AE 429 - Aircraft Performance and

Flight Mechanics

Atmospheric Flight Mechanics

Atmospheric Flight Mechanics

Performance
– Performance characteristics (range, endurance, rate of
climb, take-off and landing distances, flight path
optimization)
Flight Dynamics
– Motion of the aircraft due to disturbances
– Stability and Control
Aeroelasticity
– Static and Dynamic Aeroelastic phenomena (control
reversal, wing divergence, flutter, aeroelastic response)
The aerodynamic forces and moment as well as the trust and weight
have to be accurately determined

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The aerodynamic forces and moment acting on the
aircraft depend on the property of the atmosphere
through which is flying

Geometric shape
Attitude to the flow
Airspeed
Property of the air mass (pressure,
temperature, density, viscosity, speed of
sound, etc.)

Atmospheric properties
Atmospheric variation. (Based on U.S.
structure Standard Atmosphere, 1962)

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Overview of Units

Mass and weight are often confused

Here are some common units used for mass and
weight
– Kilograms
– Newtons
– Pounds
– Slugs
Which ones are mass and which ones are weight?
What is the difference between mass and weight?

Overview of Units

Kilograms are a unit of mass (metric)

Newtons are a unit of weight or force (metric)
Slugs are a unit of mass (imperial)
Pounds are a unit of weight or force (imperial)
Weight = Mass * Gravity
The weight of an object on the Earth and on
the Moon is different
The mass of an object on the Earth and on
the Moon is the same

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 Perfect Gas
A perfect gas is one in which inter-molecular magnetic
forces are negligible
It acts as a continuous material in which the properties
are determined by statistical average of the particle
effects

– thermodynamic state equation P = ρ RT

where P = pressure, ρ = density; T = temperature;
R constant for a specific gas
– for normal air ft − lbf
J
R = 287 = 1718
( kg) ( K ) ( slug) ( R )
m2 ft 2
R = 287 = 1718
( sec)2 ( K ) ( sec)2 ( R )

Velocity/streamlines
At a fixed point in a fluid/gas
– the flow velocity is the velocity of an infinitesimally
small fluid element as it sweeps through the point
along a streamline

Flow through a Nozzle Streamline Flow about an Airfoil

Velocity is a vector, having both magnitude and

direction
– Each region of gas does not necessarily have the same
velocity
– Flow velocity, like pressure, density, and temperature, is a
point property

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Aerodynamic forces

A flow field
– Is defined using a coordinate frame
– Is specified using thermodynamic point properties like
P, ρ, T, and V
Pressure = P(x, y, z)
Velocity = V(x, y, z)
Pressure and shear distributions which exist on
surfaces are the source of all aerodynamic forces

Pressure Shear

Pressure (P) P = ρ RT

Pressure is the normal force per unit area exerted on

a surface due to the time rate of change of momentum
for gas molecules impacting that surface
– dA is the incremental
area around a point on
the surface
– dF is the force on one
side of dA due to pressure, so the pressure at the point on the
surface is: dF F
P ≡ lim P≡
– units dA → 0 dA A
N/m2 - Psf - Psi - Atm - dynes/cm2
1 N/m2 = 1.4504 x 10-4 lbf/in2 = 2.0886 x 10-2 lbf/ft2
1 lbf/in2 = 6.8947 x 103 N/m2 Ratio of the pressure P
P
at altitude to sea-level δ≡
standard pressure P0

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 ρ) - Specific Volume (v)
Density (ρ
Density is the mass of a substance per unit volume
dV incremental volume about point P
dm the mass of the material (gas) inside dV
dV
dm
the density, ρ , at a point P is: ρ = lim
dV →0 dV P

– units of density Ratio of the density ρ ρ

kilograms/cubic meter, kg/m3 at altitude to sea-level σ=
grams/cubic centimeter, gm/cm3 standard density ρ0
pounds mass/cubic feet, lbm/ft 3

slugs/cubic feet, lbf sec2/ft4

specific volume is volume per unit mass

– specific volume, v, is the reciprocal of density
– units for specific volume
cubic meters/kilogram, m3/kg
cubic feet/slug, ft3/slug
cubic feet/slug, ft4/lbf sec2

Temperature (T)
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of particles making up the gas
– the temperature, T, of a gas is directly proportional to the
average kinetic energy of the particles making up the gas
– Boltzmann’s constant, K, is the constant of proportionality

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Kinetic Energy = KT
2
K = 1.38 ⋅10 −23 joules / Kelvin; 1 joule = 0.738 ft − lb

units of temperature:
K Ratio of the temperature T
Degrees Kelvin (absolute)
R at altitude to sea-level θ =
T
Degrees Rankine (absolute)
C
Degrees Celsius (not absolute)
F
standard temperature T0
Degrees Farenheit (not absolute)

Temperature affects the properties of the air such as density and viscosity

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Temperature Scales

212° 672° 373° 100°

32° 492° 273° 0°

0° 460°

-460° 0° 0° -273°
FARENHEIT RANKINE KELVIN CENTIGRADE

– 0 °C = 273.15 °K
– 0 °F = 459.67 °R

Mach Number (M) and Speed of Sound (a)

a = (γ RT )
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V airplane speed V
M =
a speed of sound a γ ratio of specific heats
0 < M < 0.5 Incompressible subsonic flowfield
0.5 < M < 0.8 Compressible subsonic flowfield
0.8 < M < 1.2 Transonic flowfield
1.2 < M < 5 Supersonic flowfield
5< M Hypersonic flowfield

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Equations Summary
A1V1 = A2V2 CONTINUITY EQUATION (INCOMPRESSIBLE)
V2 V2
P1 + ρ 1 = P2 + ρ 2
2 2 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

ρ1 A1V1 = ρ 2 A2V2 CONTINUITY EQUATION (COMPRESSIBLE)

dP + ρVdV = 0 EULER EQUATION

γ
γ
P2 ρ T2 γ −1
= 2 = ISENTROPIC RELATIONS
P1 ρ1 T1

V12 V2 ENERGY
cPT1 + = cPT2 + 2
2 2
P1 = ρ1 RT1 ; P2 = ρ 2 RT2 EQUATION OF STATE
Uniform Streamline flow
The continuity, Euler, and Bernoulli Equations all relate point properties in the
flow (perhaps on the same streamline)
If P2 is the same at different streamlines far upstream, these equations can be
applied to different streamlines

Pitot-Static equations
FLOW WITH
VELOCITY V1
TOTAL
STATIC PRESSURE ORIFICE; PRESSURE
p IS MEASURED HERE MEASURED
HERE

DIFFERENTIAL PITOT TUBE

PRESSURE GAGE

The total pressure is: (Bernoulli)

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Total Pressure p0 = p + ρ1V12 Dynamic
2 Pressure
Static Pressure
– Solving for p0 - p: 1
p0 − p = ρV 2
2 1

– Thus, V1 is: p −p
V1 = 2 0
ρ

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Other Ideal fluid flow about an
isentropic airfoil
relations
γ
γ
p0 ρ T γ −1
= 0 = 0
p1 ρ1 T1
T0 γ −1 2
= 1+ M1
T1 2
then
γ
p0 γ −1 2 γ −1
= 1+ M1
p1 2
1
ρ0 γ −1 2 γ −1
= 1+ M1
ρ1 2
V12 V2
P1 + ρ = P2 + ρ 2
2 2

Standard Atmosphere

A standard atmosphere is a mathematical model

which, on the average, approximates the real
atmosphere
– It provides a basis for performance comparisons
– It allows experimental data to be generalized

Standard sea level values for pressure, density, temperature

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Altitudes

Altitudes
There is a unique absolute altitude for each geometric
altitude
The atmospheric model leads to P = P(h)
Pressure altitude is defined as the reciprocal relationship: hP = h(P)

Standard Day Pressure Variation

Measured Pressure

Actual Pressure Variation

Pressure Altitude

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 Altitudes

Temperature
altitude is not
used often

– hT is multi-
valued for
average
values of T
– “Average”
values do not
match actual
values of T

Hydrostatic Equation
Derivation of the hydrostatic
equation
– First, sum all vertical forces
P = P + dP + ρgdhG
– Recalling that hG is geometric
altitude

Rearranging gives the hydrostatic

equation: dP = −ρgdhG
– assuming a constant g = g0
– and taking h as geopotential
altitude dP = −ρ g0 dh

Geopotential altitude does not

account for changes in gravity as
altitude changes
re
h= h
re + hG G

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Standard Atmosphere
“Standardization” is
accomplished using an
assumed temperature
variation
– Temperature variations are
of two types
– Constant gradient
– Isothermal
– Equations are based upon
– Hydrostatic equation
– Definition of Geopotential
Altitude
– Equation of state
– Defined temperature variation

Standard Atmosphere

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Standard Atmosphere
The defining differential equation
– Is obtained by dividing the geopotential altitude form of the
hydrostatic equation by the equation of state for a perfect gas
dP − ρg0 g
= dh = − 0 dh
P ρRT RT
– Integrates within a constant temperature gradient region, if we
define a as this gradient or lapse rate
dT 1
a≡ dh = dT
dh a
– By substitution of dh in terms of dT dP g dT
=− 0
– Carrying out the integration P aR T
P dP g T dT g0 P g T
=− 0 (ln P )PP1 = − (lnT )TT1 ln = − 0 ln
P1 P aR T1 T aR P1 aR T1
g
− 0
P T aR
=
P1 T1

Standard Atmosphere
The equation of state allows definition of density in such a gradient
region
g0 g0
− − +1
P ρT T aR ρ T aR
= = =
P1 ρ1T1 T1 ρ1 T1

– But the variation of T is linear with h

T h − h1
T − T1 = a ( h − h1 ) =1+a
T1 T1

– Substituting this temperature ratio into our integrated equations

gives pressure and density ratios as a function of altitude in these
constant gradient regions g g
− 0 − 0
P T aR h − h1 aR
= = 1+a
P1 T1 T1
g0 g0
− +1 − +1
ρ T aR h − h1 aR
= = 1+a
ρ1 T1 T1

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Standard Atmosphere
For isothermal layers, the integration is
even easier, since T is constant

– Going back to our differential equation

dP g
= − 0 dh
P RT

– Now, we can integrate with no

substitution
P dP g h g0 P g
=− 0 dh ( ln P )PP1 = − (h )hh1 ln = − 0 ( h − h1 )
P1 P RT h1 RT P1 RT
g
P − 0 ( h − h1 )
= e RT P ρ
P1 =
P1 ρ1
– And, since at constant T, g
− 0 ( h− h1 )
P ρ
= = e RT
P1 ρ1

Standard Atmosphere
Pressure variation with altitude

4.46 psf

g
g − 0
P − 0 ( h − h1 ) P T aR
= e RT =
P1 P1 T1

2116.22 psf

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Standard Atmosphere
Density variation with altitude

0.00000536 slug-ft2

g0
g − +1
ρ − 0 ( h − h1 ) ρ T aR
= e RT =
ρ1 ρ1 T1

0.00176 slug/ft3

Examples

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 Examples

Examples

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Examples

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