Structural Health Monitoring of a Steel Railway Bridge

for Increased Axle Loads

Pradipta Banerji, Prof. and Sanjay Anil Chikermane, Civil Eng., Dept. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, India. Contact: chikermane@iitb.ac.in
DOI: 10.2749/101686611X12994961034570

Abstract rule11 and railway code provided

fatigue curve (also referred to as SN
A large proportion of the existing bridge infrastructure network are relatively or Wöhler curve)”.
old, past their design life and have much larger loads running on them than had
been considered in their design. Predicting the present behaviour of these sys- In the present study, the assessment
tems, given these increased loads, makes structural health monitoring imperative of past traffic data has been made
as a tool to assess the present condition and the safety of the remaining life. In using the traffic details documented
this paper it is shown that using a short measurement period, that is representa- by the Indian Railway authorities.
tive of the repetitive load on the bridge, and correlating the estimated fatigue life Future traffic modelling has been
with the annual tonnage could give good fatigue assessment without having to done by extrapolating the past trends
resort to a significantly more expensive continuous monitoring of the structure. rather than by using a traffic model9.
A site-validated numerical model is built, which provides an estimate of the pres- It has been shown that short-duration
ent condition. This model is then used to estimate the loads coming on the bridge recording can be used and correlating
during the measurement period. The loads are then correlated with existing traf- this with the tonnage of annual traffic
fic data to give an estimate of the annual traffic tonnage. Good estimates of the can be used for fatigue assessment
annual traffic tonnage using this method show that the measurement period is with good results. This strengthens the
representative and hence increase confidence on the validity of the remaining hypothesis of using economical short
life estimated. monitoring programs against the tre-
mendously more expensive continu-
Keywords: Structural Health Monitoring (SHM); Fatigue; Steel Bridge; Load ous monitoring paradigms. As the axle
Estimation; Remaining Life. loads of the traffic during the monitor-
ing period was not known, they were
estimated using an inverse method.
Introduction This technique also helps in identify- This method uses the experimentally
ing damage and its progression in a validated numerical model and esti-
Monitoring the health of structures structure, so that cost-effective reha- mates the loads using an iterative pro-
using sensors placed on them is a bilitation can be done before the dam- cess. It has been shown that the loads
relatively recent phenomenon in civil age causes catastrophic consequences. estimated using this process give an
engineering. Subsequently, there have However, this requires continuous excellent correlation with the annual
been significant issues related to the monitoring, which is not very popular traffic data.
use of structures, mostly again bridges, as yet because of issues related to data
beyond their design life, which has storage and availability of robust sys- Objectives of Study
made structural health monitoring tem-identification techniques.
for current condition and remaining The main objective of the study was
life assessment almost imperative as a One of the important aspects of design to assess the effects of increased axle
bridge management tool.1 Design life life extension of bridges is the esti- loads and changing traffic patterns on
prediction of newly constructed bridges mation of remaining fatigue life. A the remaining life of a typical steel
is obviously equally important.2,3 review of literature shows that there girder bridge. Furthermore, as a corol-
are several approaches available for lary to the objective, a procedure for
Advances in sensor technology cou- estimating the remaining fatigue life
pled with better understanding and health monitoring of a steel girder
of bridges. Garg et al.7 followed an bridge for increased axle loads/traf-
ability to model real structural behav- approach of finding out an effective
iour have also led to a greater inter- fic patterns is also outlined. To illus-
stress range which signifies the actual trate the overall procedure, a typical
est in this field.4,5 One of the best uses stress ranges as per the AREMA
of structural health monitoring is the steel through-girder bridge, erected in
guidelines.8 Significantly, Szeliski and 1966, with a 30,5 m simply-supported
continuous update of the performance Elkholy9 also correlated the damage
and state of a structure, using continu- span and a rocker-and-roller bearing
due to traffic, using historical traffic arrangement was considered.
ous experimental data in conjunction data to quantify past damage and used
with system identification techniques.6 a traffic model with a 5% growth to
signify future traffic trends. Description of Bridge
Peer-reviewed by international ex- Chaminda et al.10 mentions that “most The studied bridge is located on a
perts and accepted for publication
by SEI Editorial Board of the present day used fatigue assess- main traffic line in the eastern part of
ment approaches of railway bridges India between the cities Chennai and
Paper received: July 16, 2010 are generally based on combination Howrah at chain location 830/35-831/9
Paper accepted: October 29, 2010 of measured stress histories, Miner’s (Fig. 1). The super-structure comprises

210 Scientific Paper Structural Engineering International 2/2011

 Element Average Std. deviation Coefficient of variation
Carbon 0,199 0,008 0,042
Manganese 0,679 0,011 0,016
Silicon 0,069 0,002 0,03
Sulphur 0,032 0,003 0,109
Phosphorus 0,031 0,002 0,051
Chromium 0,025 0,001 0,049
Nickel Traces
Aluminium 0,011 0,001 0,053
Titanium 0,005 0,002 0,395
Fig. 1: Photograph of the bridge Copper Traces
Iron 98,861 0,033 0

five spans of overall length 32,51 m Table 1: Material properties of steel

with centre to centre bearing distance
of 31,92 m. A rocker bearing at the pier
end and a roller bearing at the abut- 1
Elements
added as point masses using the mass
SEP 23 2010
ment end are used. The first span of MAT NUM
U1' 02:22:25 element MASS21.
the bridge has been taken for instru- U2'
For an ideal model the roller is con-
mentation and study. Short welded rail Y
U3'
sidered as being perfectly smooth.
of 60 kg/m weight runs on the bridge X U4'
However, in reality, there is always
on steel channel sleepers. U5'
some degree of fixity. This is modelled
L0

A cross-bracing was taken from the L1 using translational spring elements.

bridge and tested for its metallurgi-
cal composition and physical proper-
ties. Ten element metallurgical testing
was carried out at 15 locations on the
member. The statistical results of the
material analysis of the samples taken
from various parts of the member are
given in Table 1. The physical proper-
ties measured were Young’s modulus
of 213 GPa, yield stress of 272 MPa,
ultimate tensile stress of 457 MPa and
an elongation of 33%. The bridge has
undergone regular inspection by the
railway authorities over its entire life
and the condition has been reported
as good with no significant levels of
corrosion.
Site-Validated Numerical
Model
Although detailed structural drawings
existed for this bridge, a comprehensive
site measurement was initiated. This
was done to record any deviations
from the drawings. The numerical
L2 These too are modelled in ANSYS
L3 using COMBIN14 elements (Fig. 2).
L4
A design train was formed compris-
L5
ing two locomotives leading, 55 loaded
L6
wagons trailing and two locomotives
Fig. 2: Finite element representation of trailing at the end. The axle loads of
bridge the wagons and the locomotives were
measured at a weigh bridge. Thus all
the loads were known.
the truss bridge using pinned ends,
joint fixities were introduced in the To acquire the data from the sen-
form of rotational springs. COMBIN14 sors placed on the super-structure,
elements were used to model the rota- an amplifier system was used (Fig. 3).
tional springs. The additional mass was This data-acquisition system had
Longitudinal strain gauges Piezoelectric accelerometers in
vertical and lateral directions
at midspan and quarter span
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5
Displacement gauges
in longitudinal direction
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 at roller
Displacement gauges in vertical and lateral direction

model was built using the site mea- Upstream girder (with strain gauging on top and bottom of section)

sured cross sections. The additional Axial strain gauges Piezoelectric accelerometers in
plates at joints were also measured to vertical and lateral directions
at midspan and quarter span
arrive at the total dead weight of the U1' U2' U3' U4' U5'
bridge. The total mass of the bridge
was estimated to be 58 t.
The numerical model of the bridge was
created using ANSYS software version Displacement gauges
5.0.12 The individual members were in longitudinal direction
at roller
L0' L1' L2' L3' L4' L5' L6'
modelled as 3D beam elements with
geometric offsets as exactly measured Displacement gauges in vertical and lateral direction
from the site conditions. The element
Downstream girder (with strain gauging on neutral axis of section)
BEAM44 was used for modelling the
beam elements. In place of modelling Fig. 3: Instrumentation scheme showing critical sensor locations

Structural Engineering International 2/2011 Scientific Paper 211

several conditioning modules for
acquisition of data viz. 64 channels
of strain, eight channels of deflection,
eight channels of vibration and eight
channels of temperature. The system
and the data logger were interfaced
to a laptop computer through an USB
port. All the data recorded through
the data acquisition system was
monitored and stored using a dedi-
cated software used for data acquisi-
tion, visualisation and analysis of test
data as well as documentation of test
results. The measurement system was
configured to trigger, control and dis-
play the data.
The following load cases were
recorded on site using the design train
with known loads.
1. Locomotive static case—with the
first axle of the loco directly above
the abutment bearing and the train
trailing on the span.
2. Wagon static case—with the first
axle of the first wagon directly above
the abutment bearing and the train
trailing off the span.
3. A through run of the entire train
load at different speeds:
(a) Crawling speed (<5 km/h)
(b) Slow speed (20 km/h)
(c) Medium speed (40 km/h)
(d) Track design speed (65 km/h)
4. Various load cases involving start-
ing the train from rest with the first
axle of the leading locomotive in line
with the support at the pier end and
4 axles of the first wagon also on the
span.
5. Various load cases involving braking
when the train is on the span.
In addition to these, a 48 h continuous
monitoring cycle was done. The events
recorded in this period were the nor-
mal prevailing traffic. The numerical
model was then validated with the site-
measured data for the design train.
Some of the results and comparisons
with site data for static cases are given
in Tables 2 and 3.
The moving loads were then simulated
in the numerical model using a full
transient analysis. The time step con-
sidered was 0,005 s, which was identical
to the site data sampling period. The
comparisons of the responses are
shown in Fig. 4.
The dynamic parameters were esti-
mated from the site ambient vibration
data using an eigenvalue realization
algorithm13 and gave a very good cor-
relation for the first six eigenvalues
compared. The results are tabulated in
Table 4.
As the numerical model gives a rea-
sonably good correlation with the site
data, it has been used for further simu-
lation purposes. This method gives a
site-validated numerical model. The
boundary conditions were updated
considering least-square error estima-
tion with the site data. The good cor-
respondence of this model with the site
data validates further simulation exer-
cises done with the numerical model.

Load case Locomotive static Wagon static Slow speed through run Design speed through run
Response quantity Numerical Site Numerical Site Numerical Site Numerical Site
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Displacement at
−9,6 −9,7 −13 −12,4 −14 −13,6 −14,1 −13,9
centre of span
Table 2: Comparison of responses—numerical model versus site data—displacement at centre span

Load case Locomotive static Wagon static Slow speed through run Design speed through run
Response Numerical Site Numerical Site Numerical Site Numerical Site
quantity (microstrain) (microstrain) (microstrain) (microstrain) (microstrain) (microstrain) (microstrain) (microstrain)
Strain in
L2–L3
117 122 147 165 161 173 164 180
(bottom
chord)
Strain in
U1–U2 −162 −176 −223 −198 −232 −214 −233 −210
(top chord)
Strain in
L0–U1 −130 −131 −165 −154 −188 −169 −191 −176
(end-raker)
Strain in
U1–L2
221 216 264 234 281 271 284 286
(first
diagonal)
Strain in
bottom
flange 160 165 176 162 262 234 266 237
of cross
girder
Strain in
top flange
−143 −138 −12 −18 −173 −180 −179 −167
of rail
bearer
Table 3: Comparison of responses—numerical model versus site data—axial strains

212 Scientific Paper Structural Engineering International 2/2011

 Vertical displacement at centre of
span–slow speed run
Axial strain in diagonal for
slow speed run
Estimation of Loads
0
300 Numerical Site A sensor was placed on the rail, which
Numerical Site

Axial strain (microstrain)

−4 250 is extremely sensitive to individual
Displacement (mm)

axle movements. From the data from

200
−8 this sensor, the axles that had crossed
150 the bridges were counted for each
−12 100
train passage. These were segregated
into different types of trains crossing
50 the bridge. The composition of traffic
−16
0 in the 48 h period is given in Table 5.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Information on traffic details were also
(a) Time (s) (b) Time (s) obtained from the railway authorities
and analysed. The significant informa-
Axial strain in bottom chord – slow speed run
Axial strain in top tion is given in Table 6.
Numerical Site chord – slow speed run
200 0 Numerical Site
As can be seen from Table 5, the num-
ber of passenger trains per day (22,5)
Axial strain (microstrain)

Axial strain (microstrain) −50

150 and the other trains per day (27,5)
−100 during the 48 h monitoring cycle cor-
100
responds accurately with the annual
−150 average per day as given in Table 6.
−200
Thus the composition of the traffic in
50
the 48 h continuous monitoring cycle is
−250 an accurate representation of the aver-
0 age annual traffic. From the tonnage
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
hauled by the passenger trains, deduct-
(c) Time (s) (d) Time (s)
ing the loads of the locomotives, the
Longitudinal strain in cross girder bottom Longitudinal strain in rail bearer top average axle loads for the 1304 hauled
flange – slow speed run flange – slow speed run passenger coaches is computed as
300 100 13,44 t/axle. This is computed knowing
Longitudinal strain (microstrain)

Longitudinal strain (microstrain)

Numerical Site Numerical Site

250 50
the exact loads of locomotives (6 axles
of 20,5 t) and the number of axles in an
200 0 average day.
150 −50 The traffic load details of the mea-
100 −100 sured strain time histories in the 48 h
continuous monitoring period were
50 −150
unknown. The loads coming on the
0 −200 bridge can generally be segregated
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 into:
(e) Time (s) (f) Time (s)
1. Locomotive axles
Fig. 4: Correlations of numerical model with site response
2. Wagon axles corresponding to empty
freight wagons
Mode number Frequency from numerical Frequency from site 3. Wagon axles corresponding to empty
model (Hz) estimates (Hz) passenger wagons
4. Wagon axles corresponding to brake
1 3,43 3,34
vans
2 4,05 3,87 5. Wagon axles corresponding to loaded
3 5,92 6,18 freight wagons
4 7,52 7,28
Of all these, only the wagons cor-
5 8,78 9,34 responding to loaded freight are
6 9,92 9,95 unknown. The pattern of the response
data clearly indicates whether the
Table 4: Comparison of frequencies from numerical model with site estimates
train is a passenger or a freight train,
and also if it is loaded or empty. The
Train type Number of Number of Number of Number of load estimation procedure is thus lim-
trains locomotive axles trailing axles of trailing axles of ited to estimating the loaded freight
wagons brake van wagons.
Locomotives 5 48 — — As the numerical model was giv-
Passenger 45 288 2836 2 ing excellent correlation with the
Empty goods 8 54 1422 14 site data, it was used to estimate the
loads. This estimation was done by
Full goods 42 462 8646 78
first assuming the loads to be in a cer-
Table 5: Composition of traffic in 48 h continuous monitoring period tain range, and then changing them in

Structural Engineering International 2/2011 Scientific Paper 213

 Type of train Number of trains
(average per day)
Passengers 22,5
Other trains 27,8
Table 6: Traffic details as per railway records
small increments and ensuring that the
numerical model maps with the mea-
sured strain in the same proportion
as the known load trains. This process
was used to correlate the traffic in the
measured cycle with the annual aver-
age in terms of composition and loads.
In the knowledge of the authors, this
work has not been attempted before.
The tonnage carried over the 48 h
period was estimated by categoris-
ing the train traffic into the different
types of wagons hauled. As these have
different axle spacing, the numeri-
cal model was used to simulate these
runs. First a unit load was run on the
numerical model at different veloci-
ties. The exact velocities of the actual
train were estimated using the sensors
placed on the rail. These sensors gave
an influence line response for every
passing axle. Knowing the spatial con-
figuration of the axles, the velocity of
the train could be worked out. After
this, the loads were considered to be a
standard reference value and the unit
load influence line response was con-
volved with the loads using different
velocity patterns. This method gener-
ates the total response of the loads at
different locations. The convergence
was tested using a least square error
norm. The train loads were then iter-
atively changed to ensure that this
norm was a minimum. The loads cor-
responding to this value were then
averaged with respect to the number
of axles and the results are given in
Table 7. The good correspondence
of the numerical model with the site
data validates this analysis system. The
average load for all the loaded goods
trains were worked out and are shown
in Fig. 5.
From Fig. 5, the total haulage was
estimated at 175,954 metric tonnes.
And the total load hauled over the
48 h period was thereby estimated as
240 371 t as shown in Table 7.
The estimated tonnage hauled was
43,87 million tonnes as against the
reported figure of 44,25 million tonnes.
This corresponds to a difference of less
than 1%. So the fatigue estimates from
the 48 h period can be considered rep-
resentative of the entire year.
214 Scientific Paper
Axles of Tonnage Total traffic in gross Estimation of Total Fatigue Life
coaches hauled per day million tonnes The estimated fatigue lives are those
1304 18 478 44,25 corresponding to a 2,3% probability
— >100 000 of failure for class D structures. The
stress cycles and the total fatigue life
summary are given in Table 8.
The total fatigue life is taken as the min-
imum of all these values, and this works
300
Load spectrum of loaded goods trains over 48 h period
out to be 86 years. The critical member is
Number of axles average wagon load (tons)
Number of axles Average wagon load
the rail bearer, which although does not
250
exhibit substantially high stress ranges,
200 has multiple cycles for lower ranges
making it critical for fatigue failure.
150
An interesting feature here is that
100
the locations can be grouped into
50
two broad domains: locations show-
ing “global behaviour” and locations
0 showing “local behaviour”. Locations
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Train number showing global behaviour exhibit
peak stress cycle ranges that are not
Fig. 5: Load spectrum of loaded goods
sensitive to the number of axle sets,
trains over recording cycle
but are sensitive to the overall load
passing over the bridge. The bottom
Estimation of Remaining Life chord and the first diagonal are loca-
tions of this kind. The vertical posts
The remaining fatigue life estimation and rail bearers are locations showing
requirement was addressed in the fol- local behaviour, where the peak stress
lowing manner: first, for each fatigue- cycle ranges are extremely sensitive
critical member of the open-web girder to the number of axle sets passing
span, the measured strain histories over the bridge. This is visualized in
were transformed into corresponding the extremely large number of peak
stress cycles as per the rainfall counting stress cycles seen at these locations.
algorithm presented by Downing and The cross girder is an intermediate
Socie;14 then, applying the procedure member where there are large num-
of BS 5400: Part 10,15 the total fatigue ber of stress cycles seen at very low
life for each member was estimated, stress range corresponding to its local
considering the steel to be of the form behaviour, while the higher stress
given by the metallurgical composi- cycles show a global effect.
tion shown in Table 1, from the stress
cycle patterns; finally, the remaining
Incorporation of Traffic Data
life of each member was arrived at by
in Remaining Life Estimation
subtracting the past fatigue life from
the total fatigue life, where the past The remaining life estimation of a
fatigue life was estimated in an inno- bridge is complex, and it is based on
vative manner based on past historic several parameters. The change in
traffic tonnage data, and the remain- axle loads can have significant effects
ing life was corrected by incorporating in changing fatigue life, and although
the future traffic trends based on past a correlation is shown between traf-
trend lines similar to the procedure fic density and fatigue life, if the traf-
done by Szeliski and Elkholy.9 fic composition changes, this relation
Type of vehicle Number of axles Average load Total haulage (t)
per axle (t)
Loaded goods wagons 8646 20,35 175 954
Locomotives 852 20,5 17 466
Passenger coaches 2836 13,44 38 116
Empty goods wagons 1422 5,75 8177
Brake vans 94 7 658
Total tonnage in 48 h 240 371
Estimated tonnage annually 43 867 708
Table 7: Estimated load hauled over the continuous monitoring period
Structural Engineering International 2/2011
could change significantly. However, in
this study it is only the correlation of
the remaining life with traffic haulage
and density that is explored.
The composition of a single train can
also affect the fatigue life. If empty
wagons are interspersed between
loaded wagons, for locations show-
ing global behaviour, this can signifi-
cantly increase the number of cycles
per event and would have significant
effects on fatigue life. However, for
members showing local behaviour, this
would not make significant difference.
For this bridge, as the critical member
is a rail bearer showing marked local
behaviour, composition of this nature
will not have any significant effect
on fatigue life. Therefore, where the
fatigue-critical member shows local
behaviour, the fatigue life can be effec-
tively estimated by considering the
traffic haulage and density.
The fatigue life of the bridge is given as
86 years in Table 8. The bridge is cur-
rently 42 years old. A naïve estimate of
the remaining service life would there-
fore be 44 remaining years for a 42
year old bridge. However, the fatigue
life of 86 years corresponds to an
annual traffic quantum of 44,25 million
tonnes. As can be seen from the graph
in Fig. 6, although the current traffic is
high, the traffic has not been consis-
tently high through the past life of the
bridge. In fact, there has been a recent
surge of traffic in the last few years. For
a present annual traffic of 44,25 mil-
lion tonnes, the estimated total fatigue
life is 86 years. Thus, considering a sim-
ilar traffic mix for the entire life, the
estimated total fatigue traffic is 3805,6
million tonnes. The actual conservative
remaining life depends upon the past
traffic and possible future trends. The
past traffic data from the inception of
the bridge is given in Fig. 6.
The current traffic is clearly not a
good representation of the past traffic
details. The total past traffic till date
on the bridge has been 776 million
Stress Bottom chord First diagonal
cycle range Number Total Number
(MPa) fatigue life
30 987 523
40 58 391
50 20 640 26
60 0 59
70 0 6
Table 8: Fatigue computations as per BS 5400
Structural Engineering International 2/2011
50
Total annual load (million tons)
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
1960
Fig. 6: Traffic trend from inception of
bridge
tonnes over a period of 40 years. At
the current level of traffic, this figure
would be achieved in about 18 years, as
against the 42 years taken for reaching
this figure.
The remaining fatigue traffic is thus
3029,6 million tonnes (3805,6 – 776).
There has been a clear rise in the traf-
fic over the last 10 years or so. If the
fatigue life is viewed in terms of traffic
quantum, the remaining life at current
traffic level is about 68 years (86 – 18).
The large difference in service life esti-
mation is due to the past traffic being
significantly less than the present traffic.
At present day, considering a total
possible haulage of 3805,6 million
tonnes for service life, the accumu-
lated damage as existing in the bridge
today can be considered as about
20,39%. If the trend of traffic is seen
from today backwards, the average
rate of increase is about 6,38%. This
corresponds reasonably well with the
figure of 5% considered by Szeliski
and Elkholy.9
Given the constant increase in traffic
of about 6,38%, the remaining esti-
mated service life is just about 25 years,
accounting for the increasing traffic
volume. The basic assumption here is
that the relative composition of traf-
fic, as given in Table 5, has been (this
is corroborated by past data, which
shows that the relative percentage of
Total
fatigue life
227
GMT trend from inception of bridge annual goods to passenger traffic has
been more or less unchanged over the
past 40 odd years) and will remain
unchanged during its entire life.
Conclusions
In this paper, a site-validated model
was obtained by running design trains
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 with known axle loads and by mea-
Year suring various critical responses of
the bridge. This model was then used
to solve the inverse problem of esti-
mating axle loads using these bridge
responses during regular traffic run
over a 48 h period, and then subse-
quently estimating the load spectrum
during that period. From the 48 h load
spectrum it was shown that this short-
duration monitoring provides an excel-
lent estimate of the total annual traffic
haul that almost matches the actual
total annual traffic haul data provided
by the Indian Railways. It has thus
been concluded that a site-validated
numerical model can be used to gener-
ate the average daily load spectrum on
any open-web girder bridge by utiliz-
ing structural response measurements
over a representative short duration of
regular traffic flow.
It is also shown that, if the fatigue-crit-
ical member of the bridge is an “axle-
sensitive” member, i.e. the peak stress
cycle range is dependent on the num-
ber of loaded axles over the bridge,
the remaining fatigue life of the bridge
can be estimated from an analysis of
the remaining traffic capacity of the
fatigue-critical member, provided the
composition of traffic remains rela-
tively unchanged over the life of the
structure. In this analysis, the increasing
traffic and axle loads are factored in
the estimation of the remaining life.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the per-
mission given by Indian Railways, and the
East Coast Zonal Railway in particular, to
monitor the bridge for this study. The authors
Vertical post Rail bearer Cross girder
Number Total Number Total Number Total
fatigue life fatigue life fatigue life
559 309 2154
487 2584 386
3 361 0 86 52 136
0 0 103
0 0 0
Scientific Paper 215
 also acknowledge the efforts of everyone at
InI Consulting, Mumbai, who assisted in mon-
itoring the bridge and collecting all the data
used in this study.
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