Physics

Edexcel GCSE Physics
Topic 1: Key Concepts of Physics

Notes
(Content in bold is for Higher Tier only)
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Key Concepts of Physics
SI Units
- Frequency, hertz, Hz
- Metre, m
- Force, newton, N
- Kilogram, kg
- Energy, joule, J
- Second, s
- Power, watt, W
- Ampere, A
- Pressure, pascal, Pa
- Kelvin, K
- Charge, coulomb, C
- Mole, mol
- Resistance, ohm, Ω
- Volt, V
- Magnetic Flux Density, tesla, T
Prefixes
giga G x 109 1 billion
mega M x 106 1 million
kilo k x 103 1 thousand
centi c x 10-2 1 hundredth
mili m x 10-3 1 thousandth
micro µ x 10-6 1 millionth
nano n x 10-9 1 billionth
Equations to Learn
distance = speed × time
v−u
a=
t
F = ma
weight = mg
∆GPE = mg∆h
1
KE = mv 2
2
usefully energy output
efficiency =
total energy input
wave speed = v = fλ
x
wave speed = v =
t
work done = force × distance (moved in the direction of the force) = E = Fd

work done energy transferred
Power = =
time time taken
Moment of force = force × perpendicular distance
energy transferred = charge moved × pd = E = QV
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charge = current × time = Q = It
Voltage = Current × Resistance = V = IR
Electrical Power = current × pd = P = IV
Electrical power = current 2 × resistance = P = I2 R
mass m
density = =ρ=
volume V
force on spring = spring constant × extension = F = k∆x
force F
pressure = =P=
area A
Equations Given
energy transferred = IVt
pd across primary number of turns in primary Vp Np
= = =
pd across secondary number of turns in secondary Vs Ns
power of primary = power of secondary = Vp × Ip = Vs × Is
change in energy = mass × specific heat capacity × temp change = ∆Q = mc∆θ
energy = mass × specific latent heat = Q = ml
pressure and volume change = P1 V1 = P2 V2
1
energy transferred = k(∆x)2
2
v 2 − u2 = 2as
Higher
𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐧 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 = 𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐟𝐥𝐮𝐱 𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 × 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 × 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 = 𝐅 = 𝐁𝐈𝐥
𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝 = 𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐧 × 𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝 × 𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲 = 𝐏 = 𝐡𝛒𝐠
𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 = 𝐩 = 𝐦𝐯
𝐦𝐯 − 𝐦𝐮
𝐅=
𝐭
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E.g. 0.020 = 2SF or 12,000 = 2SF
Used by all scientists
The number of non-zero figures after a to express quantities
decimal point or previous number from measurements
only SI unit with a prefix!
to indicate a
multiplication factor Significant Figures SI Units Kg - kilogram Unit of mass
Unit Prefixes M - metre Unit of length
KEY CONCEPTS OF PHYSICS S - second Unit of time

Unit Multiples and
Submultiples
Standard Form A - Ampere Unit of current
Nano (n) ÷1,000,000,000
Unit of
Micro (m) ÷1,000,000 Large values may be K - Kelvin temperature
Milli (µ) ÷ 1,000
written as x10 to a power Unit of amount of
Mole - mole substance
Centi (c ) ÷100
Eg. X1000 = x10 ^3
Kilo (k) x1000 Cd - Candela Unit of luminous flux
Mega (M) x1,000,000
Giga (g) x1,000,000,000

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Topic 2: Motion and Forces
Notes
This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

https://bit.ly/pmt-edu-cc CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
Vectors & Scalars
A Vector has magnitude and direction

A Scalar has just magnitude
- Generally, scalar cannot be negative, but vectors can be, as a certain direction is positive
Examples
- Speed is scalar - Distance is scalar - Time is scalar
- Velocity is a vector - Displacement is vector - Acceleration is a vector
- Force is vector - Momentum is a vector

- Mass is scalar - Energy is scalar
Imagine a ball is thrown off a cliff, the displacement is 0 at height of cliff, above the cliff the ball has
positive displacement, and below the clifftop the ball has negative displacement.
- In long answer questions, you may be able to decide where the “0” point of a vector may lie,
for example you could set zero to be bottom of cliff, so the ball will never have negative
displacement
- Speed is only velocity when given a direction, so thrown 10𝑚𝑠 −1 is its speed but thrown
10𝑚𝑠 −1 at 30’ above the horizontal is the velocity
Graphs
Displacement Time Graphs

- Gradient is velocity
- Sharper gradient means faster speed
o Negative gradient is returning back to starting
point
- Horizontal line means stationary
- 0 Distance means that it is back to starting point
- Area under line = nothing
- Curved Line means the velocity is changing (acceleration)
Velocity Time Graphs

- Gradient is acceleration
- Sharper gradient means greater acceleration
o Negative gradient is deceleration
- Horizontal line, constant speed
- 0 velocity means that it is stationary
- Area under line = distance travelled
- Curved Line means that the acceleration is changing
Average Speed
- This is for when the speed changes during the motion
- Use overall distances and timings to work out average
speed
Methods to Determine Speeds
- For constant speeds
o Measure distance travelled
o Use stopwatch for time taken
distance
o Use speed = time
- For average speed
o Work out total distance travelled
o Find the time taken for the whole journey
distance
o Use speed = time
- Using light gates
o Set up two, one at start and one at end
o Measure distance between them
o As soon as the object passes through the first, it will measure the time taken to
reach the second
distance
o Then use speed = time
▪ This is more accurate as removes reaction time and human error with a
stopwatch
Recall typical speeds:

- Wind - 5 − 7𝑚𝑠 −1
- Sound - 340𝑚𝑠 −1
- Walking - 5km/h = ~ 1.4𝑚𝑠 −1
- Running - ~6 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 = ~3𝑚𝑠 −1
- Cycling - 15km/h = ~4𝑚𝑠 −1
- Bus - 14km/h
- Train - 125miles/h
- Plane - 900km/h
Acceleration due to gravity: 𝑔 = 10𝑚𝑠 −2
Newton’s First Law

An object has a constant velocity unless acted on by a resultant force
- If a resultant force acts on the object, it will accelerate
o Acceleration is change in velocity over time
o So the velocity will change
o So the direction or speed of the object will change (or both)
- If the resultant force is zero
o No acceleration
o So moving at constant velocity (so same speed and same direction)
o Or the object is at rest (no speed)
Newton’s Second Law

Force = mass × acceleration
F = ma
where force is in Newtons, N, mass is in kg and acceleration in ms-2.
Weight
- Measured using a force meter, or weighing scales, and is used to work out mass of unknown
object
- The greater the gravitational field strength, the greater the weight
Circular Motion
Object moving in a circle, with constant speed
- The speed is constant, but direction always changing
- So the velocity is always changing
- So it is accelerating
Force
- For motion in a circle, there must be a force which supplies this acceleration
- This is called centripetal force, and is directed towards the centre of the circle
Inertial Mass
- This is a measure of how difficult it is to change the velocity of an object (including from
rest)
𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞
- It is measured by 𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 = 𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
Newton’s Third Law

Every action force has an equal and opposite reaction force
- A book on a table
o The weight of the book on the table = The reaction force on the book by the table
- Rocket taking off
o The force of the gases being ejected from the rocket is equal to the force that lifts
the rocket from the surface
- Collisions
o Two marbles colliding
o The force exerted by one marble on the other is the same as the force from the
other
Momentum
- Momentum is always conserved in a collision (where there are no external forces like
friction, air resistance, electrostatic attraction etc.)
𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 = 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 × 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲
𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗
- Where p is the momentum in kgms , m is the mass in kg and v is the velocity in ms -1.
-1
- In collisions:
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐛𝐞𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐞 = 𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐚𝐟𝐭𝐞𝐫
- So two marbles colliding, each will have momentum before and after the collision
o Remember momentum is a vector
For Newton’s Second Law

𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 (𝒎𝒗 − 𝒎𝒖)
𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 = =
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝒕
Human Reaction Time

- There is a delay between a human observing an event, and acting
- Ruler Drop Experiment
o Someone else holds a ruler just above your open hand
o They drop it at a random time
o Record the distance from the bottom of the ruler to the point where it was caught
o Average this, and 1cm is 50ms, 2cm 60ms, and so on
- Average human reaction is 0.25 seconds (250milliseconds)
Vehicle Stopping Distances
- After seeing a hazard
o Before you react, during reaction time you travel X metres
▪ Thinking Distance
o Then you react, causing the car to slow down and stop over Y metres
▪ Braking Distance
Thinking Distance Braking Distance

- Speed - Speed
- Affected by reaction time - Poor road conditions (icy, wet)
- Concentration - Bald tires (low friction)
- Tiredness - Worn brake pads
- Distractions - Mass (more passengers)
- Influence of drugs/alcohol
Typical Stopping Distances (Physics only)
www.brake.org.uk
Speed and Braking Distance
- Greater the speed, the greater distance travelled during the same time (reaction time)
Dangers of Large Decelerations

- When in a crash, there is a large deceleration over a very short time as you stop moving
from a high speed.
- As force = mass × acceleration, this large deceleration means a great force is exerted on
the car, and the passengers
- This force is can cause injury
In terms of Momentum
- Before the crash, you have a large momentum (due to high velocity)
- After the crash, you have no momentum (as you are not moving)
∆ momentum
- So force = time
so a great force is felt
To estimate the forces felt on a road

- Use known values of mass and acceleration to calculate force
- Average mass of a car ~1500kg
Work Done to Stop (Physics only)

- The work done to stop a vehicle is equal to the initial KE of the vehicle
o As all the kinetic energy the car had has to be transferred to friction for it to stop
1
- Braking distance ∝ (initial velocity)2 as work done = 𝐾𝐸 = 𝐹𝑑 = 2 𝑚𝑢2
Mathematical skills
- Convert units
- Interpret distance/time and velocity/time graphs
o Including gradients and area underneath (for v/t graphs)
- Calculate distance, speed and time for:
o Uniform speed
o Uniform acceleration
o Non-uniform motion (and work out average speed)
- Estimate stopping distances for a car at a range of speeds
- Calculate force, mass and gravitational field strength using formulae
- Calculate force, mass, velocity and acceleration using formulae
- Estimate the speed, accelerations and forces involved in large accelerations for everyday
road transport
Acceleration = Change Average Speed = Walking ~ 1.5 m/s
in Velocity / Time Distance / Time
Velocity Running ~ 3 m/s
~ 0.2-0.9 Velocity = Displacement Typical speeds
seconds Displacement / Time Momentum Speed Cycling ~ 6 m/s
Force Distance Distance Travelled =
Experiment to Acceleration Energy Average Speed x Time Sound ~ 330 m/s
measure human
reaction time Vector: Scalar:
Magnitude and direction Magnitude only Measured with
Ruler drop Newton-meter
Scalar and Vector Measured in
Experimental Methods Quantities Measurement Newtons
Light gates
Removes uncertainty when
measuring time
2.1: MOTION AND FORCES Weight
No human reaction time Graphs Vehicles Weight = Mass x Gravitational Field Strength
Gradient = Velocity-Time
Acceleration graphs Stopping distance
Gravitational Field Strength
= Thinking Distance +
Area = Distance Braking Distance Depends on planet
Distance-Time
graphs Weight also changes
Thinking Distance Braking Distance Measured in
N/kg with planet
Gradient = Speed
Fatigue, drugs Road, weather and
and alcohol vehicle conditions EDEXCEL
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m₁v₁= m₂v₂ Acts towards centre of circle
Causes acceleration that
changes velocity Stays constant
Total momentum before event = Total momentum after event
Assuming no other external forces
Measured in Speed
kgm/s Centripetal
Conservation Force
Momentum = mass x velocity Velocity
Collisions Constantly changing
Momentum Circular Motion
Force = rate of change of momentum
2.2: MOTION AND FORCES The forces on interacting
Seat belts objects are equal and opposite
More time to change momentum Newton’s Laws
Smaller rate of change of momentum Third Law
Lower force
First Law
Velocity of an object only changes F=ma
if there is a resultant force Object is Second Law F = mΔv / t
stationary Inertial Mass
Force = Change in Momentum / Time
If resultant force = 0
KEY The acceleration of an object
is directly proportional to the
How difficult it is to
change object’s velocity
‘Higher tier only’ Object moving resultant force acting on it
written in green. at constant velocity EDEXCEL
Topic 3: Conservation of Energy
Notes

Energy
∆𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔∆ℎ
- The equation is used to work out the change in GPE as an object is moved from one height
to another.
- Change in gravitational potential energy (joule, J) = mass (kilogram, kg) × gravitational field
strength (newton per kilogram, N/kg) × change in vertical height (metre, m).
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
- The equation is used to calculate the amounts of energy associated with a moving object.
- Kinetic energy (joule, J) = ½ x mass (kilogram, kg) × (speed)2 (metre/second2, m/s2)
Energy Transfer
Light
- Diagrams show energy input, and the energy output Electric
o And the forms that the energy takes Bulb
o This includes the waste output energy too
o Motors also waste energy as heat Heat
Energy Changes
- Object projected upwards
o KE transferred to GPE, then vice versa as it falls back down
- Object projected up a slope
o KE transferred to GPE (and also to heat if friction is present)
- Moving object hitting an obstacle
o KE transferred to sound / KE transferred to obstacle if that moves too
- Object being accelerated by a constant force
o Object is having work done to it, with it gaining KE
o Whatever supplies the force is having its energy transferred to KE
- Vehicle slowing down
o KE transferred to heat (through brakes)
- Boiling water in kettle
o Electrical energy to thermal
Conservation of Energy
- In physics, conservation of energy means that the total energy of an isolated system remains
constant.
- A ‘closed system’ has no external forces acting on it (e.g. no change in gravitational force, no
electrostatic attraction, no external magnetic force etc.)
- In a closed system, the total energy in the system never changes, regardless of the energy
transfers that take place
o In other words, in a closed system no energy is lost
- Once it becomes an open system, energy can be transferred out of the system, and
therefore the total energy of the system can change
Mechanical Waste Energy

- In mechanical processes (i.e. where forces are involved on objects)
o Energy transferred to it can cause a rise in temperature
- So energy is dissipated to surroundings (heat is transferred to air)
o And this makes the process wasteful
Waste Energy
- Forms: Light, sound, (most commonly) heat
- To reduce waste:
o Lubricate systems, so less friction and less heat created
o Thermal insulation, so less heat is lost to surroundings
- Buildings
o Thicker walls mean greater thermal insulation, so less heat is lost
o Air cavities between walls causes lots of heat loss by convection - cavity wall
insulation fills in this gap and prevents air flow
Efficiency
- Ratio of useful output over total input of energy
useful energy transferred by the device
- efficiency = total energy supplied to the device
Efficiency can be increased by:

o Reducing waste output (via lubrication/thermal insulation or other methods)
o Recycling waste output and using it as input (absorbing heat energy dissipated and
used to as input heat energy)
o Suitable methods depend on each situation
Energy Sources
- Fossil Fuels
- Nuclear Fuel
- Bio-Fuel
- Wind
- Hydro-electricity
- Tidal
- Solar
Non-renewable energy is used more for large-scale energy supplies due to the large energy output
per kilogram of fuel – renewable resources cannot provide such a large amount of energy as easily
- Renewable energy has become more important due to the finite lifetime of fossil fuels, and
so their development has become more important
Patterns and trends in the use of energy resources

- During industrial revolution, fossil fuels became an important source of energy as it was easy
to mine, and provided a lot of energy
- Only recently has renewable energy become more suitable – technology has had to develop
a lot since industrial revolution to be able to harness such energy sources efficiently
In a closed system with no GPE = Mass x
energy transfers in or out, the Gravitational Field
total energy is constant Strength x Height
Doubling speed
quadruples KE
Energy cannot be created or
destroyed, only transferred Objects at a height
Systems have GPE
from one form to another Moving objects
have KE
Law of Conservation KE = ½ x Mass x Gravitational

Velocity² Potential Energy
Higher thermal conductivity
means greater rate of
energy transfer Conservation Kinetic Energy
Thermal
conductivity
3.1: CONSERVATION OF ENERGY Energy Transfers
GPE → KE as jumper falls Bungee jumper
Reduces heat loss Efficiency
to surroundings As cord stretches, KE →
Elastic Potential Energy, Electric kettle
Insulation Waste Energy slowing down the jumper Vehicle braking
Some supplied energy Electrical energy →

Lubrication transformed into heat energy KE → heat energy by
Efficiency = non-useful forms friction in the brakes
Reduces heat loss due to friction
Energy wasted as Vehicle slows down
Total Energy Supplied sound & heat to
Less waste energy means surroundings
a more efficient appliance
Useful Energy Transferred EDEXCEL
Global warming Carbon Dioxide
- Greenhouse emissions
+ No greenhouse gases
+ Large amounts of Sulphur Dioxide
energy per kg of fuel + Large amounts of
Acid rain energy per kg of fuel
+ Cost-effective and
generation all the time Coal - harmful nuclear waste,
must be stored for years
Coal, oil and gas Fossil Fuels Nuclear Fuels
+Lower greenhouse - Risk of nuclear disasters
emissions Gas
Non-Renewable Energy Sources
+Quick-start up times
allow for flexible
generation
3.2: CONSERVATION OF ENERGY: + Quickly & locally grown
+ Relatively cheap, can be
used in remote areas ENERGY SOURCES (renewable)
- Needs a lot of land

- Only possible in Solar Power Bio Fuels which could be used
daylight Renewable Energy Sources for food production
+ Cost-effective and abundant Wind Power Tidal Power + Renewable & predictable
source of energy
Hydroelectricity - Relatively new so costly
- Restricted by wind speeds to install & maintain
Visual & sound pollution
+ Provides large quantities - Affects water life
of energy in a short time - Only a limited number of suitable
(power surges or outages) sites for water dams EDEXCEL
Topic 4: Waves
Notes

Waves and Energy
- Waves transfer energy without transferring matter
- This is shown in the sea, where buoys stay still despite waves passing by them – the waves
move, but not the particles
Wavelength – distance between the same points on two consecutive waves,

Amplitude – distance from equilibrium line to the maximum displacement (crest or trough)
Frequency – the number of waves that pass a single point per second
Period – the time taken for a whole wave to completely pass a single point
Wavefront – the plane in which the wave travels (i.e. the direction of the wave)
velocity = frequency × wavelength = v = fλ
Wave speed (metre/second, m/s) = frequency (hertz, Hz) ×

wavelength (metre, m)
Relationships
- Increase frequency, velocity increases
- Wavelength increases, velocity increases
en.wikibooks.org
- Period is inversely proportional to frequency
- Smaller period, higher frequency, greater velocity
Types of Waves
- Transverse waves
o Light, or any electromagnetic wave, seismic S waves, water waves
o Has peaks and troughs
o Vibrations are at right angles to the direction of travel
- Longitudinal waves
o Sound waves, seismic P waves
o Has compressions and rarefactions
o Vibrations are in the same direction as the direction of travel
Measuring velocity
- Sound in air
o Make a noise at ~50m from a solid wall, and record time for the echo to be heard,
then use speed = distance/time
o Have two microphones connected to a datalogger at a large distance apart, and
record the time difference between a sound passing from one to the other – then
use speed = distance/time
- Ripples on water surface
o Use a stroboscope, which has the same frequency as the water waves, then measure
distance between the ‘fixed’ ripples and use 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
o Move a pencil along the paper at the same speed as a wavefront, and measure the
time taken to draw this line and the length of the line – then use speed =
distance/time
Refraction
- Waves pass from one medium to another
- If passing into a more optically denser medium (from air to glass)
o The wave will be refracted at the boundary and will change direction to bend
towards the normal
o Speed decreases
o Wavelength decreases
o Energy of a wave is constant, and energy is directly linked to frequency of a wave.
So if frequency is constant and speed decreases, wavelength must also decrease
- The light bends closer to the normal
Reflection
- Waves will reflect off a flat surface
(Physics Only)
- The smoother the surface, the stronger the reflected wave is
- Rough surfaces scatter the light in all directions, so appear matt and not reflective
- The angle of incidence = angle of reflection
- Light will reflect if the object is opaque and is not absorbed by the material
o The electrons will absorb the light energy, then reemit it as a reflected wave
Transmission (Physics Only)

- Waves will pass through a transparent material
- The more transparent, the more light will pass through the material
- It can still refract, but the process of passing through the material and still emerging is
transmission
Absorption (Physics Only)

- If the frequency of light matches the energy levels of the electrons
- The light will be absorbed by the electrons and not reemitted
- They will be absorbed, and then reemitted over time as heat
- So that particular frequency has been absorbed
- If a material appears green, only green light has been reflected, and the rest of the
frequencies in visible light have been absorbed
Effect of Wavelength
- Different substances may absorb, transmit, refract or reflect waves depending on their
wavelength
o Glass transmits/refracts visible light
o Reflects UV
The Ear (Physics only)

- Outer ear collects the sound and channels it down the ear canal
- As it travels down, it still is a pressure air wave
- The sound waves hit the eardrum
o Tightly stretched membrane which vibrates as the incoming pressure waves reach
it
o The eardrum vibrates at the same frequency as the sound wave
o The small bones connected to this also vibrate at the same frequency (stirrup
bone)
- Vibrations of the bones transmitted to the fluid in the inner ear (the cochlea)
- Compression waves are thus transferred to the fluid
o The small bones act as an amplifier of the sound waves the eardrum receives
o As the fluid moves due to the compression waves, the small hairs that line the
cochlea move too
o Each hair is sensitive to different sound frequencies, so some move more than
others for certain frequencies
▪ The hairs each come from a nerve cell
o When a certain frequency is received, the hair attuned to that specific frequency
moves a lot, releasing an electrical impulse to the brain, which interprets this to a
sound
- The higher the frequency, the more energy the wave has – which would damage cells in
the ear more quickly, and would not be able to work effectively long-term
o This, and the fact that we have evolved not needing to hear very high or low
frequencies, means the ear only works for a limited frequency range
Ultrasound (Physics only)
- This is a sound wave with a higher frequency than 20 000Hz
- Uses:
o Sonar
▪ Pulse of ultrasound is sent below a ship, and the time taken for it to reflect
and reach the ship can be used to calculate the depth
▪ This is used to work out whether there is a shoal of fish below the ship
▪ Or how far the seabed is below the ship
o Foetal Scanning
▪ Non-invasive and not harmful
▪ Used to create an image of the foetus, allowing measurements to be made
to check the foetus is developing normally
▪ This works because ultrasound waves partially reflect at each surface
boundary, this can be used to work out the distances and therefore an
image of the foetus
Infrasound (Physics Only)
- Infrasound is the opposite of ultrasound – it is a sound wave with a frequency lower than
20Hz – also known as seismic waves. There are two: P and S waves
o This is used to explore the Earth’s core
o P waves are longitudinal, and can pass through solids and liquids
o S waves are transverse, only passing through solids (these move slower too)
o On the opposite side of the Earth to an earthquake, only P waves are detected,
suggesting the core of the Earth is liquid – hence no S waves can penetrate it
Measured in metres v = f λ
Peak-peak or trough-trough 1 Hz = 1 wave each
distance often used! Determined by frequency
and wavelength second
Distance from one point to the

same point on the adjacent wave The rate that the Measured in
wave travels Hertz (Hz)
Wavelength (λ) Velocity (v) Number of waves that pass a

given point in a second
A line where all the oscillations
of the wave are in phase (all at Frequency (f)
the same position in their cycle) 4.1: WAVES:
Wavefront PROPERTIES OF WAVES Period (T)
Amplitude Water Waves Time taken for a complete

wave to pass a given point
Maximum displacement of a A float on water will bob up
wave from its rest position and down when a wave passes f = 1/T
For sound waves, amplitude The wave is transferred but Frequency is the
the medium is not! reciprocal of period
determines the volume of the sound
Can have characteristics of both Waves transfer energy and

transverse and longitudinal waves information, not matter!
EDEXCEL
Seismic waves Foetal scanning
Earth’s core Sound with
frequencies
Sound with > 20,000 Hz Waves travel from
frequencies emitter and are
Used to measure the depth reflected at boundaries
of things underwater < 20 Hz
Ultrasound inside body
Uses sound waves that are Infrasound

Reflected waves are
within the audible range detected to form an
Human hearing Sound image of the womb
Sound waves
Sonar Sound causes
vibrations in eardrum
4.2: WAVES: Require a medium to be
transferred through
Audible range:
20 Hz - 20kHz Transverse TYPES OF WAVES
Particles in the
Oscillations parallel to medium vibrate
energy transfer
Longitudinal
Energy transferred on collisions
to pass on vibrations
Peaks and troughs Oscillations perpendicular to
energy transfer Frequency of vibrations
KEY Electromagnetic radiation is a
form of transverse wave! Compressions and
determines pitch of sound
‘Higher tier only’ Rarefactions

written in green.
‘Physics only’
written in clouds. EDEXCEL
The angle between
normal and the
Reflection from rough reflected ray
Incident Angle surface, causing scattering
< Refracted Angle Incident Angle
> Refracted Angle
Reflection from smooth Angle of
surface in one direction reflection
Diffuse
When light enters
air from glass: When light enters
glass from air: Specular Angle of
incidence
The change of speed of a wave Reflection
as it enters a new medium Refraction
The angle between
the normal and
The denser the medium, the
slower the wave will travel
4.3: WAVES: incident ray
WAVE INTERACTIONS Wave is incident on

When a wave slows down, it a boundary and
will bend towards the normal
Colour and bounces back
Temperature Temperature Angle of Incidence
Determined by ratio of radiation = Angle of Reflection
absorbed and emitted Colour
Normal
Temperature increases if
the radiation absorbed Determined by the
exceeds the amount emitted wavelengths that an object An imaginary line perpendicular to a
KEY reflects and absorbs boundary at the point of incidence
‘Physics only’ An object that reflects all

written in clouds. wavelengths of light appears white EDEXCEL
Topic 5: Light and the Electromagnetic
Spectrum
Notes

Ray Diagrams (Physics only)
- Arrows show direction of light travelling
- The normal is an (imaginary) dashed line which is perpendicular to the surface, and from
which all angles are measured from
- Incident Angle is the angle of the entering ray
- Reflected Angle is the angle of the exiting ray
Reflection (Physics only)
- Incident angle = reflection angle
- Angles are always measured from normal
Refraction (Physics only)

- If entering a denser material, it bends towards the normal
- If entering a less dense material, it bends away from
normal Denser medium
Total Internal Reflection (TIR) (Physics only)

- This occurs when the light is passing from a denser
medium into a less dense medium (glass to air)
- If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the
refracted ray will pass along the boundary and not exit
the medium
Critical Angle
o The critical angle is a unique angle for each two
media (the critical angle for glass-air is different
to glass-water)
- For larger angles, the light internally reflects (following
the above law of reflection) back into the glass
Summary for glass to air (Physics only)

- If angle LESS than critical angle, light refracts away from normal
- If angle EQUAL to critical angle, light passes along boundary
- If angle MORE than critical angle, light reflects
Specular Reflection (Physics only)

- Mirror reflection, following law of reflection, for a smooth surface (all light incident at the
same angle all exit at the same angle)
Diffuse Reflection (Physics only)
- Light hitting a rough surface – incident ray is reflected at many angles rather than just one
angle
Colour (Physics only)

- Each colour is just a certain wavelength in visible light
- All the colours together make up white light
Opaque Material (Physics only)

- Objects appear to have a certain colour (e.g. ‘green’), as out of the incident white light only
that certain colour light (green light) is reflected, all other colours are absorbed
Colour Filters (Physics only)
- All other colours are absorbed, and only a certain colour is allowed to pass through - so only
a certain wavelength is transmitted through the filter
Lenses (Physics only)

- Focal Length is the distance between the lens and the focal point
- Focal Point is the point where all horizontal rays meet after passing through the lens
- Power of the lens is the inverse of the focal length
o Shorter focal length, greater power
o Thicker lens means shorter focal length, so greater power
Concave Lenses (Physics only)

- “Caves” inward
- Thinner at centre than at edges
- Spreads light outwards
- Light appears to have come from the focal point
o Draw horizontal ray from top of object
to lens
o Draw a faint line from focal point to
point where the ray hits the lens
o The ray exits the lens along the same
direction as the faint line (shown by
images.slideplayer.com
blue line)
- It is used to spread out light further
o E.g. they are used to correct short-sightedness
o As light is focused in front of the retina, so needs to be spread out slightly to be able
to be focused onto retina
Convex Lenses (Physics only)

- Fatter at centre
- Focuses light inwards
- Horizontal rays focus onto focal point
- They are used for magnifying glasses,
binoculars and to correct long-
sightedness, as it focuses the rays closer openstudy.com
Images (Physics only)

- A Real image is an image produced at the opposite
side of the lens to the object
o The above image for a convex lens is a real
image
- Virtual images appear to come from the same side
of the lens to the object
leydenscience.org
o This is if the object lies closer to the lens
than the focal point (F)
EM Waves
- All electromagnetic waves transfer energy from source to observer
o The waves contain energy, for example microwaves which transfers energy from
source to food
- They are transverse waves
- They all travel at the same speed in a vacuum
westernreservepublicmedia.org
Need to learn the main groups, and in which order (for increasing wavelength or frequency)
- EM waves do not need particles to move

- In space, all waves have the same velocity (speed of light)
- They can transfer energy from a source to absorber
o Microwave source to food
o Sun emits energy to Earth
- Our eyes can only detect visible light
- Materials interact with EM waves differently depending on the wavelength
o Glass can transmit visible light, reflect/absorb UV and IR
Relationships
- As speed is constant for all EM waves in a vacuum
- As wavelength decreases, frequency must increase
- As frequency increases, energy of the wave increases
All Bodies emit radiation

- The higher the temperature, the more intense (and more wavelengths) will be emitted
Temperature
- It must radiate the same average power that it absorbs to remain at a constant
temperature
- If It absorbs more power than it emits –the temperature will increase
- If it absorbs less power than it emits – the temperature will decrease
- Temperature of the earth – this is maintained by the amount of energy received and
emitted from the sun
o Short-wavelength Infra-red radiation from the sun reaches the Earth
o Some is reflected by the atmosphere, most reaches the surface
o The energy is absorbed and re-emitted as longer-length IR radiation
o This is mostly absorbed by the atmosphere (greenhouse gases, CO 2 etc.) and keeps
the Earth warm
Danger of the EM spectrum

- Higher frequency EM waves have more energy, so exposure can transfer too much energy to
cells, causing them to mutate and potentially damage them/causing cancer
- Microwaves - Internal heating of body cells
- Infra-Red - Skin burns
- UV - Damage to surface cells and eyes, leading to skin cancer
- X-ray/Gamma - Mutation or damage to cells in the body
Uses of the EM spectrum,

- Radio - Communications, satellite transmission.
• They can be produced by oscillations in electrical circuits, or they
can induce oscillations in electrical circuits
- Microwave - Cooking, communication
- IR - Cooking, thermal imaging, short range communication, optical fibres
- Visible - Vision, photography, illumination
- UV - Security marking, fluorescent lamps, disinfecting water
- X-ray - Observing internal structure of objects, airport/medical scanners
- Gamma - Sterilising food/medical equipment, treating cancer
Change in Atoms and Nuclei:

- Generate radiations over a wide frequency range
- Be caused by absorption of a range of radiation
Temperature increase
Higher temperature bodies
emit greater radiation
Radiation emitted Radiation absorbed
> Radiation absorbed > Radiation emitted
All bodies emit

infrared radiation Temperature decrease
Rate of absorption of radiation
= Rate of emission of radiation
Radiation
Constant temperature
Temperature
5.1: LIGHT AND

Reflection from
Minimum incident angle ELCTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM smooth surface in
one direction
required for all light to
under TIR (Physics only)
Critical Reflection Specular
angle
Law of Diffuse
reflection Reflection from
TIR rough surface,
KEY Angle of incidence
causing scattering
‘Higher tier only’ = Angle of reflection
written in green. Total internal Used in optical
‘Physics only’ reflection fibres
A real image can be A virtual image cannot be
projected onto a screen projected onto a screen
Always a
Real or virtual virtual image Rays diverge
image
Rays converge Negative focal

Convex Concave lengths
Positive focal
lengths 5.2: LIGHT AND
ELCTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM: Power
LENSES
Depends on
Refraction (Physics only) focal length
and shape
The changing of speed, and The shorter the
so direction, as a wave focal length, the
enters a new medium more powerful Focal Length
The distance from

Lenses make use of this the lens to the
KEY effect to cause rays to
converge and diverge
principal focus
‘Physics only’
A body that absorbs all
wavelengths of light appears black
A body that reflects all
wavelengths of light appears white
Human eyes can only see a Depends on wavelengths of light
limited range of frequencies that it absorbs and reflects
Disinfecting water Vision

Colour
Security marking
Ultraviolet Visible light
X-Rays 5.3: LIGHT AND Microwaves
Body imaging
ELCTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM: Satellite
USES Communications
Identifying bone
fractures and breakages
Gamma Rays Radio Waves
Infrared
Radio
Cancer Thermal Imaging Communications
detection and
treatment Short-range Broadcasting
communication
KEY Highly penetrating
‘Physics only’
Exposure shielding used by those
regularly working with X-rays
Exposure measuring badges
Controlling exposure
Cell mutation Greater exposure

leading to cancers means greater risk
X-Rays Exposure
5.4: LIGHT AND Microwaves

ELCTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM: Internal heating
DANGERS of body cells
Gamma Rays
Infrared
Ultraviolet
Cell mutations Damage to eyes
causing cancers
Surface cell damage
leading to skin cancer
EDEXCEL
All travel at the same
speed in a vacuum
All travel at the same
speed in a vacuum Speed of light = 3x10⁸ m/s
Continuous Spectrum
5.5: LIGHT AND
High Frequency ELCTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM Low Frequency
/ Long Wavelength
/ Short Wavelength
Gamma Rays Radio Waves

X-Rays Microwaves
Ultraviolet Infrared
Visible light
To remember order: Giant Xylophones Usually Live In Music Rooms
EDEXCEL
Topic 6: Radioactivity
Notes

Radioactivity
Atom
- A positively charged nucleus
o Made of positive protons
o And neutral neutrons
- Surrounded by negatively charged electrons
o The electrons orbit the nucleus at different fixed distances from the nucleus
- The nuclear radius is a lot smaller than the radius of the atom
- Almost all the mass of the atoms lies in the nucleus
Subatomic Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 0.0005 -1
Positron 0.0005 +1
Size of atom: ~0.1𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠, 10−10
Isotopes and Elements

- Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons
- Neutral atoms have the same number of electrons and protons
- Isotopes are atoms of the same element, but with different masses
o They have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons
- For Example, Carbon-12, Carbon-13 and Carbon-14
𝐴 ±𝑛
𝑍𝑋
- X is the letter of their element
- A is the mass number (number of neutrons and protons)
- Z is the proton number
- N is the charge
o On a neutral atom, electrons = protons, so cancels out
o If there are N more electrons than protons, then the charge is –N
o If there are N fewer electrons than protons, then the charge is +N
o The number of protons does not change for a certain element
Atoms and EM Radiation

- When electrons change orbit (move closer or further from the nucleus)
o When electrons move to a higher orbit (further from the nucleus)
▪ The atom has absorbed EM radiation
o When the electrons falls to a lower orbit (closer to the nucleus)
▪ The atoms has emitted EM radiation
- If an electron gains enough energy, it can leave the atom to form an ion
Radiation
- Decay occurs in a random process
- Forms of decay
o Alpha (a helium nucleus) o Beta Plus (positron)
▪ Highly ionising ▪ Medium ionising
▪ Weakly penetrating ▪ Medium penetration
o Beta Minus (electron) o Gamma (radiation)
▪ Medium ionising ▪ Low ionising
▪ Medium penetration ▪ Highly penetration
o Neutrons
Background Radiation
- Weak radiation that can be detected from natural / external sources
- Examples of background radiation include:
o Cosmic rays
o Radiation from underground rocks
o Nuclear fallout
o Medical rays
Methods of Measuring Radioactivity

- Photographic film
o Film goes darker when it absorbs radiation – the more radiation absorbed, the
darker it gets (the film is initially white)
o Worn as badges by people who work with radiation, to check how much exposure
they have had
- Geiger-Muller Tube
o A tube which can detect radiation
o Each time it absorbs radiation, it transmits an electrical pulse to the machine, which
produces a clicking sound
▪ The greater the number of clicks per second (the frequency of clicks) the
more radiation is present
Atomic Structure
How and why the atomic model has changed over time
1800 - Dalton said everything was made of atoms

1897 - JJ Thomson discovered the electron
The Plum Pudding Model was formed
The overall charge of an atom is neutral, so

the negative electrons were dispersed
through the positive “pudding” to cancel
out the charges.
1911 - Rutherford realised most of the atom was empty space

The Gold Foil Experiment
Most particles went straight through
- So most of atom is empty space
Some 𝛼 particles were slightly deflected

- So nucleus must be positive,
repelling positive 𝛼
Few 𝛼 particles were deflected by >90°

- So nucleus contained most of the
mass
kcmcgann.tripod.com/goldfoil.jpg
This experiment was carried out by Geiger and Marsden
1913 - Rutherford Model
Now there is a positive nucleus at the

centre of the atom, and negative electrons
existing in a cloud around the nucleus
upload.wikimedia.org
1913 – Bohr produced the final model of the atom
If Rutherford was right, the electrons in the

cloud close to the nucleus would get
attracted and cause the atom to collapse.
therefore, he concluded that the electrons
exist in fixed ‘orbitals’
Decay Processes
- Beta-Minus Decay
o Neutron becomes a proton, and releases an electron
- Beta-Plus Decay
o Proton becomes a neutron, and releases a positron
𝐴 𝐴′
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍′𝑌 + 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
Alpha
An alpha particle is equivalent to a helium nucleus.
𝐴 𝐴−4
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍−2𝑌 + 42𝛼
Beta
A beta particle is an electron emitted from the nucleus
𝐴 𝐴
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍+1𝑌 + −10𝑒 − (+𝑣̅𝑒 )
Gamma
A gamma ray is electromagnetic radiation
𝐴 𝐴′
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍′𝑌 +𝛾
Nuclei after decay often have excess energy, which they release as gamma when the atom
undergoes nuclear arrangement.
Activity
- Activity is the number of decays in a sample per second
- Activity is initially very high (the more atoms in the sample, the greater the chance of at least
one of them will decay
o Activity decreases exponentially over time
- Units of Activity are Becquerel, Bq
Half Life
- The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for half the nuclei in a sample to decay
o Or the time taken for the activity of a sample to decay by half
- It cannot be predicted when any one nucleus will decay, but the half-life is a constant that
enables the activity of a very large number of nuclei to be predicted during the decay
Net Decline
- Work out ratio of net decline of radioactive nuclei after X half-lives
o Half the initial number of nuclei, and keep doing so X number of times
𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 − 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐚𝐟𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐗 𝐡𝐚𝐥𝐟 𝐥𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐬
o 𝐧𝐞𝐭 𝐝𝐞𝐜𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞 = 𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫
Example:
There were initially 80 nuclei, with a half -life of 15 minutes, net decline after 3 half -
lives?
o 𝟖𝟎 → 𝟒𝟎 → 𝟐𝟎 → 𝟏𝟎
o 𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒆, 𝟐𝒏𝒅 , 𝟑𝒓𝒅 half-life
𝟖𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝟕
o 𝒔𝒐 𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 = 𝟖𝟎 = 𝟖
Uses of Radioactivity (Physics Only)

- Smoke Alarms
o Americium is used in smoke alarms
o Americium has a half-life of 432 years
▪ It is an alpha emitter
o This is stopped by a few centimetres of air (as it is weakly penetrating)
o The alpha particles ionise air particles and makes them charged therefore making a
current
o If smoke enters the air around the alarm, the current drops in the circuit
▪ Causing the alarm to sound
- Irradiating food
o Gamma rays transfer energy to bacteria, killing them and sterilising food
o Also used to delay ripening of fruit
- Sterilisation of equipment
o Radiation, usually gamma, exposed onto equipment to kill all microbes present on
the equipment, so they are safe for operations
- Tracing and Gauging Thickness
o Beta radiation is mildly penetrating, and can just pass through paper
o A source and receiver are placed either side of the paper during its production
▪ If there is a drop or rise in received electrons, then that means the thickness
of the paper has changed – i.e. a defect in the production
o It is also used inside pipes, with a detector placed externally, to measure the
thickness of walls of the pipe
- Diagnosis and Treatment of cancer
o Consuming/injecting a gamma emitter, it passes through the body and an external
detector can picture where the tracer has collected in the body, which can reveal
tumours
o Gamma rays are used on the tumour, killing the cancer cells
o However, exposing rays on healthy cells cause them to possibly mutate or causes
damage (see next section)
Dangers of ionising radiation (Physics Only)

- A short half-life
o The source presents less of a risk, as it does not remain strongly radioactive
o This means initially it is very radioactive, but quickly dies down
o So presents less of a long-term risk
- Long half-life
o The source remains weakly radioactive for a long period of time
o Americium is suitable in smoke alarms because it will not need to be replenished,
and its weak activity means it won’t be harmful to anyone
▪ Its half-life is 432 years
Safety Measures
- Limiting patient dose
o Only use radioactive tracers with a short enough half life
▪ So short enough to quickly be removed over a day or so
▪ But long enough to still be detectable after the time taken for it to pass
through the body
▪ Common medical tracers used have a half-life of 6hrs
- Limiting risks to medical personnel
o They leave the room during radioactive tests, as their everyday close proximity to
the radioactive sources puts their health at risk in the long-term
Difference in Radiation
- Contamination
o Lasts for a long period of time
o The source of the radiation is transferred to an object
o E.g. radioactive dust settling on your skin (your skin becomes contaminated)
- Irradiation
o Lasts only for a short period of time
o The source emits radiation, which reaches the object
o E.g. Radioactive dust emitting beta radiation, which “irradiates” your skin
o Medical items are irradiated sometimes to kill bacteria on its surface, but not to
make the medical tools themselves radioactive
Treatment of Tumours (Physics Only)

- External
o A beam of gamma radiation (usually a wide beam) rotates around the body
o It continually focuses on the tumour, while only passing momentarily across healthy
cells surrounding the tumour
o This ensures minimal damage occurs on the healthy cells, while the tumour is most
affected
▪ However it takes a long time to fully treat the tumour, taking multiple visits
for around 5 weeks
▪ There is a greater risk of long-term side effects, as the radiation passes
through healthy tissues
- Internal
o Radioactive material is held within a needle, and is injected directly into the tumour
▪ A longer period of time needs to be spent in hospital, as some radioactive
implants are of high radioactivity (so you emit radiation, requiring you to
have very limited contact with visitors until the source’s activity has
decreased)
PET Scanners (Physics Only)
- Positron emission tomography
o Radioactive tracer is inserted into the body
▪ The tracer is tagged to the desired chemical, and the tracer therefore travels
in the body where this certain chemical travels (e.g. glucose or ammonia)
o The scanner records where the tracer emits radiation
o This produces a live 3D visualisation of the body
▪ Used to show how effective current treatment is
▪ Or to diagnose cancer, epilepsy, Alzheimer’s
Isotopes (Physics Only)
- The isotope used in PET scanners is made locally just before insertion
- This is because the tracer has a half-life of 110mins, so it cannot be stored for long before it
decays
Nuclear Power (Physics Only)

- Uranium fuel splits releasing neutrons, which are absorbed by further uranium nuclei, which
split (this is fission, in a chain reaction)
- No carbon dioxide is produced
- There is a safety risk of radiation leaking, or the chain reaction become uncontrollable and
causing a meltdown
- Also, a security risks as terrorists can try and obtain the radioactive material
- Public perception of nuclear power is negative, due to the fatal disasters caused by nuclear
power plants
- Waste disposal is difficult – initially extremely hot, the waste needs to be placed deep in
lakes, ‘cooling ponds’ to cool down, before being stored deep underground (it can be used
for nuclear warheads so is a terrorist risk) for centuries
Nuclear Energy (Physics Only)

- Fusion is the process of small nuclei being forced together (under immense temperature and
pressure) to form a heavier nucleus
o This is the energy source for stars
o The electrostatic repulsion of the protons in the two different nuclei means a lot of
energy is required to bring the nuclei close enough to fuse
▪ So fusion cannot happen at low temperatures and pressures
▪ So this makes it very difficult to make a practical and economic fusion power
station
- Fission is the process of a nucleus splitting into two smaller nuclei after absorbing neutrons,
which releases more neutrons
- Radioactive Decay is when an unstable nucleus decays into two smaller nuclei
- All these process release energy, and can be a source of energy
U-235 Fission (Physics Only)
- Uranium-235 (this means 235 nucleons) is the fuel used in nuclear (fission) power stations
o It absorbs neutrons, and becomes unstable
o This causes it to undergo fission
▪ Releasing energy
▪ Forming two ‘daughter’ nuclei
• The products are radioactive, as they are strong gamma emitters
(some of the energy released from the fission is also held by the
daughter nuclei)
▪ Emitting two or more neutrons as well
Chain Reaction (Physics Only)

- After one nucleus splits, emitting neutrons, these neutrons cause further fissions, which
releases more neutrons…. This continuous process is a chain reaction
- This needs to be controlled
o As more neutrons are released than the number absorbed, this could cause an
exponential process
▪ For example the first fission releases two neutrons, which will cause 2
fissions, releasing four neutrons, causing four fissions, releasing eight
neutrons… and so on, which would cause a meltdown
o Moderators
▪ This is usually water/graphite, and slows down the emitted neutrons to be
absorbed for further fissions (fast moving neutrons cannot be easily
absorbed)
o Control Rods
▪ These are boron rods in the reactor core, which absorb excess neutrons,
preventing a runaway chain reaction
- The heat energy from the chain reaction is absorbed by water (coolant) which evaporates
into steam, and is used to turn a turbine, which turns the generator which generates
electricity
Relative mass: 1
Relative mass: 0.0005
Relative charge: +1 Majority of Overall charge is neutral: Levels may be changed
atomic mass equal number of protons by absorption or emission
and electrons Relative charge: -1 of radiation
Protons
Relative mass: 1 Nucleus Electrons Electrons exist in
distinct energy levels
Neutrons Atoms
Relative charge: 0
Ions
Isotopes Atomic Structure Elements
Atoms with the same number of protons 6.1: RADIOACTIVITY: Atoms gain electrons to
form negative ions
but different numbers of neutrons
THE ATOM Have a unique number of protons
nucleus has a characteristic charge
Ball of positive charge
with negative charges
Atomic Models
scattered throughout
Plum Pudding Model
Bohr Model
Atoms thought to be
indivisible until electron Very small positive
discovered nucleus
Central nucleus with
electrons orbiting in
Alpha Scattering Most of atom is energy levels
empty space
Atomic radius approx:

1 x 10⁻¹⁰ m EDEXCEL
No current flows if
there’s smoke X-ray scans combined to
produce 3D image of body
Alpha particles sit between two

charged plates Damages body cells CT Scans Radiation focussed to
Causes mutations that can kill cancerous cells
Smoke alarms lead to cancer
Radiotherapy
Range in of a few cm in air Ionising radiation
2 neutrons and 2 protons
(same as helium nucleus) Alpha Gamma EM radiation
Highly ionising
6.2: RADIOACTIVITY:
High speed electron NUCLEAR RADIATION
Beta
Thickness detectors Irradiation
Emitted when a neutron turns Beta particles passed Object is exposed to radiation
into a proton in nucleus through paper without becoming radioactive
Machine stopped if paper is too thick
KEY Nuclear Rearrangement

‘Physics only’ After nuclear decay, gamma
written in clouds. radiation may be given off EDEXCEL
Uncontrolled chain
reactions are used in Chain reactions
nuclear weapons
Splitting of large and

Unstable nuclei must absorb a unstable nuclei Neutrons released in
slow-moving neutron one fission induce
further fission
Produces two smaller Releases two or

nuclei and releases energy Nuclear Fission three neutrons
6.3: RADIOACTIVITY
(Physics only)
Nuclear Fusion
Joining of two light nuclei

Requires very high into a larger nucleus
temperatures and pressures
KEY Mass is converted into energy in

the A-form of radiation
‘Physics only’
Proton turns into a neutron and
releases a positron
Nuclear weapons testing Rocks, and cosmic rays Proton number decreases
and nuclear accidents from space Mass number constant
Man-Made Natural β+ Decay
Background Radiation Decay Equations
6.4: RADIOACTIVITY β- Decay
Proton number increases

Count-Rate Nuclear Decay Mass number constant
Measured using a
Geiger-Muller tube
Neutron turns into a
Random proton and an electron
Activity is released
Rate at which a
nuclei decays
Which nuclei and when it will
decay is unpredictable
Measured in
becquerels (Bq) EDEXCEL
Topic 7: Astronomy
Notes

Weight (Physics Only)
- 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
- W = mg, Weight (Newtons, N) = mass (kilograms, kg) x acceleration due to gravity (metres
per second, m/s)
- The greater the value of g, the greater the weight of the object.
- The greater the mass of the planet, the greater value of g on that planet.
- This is because more mass = stronger gravitational pull = higher value of
gravitational acceleration = higher value of g.
Solar System (Physics Only)
- Our Solar System consists of:

- The Sun, which lies at the centre (helio-centric)
- Eight planets that orbit the sun
- Natural satellites orbit the planets (e.g. the Moon for Earth)
- Dwarf planets orbit the sun (including Pluto, Ceres)
- Asteroids and comets
Our Solar System (Physics Only)

- Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
o My Very Early Morning Jam Sandwich Usually Nauseates
- Smaller planets are made of primarily rock, then the larger planets are primarily gas
- All planets orbit the Sun on the same plane
- All planets rotate, just at different speeds
o Some planets rotate in the opposite direction or on a skewed axis to the other
planets, and this may be due to past collisions throwing its axis off balance
- Larger planets have rings, as their gravitational field is so strong it attracts debris
Solar System Model (Physics Only)

- The initial model suggested, Earth was at the centre, the
planets, our moon, and the sun, orbited the Earth
o “Geocentric” model
o Everything orbited in perfect circles
o With a fixed background of stars
- Then 600 years later, the heliocentric model was formed, with the sun at the centre
o The main evidence being Mars’ “retrograde motion”
▪ Earth orbits the sun faster than mars, so we undertake it, so it appears to
reverse its direction in the sky
o Galileo observing moons orbiting Jupiter showed not everything orbited the Earth
o Kepler showed that the planets orbited in ellipses, and not circles
Planetary Orbits (Physics Only)
- As the planet orbits the sun
o The gravitational force causes the planet to change direction constantly (it moves in
a circle around the sun)
o But the speed of the planet is constant
o This means the velocity is always changing
▪ Hence the force causes the planet to accelerate without increasing its speed
Relationships (Physics Only)

- For a stable orbit:
o If the planet moves closer to the sun, (i.e. its orbital radius decreases)
o The gravitational attraction to the sun increases
▪ (Force increases, and so does acceleration, which causes an increase in
velocity)
o So, the orbital speed of the planet increases
Red Shift (Physics Only)

- Light appears red shifted from galaxies which are moving away from Earth.
- The emission spectrum shows the different wavelengths emitted from a star, with black
absorption lines showing absorbed wavelengths. The spectra from distant galaxies show the
black lines in the emission spectra shifted towards the red end of the emission spectrum,
showing a red shift.
- The red shift increases as the distance away from the earth increases which is evidence of an
expanding universe
- Imagine the start of the big bang as an un-stretched balloon, with galaxies on the surface of
the balloon, and as the universe expands, the balloon expands
o The distance between galaxies also expands
o So light from a galaxy has its wavelength “red-shifted” as it appears to move away
from us
o As wavelength appears to get larger (more in the red-end of the visible spectrum)
o Frequency appears to decrease, as each time a wavelength is emitted, the source
(galaxy) is further away.
Evidence for the Big Bang (Physics Only)

- Red Shift
o This shows universe is expanding.
o So initially, it must have been formed from a single point.
- CMB
o Cosmic Microwave Background radiation.
o When the universe was very young, everything, the first stars and rock, would be
very hot, and should have emitted lots of short-wavelength radiation.
o This radiation, as the universe expanded over time, would have been stretched to
become microwaves.
o This background radiation is present wherever you point a telescope in the sky.
o Which proves that the hot young universe has cooled and expanded since.
- As the big bang accounts for all the experimental evidence, it is the most accepted model
currently.
Steady State Theory (Physics Only)
- As universe expands, matter is constantly being created so there is a constant density of
matter in the universe.
- The red shift supports this theory
- This suggests that the observable universe is the same at any time and any place.
- However, showing that different stars were present at different eras of the universe shows
that the universe has evolved and not stayed the same, so this cannot be correct.
- Also, the theory does not account for CMB.
Life Cycle of Star (Physics Only)

- Dust and gas cloud is present in a galaxy
- Interstellar matter clump together to form clouds
called nebulae. It is in these clouds/nebulae that
stars are formed.
- The gravitational attraction between the gas/dust
particles draws them together
- The cloud becomes more concentrated, as the
particles get closer
- The temperature and pressure of the cloud
increases as the particles get pushed so close
together
- Eventually the pressure gets so great that the gas
/dust particles are able to fuse together
o Fusion occurs as the light (mainly hydrogen
gas) nuclei fuse together to form helium
nuclei
o This creates a large amount of energy
o This release opposes the collapsing of the
cloud due to gravity
o So eventually an equilibrium forms, where
the energy released due to fusion balances
the pressure of gravitational collapse http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesiz 1
▪ This means a star has now formed,
and it will stay like this for billions of years
- Eventually the star runs out of gas to fuse

o This means it is not in equilibrium, so it collapses
o If the star is massive
▪ The star will collapse, increasing the pressure + temperature of the core,
meaning heavier elements can fuse. Once all the fusion has happened, it is
too massive to be stable, so the star collapses, rebounds on its centre and
produces a supernova
▪ What remains is either a neutron star or black hole
o If the star is normal-sized
▪ The same process happens, less fusion occurs however (less fuel to fuse)
▪ The star swells to produce a red giant star fusing heavier elements
▪ Once all reactions are over the star contracts and cools into a white dwarf.
Observing the Universe (Physics Only)
- Observations can use any wavelength in the EM spectrum
- To measure X rays, Gamma, UV, these telescopes need to be outside of the atmosphere, as
the atmosphere does not allow these to reach the ground
- More methods have developed over time
o Early refracting telescopes evolved to reflecting telescopes, which could be made
larger and cheaper (as refracting lenses are expensive and heavy)
o Technological advances allowed other parts of the EM spectrum to also be
measured and collected
Red Giant Red Supergiant
Forces unbalanced as
hydrogen runs out Larger main sequence stars
Similar mass Larger mass swell to supergiants
Outward forces greater to Sun than Sun
causing swelling Supernova
Outward forces (radiation and
White Dwarf The lifecycle of a star pressure) balanced by inward Large explosion
depends on the star’s mass Main sequence gravitational forces
Fusion stops and star Heavy elements from core
contracts under gravity sent into the universe
Stars
Black Dwarf Black Hole
7.1: ASTRONOMY
Star’s energy runs out (Physics only) Largest red supergiants contract
resulting in a black hole
Protostar Orbits Neutron Star
Circular orbits Formed by large mass red

Stable orbits
Dust and gas pulled supergiants collapsing
together by gravity Constant speed but
changing velocity If orbital speed changes,
the radius must change
In circular motion the

direction is always changing
EDEXCEL
Produces energy by
nuclear fusion
Such as Pluto
Our solar system’s star Man-made satellites for

communications and imaging
Dwarf Planets
The Sun
Gravitational field strength
Solar System Artificial Satellites varies across planets
All orbit the Sun.
The Planets
Object’s weight is different
Mercury 7.2: ASTRONOMY Weight on each planet
Larger planets are Venus (Physics only)
more gaseous Earth W = m g
Mars
Larger planets have
Jupiter
Asteroids Often remains of
stronger gravitational unformed planets
fields, so attract Saturn
debris to form a ring Large rocks mostly found
Uranus
Comets between Mars and Jupiter
Neptune
Closest to the Sun

Produce tails as
they melt Clusters of rock and ice that
moving in elliptical orbits
EDEXCEL
+ Not weather or light
dependent (versatile) - Very expensive
+ Relatively cheaper
- Difficult to repair! Radio telescopes
Outside earth’s atmosphere

Optical telescopes - Limited to night time use
+ The Earth’s atmosphere absorbs a lot Observation

of radiation and has light pollution - Requires clear sky
Clearer in space 7.3: ASTRONOMY

(Physics only)
Red-Shift
Relative motion between a

Further away galaxies have wave source and observer Provides evidence that the
greater red-shift causes a change in observed Universe is expanding
wavelength and frequency
The Big Bang Theory
Further away galaxies
are moving faster
EDEXCEL
CMBR
‘Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation’
Cannot explain CMBR

Believed to be the gamma radiation
emitted in the big bang
As the universe expands,
new matter is created
Radiation stretched as the Universe has expanded
The universe has

always existed
7.4: ASTRONOMY
(Physics only)
Steady State Theory Big Bang Theory
The Universe expanded

from a single point
Currently accepted model
Backed up by the most evidence and

explains the existence of CMBR
EDEXCEL
Topic 8: Energy- forces doing work
Notes

Energy
- Energy is never created or destroyed, it is only transferred
- When a system changes, energy is transferred from one form to another
o Electrical energy changes into kinetic energy in a motor
- A closed system is a system which experiences no external forces
o E.g. a circuit, or a skydiver
o In a closed system, the total energy remains the same at all times
∆𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔∆ℎ
- Change in gravitational potential energy (joule, J) = mass (kilogram, kg) × gravitational field
strength (newton per kilogram, N/kg) × change in vertical height (metre, m)
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
- Kinetic energy (joule, J)= ½ ×mass (kilogram, kg) × (speed)2 ((metre/second)2, (m/s)2)
Changes
- Work done
o This is when an external force transfers energy to a system
o E.g. a human doing work to push a ball up a hill
- Electric
o Chemical potential energy (stored in batteries) forms electric
- Heating
o Electric transfers to thermal energy, as work is done against the heating coils causing
it to heat up
𝐸 = 𝐹𝑑 (𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)

- Work done (joule, J) = force (newton, N) × distance moved in the direction of the force
(metre, m)
Waste
- Energy is rarely 100% transferred into the desired form
o Some energy is dissipated so it is stored in less useful ways
- Mechanical processes are wasteful when they get hot (usually due to friction)
o Energy is dissipated as heat, causing a rise in temperature
o So the energy is lost to the surroundings
Power
- The rate at which energy is transferred
𝐸
𝑃=
𝑡
- Power (watt, W) = energy transferred or work done (joule, J) ÷ time taken (second, s), where
1 Watt is equal to 1 Joule per second.
Efficiency
- Measure of how much energy is not lost as waste
useful output energy
efficiency =
total input energy
Waste energy is
downwards arrow
In a closed system, the total
Arrow’s width represents energy remains constant
Useful energy is shown energy for a purpose
by a horizontal arrow
Energy can only be transformed
Shows energy transfers from one form to another
in a system
Energy cannot be created
or destroyed
Sankey Diagrams
Conservation
8.1: ENERGY
Mechanical processes waste
Efficiency energy due to friction and heat
loss to surroundings
Useful Energy Waste Energy Some supplied energy transformed

Transferred
Efficiency = into non-useful forms
Total Energy Supplied
Lubrication Insulation
Reduces heat loss Reduces heat loss

due to friction to surroundings
EDEXCEL
Doubling speed quadruples KE
As cord stretches,
Moving objects have KE KE → Elastic Potential Energy, The vehicle slows down
slowing down the jumper
KE = ½ x Mass x
Velcoity² KE → heat energy by
GPE → KE as jumper falls friction in the brakes
GPE = Mass x Gravitational
Field Strength x Height Bungee jumper
Kinetic Energy Vehicle braking
Objects at a Gravitational Electric kettle

height have GPE Potential Energy Energy Transfers
Electrical energy → heat energy
8.2: ENERGY Energy wasted as sound &

heat to surroundings
Power = Work Done (J) Power Work Done

Time Taken (s)
Work Done (J) = Force (N) x Distance (m)
1 W = 1 J/s Work done when energy is transferred 1 J = 1 Nm

from one form to another
The unit of power is The work done is equal to energy transferred

the Watt (W)
Must use the force in the
direction of motion EDEXCEL
Topic 9: Forces and their effects
Notes

Object Interaction
- Examples of interaction of objects at a distance without contact:
o Gravitational attraction
▪ There is an attraction between two objects with mass, the larger mass gives
greater attraction
o Electrostatic attraction/repulsion
▪ A Larger charge gives greater force
▪ Like charges repel, opposite charges attract
o Magnetic attraction/repulsion
▪ A stronger magnet gives stronger field, having a greater force
▪ Like poles repel, opposite poles attract
- Examples of interaction of objects with contact
o Normal contact force
▪ The force is perpendicular to the plane of contact
o Friction
▪ Surfaces that are rough cause friction when moved
Vectors
- A vector has size and direction – e.g. a force of 10N directed downwards
o Weight, velocity, force, displacement, etc.
- Scalar has just size – so direction plays no part in describing the value
o Mass, distance, speed, etc.
Vector diagrams
Free body diagrams
- Shows the direction of forces that are present in a Thrust
situation Reaction
Points to note:
- The reaction force always acts at the normal to the
line of contact, from the point of contact
- Friction acts in the opposite direction to movement,
along line of contact Friction
- Weight always acts downwards, acting from Centre Weight
of Mass
Scale Drawings
- The length of each arrow represents its size (in
relation to the other forces acting on the object)
o So direction with larger arrows shows
resultant force
- If arrows are in opposite directions with equal
length
o (Equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction)
o The forces cancel out
o So the object is in equilibrium
o So travels at a constant velocity
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/
Diagram:
- At B, the drag is a lot less than the weight, as shown by the arrows, so the resultant force
causes him to accelerate
- At C, the difference in arrow lengths is less, so the resultant force is smaller, so smaller
acceleration
Isolated solid systems means no forces are present that come from a source outside the system
- E.g. a magnetic ball just rolling down a hill, an external force would be a magnet at the top
of the hill
Skydiver
- Forces that act are air resistance and weight
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/
- Initially, the skydiver has no air resistance and the only force acting on him is weight
- As he falls, he accelerates, increasing his speed
- This makes air resistance increase
- Therefore, the resultant force decreases
- Therefore, acceleration decreases as F=ma, so he is not speeding up as quickly
- Eventually weight and air resistance are equal and balanced, so there is no resultant force
- So there is no acceleration and terminal velocity is reached
Vehicle
- Initially, low air resistance and thrust is only hindered by Drag
Thrust
friction
- Air resistance increases, decreasing resultant force
- Eventually the car is travelling at terminal velocity, where the
thrust is balanced by drag and friction, so no resultant force Friction
acts
o (This is immediately changed when more thrust is added, as it now becomes the
resultant force until the drag increases to balance it again)
Rotation (Physics Only)
Rotation occurs…
- If an object is attached to a pivot point

o A point which it can rotate about, but cannot move away from
- And a force is applied not towards the point (see diagram)
o The object will not rotate, and will just be held still, as there is no resultant force
- If the force is applied perpendicular to the object
o It will move about the pivot in this direction
- If the Force is applied not perpendicular to the object
o Need to find perpendicular distance from pivot to line of force
o See which direction it will turn
Still rotates clockwise
Nothing happens Rotate clockwise
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐹𝑑
Moment of a force (newton metre, N m) = force (newton, N) × distance perpendicular to the
direction of the force (metre, m).
Bike Riding – pressing your foot down on the pedal, causes a moment about the pivot, turning the
pedal arms
equilibrium occurs when: sum of anticlockwise moments = sum of clockwise moments
Levers and Gears (Physics Only)
- Gears can change speed, force or direction by rotation
For an example when the first gear is supplying the force

- If connected to a gear with fewer teeth (i.e. a smaller gear)
o The second gear will turn faster
o But with less force
o In opposite direction to first gear
- If connected to a gear with more teeth (i.e. a larger gear)
o Turns slower
o More force
o In opposite direction
The second gear will always turn in the opposite direction

- The blue gear is supplying the power
- To increase the power, a larger gear is used for the secondary (red)
o As the force on the red gear is a further distance from its
pivot, the momentum of the larger gear is greater
Lubrication – reduces friction, so reduces unwanted energy transfer (so less heat loss etc.) and
increases efficiency
Resistive force between Acts in the opposite
moving surfaces direction to the force an
Friction object applies on a surface
Normal Contact Force
Acts opposite to
object’s motion Lubrication Only act when the interacting
objects are physically touching
Air resistance is a
type of friction Reduces heat loss
due to friction Equilibrium
Contact Forces
Quantities
Non-Contact Forces 9.1: FORCES AND Resultant force on

object is zero
THEIR EFFECTS
Scalar
Forces that act without Vector
physical contact Magnitude only
Acts between Direction and
masses magnitude
Gravitational
Electrostatic
Acts between
charges Magnetic poles exert
Magnetic fields non-contact forces
on each other
EDEXCEL
Free Body Diagrams
Resolving Vectors
Normal reaction force
Different lengths between the

pivot increases force V Horizontal
Air Driving component,
resistance force y
0
Horizontal component, x
Force multipliers
Weight
Levers Diagrams
9.2: FORCES AND Principle of moments

Gears
THEIR EFFECTS
The sum of clockwise
moments must equal the sum
Combine different sizes to of anticlockwise moments
alter force and speed Moments for any object in equilibrium
The turning effect

of a force Total Clockwise Moment
= Total Anticlockwise Moment
KEY Perpendicular distance Measured in Nm

between line of action
‘Higher tier only’ of force and pivot
written in green.
‘Physics only’
written in clouds.
Moment of a Force = Force x Distance
EDEXCEL
Topic 10: Electricity and circuits
Notes

The Structure of the Atom
Positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons
Subatomic Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 0 (0.0005) -1
Electricity
Thermistor Battery
Diode, +ve side --> -ve side Ammeter LDR
Voltmeter Fixed Resistor Variable Resistor Filament Bulb Cell
LED
Motor
Series and Parallel

- Series Circuits
o Closed circuit
o The current is the same everywhere
- Parallel Circuits
o Branched circuit www.bbc.co.uk
o Current splits into multiple paths physicsnet.co.uk
o Total current into a junction = total current in
Here the resistors are
each of the branches not all the same,
o Voltage is the same across each “branch” hence different
amounts of current
flow through each
Potential Difference represented by ‘V’ branch
- Potential difference is measured in Volts
- Energy transferred per unit charge, Joule per Coulomb
o Measured across two points, as it is the amount of energy per unit charge to move
from one point to the next
- Measured with a voltmeter, placed in parallel across a component
- There can be a voltage across a component, in a closed or open circuit
- When it is in a closed circuit, and there is a potential difference (voltage), current will always
flow
𝐸 = 𝑄𝑉
Energy transferred (joule, J) = charge moved (coulomb, C) × potential difference (volt, V)
Current, represented by ‘I’
- Current is measured in amps
- Rate of flow of charge (the flow of electrons in the wires)
o Measured at any single point on the circuit
- Measured with ammeter which is placed in series
- 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
- Potential difference (volt, V) = current (ampere, A) × resistance (ohm, Ω)
Resistance
- Greater resistance, the harder it is for charge to flow through the component, therefore the
current is smaller
- Variable resistor changes the amount of resistance of the component, changing the amount
of current that flows in the circuit
Series
o Components are connected end to end
o All the current flows through all the components
o Can only switch them all off at once
▪ PD (potential difference) is shared across the whole circuit
• PD of power supply = sum of PD across each component
▪ Current is the same through all parts of the circuit
• Current at one point = current at any other point
▪ Total Resistance is the sum of the resistance in each component R1 + R2 = R
• Resistance of two components is bigger than just one of them,
because the charge has to push through both of them when flowing
round the circuit
Parallel
o Components are connected separately to the power supply
o Current flows through each one separately
o You can switch each component off individually
▪ PD is the same across all branches
• PD of power supply = PD of each branch
• Because charge can only pass through any one branch
▪ Current is shared between each of the branches
• Current through source = sum of current through each branch
▪ Total resistance is less than the branch with the smallest resistance
• Two resistors in parallel will have a smaller overall resistance than
just one – 1/R1 + 1/R2 = 1/R
• Because charge has more than one branch to take, so only some
charge will flow along each branch
Device Characteristics
inteleducationresources.intel.co.uk – gradient of each is 1/resistance, so

a sharper gradient means a lower resistance
How resistance changes
- With current
o As current increases, electrons (charge) has more energy
o When electrons flow through a resistor, they collide with the ions in the resistor
o The current here is doing work against the resistance
o This transfers energy to the ions, causing them to vibrate more (heating resistor)
o This makes it more difficult for electrons to flow through the resistor
▪ So resistance increases, and current decreases
o This may be a benefit, as some appliances like a toaster use heating filaments that
have a high resistance to get hot easily.
- With temperature
o Normal wires - See above, the same process occurs as atoms vibrate when hot
o THERMISTOR ONLY
▪ Hotter temperatures, resistance is lower
▪ Used in temperature detectors/thermostats
- With Length
o Greater length, the more resistance, and the lower the current
o Electrons make their way through more resistor atoms, so it is harder to get through
than if you were using a shorter wire
- With Cross Sectional Area
o Thinner wires give greater resistance
o Because less overall room for electrons to pass through between atoms
- With Light
o LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) ONLY
▪ Greater the intensity of light, the lower the resistance
• So resistance greatest when dark
▪ Used in automatic night lights
- With Voltage
o DIODE ONLY
▪ Diode allows current to flow freely in one direction
▪ In the opposite direction, it has a very high resistance, so no current can
flow
Efficiency – low resistance wires means less energy loss as current flows through the circuit
Testing Relationships:
- Points for All
o Make sure component(s) do not overheat, leave to cooldown between each reading
o Repeats and take average
- Varied wire resistance
o Wires ranging in resistance from 1Ω to 10Ω
o Connected to DC of 2, 4, 6, …, 10, 12V
o Connected in series to an Ammeter, parallel to Voltmeter
o Make sure all the other wires used have negligible resistance
o Measure the current for each voltage for each wire
o Plot a graph to show the relationship between the pd and current
- Filament Lamps
o Connected to DC of 2, 4, 6, …, 10, 12V
o Connect the filament lamp to Ammeter in series and Voltmeter in parallel,
o Measure the current for each voltage
o Plot a graph to show relationship between the pd and current
o Non-linear shows R varies
- Diodes
o Connected to DC of 1, 1.5, 2, 4, 6, …, 10, 12V
o Connect to an Ammeter in series and Voltmeter in parallel,
o Measure the current for each voltage
o Switch the diode the other way round to record current for -1, -1.5, -2, -4V
o Plot graph for the positive and negative potential differences to show the
relationship
- LDR
o Constant voltage of 12V
o Connect to ammeter
o Shine lamp immediately onto LDR and measure current
o Move the lamp ~10cm away and measure current
o Keep doing this until 50cm
o Calculate resistance at each light intensity
o Plot graph of resistance against light intensity
- Thermistor
o Constant voltage of 12V
o Connect to an Ammeter
o Place in ice water with thermometer
o Measure current at 0 degrees.
o Add hot water and stir, measuring current at 10, 20, …, 60 degrees
o Calculate the resistance
o Plot a graph of resistance against temperature
Power
- Energy transferred (joule, J) = current (ampere, A) × potential difference (volt, V) × time
(second, s)
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑉𝑡
𝐸
- Power is energy transferred per second 𝑃 = 𝑡
- Power is directly proportional to current and voltage, so doubling current doubles power
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉
- Electrical power (watt, W) = current (ampere, A) × potential difference (volt, V)
𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅
- Electrical power (watt, W) = current squared (ampere2, A2) × resistance (ohm, Ω)
- Power loss is proportional to resistance, and to current squared
- Energy is transferred from chemical potential in batteries to electrical energy in wires to any
form of useful energy in the devices they power
AC/DC
- AC is alternating current, which comes from the mains
o Current continuously varies, from positive to negative (charge changes direction)
- DC, direct current, is the movement of charge in one direction only
o Cells and batteries supply direct current
- In the UK, mains supply is at 50Hz and 230V
Plug
- In a plug there are 3 different wires
- Live wire
o This is a brown colour
o It carries voltage from mains to appliance
o This may be dangerous even if mains circuit is off, as current may still be flowing
through it
- Neutral Wire
o This is a blue colour
o Completes the circuit
- Earth wire
o This has green and yellow stripes
o It is the safety wire used to stop the appliance becoming live
o It is connected to the earth and to the casing
o If the live wire touches the metal casing of the appliance, it will become live (you’ll
get a serious electric shock if you touch it, as current flows through you to the
ground)
o The earth wire is connected to the metal casing, and its low resistance means the
current will go from the casing through the earth wire and to the ground
- Fuse
o Connected to the live wire
o If a large current passes through live wire, fuse heats up and melts, breaking the
circuit – preventing a fire or damage
Power Rating – the power of the appliance when in use

- Greater power rating, greater energy consumption per second
o So uses more energy in a given time
Relative Measured in
charge: -1 Amps
Relative Relative mass: Rate of flow of

Work done when charge charge in circuit
charge: 0 0.0005 flows in circuit Measured in
Ohms
Relative mass: 1 Measured in Current (I)
Electrons Coulombs Measure of how hard it
is for current to flow
Neutrons
Charge (Q) Resistance (R)
Atomic Structure
Quantities
Protons
10.1: ELECTRICITY
Relative
charge: +1
Relative mass: 1
AND CIRCUITS Potential
Difference (V)
Measured in
Power Volts
Power ratings
Appliance power ratings show Measured in
the rate of energy transfer Rate of energy Watts
Efficiency transfer
E = P t
Useful Power Output / P = I ² R
Total Power Input P = I V
EDEXCEL
The total resistance is lower
than the lowest resistance
Detecting circuits Heating systems
1/R = 1/R₁ +1/ R₂
Resistance decreases as
Circuits designed to detect temperatures increases
changes in their environment Parallel resistors
Thermistors Measures the P.D. over Connected in parallel

a circuit component
Resistance decreases as LDRS Circuits Voltmeter Parallel circuits
light intensity increases
Used in street lamps Components in different loops

10.2: ELECTRICITY AND Current split between loops
CIRCUITS Voltage same in each loop
I
V I-V I
Current directly
Characteristics
proportional to P.D. Ohmic conductor As temperature increases,
ions gain K.E. and vibrate more
I Filament bulb
Resistance stays
constant with current
V Harder for electrons to pass
Current can only flow
Only if temperature constant Diode in one direction
EDEXCEL
Circuit Breakers
Switch which breaks circuit Live Wire Earth Wire Neutral Wire
Connected to if current gets too high
live wire Brown Green and yellow Blue
Mains voltage Prevents appliance from

Thin piece of wire which melts and = 230V Completes circuit
breaks if current gets to high becoming live
Fuses
Alternating Current
Direct Current Mains Electricity
Current flows in one direction Direction of current flow
oscillates at given frequency
Batteries produce DC
10.3: ELECTRICITY AND
CIRCUITS Mains provides AC
Frequency = 50 Hz
Series Circuits
Ammeter Series resistors
Components in one loop
Measures the current at Total resistance is sum of
a point in circuit individual resistances
Current the same
everywhere R = R₁ + R₂
Connected in series
Voltage split between
components
EDEXCEL
Topic 11: Static electricity
Notes

Static Electricity (Physics Only)
- A property of all matter
- Positive and negative charges exist
o If a body has the same amount of positive and negative charge, they cancel out,
forming a neutral body (i.e. protons and electrons in a neutral atom)
- Like Charges repel
- Opposite charges attract
Insulators do not conduct electricity

- Their electrons cannot flow throughout the material, they are fixed
Conductors can conduct electricity
- Their electrons can flow, and are not fixed (they are delocalised)
Static Electricity (Physics Only)

- When two insulators are rubbed together it can be charged by friction
o Electrons are transferred from one object to the other
o Forming a positive charge on one object and a negative charge on the other
- If conductors were rubbed, electrons will flow in/out of them cancelling out any effect, so
they stay neutral
o Insulators become charged because the electrons cannot flow
o A positive static charge forms on object which loses electrons
o A negative static charge forms on object which gains electrons
- Which object loses/gains electrons depends on the materials involved
Sparking occurs when enough charge builds up, and the objects are close but not touching
- The “spark” is when the charge jumps through the air from the highly negative object to the
highly positive object, to balance out the charges
- Lightning occurs when the charge difference between clouds and the Earth becomes so
great, and a massive spark (lightning) jumps across to balance the charge
Forces exerted (Physics only)

- The charged objects experience a force – electrostatic force (of attraction/repulsion)
- Greater charge = greater force (e.g. a more positive object, a more negative object)
- Closer together = greater force (force is proportional to the inverse square of the distance)
o It is a noncontact force, as force can be felt even when the objects are not touching
Like charges repel, and unlike charges attract

- A positively charged balloon next to wall attracts electrons in the wall
o This induction causes the balloon to stick to the wall
- Comb charged induces the opposite charge in small pieces of paper, so picks them up
Earthing (Physics only)

- This allows electrons to flow to the earth, removing excess charge
o This allows materials to stay neutral
Applications (Physics only)
- Insecticide sprays are sprayed from aircraft, and given a charge
- This means the spray droplets repel each other
- So the droplets spread evenly, and are attracted to the earth
o If not charged, there is a risk that some droplets will blow away, or the spray will fall
unevenly
Dangers of Sparks (Physics only)

- if charge builds up and a spark forms when fuelling cars, it could ignite and cause a massive
explosion
o As fuel passes through a hose to the vehicle, a static charge can build up
o When it is too large a spark might form
o A resulting spark might ignite the fuel
o The hoses are earthed to stop this occurring
Electric Fields (Physics only)

- Like magnetic fields for magnets, electric fields are for charges
o An electric field is the region where an electric charge experiences a force
o They point in the direction a positive charge would go
▪ I.e. away from positive charges, and towards negative charges
o They point to charges at right angles to the surface
- Stronger the charge, the more field lines present and the stronger the force felt
- Parallel plates have a uniform field
Diagrams
www.mysearch.co.uk
Direction a positive
charge would flow
Field lines point
-Q from +ve to -ve
+Q +
-ve Charge Pump & pipes are earthed
to prevent sparks
-
Uniform field
+ve Charge Field patterns
Dangers of Sparking
Electric Fields
11.1: STATIC ELECTRICITY Fuel pumps
Non-contact (Physics Only)
Charge builds as fuel
flows through pipes
Charged objects
Earthing
Due to friction
Electrostatic force doesn’t Charged objects produce
need physical contact an electric field Path to allow exceeds Charge build up could
charge build ups to escape result in spark
Charges in an electric
field experience a force Fire hazard in
presence of fuel
EDEXCEL
Rubbing insulators Results in an
transfers electrons Opposite charges on electric shock
balloon and wall attract
Transfer of Charged objects loses
electrons Balloon repels same charges on the its excess electrons
Will attract small wall, leaving opposite charges
pieces of paper
Touching a charged object
Charged balloon will stick to wall while earthed, may cause
Charged by rubbing electrons to flow
with a cloth Rubbing a balloon with a
cloth charges it
Perspex rod Balloon Electric shocks
11.2: STATIC ELECTRICITY Electrostatic

Charging Insulators (Physics Only) Phenomena
Equally and Lightning

Insecticide sprayers
Attraction oppositely charged
Electrostatic
Object gaining electrons charge builds up
becomes negative Particles are equally charged in clouds
Opposite charges as they leave spray
attract
Repulsion Object losing electrons When the charge is
becomes positive They spread evenly since too large, it is
particles repel each other earthed via the air
Same charges
repel
Results in lightning
strikes
EDEXCEL
Topic 12: Magnetism and the motor effect
Notes

Magnetism
- Like poles repel (North-North, South-South).
- Opposite poles attract.
- Magnetic materials are typically Cobalt, Steel, Iron, and Nickel.
Permanent Magnets
- Always magnetic, always have poles.
o Used in speakers, compasses, and electric generators.
1. www.hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu
Induced Magnets
- Materials that are “magnetic” but do not have fixed poles, ie. Magnetism must be induced.
- These can be made into temporary magnets by ‘stroking’ them with a permanent magnet
o This aligns all domains in the material in the same direction, creating a temporary
magnet
o Electromagnets use temporary magnetic material in their core
- After time, or after a knock, the domains move into random positions, so magnetism will be
lost.
Magnetic Fields
- Field Lines point from North to South
- Field strength decreases with distance from the magnet
- Direction always points to south pole and away from north pole, at any point
- Plotting Compasses are small compasses which show the direction and shape of a magnetic
field at a given point.
Earth’s Core
- The core is magnetic, and creates a large magnetic field around the Earth
- We know this because a freely suspended magnetic compass will align itself with the earth’s
field lines and point North.
- A compass is effectively a suspended Bar Magnet, with its own north pole lining up with
Earth’s North pole
o This cannot be right - like poles repel
o So in fact, Earth’s magnetic pole in the north is a magnetic South Pole and the
geographic south pole is close to the magnetic North Pole
Current
- Current produces a magnetic field around a wire
- The direction is dictated by the “right hand rule”
- Plotting compasses on a piece of paper through which a wire is
pierced shows this
- Current direction is perpendicular to the magnetic field
direction http://www.excelatphysics.com
Strength of Magnetic Field

- Magnetic field strength depends on current size; Greater current, stronger magnetic field
- Strength also varies with distance from the conductor; Greater distance from wire, weaker
field
Solenoids
- Magnetic Field Shape is similar to a bar magnet
- Coiling the wire causes the field to align and form a giant single, almost uniform field along
the centre of the Solenoid.
- Having an iron core in the centre increases its strength as it is easier for magnetic field lines
to pass through than air
- The fields from individual coils cancel inside to produce a weaker field outside the solenoid
- Factors that affect strength of field:
o Size of current
o Length
o Cross sectional area
o Number of turns (coils)
o Using a soft iron core
Current Carrying Wires and Magnets

- Wire with a current near a magnet?
o The current produces a magnetic field, which interacts with the magnet’s field
o The force experienced on the conductor is equal and opposite to the force felt on
the magnet
- Magnetic forces are felt due to interaction between any two magnetic fields
Force
- Two magnets will interact, feeling a magnetic force of attraction/repulsion
- A magnet and a wire will also exert a force, as the two magnetic fields (generated by the
magnet and the current in the wire) will interact
o The magnetic field around a wire is circular, but the magnetic field between two
magnets is straight
o When the two interact, the wire will be pushed away from the field between the
poles (at right angles to the wire direction and the field direction)
- To visualise this:
o Fixed permanent magnets have field lines along the x
axis, as the magnets are at A and B and the field lines
are shown
o Wire is along the y axis, where current is moving up from C to D
o The Force felt on the wire is at right angles to both the direction of the current and
magnetic field lines along the z axis
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
- Each component is at 90⁰ to the others

- Use this to work out the unknown factor out of the
three (usually the direction of the force felt)
- Remember current is conventional current (motion of
positive charge), which moves in opposite direction to
electron flow.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = (𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚) × (𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕)

× (𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉)
www.wikipedia.org
𝑭 = 𝑩𝑰𝑳
- Where Magnetic Flux Density is measured in Tesla [T]

o The number of flux lines per metre squared
Motors
- A coil of wire in between two permanent magnets
- Current flows through the wire, and the magnetic field it produces interacts with the
magnets
- One side of the coil gets forced down, the other side gets forced up
o This causes the coil to rotate
o Use the Left Hand Rule to verify which side moves up or down
Magnetic monopoles Has its own
(one without the other) magnetic field
not discovered
Iron
All magnets have a Steel
Opposite poles North and South pole Permanent magnet
Same polls Cobalt
attract repel
Magnetic poles Magnetic materials Nickel
Attraction
Repulsion Becomes magnetic
when in a field
Objects don’t need to be physically
Types of Magnets
Attractive forces
touching to experience force Induced magnet always
Non-contact force 12.1: MAGNETISM AND Place magnet on paper and move compass
THE MOTOR EFFECT around the page, marking the direction it
points each time, then join the lines
Uniform Fields Plotting compasses

Magnetic field strength
Magnetic Fields
the same everywhere Used to plot field lines
Direction Strength Strongest at poles
Point from North to South
Depends on distance
from magnet
Equally spaced
field lines Concentration of Field lines more concentrated
Field Lines in stronger field regions
EDEXCEL
Current and field are
perpendicular to each other
Outside, fields cancel to
produce a weak field Turns into an electromagnet
Thumb: Force
Inside, fields add to
First Finger: produce a strong field
Magnetic field Strength can be increased
Fields from each by adding an iron core
Second Finger: Conventional coil combine
current flow Strength
Field
Fleming's Left Coil of wire with current
Hand Rule Solenoids flowing through
Works out direction of force
for a conductor in a field 12.2: MAGNETISM AND Produces a magnetic
field around itself
THE MOTOR EFFECT Current-carrying wire
Current carrying conductor in Motor Effect Wires
a field experiences a force Strength
Electric Motor
force (N) = magnetic flux density (T) Field Depends on size of
x current (A) x length (m) Coil of current carrying current and distance
wire in a magnetic field Concentric circular from the wire
lines about wire
KEY Force causes rotation about an axis
Right Hand Grip Rule
‘Higher tier only’
written in green. Current flows in opposite Thumb in direction of current, the
directions on each side so each direction your fingers wrap around
‘Physics only’
written in clouds.
side experiences opposite forces
the wire shows field direction EDEXCEL
Topic 13: Electromagnetic induction
Notes
(Content in bold Higher Tier only)

Current Induction (Physics only)
- Current is induced if a wire is moved in a magnetic field
- The Conductor (wire) forms a potential difference (electrons move to one side of the
conductor as the field changes)
- If the conductor is connected in a circuit, a current will flow
o (This current will produce its own magnetic field)
o (The direction of this new field is in the opposite direction to the first field)
▪ (I.e. it opposes the original change)
Production (Physics only)

- Small-scale
o Spinning a coil of wire in between two permanent magnets will cause a current to
flow in the wire, which can be shown by a sensitive ammeter (only milliamps will
be generated)
o Passing a wire through a field will also show a deflection in an ammeter (a
reading).
- Large-scale
o In a thermal power station, water heats up and evaporates to form steam
▪ Combustion of fossil fuels / nuclear fission may cause this
o The steam is put under pressure and forced into a turbine
o This causes the turbine to rotate, which is connected to a massive coil of wire in a
strong magnetic field (the generator)
o Current is generated in the coil by the spinning
motion of the coil through the field.
Factors that affect the size of the current/voltage

produced:
- Number of coils of wire
- Speed of rotation
- Magnetic field strength
Alternator
- Every half turn, the current switches direction, as the
wire will be in the opposite orientation compared to
its starting position (see figure).
o Use the Left Hand Rule to show the direction of the
current induced switches as it moves up or down
- This produces AC.
Dynamo
- Same set up as an alternator.
- At end of the coil, there is a ‘commutator’
o A metal ring that reverses the sign of the current that flows from the coil –
ensuring current output remains positive
o Every half-turn the commutator switches the sign of the current, so it remains
positive
- This produces DC.
Microphones and Loudspeakers
- Produce a current which is proportional to the sound signal
- Fixed magnet is at the centre, and the coil of wire around the magnet is free to move
- Pressure variations in the sound waves cause the coil to move, and as it moves current is
induced in the coil (because it passes through the magnetic field)
- This current is then sent to a loudspeaker
- The Loudspeaker setup is identical

- Current flows into the coil
- The magnetic field from magnet and from current interact, causing the coil to move
- The cone therefore moves
- Producing pressure variations, making sound
Transformers
- AC in first coil creates a changing magnetic field
- This changing magnetic field cuts through the secondary coil
- This induces a current in the secondary coil
o Which is also AC
o If primary current was DC, magnetic field produced will be constant, not inducing
anything in the secondary coil
- (Physics only) More coils on secondary? Step up transformer, as voltage will be increased,
as changing field will cut through more of the secondary wire inducing a larger pd
- (Physics only) Fewer coils on secondary? Step down transformer, as smaller pd forms on
secondary
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒑𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚

=
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒑𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚
𝑵𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝑽𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚
=𝑽
𝑵𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚
National Grid
- Electrical energy is transferred at high voltages from power stations
- In domestic uses, electrical energy is transformed to lower voltages
o This is done to improve the efficiency of the transmission
o The larger the current, the greater the heating effect occurs in wires
o So this means a large current means lots of energy is lost
o So as P = IV and power is constant, increasing the voltage out of the power station
and so reduces the current
▪ However high voltages are very dangerous
o So when it is close to towns (etc.) the voltage is decreased (and so current increases)
o This means it is safer to use
▪ As well as making sure less energy is lost as it is carried from power stations
Transformer Summary
- Step-up transformers increase the voltage
- Step-down transformers decrease the voltage
Power for a transformer with 100% efficiency: power of primary circuit = power in secondary
𝑉×𝐼 =𝑉×𝐼
𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
Decreases voltage of a supply The direction of current flow
continually switches direction
Increases voltage of a supply
V₁ > V₂
n₁ > n₂ V₁ < V₂
Step-Up transformers n₁ < n₂ Alternating Currents

Step-Down transformers
Metal core with primary and Relative motion between

secondary coil of wire on each side field and conductor
AC in primary coil
Efficiency
Transformers
If 100% efficient, input
power = output power
V₁ x I₁ = V₂ x I₂ 13.1: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Generates Moving a magnetic field
alternating current Induced Potential relative to a conductor
induces a PD across conductor
Difference
Alternators
Moving a conductor relative to a
magnetic field induces a PD across it
Dynamos
KEY Generates PD will cause current to flow

in a loop shaped conductor
‘Higher tier only’ direct current
written in green.
‘Physics only’ Induce PD with a conductor
written in clouds.
and magnetic field EDEXCEL
Voltage is lowered to safe usable levels
(230V) before being used in homes This makes the national grid
more efficient
Voltage is increased before being Power lines transfer electricity

transported through power lines Local substations at very high voltages
Efficiency
Power stations
High voltages result in lower currents
A series of power stations, wires and so the wires heat up less
and substations that produce and
transport electricity National Grid
13.2: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Loudspeakers
Microphones
A cone with wire wrapped around it, Use the generator effect to turn vibrations in the
connected to an AC power supply and microphone coil (caused by the pressure variations of
placed in a permanent magnetic field sound) into current variations in a circuit
Current flows through wire, creating

a second magnetic field
This interacts with the permanent field,

producing a force which vibrates the cone
EDEXCEL
Topic 14: Particle model
Notes

Density
Mass per unit volume

mass
density =
volume
m
ρ= units are (usually) kgm−3
V
Density depends on the spacing of the atoms in matter
- Solids and liquids have similar densities. This is because the space
between particles does not change significantly
o Usually liquids have a lower density than solids (main exception is
ice and water)
- Gases have a far lower density

o The spacing between atoms increase x10, as the particles have
lots of energy to move, so volume increases greatly and therefore
the density decreases greatly compared to solids/liquids
Remember if questions involve change in state and ask for new volume/pressure,
the mass is the same!
Changes of State
Mass is conserved during a change of state.

- If 20g of liquid evaporates, the gas produced will also weigh 20g
Sublimation
Melting Evaporating
Solid Liquid Gas
Freezing Condensing
These physical changes are reversible, and not chemical changes

- They are not chemical because the material retains its original properties when reversed
Heating a System
- The amount of energy the particles have increases
- Particles vibrate more
- The temperature of the system increases
o OR the system changes state
- The “system” could be an ice cube, a gas, etc.
Specific Heat Capacity
- The energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg of a substance by 1°C
o (the difference of 1°C is the same as 1 Kelvin)
energy = mass × specific heat capacity × temperature change

E = mc∆T
units are Jkg −1 °C−1
Specific Latent Heat

- The energy to change the state of 1kg of a substance without a change in temperature
o The substance needs to be at the right temperature to change state first
- Specific Latent Heat of fusion is energy to melt/freeze
- Specific Latent Heat of vaporisation is energy to boil/condense
Energy is absorbed when melting and evaporating

Energy is released when freezing and condensing
energy = mass × specific latent heat

E = ml
units are Jkg −1
Insulation
- Thermal energy transfers out of any system
o This means some energy is wasted, as it is lost to the surroundings
- Using thermal insulators, e.g. foam, reduces the amount of energy lost (as it is a poor
thermal conductor)
- Use reflective coatings to reflect IR radiation (heat) back into the system
- Think about the given situation to see how the system can be insulated
Pressure of a Gas
Particles in a gas move randomly in every direction
A Fluid can be a liquid or a gas
force
pressure =
area
- Remember, pressure produces a net force at right angles to any surface

- Particles collide with a wall, changing velocity
- This means they change momentum during their collision
∆momentum
- So they exert a force on the wall (as force = time
)
- Press is the force across the area of the wall.
Temperature and Pressure (in a constant volume)

- Increased temperature means more energy given to the particles
- The thermal energy is transferred to kinetic
o Particles move at faster speed
o Collisions with walls occur more often
o The particles also hit the wall with greater impact
o So pressure increases
Absolute Zero
- This temperature is 0 Kelvin, or -273°C
- Nothing can exist at a colder temperature than this, this is the coldest possible temperature
- Particles at this temperature have no energy, so they do not vibrate at all, they remain
perfectly still.
Converting Kelvin to Centigrade:
T kelvin = (T − 273) centigrade

so 4K = −269°C
and 0°C = 273K
Pressure changes (Physics Only)

Gases want to remain at a constant temperature
- Increasing the pressure of the gas causes it to compress (have a smaller volume)
o Pressure increases, so greater force per area
o Same force is exerted on walls, as temperature and energy of particles is constant
o Force needs to be exerted on a smaller area and volume decreases
▪ Other way round?
o Volume increases, so a greater area that particles collide with
o Same force is exerted on the walls as velocity is constant (as velocity is only affected
by temperature) and pressure decreases
1
- So this means pressure ∝ volume (inversely proportional)
For a gas at fixed mass and temperature:

P1 V1 = P2 V2
Where P is pressure and V is volume in states 1 and 2.
Doing Work on a Gas (Physics Only)

- Doing work on a gas increases its temperature
𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞
𝐖𝐃 = 𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 × 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 = × (𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 × 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞) = 𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 × 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞
𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚
𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐝𝐨𝐧𝐞 = 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 × 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞
Adding More Particles to A Fixed Volume (Physics Only)

o Doing work on a gas means compressing or expanding the gas, so changing the
volume
o Pumping more gas into the same volume means more particles are present, so
more collisions occur per unit time with the walls, so pressure increases.
o Energy is transferred to the particles when more gas is added into the fixed
volume, so this heats the gas
A Fixed Number of Particles with A Decreasing Volume (Physics only)
o The particles collide with the wall which is moving inward
o So the particles gain momentum, as the rebound velocity is greater than the
approaching velocity
o So as the particle has a greater velocity, the pressure increases as the particles
collide with the walls more frequently (time between collisions decreases)
o And the temperature also increases, as the kinetic energy of each particle
increases
Most Kinetic Particles can flow
Energy over each other
Particles can
move freely
Particles can only
Lowest vibrate about fixed
Measured in kg/m³ density
Gases Liquids positions
ρ = m/v Highest
States of density
Matter Solids
Mass per Density Least Kinetic Energy
unit volume
14.1: PARTICLE MODEL Solid changes to a gas without

becoming a liquid
Sublimation
Changes of state are Changes of State
physical changes
MELTING Chemical changes
Internal energy Solid → Liquid Cannot easily
Physical hhanges recover its original
The total kinetic and Mass is always EVAPORATION properties
potential energies of the conserved in Liquid → Gas If change is reversed the
particles in a system material’s properties can
changes of state CONDENSATION be recovered
Gas → Liquid EDEXCEL
Changing from
Temperature increases depend solid to liquid Changing from
on material type, mass and the Energy needed to change the liquid to vapour
energy supplied state of 1kg of a substance Latent Heat of
without a change in temperature Fusion
Measured in J/ Latent Heat of
The energy needed to raise Measured in J/ Vaporisation
the temperature of 1kg of a kg
kg°C
substance by 1°C
Temperature increases
ΔE = m c Δ# with kinetic energy
Specific heat capacity Specific latent heat
Temperature is determined
ΔE = m L by kinetic energy
Can cause temperature
to increase Molecules are in constant
14.2: PARTICLE MODEL random motion
Increases internal
energy Particle motion
Work done
P₁ x V₁ = P₂ x V₂
A force
Pressure in gases
transfers energy
Bike pump Force exerted at right angles
Absolute zero to walls causes pressure
Energy transferred Lowest theoretical temperature,
when work is done to gas particles have no kinetic energy
KEY Compressing pump does work on
Temperature increases
For a fixed mass of gas held
at constant temperature,
‘Higher tier only’ with kinetic energy pV = constant
gas, increasing temperature
written in green.
‘Physics only’
Topic 15: Forces and Matter
Notes

Springs
Stretching, bending, and compressing

- More than one force has to be applied
o If a single force is applied, the object will just move in the force’s direction
o If forced inwards from opposite sides, the object (e.g. a spring) will compress
o If fixed at one end of the spring and a force is applied at the other, more than one
force is still being applied to the spring (a reaction force from the fixed point)
Deformation
- This means changing shape
- Elastic Deformation
o The object returns to its original shape when the load has been removed
o Eg. An elastic band
- Plastic Deformation (distortions)
o The object does not return to its original shape when the load has been removed
o Eg. A spring when pulled too far
Linear Elastic Distortion, Hooke’s Law

- Spring constant k = Force required to extend a spring per metre
F = kx
Where:
- F is the force applied to the spring, N
- K is the spring constant, Nm−1
- X is the extension, m
o Hooke’s Law: The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the force applied.
Linear line section on a Force/Extension Graph
- This is elastic
- Following Hooke’s Law
- Gradient is K (refer to equation above).
- Elastic deformation
The point it stops being linear is the elastic limit
- From then on, it does not obey Hooke’s Law
Non-Linear line section
- Not elastic
- Does not follow Hooke’s Law
- Plastic Deformation
- If shallow
o Lots of extension for not a lot of force
o Easy to stretch
- If graph is just linear, with no “non-linear end section”
o The material is “brittle”, so snaps instead of stretches after the elastic limit
Work Done
- Area under the graph
1
Work Done = kx 2
2
Atmosphere and Pressure (Physics only)
Atmospheric Pressure is the total weight of the air above a unit area at a certain altitude.
Therefore, atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing height above the Earth’s Surface
o The weight of the air is the force which causes the pressure
o So with higher elevation, there are fewer air molecules above the unit area than the
same area at lower heights, so there is less weight, so less pressure
Pressure in a fluid (Physics Only)

- A fluid is a liquid or a gas.
- Pressure of a gas (for example held in a balloon) depends on atmospheric pressure
o The air exerts an inward force on the outer surface of the balloon, and if this force is
greater than the outward force exerted by the gas particles inside, the balloon will
collapse.
o In space there is a lower atmospheric pressure, so the gas inside. exerts a greater
force outward force on the balloon surface compared to the thinner air from the
outside, so the balloon can expand.
o Increasing the amount of particles in the balloon (blowing into it) increases the
amount of collisions the balloon surface experiences per second, so there is a
greater pressure on the inside and the balloon will expand.
- Pressure in a fluid causes a force perpendicular to any surface.
force
pressure =
area
Pressure in Liquids Vary (Physics Only)
In fluids:
- Deeper in a fluid you are, the greater the pressure
o Greater the amount of fluid above the object, so greater weight, so greater force
felt, so greater pressure
- Denser the fluid is, the greater the pressure
o 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 = 𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 × 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 so greater density means greater weight of fluid on
the object, so greater force and pressure
Factors that influence floating and sinking (Physics only)
An object floats if its weight is less than the weight of the water it displaces
- So a 1000kg boat will sink into the water until it has displaced 1000kg of water
o Providing the boat doesn’t completely submerge before it displaces this amount,
then it will float.
Pressure in a liquid varies with depth and density, and this leads to an upwards force on a partially
submerged object.
- The buoyancy force is the upwards force that counteracts the weight of the floating object
- This force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object
A ping pong ball floats on water as its density is less than the density of the water, so for the
volume displaced, the weight of the equivalent amount of water is greater than the weight of the
ping pong ball, so the resultant force is buoyancy, so it floats
Increasing the depth, the greater the weight of the water above you, so greater force felt, so
greater pressure
𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐝𝐮𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝 = 𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐧 × 𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝 × 𝐠
E = ½ k !²
Work done in stretching Compressing, stretching or

elastic objects Object returns to original shape bending always requires
Energy Stored as elastic PE when deforming forces removed multiple forces
Elastic Potential Elastic Deformation

Energy Plastic Deformation
The point beyond which plastic

deformation occurs 15.1: FORCES AND MATTER: Object does not return to
SOLIDS original shape when
Limit of proportionality
deforming shape removed
Extension is directly
proportional to force applied, up Hooke’s Law
to the limit of proportionality
Loading
F = k ! Force /N
E
Spring Constant P
Force /N
Gradient = Spring Constant Extension /m
Measured in Nm⁻¹
Extension /m EDEXCEL
Submerged objects experience
greater pressure below than above Measured in
Causes resultant Force per unit area Pascals, Pa
upwards force
Weight = Mass x Gravitational Upthrust
Field Strength
Objects sink if weight Force (N)
> upthrust Pressure (Pa) =
Measured in Weight Area (m²)
Newtons, N
Sinking
Floating
Floating Pressure
Fluids
Objects float if upthrust and Sinking
> weight Causes a force normal
to any surfaces
Pressure decreases
15.2: FORCES AND MATTER:
with altitude FLUIDS More particles above
you in denser fluids
Air particles Pressure in
collide with Atmospheric Pressure
surfaces, exerting
a Column p = h ⍴ g
pressure Thin layer of air
around the Earth
The pressure in a column of liquid
depends on depth and density
KEY Number of particles
decreases with height
‘Higher tier only’ Particles above you
written in green. increases with depth, and
‘Physics only’ Becomes less dense so does the force exerted
written in clouds. with altitude EDEXCEL

Physics

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Edexcel GCSE Physics

Topic 1: Key Concepts of Physics

work done = force × distance (moved in the direction of the force) = E = Fd

𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝 = 𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐧 × 𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝 × 𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲 = 𝐏 = 𝐡𝛒𝐠

only SI unit with a prefix!

Unit Prefixes M - metre Unit of length

KEY CONCEPTS OF PHYSICS S - second Unit of time

Giga (g) x1,000,000,000

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A Vector has magnitude and direction

- Force is vector - Momentum is a vector

Displacement Time Graphs

Velocity Time Graphs

Recall typical speeds:

Acceleration due to gravity: 𝑔 = 10𝑚𝑠 −2

Newton’s First Law

Newton’s Second Law

Newton’s Third Law

For Newton’s Second Law

Human Reaction Time

Thinking Distance Braking Distance

Typical Stopping Distances (Physics only)

Dangers of Large Decelerations

To estimate the forces felt on a road

Work Done to Stop (Physics only)

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Mechanical Waste Energy

Efficiency can be increased by:

Patterns and trends in the use of energy resources

Law of Conservation KE = ½ x Mass x Gravitational

Some supplied energy Electrical energy →

- Needs a lot of land

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Wavelength – distance between the same points on two consecutive waves,

velocity = frequency × wavelength = v = fλ

Wave speed (metre/second, m/s) = frequency (hertz, Hz) ×

Transmission (Physics Only)

Absorption (Physics Only)

The Ear (Physics only)

Distance from one point to the

Wavelength (λ) Velocity (v) Number of waves that pass a

Amplitude Water Waves Time taken for a complete

Can have characteristics of both Waves transfer energy and

Uses sound waves that are Infrasound

‘Higher tier only’ Rarefactions

WAVE INTERACTIONS Wave is incident on

‘Physics only’ An object that reflects all

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Refraction (Physics only)

Total Internal Reflection (TIR) (Physics only)

Summary for glass to air (Physics only)

Specular Reflection (Physics only)

Colour (Physics only)

Opaque Material (Physics only)

Lenses (Physics only)

Concave Lenses (Physics only)

Convex Lenses (Physics only)

Images (Physics only)

- EM waves do not need particles to move

All Bodies emit radiation

Danger of the EM spectrum

Uses of the EM spectrum,

Change in Atoms and Nuclei:

All bodies emit