VI Forming

To get the best use out of aluminium and its alloys in marine
applications it is essential, from the design stage onwards, to
apply certain rules aimed at conserving the material’s resistance
to static and dynamic stresses. Forms that include abrupt changes
of section, excessively small bending and fillet radii and poorly
designed assemblies (stepped structures etc.) should be avoided.
The choice of final form for individual components must also take
account of other factors, in particular corrosion resistance: flat
horizontal or concave shapes should be avoided where possible,
as these can trap moisture and initiate corrosion.
Finally, measures aimed at protecting the metal should be
planned from the outset, and precautions taken relating to the
assembly of dissimilar materials.

1 Shaping
Most aluminium alloys used in shipbuilding and coastal
installations belong to the family of aluminium-magnesium alloys
(5000 series) for rolled products or to the aluminium-silicon-
magnesium family (6000 series) for extruded products.

1.1 5000 series alloys

These are chiefly the following grades: 5754, 5086, 5083. When
processing includes shaping operations it is advisable to carry
them out in the annealed temper (O) or annealed and levelled
temper condition (H111).
In these tempers, 5000 series alloys have excellent shaping
properties as suggested by the difference between yield point and
rupture stress and by the level of elongation. The H116 or H322
temper greatly diminishes shaping properties.

66
As metals are hardened by mechanical cold working, it may be
necessary to improve ductility so as to continue forming by
machine or by hand. This is done by annealing, a process that is
easy to accomplish either in a furnace or with a welding torch,
using tallow as a temperature indicator (light brown colour). This
corresponds to a temperature of 340°C. Heat indicator crayons or
even a stick pyrometer may also be used.
If necessary, annealing can be repeated between shaping
operations, however there is one golden rule: only anneal the
metal if it becomes difficult to work.
This corresponds to a work-hardening rate that is greater than or
at least equal to the so-called critical work-hardening rate.
5000 series alloys in general and the 5086, 5383 and 5083 grades
in particular are suitable for TIG and MIG arc welding provided of
course that the general precautions required by these processes
are observed.
The heat cycle generated by the welding process affects a zone
25 mm either side of the weld bead in which the mechanical
characteristics of the material are those of the annealed condition.
Obviously, if the metal has been supplied in either the O or H111
temper, its mechanical characteristics will not be greatly affected.

1.2 6000 series alloys

These are mainly found as extruded sections. The main alloy

elements are magnesium and silicon. The grades in most frequent
use are 6005 A, 6082, 6060 and 6106.
These are age hardening alloys supplied in the T6 or T5 condition
and, less commonly, in the T4 or T1 condition (2).
Generally speaking the shaping properties of this family of alloys
in the heat treated condition are limited.
Nevertheless shaping should be performed cold as heating will
considerably reduce mechanical characteristics (approx. 40 %).
Large-radius bends can be obtained cold.
Bending is easier when performed in the T4 or T1 temper (with
subsequent age hardening). Hot working can be used to create
relatively tight bends but substantially reduces the alloy's
mechanical properties as it is in a state close to annealed.
These alloys are suitable for welding provided the correct filler is
used. The 5356 filler (with 5 % magnesium) is especially well
suited for welding with these products.

67
As with the 5000 series alloys, it is essential to anticipate a
reduction of some 40 % in the mechanical characteristics of the
semi-frabricated product in the age hardened condition as a result
of partial annealing in the heat affected zone (3).

2 Plate fabrication
The general methods of aluminium alloy fabrication and the
machines used are not very different from those used for steel.
Aluminium alloys are easy to fabricate.
Their low surface hardness must be taken into account however,
and it is essential to use special tools to avoid damaging the metal
faces. Risks of pollution from traces of ferrous and cuprous metals
must also be avoided as these can cause localized corrosion. It is
therefore necessary to work in an envirooment where such risks
are minimized.

2 1 Storage

Aluminium sheets should never be placed directly on the ground,

even if this is cemented, and should be kept away from splash
water, condensation and hostile chemical atmospheres.
Preferably, they should therefore be stored under cover in a
ventilated room and separated by timber blocks.

2.2 Marking out

Scribing tools should not be used, since any tracing marks which
might be left on the finished component can become crack
starters under high loads.
This precaution is not necessary where the scribe indicates a
cutting line.
As a general rule it is advisable to trace using a hard pencil (e.g.
5H) which is easier to see and easy to erase in the case of error.

68
2.3 Cutting to shape

Plate or crocodile shears can be used to make straight cuts. The

rating of the shear should be more or less the same as for cutting
non-alloyed steel with a low carbon content and the same
thickness.
For aluminium products supplied in the H116 condition, the use of
the shear should be restricted to plates less than 10 mm thick to
avoid localized stresses that could lead to stress corrosion. Plates
that are 10 mm thick and over should be sawn.
Sawing is a widespread cutting process which is very economical
for aluminium and its alloys.

2.3.1 Bandsaw
The most common tool is the bandsaw which can be a simple
wood saw but with a blade of specially designed profile to break
and dislodge the aluminium chips from between the sawteeth.
This is achieved by the alternation or pitch of the teeth and by the
draft angle defined below.
The other values are as follows:
D
e =
1000
e = thickness in mm
D = diametre of flywheel in mm
• Width: 10 to 30 mm
• Saw pitch: 2.5 to 8 mm; two teeth must always be in action
• Lubricant: tallow or soluble oil.

69
 2.3.2 Circular saw
As with the bandsaw, the saw pitch varies with the thickness or
section to be sawn but the process of cutting, which is a function
of the machine characteristics, makes it similar to milling.
With the bandsaw and circular saw, the cutting speeds for 5000
series alloys are as follows:
• HSS blade: 600 m/min to 1000 m/min.
• carbide blade: 800 m/min to 1500 m/min.
The portable milling saw is a tool that can be used to straight cut
products up to 20 mm thick and with good advance rates.
It may be preferable to use a jigsaw for thicknesses of 6 mm or
less. The jigsaw is highly manoeuvrable and can be used to cut
complex curves.

2.3.3 Fluid jet

Metals, including aluminium, can be cut using water jets bearing
abrasive particles (PASER process) at high pressures (3000 bars
and over). Granules of garnet, corundum or other very hard
minerals are used.
The attraction of this process is that it does not affect the
metallurgical condition of the product and is very versatile.
Its performance is also excellent, and in aluminium, thicknesses
between 1 and 100 mm can be cut at rates of 3500 to 30
mm/min respectively.

2.3.4 Plasma
There are two plasma techniques:
• classical plasma, with a draft of some 6°,
• water VORTEX plasma, with a very small cutting draft, of the
order of 2°.
Compared to traditional plasma, water VORTEX plasma facilitate
greatly increased cutting rates and reduce nuisance factors
(smoke, noise, ozone discharge).
The process requires substantial amounts of power however. The
plasma is formed in a special torch, and inert gas (usually argon
or nitrogen) moving at great speed is dissociated under the effect
of an electric arc to attain the plasma state.
Owing to its high cutting speed (several metres per minute), its
quality and precision of cut, a plasma cutting machine can be a
highly profitable investment for shipbuilders, even for short
production runs.

70
Note:
The width of the heat affected zone is less than 1 mm whatever the alloy and for all
thicknesses. However craching is sometimes observed in the short transverse dimension
that can attain a depth of some 2 mm. Whatever the thickness of the product, machining
off 2 mm of material will restore the metal’s original qualities.
This is obviously unnecessary if the cut pieces are intended for use as welding blanks.

2.4 Edge rolling

This shaping technique requires no special equipment for

aluminium. The rollers must of course be clean and have regular
surfaces.

2.5 Folding

For multiple folds, holes should be used to mark the crossover

points of the fold lines to avoid causing cracks when the folds are
made.
Aluminium does not require any special folding tools, and
conventional table folding machines or presses are perfectly
adequate provided the working parts of the tooling are free from
unacceptable irregularities.
The folding radii to be observed as a function of the thickness are
shown in table 17 for alloys 5754, 5083, 5086, 6061 and 6082.

2.6 The non-machinable faces

As with folding, one good precaution consists of removing all

score marks from the edges caused by cutting so as to prevent
the formation of cracks at points of deep deformation. Shaping is
carried out on the 5754, 5086, 5383 and 5083 grades (and on
other alloys in the same family) in the annealed or H111
condition. In some cases shaping may call for intermediate
annealing, and this can be done as described above using an
annealing torch and tallow as the temperature indicator.
Intermediate annealing can be carried out several times in the
course of the shaping operation, however care should be taken to
avoid annealing a metal that is only slightly work-hardened to
prevent the risk of grain enlargement.

71
2.7 The straightening and levelling

With minor deflection on sheets less than 3 mm thick, levelling is

done using either a hammer or mallet.
Hammering can be used to correct irregularities caused by the
longitudinal contraction of the weld bead. It is often necessary to
reduce the thickness of the bead, and this is done with a grinding
disc of 50 to 80 grit.
Before hammering it is advisable to smooth the ends of the bead
with a file to remove any irregularities at the start and finish of
the weld pass which might initiate cracking if crushed under the
hammer.
Aluminium levelling can be done by shrinkage heats. Because of
the high thermal conductivity of aluminium alloys however it is
essential to cool the metal completely between each heat,
otherwise the result will be nil or inadequate. If necessary this
technique can be used judiciously together with mechanical
methods such as hammering to achieve final corrections and save
time.
For straightening large surface areas, local heats can be replaced
by continuous movement of the torch, and here it is advisable to
combine the heat source and cooling water jet in a single
assembly. This assembly can then be mounted on a two-wheel
carriage to facilitate movement and to maintain constant
clearance between the flame cone and the surface of the metal.
The method of straightening by shrinkage heats is used on alloys
without age hardening, e.g. alloys in the 5000 series in an
annealed or semi-annealed metallurgical condition (H111).
An appreciable drop in mechanical characteristics is observed in
age-hardened alloys, and so this method is not advisable for 6000
series grades.

72
 Table 17
INTERIOR COLD FORMING AT 90 ° TYPICAL VALUES (*)

Alloy Temper 1.5 < t < 3.0 < t < 6<t<

3.0 6 12.5
5754 O and H111 10t 1.0 t 2.0 t
H24 and H34 20t 25t 3.0 t
5086 O and H111 1.0 t 1.5 t 2.5 t
H116 and H324 2.0 t 2.5 t 3.5 t
H24 and H34 2.5 t 3.5 t 4.5 t
5083 O and H111 1.0 t 1.5 t 2.5 t
H116 and H324 2.0 t 2.5 t 4.0 t
H 24 and H34 2.5 t 3.5 t 4.5 t
6061 O 1.0 t 1.0 t 2.0 t
T6 (**) 3.5 t 4.0 t 5.0 t
6082 O 1t 1.0 t 2.0 t
T6 (**) 3.5 t 4.5 t 6.0 t
(*) Taken from standard EN 485-2
(**) Heat treated alloys can be folded with much tighter radii when formed
immediately after quenching.

5383 ALLOY

According Pechiney Rhenalu

Temper t < 3.0 3.0 < t < 4.8 4.8 < t < 6 6 < t < 10
O and 1.5 t 1.75 t 2t 3t
H111
H116 and 2.5 t 2.75 t 3t 3.75 t
H321
H34 4t 5t 5.5 t 6t

3. Fabrication of aluminium sections

3.1 Storage

Sections are usually individually protected in packing cases to

prevent problems such as fretting in transit.
Sections should be left in their original packing cases pending use.
As with aluminium sheets, they should never be set down directly
on the ground, even if cemented, and should be kept away from
splash water, condensation and hostile chemical atmospheres.

3.2 Cutting

The processes of sawing described above are also suitable for

cutting aluminium sections.

73
3.3 Manual bending

The manual bending of sections tables 18 and 19, can be carried

out:
• on wooden templates for slender, cold-worked sections. The
folds should be swaged as they are formed,
• on steel templates for thick hot-worked sections, with controlled
temperatures (tallow) not exceeding 400°C.
Hot working should be avoided on 6000 series alloys as annealing
affects the metallurgical characteristics. However it may be
advisable to work these alloys in the T4 condition and then age
harden afterwards.

Table 18
BENDING HOLLOW TUBES (Φ Φ < 90 MM)
BENDING RADIUS AS A FUNCTION OF RATIO D/E

Alloy Temper Ratio D/e

5 10 15 20 25 30
5754 O and H111 1 to 1.5 D 2.5 to 3 D 3.5 to 4 D 4.5 to 5 D 6 to 7 D 8 to 9 D
6060 O 1 to 1.5 D 2.5 to 3 D 3.5 to 4 D 4.5 to 5 D 5 to 6 D 7 to 9 D
T5 2 to 2.5 D 3 to 4 D 4 to 5 D 6 to 7 D 8 to 10 D 12 to 15 D

Table 19
BENDING TUBES WITH HOT SAND (T 400 °C)
BENDING RADIUS AS A FUNCTION OF RATIO D/E

Alloy Ratio D/e

5 10 15 20
5754 1D 2.5 D 3D 4 to 6 D
6060 1D 2.5 D 3D 4 to 6 D

D outside diameter
E thickness

3.4 Mechanical bending

This is performed cold on a bending press with form rolls or a

three-roll bending press, a swaging or tapering machine as the
case may be.

74
3.5 Straightening

This is done either with a hammer between supports or by flange

elongation or using the swaging or tapering machine.

Notes
(2) Table 7 contains a key to heat
treatments
(3) See DTU (unified technical document)
“Rules for design and calculation of
aluminium allay structures), available
from CSTB, 84, avenue Jean Jaurès,
77420 Champ-sur-Marne, France

75
VII Welding

1 Welding processes
Aluminium alloys are arc welded in an inert atmosphere: argon,
helium and a mixture of these two inert gases can be used for this
purpose. There are two techniques:

1.1 Arc welding in an inert atmosphere with

refractory electrodes, or TIG welding (tungsten
inert gas)

In this process an electric arc is struck between a refractory

electrode made of tungsten and the workpiece, while a shroud of
inert gas, usually argon, shields the electrode and protects the
melting bath against oxidation. A hand-held welding rod feeds the
melting bath. This process uses a high-frequency stabilized a.c.
power source specially designed for welding aluminium alloys, and
is suitable for metal thicknesses between 1 and 6 mm. The
process can also be automated.

1.2 Arc welding in an inert atmosphere with

consumable electrodes, or MIG welding (metal
inert gas)

Here a wire made of aluminium or aluminium alloy serves as both

the electrode and the filler metal. The wire is supplied on a reel
and is fed automatically to the welding tool (gun) as it is used up.
The welding energy is supplied by a d.c. power source.
Connection is made with reverse polarity (i.e. the workpiece is
negative) to ensure descaling and the fusion of the wire electrode
at the same time.

76
The MIG process is suitable for material thicknesses above 2.5
mm and can also be automated.
The manual version of MIG is usually known as “semi-automatic
welding”.
For several years now manufacturers of welding apparatus have
been supplying pulsating current power supply units which enable
thin components of 1.5 to 4 mm to be welded with enhanced
operator comfort. They have not been shown to be better than
traditional equipment for medium to large thicknesses. Pulsating
current welding machines should not be confused with synergetic
machines. The former can be used to fully control all welding
parameters, while the latter type supply the essential parameters
from electronic logic circuits that do not as yet take sufficient
account of context: type of liner, position of weld etc.

2 General guidance for TIG and MIG

welding processes

2.1 Preparing the surface

Fluid aluminium's ability to absorb hydrogen increases with

temperature. Hydrogen can be released from the decomposition
of water or organic products present during the welding process
in the electric arc.
As it cools, the hydrogen escapes from the melting bath, but on
solidification the metal retains the last traces of the gas in the
form of porosity that can affect the quality of the weld.
As a result the metal must be properly degreased before welding,
using a solvent. The edges of the weldment must also be cleaned
prior to welding: this is done using a wire hand brush or a rotary
brush with stainless steel wires. The sequence must be: degrease
first, then brush.
It is also vital to weld in a dry atmosphere, and damp equipment
or materials must be avoided.
The workpieces and the filler wire must be at the same
temperature as the room where welding is done to prevent
condensation of humidity in the air.
Outdoor welding is not desirable but if it cannot be avoided the
welding environment should be screened off.

77
2.2 Preparing edges and mating faces

The preparations must be made with great care and precision.

Mating faces must be carefully matched. Plates must be flush with
each other and have no gaps between them.

Because of the high thermal conductivity of aluminium alloys,

imperfect mating will cause a thermal imbalance between the
weld edges, and this will exaggerate the initial mismatch and
cause warping of the components.
Excessive clearance (≥ 1.5 mm) between the plates can
encourage stresses, excessive deformation and even cracking.

2.3 Process selection criteria

Preference should be given to MIG welding whenever possible as

the MIG technique is faster than TIG and experience shows that
rapid welding controls deformation (table 20).
However consistency of quality is more difficult to maintain with
MIG than with TIG, especially as regards minimizing porosity. In
addition, the problem of obtaining full weld penetration with MIG
necessitates either the use of a liner or a back-welded sealing
run. This must be applied after gouging the penetration (down to
sound metal). MIG welding is ideally suited for fillet welds.
MIG welding becomes tricky for component thicknesses below 2.5
mm.

78
 Table 20
CHOICE OF EQUIPEMENT FOR TIG AND MIG WELDING

TIG MIG

Source A.C. with HF and arc decay D.C. with very shallow
(specialy designed for trailing edge. Pulsed
alumnium alloy) supply may be acceptable
or even desirable for
slender workpieces
Electrodes Pur tungsten

Wire or filler Welding 5000 series alloys : 5356 or 5183

rod
Welding 6000 series alloys : 5356 (*) ou 4043 (**)
Gaz Argon Argon
or mixture (70% argon, or mixture (30% argon,
30% hélium) (***) 70% hélium) (****)
(*) Best mechanical caracteristics (***) enhances welding speed
(**) Easy to weld (****) More compact weld

2.4 Choice of equipment

2.4.1 Welding gun

This is used to guide the wire electrode and supplies electric
current to it across a copper contact tube through which the wire
is fed.
A welding torch may be preferable for welding in confined spaces
as this is more manoeuvrable.

2.4.2 Wire uncoiling

There are 3 systems of wire uncoiling:
• push-wire, in which the wire is pushed from the reel unit across
a pair of rollers with adjustable tension in a flexible conduit to the
welding gun,
• pull-wire, where the wire is pulled in its conduit by the gun,
• push-pull, which is a combination of the other two systems and
necessitates accurate synchronization of the drive motors.

Notes
• “Push-wire” systems are the most compact and minimize the weight of the gun or torch
which is highly manoeuvrable as a result. Their drawback is that they can only use heavy
gauge wires (diameter ≥ 1.6 mm) owing to the relative stiffness of aluminium wire and so
the “pull” or “push-pull” systems are preferred where access is not a problem.
• The manufactured quality of the wire and its uncoiling ability are factors that have a
major influence on the good execution of the weld.

79
2.5 Choice of filler wires

Tables 21, 22 and 23 show the grades of wire to be used

depending on the workpieces.

2.6 Grinding weld seams

Weld seams are normally ground flush with the plate using a fine
grit (50 to 80) grinding wheel.
A flush-ground seam has a better fatigue response than a
protruding as-welded seam provided of course no harmful internal
defects are brought to light by the operation (1).

3 Quality control
Quality control enables manufacturers to judge the quality of the
products they fabricate and more specifically to grade the quality
of a welded joint against an acceptable level of defined defects.
The level of acceptable defects is determined by:
• the types and directions of load (static and dynamic),
• the levels and variations in stress,
• possible hazards to personnel,
• the technical and financial impact of the failure of the welded
structure,
• the possibility of routine operational inspection and control.

3.1 Approval procedures

The procedures are either contractual between client and supplier

or self-regulated by the fabricator. Welders must be certificated or
qualified. Before work commences, the welding parameters must
be set down in a welding schedule drawn up in accordance with a
recognized standard or code of practice of a classification society.

80
 Table 21
CASTING ALLOYS TO CASTING ALLOYS
51100
(A-G3T) 5356

42100
(A-S7G03) 4043 4043

44100
(A-S13) 4043 4043 4047
4043
Alloys 51100 42100 44100
(A-G3T) (A-S7G03) (A-S13)

Table 22
ROLLED AND EXTRUDED ALLOYS WIYH CASTING ALLOYS

51100 5183 5356 5183 (*)

(A-G3T)

42100 4043 4043 5356 (*)

(A-S7G03)

44100 4043 4043 5356 (*)

(A-S13)

Alloys 5383
5754 5083 Serie
5086 6000

(*) the 4043 alloy can be used as the filler to assist the welding
operation provided the mechanical characteristics of the joint are not
under major load

Table 23
ROLLED AND EXTRUDED ALLOYS ALONE

5183
5754
5356
5086 5356 5356
5083
Serie 5356 (*) 5356 (*) 5356 (*)
6000
5083 Serie
Alloys 5754
5086 6000

81
 (*) The alloy can be used as the filler to assist the welding operation
provided the mechanical characteristics of the joint are not under
major load

Test specimens must be submitted for tensile tests and folding

tests. Folding tests are important because they:
• detect bonding that is hard to identify in NDT testing,
• help achieve a good balance of parameters with a view to
preventing these defects.

3.2 Inspecting welded joints

The frequency and stringency with which welded joints are

inspected will naturally depend on the inspection class of the boat
or structure and the work rate of the weldments.
In the fabrication shop it is possible to perform:
• non destructive tests. Random X-ray testing may also be
possible in certain cases,
• visual (mainly dye penetration) tests. It is advisable to carry out
100 % testing to guarantee impermeability and freedom from
emergent cracks.
It may also be prudent to perform some destructive tests on
reference specimens.

4 Weld defects

5 Design and manufacture of welded

structures: preventing deformation

5.1 Fabricating the framework

The good extrusion properties of certain aluminium alloys (e.g.

the 6000 series) allow the extensive use of extruded sections in
the fabrication of frameworks made up of stiffeners and frames.
The judicious choice of suitable shapes will make it possible to
produce lightweight structures despite the poor elastic modulus of
aluminium alloys.
It is vital to fabricate the framework first. This must be rigid
enough to withstand heat-shrink forming operations and
elongation due to straightening.

82
The arrangement shown in figure 51 has the following
advantages:
• the use of a folded or built-up section for the stiffeners
facilitates contouring depending on the ductility of the alloys used,
• notching the stiffeners and welding their webs to the frame
ensures the latter’s continuity and provides an effective section
for the transfer of loads from the frame to the stiffener,
• the welded joints between the stiffeners and the side-shell and
the frames and the side-shells.
These joints are virtually independent and free from assembly
nodes, thereby minimizing stresses and deformation.
Before the skin plates are attached the supporting frame must be
inspected and straightened to a template as required.

5.2 Attaching the skin plates

5.2.1 Plate preforming

These plates usually describe a curve. They must not be force
fitted but should be preformed to prevent stresses and
deformation when welded to the supporting frame (except in the
case of gentle curves found in sharp-bilge hulls).

5.2.2 Plate attachment

The first course of skin plates is attached with the frame resting
on the deck.
It is important for sub-assemblies (courses of plates) to be
welded and straightened as part of pre-fabrication operations.
The course is then welded to the frame with discontinuous weld
beads, starting from the middle of the frame and working
outwards towards the ends.
The second course is now offered up – this must be carefully
mated to the first course and tacked in position on the frame –
and again welded to the frame with discontinuous beads.
Care should be taken to stagger the welds of adjacent plate
courses where possible (“lock” effect).

5.3 External welds

External welds must be made using continuous beads to prevent

water traps causing corrosion (2).

83
6 Weld repair
A hull or any other item of equipment can sustain damage and will
require to be repaired.
The same rules apply here as those given in chapter 6 relating to
forming operations and those given in this chapter for welding.
Nevertheless special precautions must be taken to ensure the
success of repair work.
• At the design stage it is vital to allow for possible replacements
in areas of special risk, such as skin panels or other components
that may be damaged. This is particularly important where access
is restricted.
• For weld repairs it is essential:
– to pay particular attention to the direction of the weld beads so
as to minimize deformation and the risk of cracking when cold.
Volume contraction in the weld bead is approximately 6 %
between the fluid state and the solid state at ambient
temperature. It is this phenomenon which causes a risk of
cracking;
– to choose the right welding process (TIG or MIG). TIG welding
is advisable for minor repairs where access from behind is not
possible as it is easier to use and allows better penetration control
than the MIG technique.
• For local repairs, e.g. a breached hull, the patch must be
perfectly matched to the shape of the breach but will be larger
(achieved by hammering) in order to compensate for contraction
following welding. Without this precaution the residual stress
would attain a level where it would cause systematic cracking.
This phenomenon is more pronounced the smaller the patch.

Notes

(1) Cf chapter 5.
(2) Cf chapter 4.

84
VIII Mechanical and special
Assemblies

Although welding is the most widely used assembly technique in

shipbuilding, there are other techniques that complement it, and
these are indispensable when it comes to fabricating
heterogenous structures, i.e. joints between dissimilar materials:
aluminium alloy, steel, plastics etc.
Processes such as “machine riveting” have advanced in recent
years to the point where they offer shipyards fabrication
techniques that are reliable, practical and fast. They can
withstand vibration and pose no particular problems in terms of
corrosion behaviour, provided submerged areas are suitably
protected. (1)
This chapter deals with:
• riveting: machine rivets,
• screws and bolts,
• transition joints,
• bonding.

Note :
– cracked head: incorrect choice of rivet alloy, rivet is too hard,
– rivet hole not filled: hole too big for rivet diametre,
– offset head: rivet poorly compressed,
– riveting is too hard: the assembly is deformed and weakened by residual tension,
• For rivets it is advisable to use the 5000 series alloys as their magnesium level is 3.5 %
or less and avoids possible corrosion under stress. Rivets in 5754 alloy are ideal for most
applications.

1 Machine rivets
Once the preserve of aerospace engineering, machine riveting is
now a widespread technique used in many sectors of industry,

85
e.g. electronics, domestic electrical, transport, and offers a
number of decisive advantages:
• rapid fitting
Machine riveting can be very fast. Pneumatic or hydraulic tools
can fit several rivets a minute, the rate naturally depending on
the nature and configuration of the assemblies.
• ease of control
Quality controlling an assembly is greatly assisted by the fact that
the clamping force is always guaranteed because it precedes the
force required to snap the rivet shank. Optimum clamping force is
always achieved under these conditions.
• appearance and impermeability
With some rivets a plastic cap can be clipped over the rivet head
to enhance the appearance of the assembly. This also helps
improve the structure’s impermeability to air, dust an splash
water. They can also be painted.
Today manufacturers can supply systems that are highly
dependable and versatile and suited to many different
applications including boatbuilding. Unlike swage rivets, machine
rivets do not require skilled operatives.
Machine rivets can be classified into two families:
• rivets that can be accessed from both sides of the joint, also
called “clinch bolts”,
• rivets that can only be accessed on one side of the joint, also
known as “blind rivets”.
The components to be assembled are clamped together:
• either by preloading the shank by clinching a ring on the shank
itself,
• or by upsetting the body of the rivet by means of the shank
head to form a “counter head” on the side opposite the rivet
entry.
These operations are performed:
• either using manual riveting or clinch tongs,
• or by pneumatic or hydraulic rivet guns depending on the type,
nature and diametre of the rivet.
They are available in steel or aluminium alloy 7075 and 6061. For
marine applications, rivets in 7075 must be supplied anodized to
at least 15 microns and sealed with a bichromate.

86
2 Screws and bolts
The choice of screws to be used on an aluminium structure
exposed to a marine environment depends in part at least on
potential risks of bimetallic corrosion between the aluminium alloy
structure and the fixings made of mild steel, stainless steel etc.
Bearing in mind what has been said previously, two modes can be
considered.

2.1. The structure is submerged

Whether this should be in a continuous or sporadic manner in the

sea water, mild steel or stainless steel screws cannot be used
without protecting contact areas:
• by cathodic protection if they are below waterline,
• by insulation placed between the screw and aluminium
structure.
It is also possible to use screws in anodized aluminium alloy with
an anodized thickness of 15 microns and bichromate sealed, e.g.
7075 T73 or 6108 T8 which have the following mechanical
characteristics (table 24).

Table 24
MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS SCREWS

Alloy UTS Proof Elongation

(Mpa) Stress 0,2 % A%
(Mpa)
6108 T8 300 260 8
7075 T73 550 470 10

2.2 The structure is above water

In areas that are at worst damp as opposed to wet, frequent use

is made of screws in stainless steel, galvanized steel or cadmium-
plated steel.
Despite the difference in potential between stainless steel and
aluminium alloys there is virtually no risk of bimetallic corrosion to
aluminium and its alloys aside from a very superficial attack
limited to the contact zone.

87
3 Transition joints
Explosion-welded aluminium-steel transition joints have been
available on the market for a number of years. These are supplied
as rods 20 to 30 mm wide and in lengths of several metres.
This type of joint is highly suitable for connecting a steel structure
to a built-up structure in aluminium alloy (5), and is therefore
very widely used to weld aluminium alloy superstructures to the
steel deck of vessels.
The two welds either side of the steel and aluminium must be
made according to the usual TIG and MIG criteria but the
aluminium-steel transition zone must not be allowed to attain or
exceed 300°C as this is the threshold above which metallurgical
transformation of this zone occurs, causing a major breakdown in
the mechanical characteristics of the transition joint (6).

4 Bonding
In shipbuilding, aluminium bonding is used primarily for secondary
internal applications, and the structural bond is still comparatively
rare. Nevertheless bulkhead facings made of bonded sandwich
panels are in use on some methane carriers, and adhesives have
been used to bond aluminium alloy decks to polyester hulls.
Bonding has many advantages and will no doubt grow in
popularity among shipbuilders given its major advantages over
other forms of assembly (8). Compared with other techniques it
can:
• be used to connect dissimilar materials. Many adhesives are
also insulants that prevent bimetallic corrosion,
• permit the use of aluminium alloys of structural hardness
provided they are properly protected for use in marine
environments,
• enhance stress distribution,
• attenuate vibration better,
• ensure built-in impermeability.
Our knowledge of the ageing process of bonded joints is still
fragmentary owing to a comparative lack of experience with this
technique. Nevertheless there are adhesives such as two-part
epoxys which respond very well to ageing in marine environments
for periods of 6 years and more.

4.1 Designing the joint

88
A successful bonded joint depends on the following factors:
• a detailed knowledge of the service conditions of the joint
(specifications must describe the environment),
• engineers thinking “bond” from the design stage,
• careful surface preparation,
• correct choice of adhesive,
• testing to destruction before manufacture to validate the choice
of adhesive,
• fabrication must be closely controlled and should be automated
so far as possible.
There are four types of stress to which a bonded joint can be
exposed: shear, perpendicular tension, cleavage and peel.
The joints should be adequately lapped (flat geometry) or
sleeved, and designed to work in shear and tension rather than in
peel or cleavage. Allowance must also be made for the influence
of the materials and the thickness of the adhesive layer.

4.2 Choice of adhesive

Although adhesives are usually classified by chemical families,

properties – especially mechanical – can vary widely from one
adhesive to another in the same family.
Cold-curing adhesives are particularly suitable for shipbuilding
applications owing to the large surface areas that require to be
bonded.
The following adhesives are worth mentioning in this category:
• two-part epoxys: these are highly recommended for structural
bonds and go off within a few hours at ambient.
For best results the bonded joint should be 0.1 to 0.2 mm thick,
• two-part polyurethanes: these have outstanding performance
for sandwich panels and are inexpensive. They require the use of
a primer and set within a few days at ambient. The joint can be
more than 1 millimetre thick,
• modified acrylics: these go off in a matter of minutes and are
enjoying increased popularity despite their cost.
Other adhesive families may also be used, e.g.:
• anaerobic adhesives for thread locking,
• one part silicon and one-part polyurethane adhesives for
maximum impermeability,
• one-part epoxys for joints subjected to high stress levels and
likely to be stoved.
Each of these families includes adhesives specially designed for
marine environments.

89
4.3 Surface preparation

Good surface preparation is vital to ensure the quality and life of

the bonded joint. Two typical procedures for internal bonds are
worth mentioning:
• degrease (preferably chemically, but chlorinated solvents can be
used if necessary),
• chemical conversion by phosphochromating (10),
• apply primer, e.g. epoxy.
Or alternatively:
• degrease,
• apply a wash primer.
The joint can then be bonded even after an interval of several
days provided the components are stored in a clean, dry place.
There are also pre-coated sheets: the front of the sheet is painted
and the back is ready coated with special epoxy bonding primer.
These sheets are ideal for the fabrication of sandwich panels.

4.4 Industrial fabrication

It is essential for the work to be done carefully and methodically:

• in a well-ventilated, dust-free room,
• wearing white gloves and eye protection,
• in strict observance of the adhesive manufacturer's instructions,
with each stage of production being checked (component storage,
resin/hardener proportions, curing time, pressure and
temperature),
• standard specimens should be tested to destruction
tension/shear with accelerated “moist pad” ageing, or by peeling)
to reveal any anomalies.

90
Notes

(1) Cf chapter 4.
(5) When a joint of this type is submerged it
must be protected by painting or by cathodic
protection.
(6) The temperature can be monitored using
“THERMOCOLOR” type crayons or a contact
pyrometer.
(10) Cf. chapter 9.

91
IX Aluminium protection

Unlike other metals and alloys, it is not an absolute necessity to

protect aluminium and aluminium alloys in marine environments.
There are numerous examples of marine applications for
unprotected aluminium, e.g. oyster barges, marina landing
stages, building facings (1), and a good many of these have seen
decades of service.
Nevertheless there are cases where aluminium must be
protected, e.g.:
• to prevent marine fouling of animal or plant origin on all
submerged equipment. We know that aluminium and its allays
and aluminium salts are non-toxic to marine life,
• to prevent tarnishing if the material is required to retain a
consistent appearance over long periods,
• to prevent the surface pitting that can occur during the initial
stages of use,
• to mask contact with other metals that could cause bimetallic
corrosion.
Except for below waterline where fouling must be prevented,
protection will have an essentially decorative and aesthetic role in
most cases. This applies to above waterline and masts of pleasure
craft and the hull and superstructure of commercial vessels to
which the shipowner wishes to impart a certain “look”.
In marine applications two types of protection are used almost
exclusively:
• anodizing,
• painting.

92
1 Anodizing
Anodizing is a process that thickens the layer of natural oxide
protecting the metal and is unique to aluminium and its alloys.
Numerous techniques have been developed to improve the
properties of the metal or to adapt them to specific applications:
decoration, corrosion resistance, lasting appearance, surface
hardness, abrasion resistance, friction/stiction, adhesion by
organic coatings (adhesives, paints, lacquers).
So far as marine applications are concerned it is primarily the
decorative aspect which is important, as the corrosion resistance
of aluminium alloys is by itself adequate.
Sulphuric acid anodizing is the most common form of treatment
used for decoration, for obtaining hard coutings and for enhancing
corrosion behaviour.
The conventional process parameters are:
• H2SO4 level: 200 ± 20 g/l
• level of dissolved aluminium in bath: 15 g/l max.
• agitate bath to prevent temperature rising above 20°C
• direct current input: 1.5 ± 0.1 A/dm2
This treatment is performed discontinuously on aluminium
sections or plates or continuously on aluminium sheet.
The structure of the anodic coatings depends on the composition
of the bath and the process parameters, and consists of
hexagonal cells pierced by micropores whose diameter, e.g. for a
couting of 15 microns, is a thousand times less than their
thickness. Porous coatings are ideal for absorption colouring,
whether by dipping or by electrolytic colouring treatments.
Whether they are coloured or not, anodic coatings must be sealed
by transforming the outermost layer into a monohydrate of
alumina that closes the pores and achieves excellent service
performance, especially in marine environments. This operation is
done in boiling distilled pure water containing sealing additives.
The “marine” alloys in the 5000 and 6000 series are particularly
well suited to anodizing.
There are other anodizing processes:
• hard anodizing is normally used for technical applications
(resistance to wear in marine environments),
• thin-layer phosphor anodizing (a very useful surface preparation
for aluminium bonding).

93
2 Painting
It is essential to follow the supplier's directions regarding surface
preparation prior to paint application. This is of paramount
importance for paint adhesion, which is in turn indispensable for
thorough protection, especially on submerged surfaces highly
sensitive to poor surface preparation.
We shall begin by describing the various steps in surface
preparation and paint application, and shall then present a
complete process sequence for the protection of new boats and
the refurbishment of existing paintwork.

2.1 Surface preparation prior to painting

The choice of preparation technique will depend upon the

equipment available and the areas of the craft to be treated.

2.1.1 Degreasing
Thorough degreasing is essential in all cases, and all foreign
bodies (solids: swarf, dust etc.; fatty products: oil, grease) likely
to infiltrate the metal's natural oxide film and impair the sequence
of operations must be removed.
Degreasing is done using a suitable solvent (2) or strong
detergent. Solvents that are too “light” (e.g. acetone) are not
recommended as they are difficult to handle and highly
flammable.
Degreasing should be done by small areas at a time, using clean
lint-free rags that are frequently replaced to prevent impurities
being spread instead of removed!

2.1.2 Cleaning the surface

There are three options:
• etching,
• cleaning with abrasive jet,
• disk grinding.
a) Etching
This consists of chemically pickling the surface layer of the
aluminium to accept the wash primer.

94
The etching agent is an acid solution that is applied liberally to all
areas to be treated, using a brush, rag and sometimes a mop. It
is important to protect the operator from splashes.
After application the etching agent should be left to act as
directed by the manufacturer, usually for 20 to 30 minutes. The
surfaces are then washed with fresh water until the wash water
returns to a pH level equivalent to that of the mains water.
b) Cleaning with abrasive jet
Cleaning with the abrasive jet (3) is carried out with the use of an
abrasive specially suitable for aluminium allays: corundum, inert
abrasive type Rugos 2000. Care must be taken to treat all
surfaces as consistently as possible.
The use of steel shot to blast-clean aluminium and aluminium
alloys is not advisable owing to the associated risk of pitting.
Abrasives that have already been used to treat metals other than
aluminium should also be avoided for the same reason.
There are several stages of cleaning corresponding to varying
grades of surface roughness, and these can be checked by means
of a visotactile comparator, in which case the profile frequently
used is that which corresponds to Nll-b on the Rugotest
comparator.
The prepared surface must be thoroughly dusted and painted as
soon as possible due to the tendency of the treated surfaces to
attract impurities and the hydration of the superficial oxide layer.
Finally, paint must always be applied to surfaces that are clean
and dry.
c) Disk grinding
Disk grinding is reserved for small areas or areas that are difficult
to treat by other methods.
It must be carried out using course grit wheels to obtain a good
adhesive substrate.
However paints cannot be expected to behave as well on this type
of preparation as on the previous two.

2.2 Painting

It is always advisable to consult a marine paints specialist who will

recommend a suitable process and products. His advice should be
followed closely.
Effective protection against attack from marine environments is
achieved by built-up coats of paint, with each coat contributing to

95
the efficacy of the system. The types of paint most widely used at
present are based on polyurethane or epoxy resins, and figures
62 and 63 indicate two typical application procedures.

2.3 A typical paint system

2.3.1 Reactive or Wash Primer

This is virtually a vinyl resin based paint that contains a certain
amount of phosphoric acid. It is used to assist the adhesion of the
paint to the metal substrate.
The primer is brusked or sprayed on. The best thickness for the
dry coat is 8 ± 2 microns.
The thickness is important because this type of product must
always be applied as a single fine coat and any irregularities may
introduce weak spots into the system (loss of adhesion).
Finally, the primer must be allowed to dry thoroughly.

Note:
Where the substrate has bean cleaned by abrasive jet, an epoxy adhesion primer should
be used instead of the wash primer. Here again the utmost care should be taken to
achieve the correct thickness of coat and avoid irregularities for the same reason.

2.3.2 Anti-corrosion primer

These primers – usually epoxy based – contain pigments that
make it possible to apply a highly resistant dry film that augments
the corrosion resistance of the metal substrate in damp
environments.
It is applied either:
• to the epoxy adhesion primer, or
• to the reactive primer (wash primer) once completely dry.
The method of application is not critical but the thickness of the
dry coat should be adequate and uniform.

2.3.3 Fillers
Avoid applying fillers direct to bare metal. They should be applied
between successive coats of epoxy primer. Preference should be
given to solvent-free epoxy fillers as these are ideal for
submerged applications and will not shrink as they harden.
Application is by spatula or more often by float.
Sanding is done using wet or dry abrasive paper. Some fillers may
require washing with fresh water after curing especially when this
takes place at low temperature. All dust should be carefully
removed from the surface before applying the next coat.

96
 2.3.4 Finish coats
a) Above waterline
The purpose of these coats is to:
• enhance the impermeability of the paint system,
• to improve appearance.
Finish coats should be applied by compressed air spraygun to give
a total dry thickness of the order of 100 microns.
b) Below waterline – antifouling paints
Because aluminium and its mineral components like alumina etc.,
are not toxic to marine plant or animal life, it is important for
aluminium alloy structures such as the hull of a boat to be coated
with an antifouling paint to prevent organisms such as mussels
and barnacles attaching themselves to it. As has been stated
previously (4), antifouling paints based on copper oxide must be
avoided otherwise there is a risk of severe corrosion to the
underlying metal.
European requlations (5) ban the use of organo-stannic
compounds (tin salts), the main biocide found in many antifouling
paints for aluminium and its alloys.
A number of marine paint manufacturers have responded to this
ban by supplying products free from copper and tin salts. These
products now conform to European regulations and are not
harmful to aluminium alloys.

2.4 Drinking water tanks

The chemical composition of the 5086 and 5083 alloys which are
frequently used for marine applications puts them among the
“food-grade” materials.
This means that they can be used untreated in drinking water
tanks. Before use however it is essential to thoroughly clean the
walls of the tank and rinse them several times, preferably with
hot drinking water.
Drinking water tanks can also be painted if desired, in which case
the paint systems must be supported by a letter of conformity
guaranteeing their safety.

2.5 Repairs – treatment procedures

There are two main procedures depending on the extent of the

damage:
Procedure 1: the anti-corrosion primer has not been affected:

97
• degrease,
• wash carefully with fresh water,
• dry,
• apply filler to build up level,
• sand with wet abrasive (grit 250-300) – this should cover a
generous area around the damage without affecting the anti-
corrosion primer,
• 2 finishing coats,
• 1 or 2 coats of antifouling paint below waterline.
Procedure 2: the damage is more extensive and bare metal is
exposed:
• degrease,
• wash carefully with fresh water,
• sand (grit 180-220) down to the bare metal, exposing a wide
area around the damage,
• apply wash primer (reactive primer) to the exposed areas,
• dry,
• apply anti-corrosion primer,
• dry,
• apply filler to build up level,
• sand with wet abrasive (grit 250-300)
• 2 finishing coats,
• 1 or 2 coats of antifouling paint below waterline.

2.6 Application conditions, paint tests, health and safety

requirements

2.6.1 Application conditions

As a general rule, paint should be applied:
• in a dry, dust-free environment,
• at temperatures over 15°C,
• at between 40 and 70 % humidity.

The paint drums must be stored at 20°C approx. for at least 24

hours before use. Before commencing application it is advisable to
ensure that the substrate is at least 3°C above dewpoint.
Painting and drying must be programmed as part of the overall
production schedule in the same way as any other operation.

2.6.2 Testing paints

Paints can be tested for:
a) Viscosity:

98
This is measured with the flow cup (Ford N° 4 cup) and is used to
adjust the viscosity of the paint as a function of the application
technique (brush, spraygun etc.) for finishing coats above
waterline.
b) Wet thickness
Wet thickness is measured by means of comb gauges. Dry
thickness is calculated from the result and from a knowledge of
the dry extract by volume of the paint.
For example, a wet coat 100 microns thick must be applied to
obtain a dry thickness of 35 microns with a paint that has 35 %
dry extract by volume.
If the application technique requires the paint to be thinned, the
dry thickness obviously will be reduced for the same wet
thickness. In this case it is advisable to increase the number of
coats applied in order to achieve the total dry thickness that is
required. This point is particularly important for coats of primer.

2.6.3 Health and safety

Suppliers state all the precautions necessary for the use and
storage of paints and surface treatments in their instructions.
They are also required by low to provide safety data sheets on
request.

Notes
(1) This is not the case with rolled and
extruded alloys in the 2000 and 7000
series that contain copper and casting
alloys with more than 0.10 % copper, cf
chapter 2. These metals must be
protected when used in marine
environments.
(2) Chlorinated solvents can be tricky to
use and can cause corrosion if the rules
of procedure are not strictly observed
(stabilization of solvents, degreasing in
the vapour phase); they are not
recommended for boatyords or marine
applications.
(3) Incorrectly called sand or shot
blasting.
(4) Chapter 4.
(5) EEC Directive N° 89/677 dated
21.12.1989.

99