate of

the consolidation of the saturated/ nearly saturated specimen of soil
in the form of the disc confined laterally subjected to vertical axial
pressure and allow to drain freely from the top and bottom surfaces.

 The method is concerned mainly with the primary consolidation

phase but it can also be used to determine secondary compression
characteristics.
Main principles.

 In the test, the soil specimen is loaded axially in increments of applied stress.
 Each stress increment is held constant until primary consolidation has ceased.
During this process, water drain outs of the specimen, resulting into a decrease in
height which is measured at suitable intervals.
The measurements are used to determine;
 Rate of consolidation under normal load
 Degree of consolidation at any time( U)
 Stress void ratio relationship (σ vs e)
 Coefficient of consolidation at various pressures (Cv)
 Compression index (Cc)
1-D CONSOLIDATION TEST CONT’D
 From the above information, it is possible to predict the time rate and extent of settlement of
structures founded in fine grained soils. It is also helpful in analysing the stress history of the soil.
Since the settlement analysis of the foundation depends mainly on the values determined by the test,
this test is very important for foundations design.
ASSUMPTIONS

 The soil is homogeneous.

 The soil is fully saturated.
 The solid particles and water are incompressible.
 Compression and flow are 1-D (vertical).
 Darcy’s law is valid at all hydraulic gradients.
 The coefficient of permeability and the coefficient of volume change remain constant throughout the
process.
 Strains are small.
APPARATUS

 Oedomenter
Features:
 Corrosion resistant porous plates
 Corrosion resistant consolidation cell
 Dial gauge
 Loading device
 Consolidation ring (fixed ring to the specimen laterally)
 Timer
 Oven
 Vernier calliper
 Balance
Sample preparation

 the sample may be built in from the types of

samples,
i. Cylinder samples
ii. Block samples
iii. In-situ specimen built directly from the bottom of
test pits.
Sample measurements.
1. Clean and dry the consolidation ring. Ensure that the cutting edge is true and not damaged.
2. Weigh the consolidation ring (w1)
3. Lubricate the inside face of the ring with a thin smear of silicon grease or petroleum jelly.
4. Measure the height of the consolidation ring (Ho)
5. Measure the internal diameter of the ring and calculate the area, A
6. Cut the ring through the undisturbed sample and level the sample using a straight edge.
7. Determine the initial mass of the specimen M1.
8. Take the sample of the soil similar to that in the ring for determination of initial moisture content.
Preparation and assembly of the
apparatus.
1. Clean the surface of the porous plates using a natural
bristle/ nylon brush.
2. Saturate the pores by boiling in distilled water for at
least 20minutes, either over heat at atmospheric
pressure or in a vacuum desiccator in which the
pressure has been reduced to about 20mm of mercury.
3. For soils without a high affinity for water , keep the
plates saturated in deaerated water until required for
use.
Assembly of the consolidation cell.

1. Place the bottom porous plate centrally in the

consolidation cell
2. Place the specimen contained in its ring centrally on top
of the porous plate.
3. Assemble the cell components so that the consolidation
ring is laterally confined and in correct alignment.
4. Place the top porous plate and loading cap centrally on
top of the specimen.
 Assembly in load frame.

1. Place the consolidation cell in position on the bed of the loading

apparatus.
2. Adjust the counterbalanced loading beam so that when the load
transmitting members just make contact with the loading cap the
beam is slightly above the horizontal position.
3. Add a small weight to the beam hanger , sufficient to maintain
contact between the load transmitting members while final
adjustments are made. It should not exceed 2kPa.
4. Clamp the compression( dial) gauge securely into position so that
it can measure the relative movement between the loading and the
base of the cap. Record the initial dial gauge reading.
Test procedure.

1. Record the compression gauge reading as the initial reading for the loading
increment.
2. Apply the required pressure to the specimen at a convenient moment( zero time)
by adding the appropriate weights to the beam hanger without jolting. Remove
the weight used for the seating load.
3. Fill the consolidation cell with water after applying the pressure. If the specimen
begins to swell, or if the compression virtually ceases within a short time,
proceed to the next higher pressure.
4. Take readings of the compression gauge at suitable intervals of time. The
following periods of elapsed time from zero are convenient.
0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 s 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30 min 1, 2, 4, 8, 24 h .
5. Plot the compression gauge readings against logarithm of time, or square
root time, while the test is in progress, either manually or by means of an
automatic recorder.
6. Maintain the pressure until the plotted readings indicate that primary
consolidation has been completed. A period of 24 h under one pressure is
generally adequate but this shall be verified from the plot.
7. Record the time and compression gauge reading at the termination of the
load increment stage, df. This reading becomes the initial reading for the next
stage.
8. Increase the pressure to the next value in the selected sequence. The common sequence is 0, 6, 12, 25,
50, 100,200,400 kPa and repeat procedures 20-24.
9. Repeat procedure 8 for further stages of the sequence of loading, making at least four stages in all. The
maximum pressure applied to the specimen shall be greater than the effective pressure which will occur in
situ due to the overburden and proposed construction.
10. On completion of the recording of the final compression gauge readings under the maximum required
pressure, unload the specimen such that the applied stress is zero.
11. The final gauge reading.
Dismantling.

1. Drain off the water from the cell.

2. Allow to stand for 15 min to enable free water to drain from the porous plates.
3. Mop up any excess water from within the cell.
4. Remove the load from the specimen and remove the consolidation cell from the
apparatus.
5. Dismantle the cell, and weigh the specimen in its ring. (W2)
6. Transfer the specimen to the oven maintained at 105 °C to110°C for 24 hrs .
Weigh the dry specimen (Ws).
7. Determine the final moisture content.
 Analysis:
a) Calculate the Initial moisture content; wo
b) Calculate the Area of the ring. A
c) Obtain initial dial gauge reading. H0
d) Calculate the final moisture content. Wf
e) Obtain the final dial gauge reading 24 hrs after unloading. Hf
f) Calculate the void ratio at different stress increments.
 Consolidation settlement is time dependant.

 At T=0,pore water takes the initial vertical loading since water is incompressible. The soil skeleton does not
receive the loading.
 Between T=o and T= ∞ pore water increase due to initial loading dissipates. The soil skeleton takes loading as
pore water pressure decrease.
 At T= ∞ pore water increase due to initial loading is completely dissipated. The soil skeleton takes up the entire
loading and therefore effective stress increase is equal to vertical stress increase.

 Graph for the different settlement

Initial height = H0 𝑽𝒗
Void ratio, e 𝒆 = 𝑽𝒔
but Vv =Vw
Final dial guage reading = Hf
Height of specimen taken to oven Hn = (H0 - Hf ). 𝒉𝒘 𝑨
Mass of sample taken to Oven = W 2 𝒆=
𝒉𝒔 𝑨
Mass of oven dried sample = W s

Mass of water = (W2 – Ws ) 𝒉𝒘

𝒆=
𝒉𝒔
Volume of water = (W2 – Ws)/ꝭw
But ꝭw = 1g/cm3
But also hw = hi – hs where hi is the initial
specimen height at each stress increment.
Vw = W2-Ws

Volume of water = volume of voids since the soil 𝒉𝒊−𝒉𝒔

is fully saturated. 𝒆𝒊 =
𝒉𝒔
(Vv = Vw )

Vw + Vs = V where V is the total volume of the

specimen.

Vs = V – Vw

Also 𝑽 = 𝑨𝒙𝑯𝒏 so its known.

Therefore Height of solids, hs = Vs/A

Hs remains constant throughout the
experiment.
 Applied Final gauge Dial Specimen Height of Height of Void ratio,
stress (kPa) reading(m change(mm height(mm) solids(mm) voids hw ei
m) ) Hs (mm)
 Results and graphs.

 a).Void ratio (e) versus effective stress:

The slope of the void ratio vs effective stress curve is = -av (coefficient of
compressibility)
Void ratio against effective stress curve.

 b).Void ratio (e) versus log σ’:

From the graph above,

 AB= recompression curve-soil sample undergoes loading as a result of relief of overburden

pressure
 BC= virgin consolidation line
 Slope of BC gives the compression index Cc:
Pre-consolidation pressure, Pc: is Maximum stress that has acted on the soil in the past
Void ratio (e) versus log σ’:
Pre consolidation pressure Pc

Procedure ( how to obtain the pre consolidation pressure) (by Casagrande):

1. Choose point D of maximum curvature on curve AB
2. Draw a tangent and horizontal line at D
3. Bisect the angle between tangent and horizontal line
4. Produce back the straight portion of the line BC until it intersects the bisector
5. Vertical line through the above point of intersection gives the pre-consolidation
pressure, Pc.
Compressive index. Cc

 is the ratio of change in void ratios to the change of the logarithms of effective
stress.
compressive index is the slope of BC gives the compression index Cc:
∆𝒆
Cc= ∆𝒍𝒐𝒈σ′

𝒆 −𝒆
Cc =𝒍𝒐𝒈 σ 𝟏−𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝟎

𝟏
σ
𝒐
Over consolidation ratio OCR

𝒑𝒓𝒆−𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒑𝒄
 Over consolidation ratio, OCR: =
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒃𝒖𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒏 𝑷𝟎
 OCR>1, soil deposit is over consolidated, it has been fully
consolidated under Pc
 If OCR = 1, soil deposit is normally consolidated
 If the present effective over burden pressure is the maximum
pressure to which the deposit has ever been subjected to, then the
soil sample is normally consolidated.
 If the present effective overburden is less than that one the soil has
ever been subjected to in its history, then the soil is overly
consolidated.
 Degree of consolidation, U:

 Defines stage at which the consolidation process is, at given a

particular time (e.g. 50%, 40%, etc) OR refers to degree of dissipation
of excess pore water pressure
𝒆𝒐−𝒆 σ𝑽′− 𝑺𝒐−𝑺
U= or U= or U=
𝒆𝟎−𝒆𝒇 𝒆𝟎−𝒆𝒇 𝑺𝟎−𝑺𝒇
Where eo = initial void ratio
e= void ratio at any time t
ef = final void ratio
So = initial settlementz
S = settlement at any time t
Sf= final settlement.
 The slope of the virgin compression line on the void ratio vs log effective
stress is the compression index (Cc)
 The coefficient of volume compressibility mv = av /(1 + e0 )
𝑪𝒗 𝒕
 Time factor Tv =
𝑯𝟐
 Coefficient of consolidation Cv = 0.405(H2 )/t50.

 The primary consolidation settlement is then calculated from the

formula.
 𝑺𝒄 = 𝒎𝒗∆𝝈′ 𝑯 where H is the influence depth , ∆𝝈′ is the change in
effective stress. Mv is the coefficient of volume compressibility.
THE DIRECT SHEAR TEST
(SHEAR BOX TEST)
INTRODUCTION

 Shear stresses tend to displace a part of a soil mass relative to

the rest of the soil mass (relative sliding between soil particles
is the major factor contributing to shear resistance)
 Shear strength therefore, is the capacity of the soil to resist
shearing stresses.
 For most of the geotechnical designs concerning foundations,
earthworks and soil stability issues, the soils are required to
withstand shearing stresses along with compressive stresses.
THEORY
 If at a point on any plane within the soil mass, the applied shear stress
becomes equal to the shear strength of the soil, then failure will occur at that
point.

 The shear strength of a soil at a point on a particular plane can be expressed

as a linear function of normal stress at failure on the plane at the same point
as;
𝝉𝒇 = 𝒄 + 𝝈𝒇 𝒕𝒂𝒏∅
where;
𝝉𝒇 𝐢𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐚𝐭 𝐟𝐚𝐢𝐥𝐮𝐫𝐞
𝝈𝒇 is normal stress at failure
∅ 𝐢𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 angle of internal friction
c is the cohesion of the soil
THEORY CONT’D…

 In accordance with the principle that shear stress in the

soil can be resisted only by the skeleton of the solid
particles, shear strength should be expressed as a
function of effective normal stress at failure

𝝉𝒇 = 𝒄′ + 𝝈′𝒇 𝒕𝒂𝒏∅′
where; 𝝈′𝒇 is effective normal stress at failure, 𝒄′ and
∅′ are the corresponding shear strength parameters
OBJECTIVE OF THE TEST

To determine the effective shear strength parameters of the soil

 The cohesion (c’)
 The angle of internal friction (φ’)
These parameters are used to determine the bearing capacity of
the soil and the stability of slopes.
MAIN PRINCIPLE
 Soil is cut to fit tightly into a box which may be square or circular in plan
and normally rectangular in elevation.
 The shear box is constructed to allow displacement along its horizontal mid
plane and the upper surface of the soil is confined by a loading plate through
which normal stress may be applied.
 Shear load is applied to the lower half of the box, the upper half being
restrained by a load cell which is used to record the shear load.
MAIN PRINCIPLE CONT’D…

 The sample is not sealed in the shear box, it is free to drain from its top and
bottom surfaces at all times
 The cross sectional area over which the specimen is sheared is assumed to
remain constant during the test
APPARATUS

 Shear box apparatus.  Grease.

 Two porous plates.  Weighing balance.
 Two perforated grid plates.  Calibrated Vernier caliper.
 Loading cap.  Loading ring (shear load measuring
device).
 Specimen cutter.
 Motorized loading device.
 Tool for removing the sample from the
cutter.  Dial gauges for horizontal displacement
and vertical deformation.
 Base plate.
 Loading yoke.
 Carriage.
 Stop clock (timer).
PROCEDURE

Assemblage of shear box

 Apply grease to the inner surfaces of the shear box and the interface
between the two halves of the shear box.
 Clamp the two halves of the box are together using screws and fit the
base plate securely in the carriage.
 Place the grid plate on the base of the box, followed by a porous plate.
PROCEDURE CONT’D…

Sample preparation
The samples can be undisturbed or remoulded.
 Prepare three similar samples from each of the undisturbed or
remoulded samples for testing under three different normal
pressures.
 Build the undisturbed specimens into the shear box by use of a
specimen cutter.
 Compact the remoulded samples to achieve the desired density and
build them into the shear box using the specimen cutter.
PROCEDURE CONT’D...
 Place a porous plate next on top of the sample followed by the grid plate
then the loading cap to cover the top grid plate.
 Position the carriage on the machine bed.
 Position the horizontal displacement gauge.
 Assemble the loading system.
 Position the vertical deformation gauge to measure vertical movement of the
center of the loading cap.
 Record the initial zero reading.
PROCEDURE CONT’D…

Consolidation
 Apply a normal force to the specimen giving the desired vertical stress smoothly and rapidly as
possible without jolting. Start the clock instantly.
 Fill the carriage with water to the top of the specimen and maintain it throughout the test when
testing dry soils.
 Record readings of the vertical deformation gauge and elapsed time to draw a graph of vertical
deformation against the square root of the elapsed time. Plot readings until primary
consolidation is complete.
PROCEDURE CONT’D…

 Before shearing, check all the adjacent components and their point of
restraint to make sure that they are properly in contact.
 Remove the clamping screws which hold the two halves of the shear box
together.
 Record the initial readings of both gauges.
Shearing
 Start the test and the timer instantly. Record the readings from both
displacement gauges, loading ring and the elapsed time at regular intervals
of horizontal displacement such that at least 20 readings are taken to the
maximum load.
PROCEDURE CONT’D…

 Take additional readings as the maximum horizontal force is

approached so that if the peak is to occur, it is clearly defined.
 Continue taking readings while shearing beyond the
maximum force or until the full travel is reached. Stop the
test if there is no defined peak.
 Reverse the direction of travel of the carriage to return the
two halves of the shear box to their original alignment.
 For a sample sheared under water, siphon off the water and
allow to stand for about 10 min to enable free water drainage
from porous plates.
PROCEDURE CONT’D…

 Remove the vertical force and loading yoke from

sample.
 Carefully transfer the sample from the shear box to a
small tray. Remove free water with a tissue.
 Weigh the sample on the tray (𝒎𝒐 ) then oven dry at
105ᵒC to 110ᵒC, to determine its dry mass (𝒎𝒅 ) and
final moisture content.
ANALYSIS

General data
 Calculate the initial moisture content from:
𝒎𝒐 − 𝒎𝒅
𝒘𝒐 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒎𝒅
Where, 𝒎𝒐 is the initial mass of the sample and
𝒎𝒅 is the final dry mass ( after oven drying)of the sample.
 Calculate the initial dry density from:
𝒎𝒅 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝒅 =
𝑨𝑯𝒐
Where, A is the plan area of the sample and
𝑯𝒐 is the initial height of the sample.
ANALYSIS CONT’D…

 Calculate the initial bulk density from:

𝝆𝒔
𝒆𝒐 = −𝟏
𝝆𝒅
Where 𝝆𝒔 is the particle density
 Calculate the initial degree of saturation as a percentage from:
𝒘𝒐 𝝆𝒔
𝑺𝒐 =
𝒆𝒐
 Calculate the void ratio at the end of the consolidation stage, and at the end of shearing (if required)
from:
∆𝑯
𝒆 = 𝒆𝒐 − 𝟏 + 𝒆𝒐
𝑯𝒐
Where ∆𝑯 is the calculated change in height (vertical deformation) of the sample (mm) from the initial
zero reading.
ANALYSIS CONT’D…

 Calculate the shear stress on the surface of shear for each reading from:
𝑷
𝝉 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑨
Where, P is the horizontal shear force calculated from each set of data
obtained during the shear test.
 Calculate the normal stress applied on sample from:
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏𝒎
𝝈𝒏 =
𝑨
Where, m is the mass of the hanger and the hanger weights applied to loading
cap (kg)
 Calculate the cumulative vertical deformation for each set of readings
relative to the datum corresponding to the initial sample height.
ANALYSIS CONT’D…
Graphical analysis:
For each set of tests, plot the following graphs:
 Shear stress against horizontal displacement. Read off the value of
maximum shear stress and corresponding horizontal displacement and
change in sample height.
ANALYSIS CONT’D…

 Plot each value of peak shear strength against corresponding vertical

normal stress applied for that test both to same linear scale.
ANALYSIS CONT’D…
 From the graph,
𝝉𝟑 −𝝉𝟏
∅′ = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( )
𝝈𝟑 −𝝈𝟏

c is the intercept along the shear stress axis

 The equation of the line of best fit is:

𝝉′ = 𝒄′ + 𝝈′𝒕𝒂𝒏∅′

 The slope gives the angle of internal friction (φ’) and the intercept is
apparent cohesion (c’) of the soil sample, both in terms of effective stress.