V Design, calculation and fatigue

behaviour

The calculation of stresses (loads and moments) and stress

deformation in aluminium alloy structures is performed in a
manner identical to that for steel structures – the theory of
elasticity is used in both cases. Numerous tests carried out to
investigate problems of stability in particular have shown that
steels and aluminium alloys behave in the same way, subject to
their specific mechanical characteristics (elastic modulus, yield
point etc.).
In this chapter we shall discuss points of specific concern to
aluminium alloys. These are:
• The control of deformation under load and buckling, directly
associated with the longitudinal modulus of elasticity. For
aluminium alloys it is worth remembering that Young's modulus E
is close to 70,000 MPa, or one third that of steel.
• Connections and bolted joints on components that are often
very slender, and welding on heat-treated or workhardened
alloys.
• The effects of fatigue on components and structures.
We have drawn comparisons with certain traditional practices in
steel structures whenever we felt this to be appropriate.

1 Bases of calculation under static load

Weighted stress is calculated by applying weighting or safety

factors to the values of loads or moments (1).

43
1.1 Simple tension and compression

As with steel, the characteristic taken as the basis for calculation

is the minimum yield point guaranteed at 0.2 %, which we shall
call σe.

Safety is calculated by the expression:

σ ≤ σe

where σ is the weighted simple tensile or compressive stress.

1.2 Simple shear

The characteristic stress is equal to 100/60 of the weighted

simple shear stress τ. Safety is calculated by the expression:

σ c = 1.7 τ ≤ σ e

1.3 Compound stresses

In modern structures it is not unusual to encounter elements

subject to compound stresses, and here we are required to verify
that the characteristic stress as calculated according to von Mises'
criterion is within the minimum guaranteed yield point σe.

For two-dimensional stresses we will obtain

2 2 2
σeff = σ x + σ y – σx σ y – 3 τ ≤ σe

where σx and σy are assigned their respective signs.

σx = normal stress weighted on axis x
σy = normal stress weighted on axis y
τ = weighted shear stress

1.4 Numerical data for the calculation of deformation

The longitudinal elastic modulus E of aluminium alloys varies from

68,000 MPa to 75,000 MPa depending on chemical composition.
By convention it is taken to be 70,000 MPa in calculations. The
transverse elastic modulus G is taken to be 27,000 MPa,
corresponding to a Poisson ratio of 0.33.
The values of elastic moduli correspond to one third of those of
steel. This fact is of great significance when calculating elastic
deformation and resistance to compression with buckling.

44
The coefficient of expansion α is taken to equal 23.10-6/°C.

2 Buckling
In this section we shall only discuss the rules relating to the
calculation of general flexural buckling due to uniform
compressive stress. For other cases of instability (local buckling,
torsional buckling, lateral buckling etc.) and for welded
components the reader is referred to the specialist literature,
some of which is listed in chapter 7.

2 1 Criteria of flexural buckling

A calculation is performed to verify that the weighted simple

compressive stress σ satisfies the condition:
kσ ≤ σ e

The coefficient k varies according to the alloys used; these can be

classified into two groups:
• alloys without heat treatment: 5083 or 5086

 σ   σe 
2
σ
K =  0.5 + 0.5 e  + 0.5 + 0.5  – 0.17 e
 σk   σk  σk

where :
π 2E
σk = (Euler’s critical compressive stress)
λ2

E : longitudinal elastic modulus 70,000 MPa

λ : geometrical slenderness of the component (for flexural
buckling)

• heat treatable alloys: 6061, 6060, 6082, 6005-A

 σ   σe 
2
σ
K =  0.5 + 0.5 e  + 0.5 + 0.5  – 0.8 e
 σk   σ k  σk

These two expressions are the result of the statistical use of

experimental data based on Dutheil’s method.

45
2.2 Example of weight saving in structures in
aluminium alloy for a case of compressive stress
with risk of buckling

The use of extruded sections in aluminium alloy with masses

located in the zones away from the centre of gravity makes it
possible to attain weight savings of 50 % or more compared with
traditional steel structures.
Generally speaking, by considering sections where the
relationship between the radii of minimum gyration for
comparable dimensions is close to:

ρ mini alu
= 1.40
ρ mini steel

we obtain a ratio inverse to the ratio of slenderness if we assume

an identical buckling length.
The ratio of Euler’s critical stresses becomes:
π 2Ealu
σk alu λ2alu E alu λ 2
= =  steel

σk steel π E steel
2
E steel  λ alu 
λ alu
2

σk alu
= 0.66
σk steel

The equality of the load-bearing capacities:

S alu σ k alu = S steel σ k steel

(where Sk alu and Sk steel are below the yield points of the
materials considered)
σ k steel
S alu = Ssteel ≈ 1.5 S steel
σk alu

shows that the weight saving with an aluminium alloy is of the

order of 50 % compared with the equivalent steel structure.

46
3 The rules of steel/aluminium
transposition
Two cases must be considered depending on the criterion
selected: criterion of strength and/or criterion of deformation.

3.1 Strength criterion

Here we must distinguish between a component subjected to

uniaxial stress and one subjected to a bending stress.
Notations:
σe steel = Yield point of the steel component
σe alu = Yield point of the aluminium component
Sacier = Area of the steel cross-section
Salu = Area of the aluminium alloy cross-section (2)
I/Vsteel = Bending modulus of the steel section
I/Valu = Bending modulus of the aluminium alloy section (2)

• With regard to a tensile or compressive stress (without risk of

buckling) we must calculate:
σeteel Ssteel = σe alu Salu
σ e steel
S alu = S steel
σe alu

• With regard to a bending stress (which is more common) we

must calculate:
σ e steel I / Vsteel = σe alu I / Valu
σ e steel
I / Valu = I / Vsteel
σe alu

In this case the transposition is done with extruded aluminium

alloy sections higher than the equivalent steel products:

Halu ≈ 1.3 Hsteel

and with masses placed in the areas furthest from the centre of
gravity.
Special case of plates
Calculate:
σ e steel e2steel = σ e alu e2alu

47
 σ e steel
ealu = esteel
σ e alu

The transposition of an E24 steel plate by a plate in 5083 or 5086

H111 presupposes the use of a plate thickness 1.5 times that of
the steel. The minimum weight saving is of the order of 50 %.

3.2 Deformation criterion

As with the strength criterion, a distinction must be made

between a component subjected to uniaxial stress and one
subjected to bending.
We shall use the following notations:

Esteel = Young’s modulus for steel = 210,000 MPa

Ealu = Young’s modulus for aluminium alloy = 70,000 MPa
Isteel = Inertia of steel section
Ialu = Inertia of aluminium alloy section

• For a uniform tensile or compressive stress

Calculate:
Esteel S steel = Ealu Salu

S alu = 3S steel

• For a bending stress calculate:

Esteel Isteel = Ealu Ialu

Ialu = 3Isteel

Here again we must weight the inertias by increasing the height

of the sections and placing the masses far away from the centre
of gravity.
Special cases of plates
Calculate:
Esteel e 3steel = E alu e3alu

ealu = 1.45e steel

The weight saved by using plates in aluminium alloy 5083 or 5086

H111 instead of E24 steel plate is at least 50 %.

48
4 Calculation of welded structures in
aluminium alloy

There are two types of aluminium alloys that can be arc welded:
• Non heat treatable alloys, e.g. 5000 series aluminium-
magnesium alloys; these are used either in the annealed or work-
hardened condition.
• Heat treatable alloys, e.g. 6000 series aluminium-magnesium-
silicon alloys; these are generally used in the quenched and
naturally aged condition (T4) or quenched and artificially aged
condition (T6).
Work-hardening an alloy of the first type or heat treating an alloy
of the second type achieves mechanical characteristics superior to
those of annealed metal. During welding, the heat introduced by
the arc modifies the metallurgical condition of the material and
affects its characteristics; the gradual change in these
characteristics in the vicinity of the weldment is illustrated in
figure 21.

The width of the zone of reduced strength is a function of:

• the welding technique, TIG or MIG,
• the parent metal and its as delivered condition
• the thickness of the components
• the type and position of the weldment,
• the process parameters: speed, current, number of passes etc.
Generally speaking the strength of a welded joint is:

49
• that of the parent metal in the annealed condition for non heat
treatable alloys, whatever the original condition: annealed or
work-hardened,
• an intermediate value between the heat treated parent metal
and the same metal in the annealed condition, for non heat
treatable alloys.
Welded structures are calculated in two stages: stage one deals
with the weld bead and adjacent zone, stage two is the calculation
of the welded components. The following sections review French
and European codes, the latter having broadly adopted the
procedures of the former [1], [3]. (3)

4.1 Calculation of weld beads

a) Definition of calculation method:

This method is based on the work of H.N. Hill, J.W. Clarck and
R.J. Bungraber [2] and uses coefficients of effect determined by
experiment following statistical tests.
b) Definition of coefficients of effect:
The strength of a weldment is a function of a number of factors
governed by the welding process and the parent metal.
• Coefficient α
Coefficient α indicates the weld quality. This conventional
coefficient depends on the skill of the welder, on quality control
and on an assessment of the difficulty in executing the weldment.

50
 Table 16
VALUES FOR COEFFICIENTS β AND γ FOR WELD BEADS
AND ZONES OF REDUCED STRENGHT [1], [3], [12]

Parent Temper Filler β Coefficient γ Coefficient

metal of for angle weld
métallurgical (**)
efficency (*)
Rolled or 5754 H111 5356-5183 1 1
extruded 5086 O and H111 5356-5183 1 1
section H116 or H321 5356-5183 0.51 1
5083 O and H111 5356-5183 1 1
H116 and H321 5356-5183 0.58 1
5383 O and H111 5356-5183 1 1
H116 and H321 5356-5183 0.66 1
6060 T5 5356-5183 0.56 1
6005A T5 5356-5183 0.50 1
4043 0.45 0.90
6082 T6 5356-5153 0.49 1
4043 0.49 0.80
6061 T6 5356-5183 0.53 1
4043 0.53 0.80
Pièces 42100 T6 4043 0.55 0.80
moulées (A-S7G03) 4047 0.55 0.80
44100 F 4043 1 1
(A-S13) 4047 1 1

(*) Theses values are given for guidance. They correspond to thickness of 20 mm or less and may vary slighty from one
code to another depending on the standardization body
(**) Estimated values extrapolated from those for 6005A T5

For components under tensile stress the value of a is taken to be

equal to:
• 1 for welds made under good conditions and where quality is
controlled by X-ray (satisfying the criterion of quality of a class
1 weld according to standard NF A 89220).
• 0.7 for difficult welds (but which satisfy the criterion of
minimum quality of a “class 3” weld according to standard
AFNOR NF A 89220).
• For components under compressive stress, α is taken to be 1
(in compression, any defects which may exist do not represent
crack starters).

• Coefficient β
Coefficient β denotes the metallurgical efficiency corresponding
to the decrease in mechanical characteristics of the parent
metal as a result of welding.

51
 yield point of the heat
affected zone
β =
yield point of the
parent metal

The value assigned to β for each of the aluminium alloys in a

given condition is determined experimentally as a function of
the welding process, the assembled thicknesses, preparation
and finally the selectod welding filler.
Values for β are given in table 16.

• Coefficient γ
Coefficient γ allows for the complex phenomena that occur in
stressed angle welds. The coefficient is less than 1 and its
influence is additional to that of coefficient β Values for γ are
given in table 16.
Values for coefficients β and for weld beads and zones of
reduced strength [1], [3], [12]

4.1.1 Calculation of buttweld beads

There are two cases to consider:
• simple stresses,
• compound stresses.
Notations:
emin : least thickness to be assembled
l : effective length of butt-weld equal to the total length if
striking devices are provided to prevent end detects. Otherwise
the total length must be reduced by twice the thickness of the
assembled components.
σe: minimum yield point guaranteed at 0.2 % of the aluminium
alloy in the condition used.
F or T : normal or tangential weighted load applied to each bead
σ : normal weighted stress in the weld
τ : tangential weighted stress in the weld
α : conventional coefficient of weld quality
β: coefficient of metallurgical efficiency

52
a) Simple stresses
• Component in tension
The following inequality must be calculated:
F 1
≤ σe
le αβ

• Component in compression
The following inequality must be calculated:
F 1
≤ σe
le β

• Component in shear
The following inequality must be calculated:
T 1
1.7 ≤ σe
 le αβ

The coefficient 1.7 results from the fact that the weighted simple
shear stress is equal to 100/60 of the characteristic stress σ. This
value has been corroborated in experimental tests.
b) Compound stresses
• Component in tension and shear
The calculation of the compound loads of tension and shear is
expressed as:
1
σ12 + 3 τ12 ≤ σe
αβ

where:
F T
σ1 = τ1 =
 le le
• Component in compression and shear (figure 26)
The calculation of the compound loads of compression and shear
is expressed as:

(ασ1)2 + 3 τ12
1
≤ σe
αβ

where:
F T
σ1 = τ1 =
 le le
53
 4.1.2 Calculation of fillet weld beads
Again there are two cases to consider:
• simple stresses,
• compound stresses.
Notations:
e: thickness of weld neck
l : effective length of weld bead equal to the actual length minus
the length “Ic” of the end defects
σe : minimum yield point guaranteed at 0.2 % of the aluminium
alloy in the condition used.
F : weighted load applied to the section
σ : normal weighted stress in the weld
τ : tangential weighted stress in the weld
α : conventional coefficient of weld quality
β : coefficient of metallurgical efficiency
γ : reducing coefficient of fillet welds
a) Simple Stresses
Transverse fillet welds
• Component in tension
The tearing stress calculation is written as follows:
F 1
≤ σe
Σla αβγ

• Component in compression
The tearing stress calculation is written as follows:
F 1
≤ σe
Σla βγ

Longitudinal fillet welds

• Component in tension or compression
The shear stress calculation is written as follows:
F1
1.7 ≤ σe
 Σla αβγ

b) Compound stresses
The following weighted stresses are calculated:

54
σ⊥τ⊥τ,, are coefficients calculated according to the Strength Rules
for materials – for the mean stress relative to the neck section of
the bead (minimum section of surface determined by a plane
passing through the intersection of the assembled faces), where:
σ⊥ weighted coefficient perpendicular to the section
τ⊥ weighted coefficient in the plane of the section perpendicular to
the longitudinal axis of the bead
τ,, weighted coefficient in the plane of the section parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the bead and the following relationship is
calculated:
1
α 2β 2γ 2
[ ]
σ⊥2 + 3 (τ 2⊥ + τ,,2 ) ≤ σe2

4.2 Calculations of welded components, definition of

calculation method

This method of calculation allows for both the reduction in

mechanical characteristics in the weld area and for the unaltered
strength of the parent metal in areas not affected by the welding
heat.
For the purpose of calculation, we use the coefficients of influence
α and β defined in section 4.1 and the width of the zone of
reduced strength.
The change in mechanical characteristics around the weld (Heat
Affected Zone) is very gradual and attains minimum value in the
centre of the weld bead.
The width of the zone of reduced strength and of the heat
affected zone depends upon:
• the welding method, TIG or MIG,
• the parent metal and its asdelivered temper,
• the thickness of the assembled components,
and to a lesser extent on the preparation of the edges, the type
and position of the weld and the process parameters (speed,
current, number of passes).
It is generally accepted that the zone of reduced strength does
not exceed 25 mm either side of the weld axis.

4.2.1 Equivalent surface of strength Ar

55
To assist calculations of the strength of welded components, it is
possible to calculate a total reduced surface that allows for
reductions in strength found locally in welded zones.
Notations:
l : width of welded component
l1 : half-width of the zone of reduced strength
l2 : width of transverse weld
e : thickness of component
α : conventional coefficient of weld quality
β : coefficient of metallurgical efficiency
• Longitudinal weld
• If F is a tensile stress, the equivalent surface of strength Ar is
written:

Ar = e[l – Σl1(1 – αβ )]

• If F is a compressive load the equivalent surface of strength Ar

is written:

Ar = e[l – Σl1(1 – β )]

• Transverse weld
With a transverse weld the equivalent surface of strength is
written:
[
Ar = e l – (Σl1 + Σl2 )(1 – β ) ]
Note:
For a longitudinal or transverse weld, if the zone of reduced strength is less than 10 % of
the total transverse section of the component, the influence of the weld is taken to be
negligible.

4.2.2 Equivalent static moment, equivalent moment of

inertia, equivalent bending modulus [3]
Notations:
β : coefficient of metallurgical efficiency
A : gross total cross-section of the component
S : static moment of the total cross-section
I : moment of inertia of the total cross-section
Azr.i: part of index i of the zone of reduced strength of the
corresponding cross-section
yi: distance of part i of the zone of reduced strength from the
surface of the cross-section to the deflected axis of the metal
section
Ymax: distance of the outermost fibre.

56
The strength of welded components can be determined more
simply by calculating the geometrical characteristics of a reduced
cross-section which allows for local strength reductions observed
in welded zones.
• Equivalent static moment:
Sr = S – (1 – β ) Σi (Azr.i yi )

• Equivalent moment of inertia:

(
Ir = I – (1 – β ) Σi Azr.i yi 2 )
• Equivalent bending moment:
Wr = Ir / y max

4.2.3 Calculation of welded components working in tension or

compression, without risk of buckling
If F is the weighted tensile or compressive load, the
corresponding stress is written:
F
≤ σe
Ar

where σe = Minimum yield point guaranteed at 0.2 % of the

parent metal in the non-welded state.

4.2.4 Calculation of welded components working in compression, with

risk of buckling
For this type of structure the reader is referred to the following
specialist literature: [1] and [3] in the Bibliography section.

5 Calculation of bolted and riveted

structures
In this type of structure the usual rivets and bolts generally work
in shear, and the shear stresses are taken by an upsetting action
on the wall of the hole.
The limit conditions that must be calculated are as follows:
• failure of the bolt shank by shear,
• upsetting of the hole (calculation of diametral pressure),
• failure of the assembled component.

5.1 Ultimate shear load [1]

57
Notations:
σe : minimum guaranteed yield point of the bolt or rivet
A : resistant surface area of the bolt shank
Asp : resistant surface area of the threaded section
αS : 0.6 for rivets and bolts in aluminium alloy 0.7 for rivets and
bolts in steel
When the threaded section of the bolt is stressed in shear the
ultimate shear load Vult is calculated by:
Vult = α s σ e A sp

The following formula is used when the rivet or the shank of the
bolt is stressed in shear:
Vult = α s σ e A

5.2 Ultimate upsetting load in components in tension or

compression

Aluminium components assembled [7] with single or double butt

plates are often relatively slender and this condition frequently
determines the size of bolt or rivet.
The calculations required by French regulations [1] are
independent of the longitudinal grip, and are expressed as
follows:
• rivet or bolt working in simple shear:
T
0.6 ≤ σe
de

• rivet or bolt working in double shear:

T
0.5 ≤ σe
de

where:
T : weighted shear load
d : diameter of bolt
e : assembled thickness.
Recent work by EDF [4] and European aluminium alloy producers
has shown that the dominant factor is the value of the
longitudinal grip and not the working mode of the structure in
simple or double shear.
a) Influence of longitudinal grip

58
The component fails most frequently at the longitudinal grip, i.e.
the distance between the centre of the hole and the end of the
section.

The rules of the European Convention on Metal Structures (CECM)

have adopted this work in the manner described below [3]:
The ultimate upsetting load is calculated using the following
formula:
Fb ult = α b ult σ e dtmin

where:
αb ult : coefficient given in table 17
d : diameter of rivet or bolt
tmin : thickness of the thinnest component in the structure
σe : minimum guaranteed yield point of the assembled part
d1 : diameter of bolt hole
The values of αb given for normal deformation are the result of
tests performed on bolted structures with defined clearance, and
restricting hole elongation to a maximum value of 0.07 d1.

5.3 Failure of the assembled component

The condition to be calculated is written as follows for

components in tension:
T
≤ σe
An
where:
T : weighted tensile load
An : net cross-section

The British Standard Code of Practice “Structural use of

aluminium” (CP 118) [5] recommends the following rules to
determine An (An = Ieff e).

The length of the effective line of least resistance is taken to be

equal to the minimum value, for various failure paths, of the
expression:

(S' 'i )
2

Ieff = b – n1 d1 + Σ
4 S⊥i

59
where:
b : width of assembled component
n1: number of bolts encountered on the supposed line of failure
d1: diameter of bolt holes
S„i: pitch index i of holes in the direction of load
STi: pitch index i of holes square to direction of load
The net section is equal to the product of Ieff min and the
thickness of the component considered.
This formula is the result of work done by Cochrane and published
by Fisker and Struik. [6]

6 Fatigue
Structures exposed to fluctuations in load may be susceptible to
fatigue failure if the number of load cycles is high even though
stresses are within the admissible stresses for static loads.
Fatigue failure is initiated close to stress concentrations and
appears as cracks capable of propagating through components
and their assemblies.
Discontinuities such as bolt and rivet holes, weldments and local
or general changes in geometrical form give rise to stress
concentrations that curtail the fatigue life of structures.

6.1 Factors affecting the fatigue behaviour of aluminium

alloy structures [7], [8], [9], [10]

Recent studies undertaken as part of the European COST 506*

[12] program (Fatigue behaviour of welded aluminium structures
European full-scale tests) covering 1,057 fatigue tests on
assemblies or non-assembled components made of the alloy
grades: 5083, 5086, 5454, 6005 A and 6082 have confirmed (for
load cycles ≥ 105) the influence of a number of factors:

6.1.1 Influence of parent metal factor

a) On non-assembled components
There is no difference in behaviour between components made
from 5000 and 6000 series grades. The choice of an alloy
therefore, e.g. 6082 rather than 6005 A, will depend on
requirements of static behaviour, given that both these grades
have an identical fatigue behaviour in components.
b) On welded or bolted structures

60
There is no difference in behaviour associated with a grade of
parent metal and its as-delivered temper.

6.1.2 Effect of ratio R

R = σmin/σmax
Statistical analysis has shown that the determining factor is the
variation in stress

∆σ = σmin – σmax
The range of the admissible stress variation must be corrected by
a coefficient determined by:
• the technological configuration (assembled or non-assembled
component)
• the value of R
• The graph below (figure 36) gives the value of correction
coefficients for the stress variation as a function of these
parameters.
The effect of R can be disregarded in structures which are
compound mechanical/ welded assemblies and where the
presence of residual stresses of complex origin can be taken to
exist.

6.1.3 Influence of the configuration of the structure

and of fabrication requirements
This point is particularly important as the fatigue behaviour of
structures is governed by:

61
• the design of the structure (influence of the coefficient of stress
concentration)
• the quality of fabrication: fatigue behaviour at a high load cycle
number essentially depends upon crack initiation encouraged by
local defects emerging or otherwise,
• the level of residual stress which depends on the methods of
erection and assembly.
The following examples illustrate:
• the importance of design,
• the importance of fabrication quality.

6.2 Importance of design

6.2.1 Attachment to edge of flange with fillet

Gusset welded to the edge of a plate or flange of a beam, with
fillet radius “r” ≥ 50 mm. A gradual fillet radius “r” is first
machined on the gusset plate prior to welding and then ground
parallel to the direction of stress.

Fatigue stress ∆σ in MPa

35
at 2.106 cycles and R = + 0.5

6.2.2 Attachment to edge of flange without fillet

Gusset welded to the edge of a plate or flange of a beam, without
fillet.

Fatigue stress Ac ∆σ in MPa

18
at 2.106 cycles and R = + 0.5
In both the above cases the structural detail that is designed with
a transition radius can either withstand twice the variation in
stress for an equal number of load cycles or more than 10 times
the number of load cycles for the same stress.

6.3 Importance of the quality of fabrication

In order to illustrate this parameter we have chosen to compare

the fatigue behaviour of butt-welds made as follows:
• welded both sides - flush bead (case a)
• welded both sides – slightly projecting bead (case b)
• welded both sides – projecting bead (case c)
• welded 1 side only on support – projecting bead (case d)
Butt-weld – Transverse – Simple Component

62
a) The transverse butt-weld with total root penetration is made
from both sides; the assembly comprises two simple components,
e.g. plates or flats. The bead is ground flush in the direction of the
applied stress. The edges of the main components must be either
as-extruded or carefully machined or ground in the direction of
stress. The weldments must be free from detectable interruptions
on the basis of QA requirements. The transverse gusset plates
must be chamfered in width or thickness with a gradient not
exceeding 1/4.

Fatigue stress ∆σ in MPa

55
at 2.106 cycles and R = + 0.5

b) The transverse butt-weld with total root penetration is made

from both sides; the assembly comprises two simple components,
e.g. plates or flats. The transition angle exceeds 150 degrees. The
edges of the main components must be either as-extruded or
carefully machined or ground in the direction of stress. The
weldments must be free from detectable interruptions on the
basis of QA requirements. The transverse gusset plates must be
chamfered in width or thickness with a gradient not exceeding
1/4.

Fatigue stress ∆σ in MPa

50
at 2.106 cycles and R = + 0.5

c) The transverse butt-weld with total root penetration is made

from both sides or one side; the assembly comprises two simple
components, e.g. plates or flats. The transition angle exceeds 130
degrees. The edges of the main components must be either as-
extruded or carefully machined or ground in the direction of
stress. The weldments must be properly fused with total
penetration, and free from cracks.
The transverse gusset plates must be chamfered in width or
thickness with a gradient not exceeding 1/4.

Fatigue stress ∆σ in MPa

45
at 2.106 cycles and R = + 0.5

d) The transverse butt-weld is made from one side only against

an existing support plate with a form that ensures total
penetration. The assembly consists of simple components such as
plates or flats.
The welds must be properly fused with total penetration, and free
from cracks.

63
 Fatigue stress ∆σ in MPa
40
at 2.106 cycles and R = + 0.5

The four examples show that:

• the process (welded both sides or on one side only),
• the weld quality,
• the weld finish have a direct influence upon:
• life with a factor of around 10 for the same stress variation,
• admissible stress with a factor of 1.4 for the same life.

6.4 Conclusion

The preceding sections show that the fatigue behaviour of

components and structures made from aluminium alloys and used
in applications of land transport (road and rail) or sea transport
and for load cycles N ≥ 105 is:
• independent of the type of alloy for components or structures
fabricated in 5000 and 6000 series alloys,
• dependent on the expression:
σ min
R =
σmax

according to the level of residual stress,

• for assemblies, highly dependent:
– on geometry (associated with the stress concentration KT).
– on the fabrication process and quality,
– on the level of residual stress.
These last three points are essential parameters and must be
given precedence when manufacturing structures subjected to
high fatigue stresses.
For quantified information please refer to document [8] in section
7 “Bibliography”.

Notes
(1) In some calculation codes, safety
factors are applied to characteristic
stresses to obtain admissible stresses. In
these cases stresses are not factored.
(2) With welded components the values
of Salu and I/V alu must be calculated
using the method described in section 4.2
on p. 46.
(3) Figures in [ ] refer to the bibliography
at the end of the chapter.

64
7
Bibliography

[1] RULES FOR THE DESIGN AND CALCULATION OF STRUCTURES IN

ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
July 1976 DTU 32.2, Editeur Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment, 4,
avenue du Recteur-Poincaré, 75782 Paris Cedex 16

[2] DESIGN OF WELDED STRUCTURES

Trans. ASCE, Vol. 127, Part II, 1962
H N. Hill, Clarck and RJ. Bungraber

[3] EUROPEAN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ALUMINIUM ALLOY STRUCTURES

Published by the European Convention on Metal Structures, 1st Edition 1978

[4] THE USE OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS IN POWER LINE SUPPORTS

Revue Générale de l'Electricité, July-August 1976, Vol. 85, n° 7/8

[5] THE STRUCTURAL USE OF ALUMINIUM

British Standard Code of Practice CP 118:1969 – The Council for codes of
practice, British Standards Institution

[6] GUIDE TO DESIGN CRITERIA FOR BOLTED AND RIVETED JOINTS

John Wiley & Sons – New York, London, Sydney, Toronto 1974, J. W Fisher and
J.E.A. Struik

[7] FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF WELDED ALUMINIUM STRUCTURES, EUROPEAN

FULL-SCALE TESTS
Commission of the European Communities – COST 506 program – European
Aluminium Association (EAA). D. Kosteas-A. Uhry. Parts 1, 2 and 3

[8] RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FATIGUE CALCULATIONS OF ALUMINIUM ALLOY

STRUCTURES
Welding & Related Techniques, July-August 1991, translation of the Rules of the
European Convention on Metal Structures

[9] IMPROVEMENT OF FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF WELDED JOINTS

by D. Albent, S. Bompard, Pechiney Group, April 1990

[10] ALUMINIUM ALLOY STRUCTURES

by F.M. Mazzolani
Institute of Construction Technology, University of Naples, 1986

[11] ARC WELDING OF ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

by M. Brillant and B. Fougeras
Pechiney Group, 1986 Edition

[12] COLLOQUIUM ON ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS IN WELDED STRUCTURES,

INTERNATIONAL WELDING INSTITUTE
Annual Conference in Porto, 8th of September 1981

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