CISCO 2 Routing Tables – used by routers to

determine the best path to send packets.

CHAPTER 1: Basic Device Configuration
Routers encapsulate the packet and forward it
Network Characteristics to the interface indicated in the routing table.
1. Topology
2. Reliability
3. Scalability
4. Availability PACKET FORWARDING METHODS
5. Security
1. Process Switching – older packet
6. Cost
forwarding mechanism still available for
7. Speed CISCO routers.
2. Fast Switching – common packet
forwarding mechanism which uses a
Router – responsible for the routing of traffic
fast-switching cache to store next hop
between networks. Specialized computers.
information.
3. CISCO Express Forwarding (CEF) –
most recent, and preferred Cisco IOS
COMPONENTS
packet-forwarding mechanism.
1. Central Processing Unit
2. Operating System – Cisco IOS
3. Memory and Storage IP ADDRESS INFORMATION

A. IP ADDRESS – Identifies a unique host

on a local Network
Routers use specialized ports and network
B. SUBNET MASK – identifies the host’s
interface cards to interconnect to other
network subnet.
networks.
C. DEFAULT GATEWAY – identifies the
router to a packet is sent to when the
destination is not on the same local
network subnet.

Statically Assigned IP address – host is

manually assigned.
Dynamically Assigned IP Address – IP
address information is dynamically assigned
by a server using Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol.

ROUTER MEMORY
1. RAM – volatile memory; temporary
storage
2. ROM – permanent storage for bootup
instructions, basic diagnostic software
3. NVRAM – non-volatile memory that
provides permanent storage for
startup configuration file.
4. FLASH – non-volatile memory that
provides permanent storage for IOS
and other system-related files.
CONFIGURING ROUTER’S BASIC
SETTINGS
1. Name the device
2. Secure Management Access
3. Configure a banner 4. Save the
configuration.
IPV6 Interface – can support more than one
address.
Loopback Interface – logical interface that is
internal to the router. Not assigned to a
physical port; software interface. Useful for
testing.
Best path is selected by a routing protocol
based on the value or metric it uses to
determine the distance to reach a network:
• A metric is the value used to
measure the distance to a given
network.
• Best path to a network is the path with
the lowest metric.
• Dynamic routing protocols use their
own rules and metrics to build and
update routing tables:
• Routing Information Protocol (RIP) -
Hop count
• Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) -
Cost based on cumulative bandwidth
from source to destination
• Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol (EIGRP) - Bandwidth, delay,
load, reliability
LOAD BALANCING – When a router has
two or more paths to destination with equal
cost metrics, then the router forwards the
packets using both paths equally.
Routing Table – is a file stored in RAM that
contains info about directly connected routes
and remote routes.
Show ip route – display contents of the
routing ttable.
Static Routes
• Manually configured, manually updated
w hen there is a topology change,
security and control of resources.
Dynamic Routing – used by routers to
share information about the reachability and
status of remote networks.
CHAPTER 2
Chapter 2: Static Routing Implementation
Reach Remote Networks
A router can learn about remote networks in
one of two ways:
Manually - manually entered into the route
table using static routes.
Dynamically -automatically learned using a
dynamic routing protocol.
Static Routing - Static routing provides some
advantages over dynamic routing, including:
- Static routes are not advertised over
the network, resulting in better security.
- Static routes use less bandwidth than
dynamic routing protocols, no CPU cycles are
used to calculate and communicate routes.
- The path a static route uses to send
data is known.
Dynamic- laging nagaupdate, more bandwith,
mas magastos, kaya ang sampong LAN
Scaling- manually ginagamit
Security- to secure
Uses of static Routes:
-ease of routing table maintenance in smaller
networks.
-router has no other neighbors using single
default route to represent a path. Static
Route Application
-connect to a specific network default static
route
-0.0.0.0/0
-Provide a Gateway of Last Resort for a stub
network.
- Reduce the number of routes advertised by
summarizing several contiguous networks as
one static route.
-Create a backup route in case a primary
Types of Static Routes:
Standard Static Route:
Default Static Route:
-A default static route is a route that matches
all packets.
-A default route identifies the gateway IP
address to which the sends all IP packets
that it does not have a learned or static
router
-A default static route is simply a static route
with 0.0.0.0/0 as the destination IPv4
address.
Next Hop Options:
Next-Hop Route- only the next-hop IP
address is specified.
Directly Connected Static Route- only the
router exit interface is specified.
Fully Specified Static Route- the next hop
Ip address and exit interface is specified.
CHAPTER 3:CISCO 2 DYNAMIC ROUTING
PROTOCOOL
Dynamic Routing Protocol Evolution
- Dynamic routing protocols have been
used in networks since the late
1980s.
- Newer versions support the
communication based on IPv6.
Routing Protocols - are used to facilitate
the exchange of routing information between
routers.
Purpose of dynamic routing protocols
includes:
- Discovery of remote networks
- Maintaining up-to-date routing
information
- Choosing the best path to destination
networks
- Ability to find a new best path if the
current path is no
- longer available
Main components of dynamic routing
protocols include:
Data structures - Routing protocols typically
use tables or databases for its operations.
Routing protocol messages -Routing
protocols use various types of messages to
discover neighboring routers
Algorithm - protocols use algorithms for
facilitating routing information for best path
determination.
Static Routing
Networks - typically use a combination of both
static and dynamic routing.
Static routing has several primary uses:
- Providing ease of routing table
maintenance in smaller networks -
Routing to and from a stub
network. - Accessing a single
default router.
Disable Auto Summarization
- Similarly to RIPv1, RIPv2 automatically
summarizes networks at major network
boundaries by default.
- To modify the default RIPv2 behavior of
automatic summarization, use the no
auto-summary router configuration
mode command.
- This command has no effect when
using RIPv1.
- When automatic summarization has
been disabled, RIPv2 no longer
summarizes networks to their classful
address at boundary routers. RIPv2
now includes all subnets and their
appropriate masks in its routing
updates.
- show ip protocols now states that
automatic network summarization is not
in effect.
Sending out unneeded updates on a LAN
impacts the network in three ways:
- Wasted Bandwidth
- Wasted Resources
- Security Risk
Remote Network Entries
Routing Table Terms
Routes are discussed in terms of:
- Ultimate route
- Level 1 route
- Level 1 parent route
- Level 2 child routes
Ultimate Route - is a routing table entry that
contains either a next-hop IP address or an
exit interface.
Route Lookup Process
1. If the best match is a level 1 ultimate
route, then this route is used to
forward the packet.
2. If the best match is a level 1 parent
route, proceed to the next step.
3. The router examines child routes (the
subnet routes) of the parent route for
a best match.
4. If there is a match with a level 2 child
route, that subnet is used to forward
the packet.
5. If there is not a match with any of the
level 2 child routes, proceed to the
next step.
6. The router continues searching level
1 supernet routes in the routing table
for a match, including the default
route, if there is one.
7. If there is now a lesser match with a
level 1 supernet or default routes, the
router uses that route to forward the
packet.
8. If there is not a match with any route
in the routing table, the router drops
the packet.
IPv6 Routing Table Entries
- Components of the IPv6 routing table
are very similar to the IPv4 routing
table (directly connected interfaces,
static routes, and dynamically learned
routes).
- IPv6 is classless by design, all routes
are effectively level 1 ultimate routes.
There is no level 1 parent of level 2
child routes.
Summary
Dynamic routing protocols:
- Used by routers to automatically learn
about remote networks from other
routers.
- Purpose includes: discovery of remote
networks, maintaining up-to-date
routing information, choosing the best
path to destination networks, and ability
to find a new best path if the current
path is no longer available.
- Best choice for large networks but static
routing is better for stub networks.
- Function to inform other routers about
changes.
- Responsible for discovering remote
networks, as well as maintaining
accurate network information.
- Upon a change in the topology routing
protocols propagate that information
throughout the routing domain.
- Convergence: The process of bringing
all routing tables to a state of
consistency
- Cisco routers use the administrative
distance value to determine which
routing source to use.
- Each dynamic routing protocol has a
unique administrative value
- Directly connected networks are
preferred source
- The lower the administrative value,
the more preferred the route source.
CHAPTER 4:
Chapter 4: introduction to the Switched
Networks
Elements of a Converged Network ▪ To
support collaboration, networks employ
converged solutions.
▪ Data services include voice systems, IP
phones, voice gateways, video support, and
video conferencing.
▪ Call control, voice messaging, mobility, and
automated attendant are also common
features.
▪ Multiple types of traffic; only one network to
manage.
▪ Substantial savings over installation and
management of separate voice, video, and
data networks.
▪ Integrates IT management.
Cisco Borderless Networks
▪ A network architecture that allows
organizations to connect anyone, anywhere,
anytime, and on any device securely,
reliably, and seamlessly.
Hierarchy in the Borderless Switched
Network
▪ Borderless switched network design
guidelines are built upon the following
principles:
▪ Hierarchical
▪ Modularity
▪ Resiliency
▪ Flexibility
Role of Switched Networks
▪ Switching technologies are crucial to
network design.
▪ Switching allows traffic to be sent only
where it is needed in most cases, using fast
methods.
Form Factors
Fixed Configuration Switches – Features
and options are limited to those that
originally come with the switch.
Modular Platform – The chassis accepts
line cards that contain the port.
Stackable Configuration Switches –
Stackable switches, connected by a special
cable, effectively operates as one larger
switch.
Switching as a General Concept in
Networking and Telecommunications
▪ A switch makes a decision based on
ingress and a destination port.
▪ A LAN switch keeps a table that it uses to
determine how to forward traffic through the
switch.
▪ Cisco LAN switches forward Ethernet frames
based on the destination MAC address of the
frames.
Dynamically Populating a Switch MAC
Address Table
▪ A switch must first learn which devices exist
on each port before it can transmit a frame.
▪ As a switch learns the relationship of ports to
devices, it builds a table called a MAC address
or content addressable memory (CAM) table.
▪ CAM is a special type of memory used in
high-speed searching applications.
▪ The information in the MAC address table is
used to send frames.
▪ When a switch receives an incoming frame
with a MAC address that is not found in the
CAM table, it floods it to all ports, except the
one that received the frame.
Switch Forwarding Methods
Store-and-Forward Switching
▪ Check for errors (via FCS check)
▪ Perform automatic buffering
▪ Slower forwarding process
Cut-Through Switching
▪ Allows the switch to start forwarding in about
10 microseconds
▪ No FCS check
▪ No automatic buffering
Collision domain - Segment where devices
compete to communicate.
▪ Operating in half duplex, each segment is in
its own collision domain.
▪ Operating in full duplex eliminates collisions.
▪ By default, will auto-negotiate full duplex
when the adjacent device can also operate in
full duplex.
A broadcast domain is the extent of the
network where a broadcast frame can be
heard.
▪ Switches forward broadcast frames to all
ports; therefore, switches do not break
broadcast domains.
▪ All ports of a switch, with its default
configuration, belong to the same broadcast
domain.
▪ If two or more switches are connected,
broadcasts are forwarded to all ports of all
switches, except for the port that originally
received the broadcast.
CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 5 : SWITCH
CONFIGURATION
Switch Boot Sequence
• The boot system command can be
used to set the BOOT environment
variable. Use the show boot
command to see what the current IOS
boot file is set to.
Recovering From A System Crash
• The boot loader can also be used to
manage the switch if the IOS cannot
be loaded.
• The boot loader can be accessed
through a console connection by:
information about the switch through the
Mode button.
The following modes are available on Cisco
Catalyst 2960 switches:
• System LED
• Redundant Power System (RPS) LED
• Port Status LED
• Port Duplex LED
• Port Speed LED
• Power over Ethernet (PoE) Mode LED
Preparing For Basic Switch Management
To remotely manage a Cisco switch, it must
be configured to access the network.
• A console cable is used to connect a PC
to the console port of a switch for
configuration.
• The IP information (address, subnet
mask, gateway) is to be assigned to a
switch virtual interface (SVI).
• If managing the switch from a remote
network, a default gateway must also be
configured.
• Although these IP settings allow remote
management and remote access to the
switch, they do not allow the switch to
route Layer 3 packets.
Configuring Switch Management Access

1. Connecting a PC by console cable to

the switch console port. Unplug the
switch power cord.
2. Reconnecting the power cord to the
switch and press and hold the Mode
button.
3. The System LED turns briefly amber
Configuring Switch Management Access
and then solid green. Release the
(cont.)
Mode button.

• The boot loader switch: prompt

appears in the terminal emulation
software on the PC.

Switch Led Indicators

• Each port on Cisco Catalyst switches
has status LED indicator lights.
• By default, these LED lights reflect port
activity, but they can also provide other

Duplex Communication
Auto-MDIX
• Certain cable types (straight-through
or crossover) were historically
required when connecting devices.
• The automatic medium-dependent
interface crossover (auto-MDIX)
feature eliminates this problem.
• When auto-MDIX is enabled, the
interface automatically detects and
appropriately configures the
connection.
• When using auto-MDIX on an
interface, the interface speed and
duplex must be set to auto.
SSH Operation
• Secure Shell (SSH) is a protocol that
provides a secure (encrypted),
command-line based connection to a
remote device.
• Because of strong encryption
features, SSH should replace Telnet
for management connections.
• SSH uses TCP port 22, by default.
• Telnet uses TCP port 23.
• A version of the IOS software,
including cryptographic (encrypted)
features and capabilities, is required
to enable SSH on Catalyst 2960
switches
Port Security: Operation
▪ The MAC addresses of legitimate devices
are allowed access, while other MAC
addresses are denied.
▪ Any additional attempts to connect by
unknown MAC addresses generate a
security violation.
▪ Secure MAC addresses can be configured
in a number of ways:
• Static secure MAC addresses –
manually configured and added to
running configuration - switchport
portsecurity macaddress mac-address
• Dynamic secure MAC addresses –
removed when switch restarts
• Sticky secure MAC addresses – added
to running configuration and learned
dynamically - switchport port-security
mac-address sticky interface
configuration mode command.
Port Security: Violation Modes IOS
considers a security violation when:
• The maximum number of secure MAC
addresses for that interface have been
added to the CAM, and a station whose
MAC address is not in the address table
attempts to access the interface.
There are three possible actions to take when
a violation is detected:
• Protect – no notification received
• Restrict – notification received of
security violation
• Shutdown
• Switchport port-security violation
{protect | restrict |shutdown}
interface configuration mode command
Ports in Error Disabled State
• A port security violation can put a switch
in an error disabled state.
• A port in error disabled is effectively
shutdown.
• The switch communicates these events
through console messages.
The show interface command also reveals a
switch port on error disabled state.
A shutdown or no shutdown interface
configuration mode command must be issued
to re-enable the port.
CHAPTER 6
CHAPTER 6 CISCO 2
EtherChannel Operation
Link Aggregation AutoNegotiation Protocols
- needed that allows redundant
links between devices that will not
be blocked by STP EtherChannel

- is a link aggregation technology

that groups multiple physical
Ethernet links together into one
single logical link
- It is used to provide
faulttolerance, load sharing,
increased bandwidth, and
redundancy between switches,
routers, and
servers - EtherChannels can be formed through
Advantages of EtherChannel negotiation using one of two protocols,
Port Aggregation Protocol (PAgP) or -
Most configuration tasks can be done on the Link Aggregation Control Protocol EtherChannel
interface instead of on each (LACP). These protocols allow ports
individual port with similar characteristics to form a
channel through dynamic negotiation -
EtherChannel relies on existing switch ports with adjoining switches.

-Load balancing takes place between links that PAgP Operation

are part of the same EtherChannel
- is a Cisco-proprietary protocol that aids
- EtherChannel creates an aggregation that is in the automatic creation of
seen as one logical link
EtherChannel links. When an -
EtherChannel provides redundancy because EtherChannel link is configured using
the overall link is seen as one logical PAgP, PAgP packets are sent between
connection EtherChannel-capable ports to negotiate
the forming of a channel.
Implementation Restrictions - ON - This mode forces the interface to
- Interface types cannot be mixed. For channel without PAgP. Interfaces example, Fast
Ethernet and Gigabit configured in the on mode do not Ethernet cannot be mixed
within a single exchange PAgP packets.
EtherChannel. - PAgP desirable - This PAgP mode
- Currently each EtherChannel can places an interface in an active consist of up to
eight compatibly- negotiating state in which the interface configured Ethernet ports
initiates negotiations with other
- The Cisco Catalyst 2960 Layer 2 switch interfaces by sending PAgP packets. currently
supports up to six - PAgP auto - This PAgP mode places an EtherChannel
interface in a passive negotiating state
- The individual EtherChannel group in which the interface responds to the member port
configuration must be PAgP packets that it receives but does consistent on both
devices not initiate PAgP negotiation.
- Each EtherChannel has a logical port channel interface

LACP Operation
- LACP is part of an IEEE specification
(802.3ad) that allows several physical
ports to be bundled to form a single
logical channel.
- provides the same negotiation benefits
as PAgP. LACP helps create the
EtherChannel link by detecting the
configuration of each side and making
sure that they are compatible so that
the EtherChannel link can be enabled
when needed.
- ON - This mode forces the interface to
channel without LACP. Interfaces
configured in the on mode do not
exchange LACP packets.
- LACP Active - This LACP mode places
a port in an active negotiating state. In
this state, the port initiates negotiations
with other ports by sending LACP
packets.
- LACP passive - This LACP mode
places a port in a passive negotiating
state. In this state, the port responds to
the LACP packets that it receives but
does not initiate LACP packet
negotiation.
Configuration Guidelines
EtherChannel Support - All Ethernet
interfaces must support EtherChannel with no
requirement that interfaces be physically
contiguous.
Speed and Duplex - Configure all interfaces in
an EtherChannel to operate at the same
speed and in the same duplex mode
VLAN match - All interfaces in the
EtherChannel bundle must be assigned to the
same VLAN or be configured as a trunk
(shown in the figure).
Range of VLANs - An EtherChannel supports
the same allowed range of VLANs on all the
interfaces in a trunking EtherChannel. If the
allowed range of VLANs is not the same, the
interfaces do not form an EtherChannel, even
when they are set to auto or desirable mode.
Common EtherChannel issues:
- Assigned ports in the EtherChannel are
not part of the same VLAN, or not
configured as trunks. Ports with
different native VLANs cannot form an
EtherChannel.
- Trunking was configured on some of the
ports that make up the EtherChannel,
but not all of them. It is not
recommended that you configure
trunking mode on individual ports that
make up the EtherChannel. When
configuring a trunk on an EtherChannel,
verify the trunking mode on the
EtherChannel.
- If the allowed range of VLANs is not the
same, the ports do not form an
EtherChannel even when PAgP is set to
the auto or desirable mode.
- The dynamic negotiation options for
PAgP and LACP are not compatibly
configured on both ends of the
EtherChannel.