DISCOURSE: a systemically organized set of statements and values of an institution, IDEOLOGY: the set of beliefs and values which inform an individual’s or institution’s view of the world and assist their interpretation of events, facts or other aspects or experience] CHAPTER 7 SYSTEMs THEORIES In 1970s authors moved away from the models of 1960s, which are register and discourse analysis and sko- pos theory. They elaborated the systems theory. POLYSYSTEM THEORY Itwas developed in 1970s by Fven-Zohar, WHO WAS INSPIRED BY THE FORMALISTS AND STRUC- TURALSTS. in fact he belongs to the functienist stage. According to him, the /iterary work should not be studied in isolasion, bat as a part of the literary system Literature is considered as part of the social, cultural. literary and hisiorical framework and each element of the system influences the others Even-Zoher states that the polysystem isa multiple system, a system of various systems which ate intear- ‘Translated literature may occupy a primary or a secondary position in the polysystem. Itoccupies the primary position when: ~ A Young literature is being established and so refers to other more established literatures = A literature is peripheral or weak and also this refers to the other literary types which itis lacking (che a lei maneano) = There is vacuum in the literature of the country Itoccupics a secondary position when it represents a peripheral system within the polysystem, this because the system focuses on conservative elements and so the translated literature is not important, ‘The different positions influence the translation strategies: if itis primary, translators don’t follow the target literature models, while if it secondary, translators use target-culture models. Gentlzer states that the polysystem brought advantages in the translations, these are: literature is studies alongside the secial, historical and cultural forces -Zohar moved away ftom the isolated study of individual texts towards the study of translation within the cultural and literary system he moves away also from the definition of equivalence TOURY ‘Toury developed the methodology of DESCRIPTIVE TRANSLATION STUDIES(DTS) According to Toury, translation first occupies a position in the social and literary systems of the target cul ture. He proposes a three phase methodology for systematic DTS: 1 Situate the text within the target culture system2. Undertake o textual analysis of the ST and TT in order to identify relationships between corresponding segments in the 1wo teats. Toury calls these segments “coupled pairs”. This lead to identification of the ‘translation shifts. This second step is linked to Toury’s concept of an adequate translation, but he also admits that in practice no translation is fully adequate. Moreover, in different translations the coupled paits, or seg~ ‘ments, are not always the same. 3. Attempt generalizations in the two texts in order to reconstruct the process of translation So Toury’s aim was to reconsiruct the NORMS that have been in operation in the translation. in fact Toury considers the translation to be an activity governed by norms and these narms determine the equivalence in the transtation. ‘Toury states that the norms used in the translation can be reconstructed from feo types of source: 1. The examination of the texts, so the correspondences between the ST and TT segments. 2. The explicit statements by the authors According to Toury, there are different types of norm: - INITIAL NORMS: teters to the choice of the translator to realize the translation towards the ST (so the TT will be adequate) or towards the TT (so it will be acceptable) - PRELIMINARY NORMS: are TRANSLATION POLLICY (refers to the selection of texts) and DI- RECINESS OF TRANSLATION (if there are intermediate languages or not) - OPERATIONAL NORMS: relate to the choices in the text, they can be MATRICIAL NORMS (re- fer to the completeness of the text) or TEXTUAL LINGUISTIC NNORMS (the lexical and syniac~ tic choices) Toury also developed two laws of translation: 1. The law of the growing standardization: refers to the disruption of the ST patterns in order to use linguistic options that are more common in the TL 2. The law of interference: refers to linguistic options of the SL that are copied and used in the TT. This can be negative. (CHESTERMAN: is another author who focuses on the norms. He developed two types of norms -PRODUCT OR EXPECTANCY NORMS: refers to what the reader expects from the TT. -PROFESSIONAL NORMS: ACCOUNTABILITY NORM: is ethical, the translator accepts responsibility for the werk; COMMUNICATION NORMS: is social, translater is an experi who works for the communica~ tion; RELATION NORM: refers to the linguistic choices of the translator. THE MANIPULATION SCHOOL: wos born with the influence of Toury and Even-Zohat. The Manipula- tion school is the product of a Group of scholar. They view translation as a complex and dynamic system, as an interrelation between practical case studies and theoretical models and they are interested in the norms that govem the production of translation, So they have a strong link to the polysystem theory and to the DTS. LAMBERT AND VAN GORP: are two authors who published “On describing translation”, their work where they developed a scheme for the comparison of the ST and TT. ‘The scheme is divided in 4 parts: 1. Premilinary data: information on the text2. Macro level: narrative structure 3. Micro level: lexic, grammatical patterns, narrative point of view 4, Systemic context: imtertextual relations CHAPTER 8 CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL TURNS: ‘Susan Bassnett and Andre Lefevere moved away from the linguistic theories of translation and focused on. the interaction between auslation and culture, because culture influence translation, so translation is uot. ‘only linguistic phenomenon but also cultural. So they move away from the translation as text to translation as culture and politics. This is what Snell-Homby calls “THE CULTURAL TURN’ In the essay ‘Translation, History and Culture” Rassnett and Lefevere developed the concept of the cultural urn and show the areas where cultural studies have influenced translation studies: translation as rewriting, translation and gender, translation and posteolonialism. LEFEVERE: he worked with comparative literature and he was influenced by the manipulation school and the polysystem theory. [Ie focuses on the concept of translation as rewriting, The motivation of the rewriting can be: IDEOLOGICAL: the translator conforms or rebels to the dominant ideclogy -POETOLOGICAL: the translator conforms or rebels to the poeties According to Lefevere translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting and it is the most in- ‘luential because it can bring the original text out of its culture of origin, According to lefevere the lit vem, in which translation functions is controll main factors: 1. PROFESSIONALS within the literary system: can be crities, reviewers, who decide on the poetics 2. PATRONAGE: outside the literary system. The can be influential individuals, groups of people, institu. tion which regulate the distribution of literature. They influence 3 elements: the ideological component: the choice of the subject and the representation the economie component: refers to the payment of Writers and rewriters ihe status component: refers to the expectation of the patron A dominant poetics is composed by: LITERARY DEVICES: symbols, genres ‘THE CONCEPT OF THE ROLE OF LITERATURE: the relation of literature to the social system in which it exists TRANS LATION AND GENDER Sherry Simon approaches to translation fiom a gender studies angle, She sees a Language of sexism in trans~ lation studies because the image of dominance. fidelity, faithfulness and betrayal Tris also possible to sce a connection between the status of translation, which is considered inferier to origi- nal writing, and the role of women, who is repressed in literature and society. Simon talks about a translation