ACOUSTICS AND LIGHTING  SOUND

Instructor: Architect Leah Ybañez-Martin - is a physical wave or simply a series of pressure

vibrations
 ACOUSTICS - for airborne sound, the medium is air
- is a branch of science that deals with the control - for structure borne sound, the medium is
and propagation of sound. building materials such as concrete, steel, wood, glass or
combinations of all these
 Objectives of acoustics - it is always assumed that the hearer has a pair of
1. to reinforce needed sound healthy young ears with the direction range of 20 to 20,000
2. to eliminate unwanted sound Hz
3. to prevent unwanted sound to be transmitted into an
enclosed space PROPERTIES OF SOUND
 speed of velocity
THE NATURE OF SOUND - 1125 ft/sec at 20ºF, the velocity increases 1ft/sec
 sound for every 10º rise in temperature (in Fahrenheit)
- originates from a vibrating body. It is pressure
have in an elastic medium. It is not restricted, it spreads where:
outward from its source in all directions diminishing in v = velocity
intensity inversely as the square of the distance from the F = frequency
source increases d = distance of the medium
- these vibrations from the body come outward as through which the sound travels
compressions and rarefactions in the surrounding air
 frequency
 rarefaction - is the number of cycles of vibrations executed per
- the instantaneous, local reduction in density of a second. Humans can hear sounds within the 40 vps to
gas resulting from passage of a sound wave, or the region in 16,000 vps range
which the density is reduced at some instant
- elongation of sound  molecular absorption
- the vibration from a body are called frequencies - a sound maybe covered up or absorbed by another
sound. This phenomena is called masking of sound and
 frequencies this is very useful in acoustics
- cycles per second (cps) or vibrations per second - the sound masking is usually of lower frequency
(vps) and the compressions and rarefactions are called than the sound it masks
sound waves
 soporific effect
- that effect brought about by a low-steady sound
WAVELENGTH GEOMETRY OF REFLECTED SOUND
- distance between two crests of a sound wave
- low frequency sounds have longer
wavelengths than high frequency sounds. The wavelength
is also the distance traveled by sound in one second divided
by the frequency of the wave
- example:
the wavelength of a 100 cycle wave is a little of
eleven feet long and a five hundred cycle wave

WL = distance traveled by sound

wave in one second / the frequency of One characteristic of sound is that, like light, it can
the wave bend around an obstruction known as “diffraction of
sound”. Low frequency sounds are diffracted more easily
than high frequency sounds

BEHAVIOR OF SOUND IN A ROOM

When a sound wave in a room strikes a surface in
a room, part of the energy is reflected, part is absorbed
by the surface and part is transmitted to the surface

REFLECTION OF SOUND ON A SURFACE

A surface that is rigid, flat and smooth usually
reflects sound. The reflection of sound on a surface
follows the behavior of reflected light, meaning that the
angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
When the wavelength of a sound is just the same as
one of the room’s dimensions, a standing wave is created.
When a sound comes from a source, the hearer of the sound
actually hears two types of sounds:
1. direct or original sound
- from the source and directly delivered to the hearer
2. reflected sound
- from all directions of the room

for a sound to be heard by a listener comfortably, the

reflected sound must come to him not later than 0.05 of a
second or in terms of distance, the direct sound and the
path of the reflected sound should not exceed 57 ft
 ft or 344 m/sec, these usually will be a rather long
succession of these reflections before the sound dies away
to inaudibility
Thus, the speed of sound plays a significant role in
architectural acoustics

RESONANCE
VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION
Sound travels at different velocities, depending upon
the medium. On air, at sea level, sound velocity is 344
m/sec or 1130 fps, slow compared to light at 186,000
miles per second. Sound travels much faster in liquids and
solids than it does on air.
SOUND PROPAGATION VELOCITY IN VARIOUS MEDIA
Is what happens to a body when another vibrating
body vibrates and initiates. The other body to vibrate in
harmony with it
Resonance can be useful to reinforce sounds at
some specific frequencies
This happens only however, if the resonating body
or resonator has a dimension which is a multiple of the
wavelength of the sound wave from the originating body

VELOCITY
medium meter per second feet per second
Air 344 1130
Water 1410 4625
Wood 3300 10,825
Brick 3600 11,800
Concrete 3700 12,100
Steel 4900 16,000
Glass 5000 16,400
Aluminum 5800 19,000
At 22ºC At 72ºF
Low frequencies have more resonance than the high
SPEED OF SOUND
frequencies because low frequencies have longer
As sound travels much slower than the speed of
wavelengths and therefore more multipliers to the
light, the resulting defects in many rooms are echoes and
dimensions of the room than high frequencies
reverberations
Yet, there are sounds that require less resonance to
When the reflected sound, which reaches an
give presence to the sounds
observer, is delayed more than about 0.058 seconds relative
to the direct sounds, they are distinguished as echoes.
Reverberation consist of successive reflections of
sounds in a room, and since sound travels only about 1130
SOUND ABSORPTION frequency, meaning it can only absorb some sounds
The sound phenomenon that happens to sound When the sound wave is transformed into heat
when it strikes a surface is that the sound is absorbed by the energy, the sound will no longer be reflected. The sound
surface. Actually, what really happens is, when sound wave heard is only the direct sound
strikes an absorbent surface, the sound waves through This sound absorption efficiency of a material is
friction on the pores of the surface are transformed into measured in terms of units known as sobius, in which one
heat energy sabin means perfect absorption and 0 means no absorption
Number 1 absorption
- open window or door
THE TYPES OF ABSORBENT SURFACES ARE: - a line of pillows
 soft and porous surfaces - two closets facing each other and
- such as corkboard, foam or Styrofoam or any material sandwiching a wall
which has this property like draperies on the walls and
carpets on the floor DECIBEL
- measurement of the intensity of sound
 panel absorber - abbreviated (db)
- consisting of two layers of materials with an airspace 40db
between them. The outer layer, being of porous type and - limit for comfortable hearing
the inner layer of solid background 100-120 db
- can no longer be comfortable, that is painful to the ear
ECHO
- reflected sound
REVERBERATION
- is a series of echoes coming from the same source
REVERBERATION TIME
- is the time in seconds that a reflected sound diminishes for
the case by 60db after the original sound has stopped
- formula
RT = 0.05V
a1s1
where:
 cavity resonator V = volume of room in cubic feet
- Consisting of an enclosed body s1 = area of an absorbent surface
of air which is connected by a a1 = coefficient of absorption of a surface
narrow passage with the space - example
containing the sound waves. an auditorium with a volume of 80,800 is to
This type of absorber is be acoustically treated to serve an acceptable
effective only at the resonant reverberation time with or without audience.
 The auditorium has been provided with the SOUND FIELDS IN AN ENCLOSED SPACE
following materials such as: When a sound propagated in an enclosed space
materials area in feet coefficient of absorption in reaches a wall or other large (with respect to wavelength)
(s1) absorption sabins (a1) obstruction, part is reflected and part is absorbed.
Wood 6,928 .03 208 The sound at any point in the room is then the
Plaster 7,440 .033 246 combination of direct sound from walls and other
Metal 628 .01 6.3 obstructions.
Glass 408 .025 10.2
Seats 550 .017 93.5 DIFFUSION
504.01 When the reflections are so large that the sound
units in level becomes uniform throughout the room. (no acoustical
sabins shadow).
Most rooms don’t have such a high level of reflection
-computation that a diffuse field is created:
RT = 0.05V 1. near field – near the source
a1s1 2. free field – at a distance
RT = .05(80,800) 3. reverberant field – near the walls
504
= 4040
504
= 8.0 seconds
add 200 auditors at 4.17 each
200 x 4.17 = 834
+ 504
1338
RT = .05(80,800)
1338
= 3.0 seconds
from table: the ideal RT is from 1 to 1.5
seconds
-corrections
1.5 = .05(80,800)
(1338 + x)
1.5(1338 + x) = .05(80,800)
x = 1355.3
TRANSIENT SOUND
- is the term applied to the direct sound which if the
originating body stops, vibrating also stops.
SOUND FIELDS CAN BE RECOGNIZED AS FOLLOWS
 near field
- generally within one wavelength of the lowest
frequency of sound produced by the source.
- the maximum wavelength for the male human
voice is 3.30mts or 11 ft
 reverberant field
- near large obstructions such as walls
- is dominant and approaches a diffused condition
 free field
- exist between the near and reverberant field
- the intensity varies as pressure squared and
inversely with the distance
INVERSE SQUARE LAW
States that the intensity of sound is inversely
proportional to distance from the source.
SOUNDS MAYBE CLASSIFIED AS:
1. ordered
2. disordered
in an ordered sound, the instantaneous pressure
follows a regular pattern
in a disordered sound, the peak of acoustic
power occur more or less at random, the periodic
qualities of ordered sound are lacking.
THREE CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOUNDS IN A BUILDING
1. noise – unwanted sound
2. music – generally not always made up of ordered sound
3. speech – consists of both ordered and disordered sound
THE HEALING POWER OF SOUND
In many ancient cultures, the power of sound played
a major role in developing the spiritual and physical well
being of the people.
Today, due to the growing interest of alternative
medicine. The use sound for therapeutic purpose is once
again regaining popular acceptance.
Sound waves from the outside enter the ear and are
converted into nerve impulses. They are transmitted to the
brain which interprets them as sounds that we hear.
 Cheering – during a basketball game heightens emotions
and develops a sense of group unity
 Jazz and classical music – generally provides a feeling of
relaxation
 Noise – from the rush hour traffic causes anxiety and
tension
These are only few instances where sound only
becomes a part of our everyday life, but also affects it as
well.
MUSIC THERAPHY
Music makes a powerful impact on the senses. Often
touching feelings too deep or too difficult to express in
words. The approach of music therapy practitioners can be
classified into two:
  The response approach 3. Reverberation time should also be reduced to a tolerable
- focuses on the therapeutic power of music level because the reverberations of the previous syllables will
heard from an external source and the body and minds obscure the sound of each syllable.
reaction to such music.
 The expression approach
- identifies music’s power to come not only form
its reception but also from its creation.

Music allows us to express a wide range of emotions

– from frustrations – to extreme joy; music also reveals deep
feelings and problems
This psychotherapeutic effect is the reason why
music therapy has become popular in treating the mentally
ill and the mentally handicapped. Playing music is also
encourage among the physically disabled people who need
to improve their movement and control.
DESIGN OF ROOMS FOR SPEECH WITHOUT THE USE OF
SOUND SYSTEM
1. The main objective in the design of rooms of this kind to
insure that every member of the audience can clearly
hear what the speaker says.
2. Another aim is to preserve the natural qualities of a
speaker’s voice so that each member of the audience can
appreciate the dramatic effect intended by the speaker.
NATURE OF SPEECH SOUNDS AND EFFECTS OF ROOM
ACOUSTICS
1. Speech should consist of a flow of various combinations of
vowel and consonant sounds. The consonant sounds are
merely of a transient nature, meaning they are short and
rapidly changing. Generally, it is the recognition of the
consonant sounds which is a factor in speech
intelligibly in an auditorium.
2. If every member of an audience is to hear well, the sound in
each seat must be loud enough, this being the case, there
should be a minimum of background noises which
will tend to mask the wanted sound.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR ROOMS INTENDED FOR SPEECH
1. The direct sound shall be as strong as possible because the
sound weakens as the distance from the source increases.
2. It is also important that the direct sound shall not be
obstructed by any means.
3. The best way to insure that the direct sound will go to every
seat is either:
 The source of the sound should be located
higher than any head in the audience.
 By seating the audience in such a way that at least
3 inches is provided between the sight from one
row and the sight from the next.
4. Because speech is directional, in plan, the seats should be
positioned so that none falls outside an angle of 140º, the
sound intensity will decay rapidly.
5. In order for the direct sound to be reinforced by the
reverberant sound, reflectors should be used and angled
towards that part of the audience farthest from the speaker.
6. The reflected paths should not exceed 50ft more than the
direct sound path.
If the reverberation time of the structure is
larger or longer than the acceptable level, then the
only way to remedy the fault is to provide sound
absorbent materials on those surfaces that reflected
sound.

CLOUDS
- pieces of cloth
hung on the ceiling to
absorb sound not less
than 2 ft in depth; 2 ft
because the wavelength
of low frequency sound
is usually 2 ft

- the best location for the sound absorbents in a

room intended for speech is at the end of the room away
from the speaker and also to those surfaces which might
produce unwanted echoes, like the rear of the wall of the
hall, especially if the wall is concave.

THE DESIGN OF ROOM FOR MUSIC

 Factors that affect good production of music
Note: 140º covers both the horizontal and vertical
7. It has been found out that the best volume for rooms of 1. definition
this kind is 100 ft3 per seat. - refers to hearing clearly each type of musical instrument so
8. After the size and shape of the room has been determined, that they are readily distinguished from each other.
the next step is to design the surface so that the 2. balance
reverberation time will be suitable. - is the correct loudness ratio between the various sections
of the orchestra.
 Recommended reverberation times for various 3. blend
volume levels - is the hearing of a body of instruments as a homogeneous
10,000 ft3 0.7 of a second source rather than as a collection of individual sources.
20,000 ft3 0.78 of a second 4. a low level of intruding noise
40,000 ft3 0.82 of a second
100,000 ft3 0.9 of a second
400,000 ft3 1.0 of a second
ACOUSTICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF ROOMS FOR MUSIC
All the reflections of the original sound will
blend into the direct sound and gives body to the music.
These are known as first reflections and should
arrive after the direct sound is not more than 0.35 second.
All the other reverberant sounds which come later, this
time will produce a muffled effect to the original sound.
These are the sounds that should be eliminated especially if
among these sounds, there are one to two reflected sounds
that stick out above the others and these are the
echoes.
 How to achieve good definition
1. The direct and the first reflected sounds must be
maintained at a high intensity.
2. The shape of the room should be considered in terms of
the factors related to the design of rooms intended for
speech.
3. There should be a reflector above the stage to throw
reflected sounds towards the rear of the audience. If
balcony is part of the design, then the soffit will provide
as a reflector to that part of the audience under the
balcony.
 How to achieve fullness of tone
This can be achieved again if the first reflectors
assist the direct sound.
 How to achieve balance
This can be achieved by the proper location of the
various sections of the orchestra. Weaker instruments
should not be hidden behind stronger instruments.
ACOUSTICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR CHURCHES AND
CATHEDRALS
1. All the acoustical design will depend on whether speech or
music is considered the more important element on the
nature of the religious service.
2. If speech is of first importance, the church will be designed
in accordance with the principles in the design of speech.
If the music is of primary importance, then the
design should be in accordance with the principles for the
design of rooms for music.
3. A church which has separate cell fro transept or chapel
which opens off to the main body of the church has the
acoustical disadvantages that the reverberation in the cells
may be different from the main body’s. Some particular
notes may continue in the cells long after the main
reverberation has stopped.
SPEECH REINFORCEMENTSYSTEM OR SOUND SYSTEMS AID
TO THE NATURAL SOUND
 Reasons for using sound reinforcement system
1. The original sound may not be loud enough to be heard by
every member of the audience therefore sound system may
be used.
2. There might be too much noise coming from outside as well
as within the audience that tends to cover the original sound.
3. The acoustics of the building itself maybe poor and well
interfere with the unaided speech sound and for this reason,
reinforcement system is required to reduce bad acoustics
IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS IN THE USE OF SOUND
REINFORCEMENT SYSTEM
 1. The audience must hear the words clearly without distortion
and in a reasonable loudness.
2. for realistic effect, the speech should appear to be coming
from the human speaker and not from any loud speaker.
MICROPHONES
 Two types of microphone
1. omnidirectional microphone
- equally sensitive sound to sounds arriving at it from any
direction
2. directional microphone
- receives sound from one direction. For speaking purposes,
the directional microphone is better to use because it
reduces the feedback
LOUDSPEAKER
- to give natural as much as possible as well as to
make the sound louder
- diffuses low frequency sounds, projects
directionally high frequency sounds
- should be placed one at the left, the other at the
right
For good reaction of the microphone, the man speaking
should be from 18” to 2 ft from the microphone. If too close, the low
frequency sounds will be accentuated. If farther away, the
reverberant sounds will be picked up
For good hearing and reception, the main speaker should
stay in a fixed position and should not vary substantially the distance
between his mouth and the microphone
An ideal situation in the used of speech reinforcement
system is that the listener will hear not only the natural sound but
also the sound coming from a loudspeaker
Under this condition, the hearing of the natural and the
loudspeaker merely magnifies the sound
Another effect to consider is that the listener should be able
to know the location of the source of sound, that is, that the sound
appears to come from the original source and not from the
loudspeaker. To achieve this effect, the natural sound should be
heard first by the listener before the sound of the loudspeaker and
this is known as time delayed sound in which thru mechanical
means, the loudspeaker sound should be made to come out a
little bit later than the natural sound, usually at an interval of
0.035 of a second
DESIGN OF ROOMS INTENDED FOR SPEECH
REINFORCEMENT SYSTEMS
1. in general, rooms intended for speech or music should be
designed by an architect in such a way that future use of the
room with the aid of speech reinforcement system should be
incorporated into the design rather than designing the room
without this consideration and then using reinforcement
systems later on
2. rooms which have good acoustical requirements are usually
better rooms for speech reinforcement system
TYPES OF SOUND SYSTEMS WITH RESPECT TO LEVELS OF
SOUND
 1. The high-level system
- which consists of a single loudspeaker with a high level of
sound. This is most applicable for rooms with good acoustics
2. Low-level system
- consists of several loudspeaker placed at strategic locations
in the room and operating at low volume of sound. This is
most useful for rooms with bad acoustic like churches and
cathedrals
If the high level system is used in a room with a flat or level
floor, it is good practice to place the loudspeaker above the head of
the main speaking and direct it towards the center of the audience
the farther from the source the lesser is the intensity
of noise
2. molecular absorption of sound by air
high frequency sounds are absorbed more by air
than the low frequency sounds
3. wind gradient
refers to the differences in the velocity of air in
terms of distance from the ground and generally
near the ground is slower than that farther above
this effects the propagation of sound

If the loudspeaker will be placed behind the speaker, the

man’s voice will be heard seconds before that, that came from the
loudspeaker

PRINCIPLES OF SOUND INSULATION AND NOISE CONTROL

Definitions
1. noise – an unwanted sound
2. sound insulation – a process or method of making a room
invulnerable against the entry of noise
3. noise control – process of elimination or limiting the 4. temperature gradient
propagation of noise refers to the differences in the temperature of air
with respect to the distance from the ground, it is
PROPAGATION OF NOISE OUTDOORS higher than in the upper layers. The reverse is true
Defenses against noise in the open air: at nighttime. At night the air near the surface of the
1. to increase the distance between the source of noise and the earth is cooler
room to be protected
2. to put a screen or obstacles between the source and the
room
3. to design or position the room to resist the noise

5. any

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE PROPAGATION OF NOISE

1. distance
 absorption such as a wall, will reduce the propagation of
sound outdoors as long as the length of the wall and its
width should be more than the wavelength of the sound
6. sound absorbent materials may effectively reduce the effect
of the reflected sound outdoors
7. if the source of the noise and its receiver are all above the
ground. The noise may increase due to the reflection from
the ground
SOURCE OF NOISE INDOORS
1. like all types of sound, the noise in a room is made up of
two parts: the direct sound and the reverberant sound.
The direct sound decreases in intensity as the distance
increases, whereas the reverberant sound is uniform more
or less throughout the room, especially if the room is small
and square.
If the designers interest is to prevent the
transmission of sound to an adjacent room, then it is usually
the reverberant sound that is to be controlled. If the interest
is merely on the effect of sound inside the room, then it is
the direct sound that is primarily to be controlled.
2. nothing that is done to the room can alter the direct sound.
3. the use of screen may also help in reducing the effect of the
direct sound especially if the sound is directional. The usual
practice is to put sound absorbent materials at the side of
the screen facing the sound source. The screen absorbs the
sound and if the dimension of the screen is large compared
to the wavelength of the sound, the person behind the
screen cannot hear the sound. As for the reverberant sounds,
the use of sound absorbent materials in the room will
somehow reduce its intensity.
 4. in long and low ceiling rooms, the reverberant sound will not
be uniform anymore. In some parts of the room, the
reverberant sound is louder than in the other parts. The
direct sound falls off with increase in distance. This is
practical in factories where noisy processes may be placed in
one end of the room.
SOUND INSULATION
Refers to treating a room acoustically so that the sound
coming from it will not be transmitted to the adjacent rooms
2 TYPES OF SOUND INSULATION
1. air borne sound insulation
- insulation against noise is originating in the air. Ex. voices
2. impact sound insulation
- insulation against impact noises. Ex. footsteps and falling
objects
TRANSMISSION OF NOISE IN AND OUT OF THE BUILDING
 Noise from outside to inside via an opening
At concessions inside the building but close to the opening,
the noise level is almost the same as if there were no building at all.
Noise level farther away from the opening depends on the area of
the opening in relation to the area of sound absorbent materials the
smaller the opening and the greater the area of the sound
absorbents, the lesser is the noise level.
NOISE FROM INSIDE TO OUTSIDE OF THE BUILDING
With openings, the noise level just outside the opening is the
same as the reverberant sound level of the room, farther away, the
noise level depends on the area of the openings and the distance
from it.
VIBRATIION CONTROL
VIBRATION
To and from movement of the structure
 Some ways to reduce vibration
1. confine the building within its own
2. create a structurally massive foundation
3. use resiliency principle of wright
VIBRATION PRINCIPLE
The more massive the building, the less the vibration
Light frame construction (steel, wood, etc.) can transmit
sound as well as vibration
RESILIENCY PRINCIPLE
A greater resistance to vibration includes a greater damage,
therefore the structure should go with the vibration, like in Frank
Llyod Wright’s Imperial Hotel, it survived the earthquake.
LIGHTING AND ILLUMINATION the illumination at any point on the sphere is one
 Functions of lighting foot candle (abbreviated ft-s), the unit for the power or
1. to afford visibility of objects intensity of light.
2. to secure pleasing and decorative effects 3. standard candle
-is the brightness of a black body at the temperature of
 Factors to consider in lighting system freezing platinum
1. the method that they are used 4. lumen (abbreviated L)
2. the properties and capabilities of various equipment -is the unit of luminous flux, amount f light falling on a
3. the effect of the lighting system on the space where it is surface from the source
used as well as on the occupants
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LUMEN AND FOOT CANDLE OR
Like acoustics, lighting should be incorporated into the CANDLE POWER
design of the building When 1 lumen of flux is uniformly distributed over 1 square
Light may either be: foot of area, the illumination at any point on the area is one-foot
a. natural – daylight candle.
b. artificial
1. incandescent FORMULA FOR ILLUMINATION
- stimulating effect, conducive to drinking, induces
sleep. Best for bars and nightclubs Illumination (E) = I / D2
2. fluorescent
- emits a light similar to daylight, conducive to Where:
eating, reading, studying, etc. I = the candle power of the source
3. mercury D=the distance from the source in feet
4. neon
For example:
A good architect should use the daylight or natural lighting, What is the illumination on a surface which is 12 ft
as this is the cheapest kind of light. from a lamp of 80 candle power (cp)?
Answer:
THEORY AND FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHTING
 Definition of terms E= I / D2
1. photometry E= 80cp / (12ft)2
- the science that deals with the measurement of light = 5 / 9 ft-c or 0.555 ft-c
2. candle power
- refers to the unit of intensity of light of one standard
candle whose light is concentrated at a point and the light
source is assumed to be placed at the center of a hollow
sphere of one foot radius
PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF LIGHT
1. diffusion
-light rays leaving the source strike a rough, opaque surface
which spreads the light in various directions
-in addition, light is broken up while in reflection, the light
bounces back at a different direction
2. polarization
-light ray striking a polarized glass causes the illumination of
the horizontal light rays and allows the vertical rays to
penetrate the glass (resulting in soft lighting)
3. transmission
-light rays strike a plain (surface) transparent glass which
allows the rays to proceed farther
4. reflection
-light striking a silvered surface is reflected back with no
diffusion and the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
deflection
5. refraction
-light rays striking a clear glass placed at an angle with
respect to the rays are reflected at an angle within the glass
and continues at another angle on the far side of the glass

CANDLE POWER DISTRIBUTION CURVE

Is a graphic representation of the distribution of light
intensity of a luminaries (container of a source light)
Those at the center of the sphere receives more light than at
the edges

Each kind of light will have its own distribution curve