CHAPTER 6

Flow of Compressible Fluids

Many important applications of fluid dynamics require that density variations be

taken into account. The complete field of
compressible fluid flow has become very
large, and it covers wide ranges of pressure, temperature, and velocity. Chemical
engineering practice involves a relatively small area from this field. For incom-
pressible flow the basic parameter is the Reynolds number, a
parameter also impor
tantin some applications of compressible flow. In compressible flow at ordinary
densities and high velocities, a more basic parameter is the Mach number. At very
low densities, where the mean free path of the molecules is appreciable in compar-
ison with the size of the cquipment or solid bodies in contact with the gas, other
factors must be considered. This type of fow is not treated in this text.

DEFINITIONS AND BASIC EQUATIONS

The Mach number, denoted by Ma, is defined as the ratio of u, the speed of the fluid,
to a, the speed of sound in the fluid under conditions of flow

Ma= (6.1)
By speed of the fluid is meant the magnitude of the relative velocity between the
fuid and a solid bounding the fiuid or immersed in it, whether the solid is consid-
ered to be stationary and the fluid fiowing past it or the fluid is assumed to be sta-
tionary and the solid moving through it. The former siluation is the more common
in chemical engineering, and the later is of great importance in aeronautics, for the
moion of missiles, rockets, and other solid bodies through the atmosphere. By def
initionthe Mach number is unity when the speed of fluid equals that of sound in the
Same fluid at the pressure and temperature of the fluid. Flow is called subsonic,

133
 134 SECTION 11 Fluid Mechanics

to whether the
Mach number is less than
Sonic, or supersonic according unity, a
near unity, or greater than unity, respectively. 1ne most interesting probleo
where Mach numbers in
compressible flow lie in the high-velocity range, a

rable with unity or where flow is supersonic.

compa-
In this chapter the following simplitying assumptions are made. Although
may appear restrictive, many actual engineering situaions may be quately
represented by the mathematical models Obtainea within the limitationsof
the
assumptions.
1. The flow is steady.
2. The ffow is one-dimensional.
3. Velocity gradients within a cross section are neglected, so that a = B = I and
=u.
4. Friction is restricted to wall shear.
5. Shaft work is zero.
6. Gravitational effects are negligible, and mechanical potential energy is ne
glected.
7. The fuid is an ideal gas of constant specific heat.

The following basic relations are used:

1. The continuity equation
2. The steady-flow total-energy balance
3. The mechanical
energy balance with wall friction
4. The equation for the velocity of sound
5. The equation of state of the ideal
gas
Each of these equations must be put into a suitable form.
Continuity equation
For differentiation, the right-hand side of Eq. (4.9) may be written in
mic form: logarnu
In
p+In S+ In u =
Const
Differentiating this cquation gives
dp, ds, du
(6.2)

Total-energy balance
Consider a Huid in steady How
velocity andu, enthalpy H, through system, entering at a with

H. For the tlow of

and
leaving at station b with Sta halpy
kilograms m
of
material,
added through the boundaries of the velocity
heat in the amount or
u, and
ot be es mus

Provided there no signilicant

is Jo gh it.
system to the material fiowing
work is done by or on ine
change inclcvation between staliOns nd no
sysiem, the t a
be written omiiling steady-low 9) muy
potential energy total-energy
the lerms lor
cqualion
and shalt work. ed
The
 CHAPTE 6: Flow ol Compressible Fluids 135

to the fluid is then given by the cquation

= Hh- H,
m
(6.3)
This equation wrilten differentially is

u+d( (6.4)

Mechanical energy balance

Equation (4.71) may be written over a short length of conduit in the following
differential form:

+ +8dZ + dhy = 0 (6.5)

In the light of the assumptions, this equationis simplificd by omitting the potential
energy terms, noting that a, = a,= 1.0, u = V, and restricting the friction to wall
shear. Equation (6.5) then becomes

+a5+dhy, =0 (6.6)
From Eq. (5.7), with D =
4rH
fdL
dhs2 TH (6.7)
Eliminating dhs, from Eqs. (6.6) and (6.7) gives the form of the mechanical energyy
equation suitable for treatment of compressible flow:

+ +ufdl
2 rH
=0 (6.8)

Velocity of sound
The velocity of sound through a continuous material medium, also called the
acoustical velocity, is the velocity of a very small compression-rarefaction wave
moving adiabatically and frictionlessly through the medium. Thermodynamically.
the motion of a sound wave is a constant-entropy, or
isentropic, process. The mag-
nitude of the acoustical velocity in any medium is shown in physics texts to be

where the
a-/), (6.9)

subscript S calls attention to the

isentropic restraint on the process.
Ideal gas equations
Subject to assumptions I to 6, Eqs. (6.2) to (6.9) apply to any fluid. In fact, they
may be used for incompressible flow simply by assuming that the dernsity p is
 I1: Fluid Mechanics
136 SECTION

them to compressible fiow, it is necessary that the densin

constant. To apply and one of cone re
and pressure.
The simplest relation,
ated to temperature
(1.56)], which for the present nle
engineering utility,is the ideal gas law [Eq.
form
may be written in the

p-RT (6.10)
where R = molar gas law constant, 8,314 J/kg mol K forp in N/m* and T inK or
T'in °R
1,545 ft 1b,/lb mol forp in lb,/in.* and
M= molecular weight
The gas may be either pure or a mixture, but if it is not pure, the composition should
not change. Equation (6.10) may be writen logarithmicaly and then differentiated
toggive

(6.11)
Since the specific heat c, is assumed to be independent of temperature, the
enthalpy of the gas at temperature 7'is

H =
Ho + Cp(T To -

(6.12)
where H =
enthalpy per unit mass at
temperatureT
Ho = enthalpy at arbitrary temperature Io

The differential form of Eq. (6.12) is

dH = Cp dT
(6.13)
Acoustic velocity and Mach number of ideal gas. For ideal gas,
an an isentrope
path follows the equations

PP = const (6.14)
Tp- ?)= Const (6.15)
where y is the rati0 of
C,, the specific heat at constant eciic
heat at constant volume. For an
ideal gas, pressure, to C, ne
>P

Y Cp (6.16)
Cp- R/M
Since, by assumplion, C, Is
The independent of
temperature,
quantity so are c, and
Eq. (6.14), (dp/dP)s
form
Can be
calculated by Y.
of
giving dilferentiating
rentiating the
he logarithmic
log
dp
0 and
 CUAPTER O: Flow ol
Compressible Fluids 137

Substituting into Eq. (6.9) yields

a-- (6.17)

For air at 20°C and 1 atm,

a is 343 m/s
(1,125 fus).
Equation (6.10) is used to establish the second equality in Eq. (6.17), which
shows that the acoustic
velocity of an ideal gas is a function of temperature only.
From Eqs. (6.I) and (6.17) the
square of the Mach number of an ideal gas is

Ma* =
.18)
YP TR/M
The asterisk condition
The state of the fluid moving at its acoustic
processes of compressible-fluid flow. The condition where u=a and Ma =
velocity is important in some
I is
called the asterisk condition, and the pressure, temperature, density, and enthalpy
are denoted by
p, T'P, and H' at this state.

Stagnation temperature
The stagnation
temperature of a high-speed
fluid is defined as the
temperature
the ffuid would atta:n were it
brought lo rest adiabatically without the development
of shaft work. The relation between the actual fluid
temperature, the actual fiuid
velocity, and the stagnation temperature is tound by using the total-energy equa-
tion (6.3) and the enthalpy equation (6.12). Let station in
a
Eq. (6.3) refer to the
state of the flowing gas at temperature 7 and enthalpy H, and station b
state 0 in Eq. (6.12) to the stagnation condition. Stagnation is denotedand
by the sub- reference
Scnpt s. Then u, = 4, the velocity of the gas, and H, = ", 0. Since the process is
adiabatic and Q= 0, Eq. (6.3) becomes
H,-H = Ho-H (6.19)
Eliminating Ho - H from Eq. (6.19) by using Eq. (6.12) gives, for the stagnation

temperature 1,

T, =T+ 2 (6.20)
The stagnation enthalpy H, is defined by the equation
H, = H +
(6.21)
Equation (6.3) can be written

=2 H Hsa = (Tb- 7,a)Cp (6.22)

where , a and H,b are the stagnation enthalpies at states a and b, respectively. For
an adiabatic process, Q=0, 7sa Isb and the stagnation temperature is constant.
138 SECTION I1: Fluid Mechanics

PROCESSES OF COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

The flow processes to be considered in this chapter are shown diagrammaticallv in

Fig. 6.1. It is assumed that a very large supply of gas at specified temperature and
pressure and at zero velocity and Mach number is available. The origin of the gas ie
called the reservoir, and the temperature and pressure he
called reservoir conditions. The reservoir
or gas in the reservoir are
temperaure
does not necessarily apply at other points in the fiow system.
1s a stagnation value, which

Convergen
Secion
Divergent section -

Reservoir Receiver

(o Flow

Thermal insulolion

1senlropic section

Reservoi Friction section-

AdiabaliC Receiver
b Flow

TL
Thermal insulation

Reservoir
Isenlropic section Receiver
Friction section-
Sothermal

Heating jacket

FIGURE 6.1
() Isentrepic now
low. (c) Isotnernal n
a

comvergenl-divergent
iricton low. nozzle. (b) Adiabatic iric
 CHAPTEk 6: Flow of Compressible Fluids 139

From the reservoir the gas is assumed to flow, without friction loss at the
entrance, into and through a pipe. The gas leaves the pipe at defhnite temperature,
velocity, and pressure and goes into an exhaust receiver, in which the pressure may
be independently controlled at a constant value less than the reservoir pressure.
Within the pipe any one of the following processes may occur:

1. Isentropic expansion. In this process the cross-sectional area of the conduit must
change, and the process is described as one of variable area. Because the process
is adiabatic, the stagnation temperature does not change in the conduit. Such a
process is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 6.la.
2. Adiabatic friction flow through a pipe of constant cross section. This process is
reversible, and the entropy of the gas increases; but as shown by Eq. (6.22),
since Q=0, the stagnation temperature is constant throughout the conduit. This

process is shown in Fig. 6.1b.

3. Isothermal friction flow through a pipe of constant cross-sectional area, accom-
panied by a flow of heat through the pipe wall sufficient to keep the temperature
constant. This process is nonadiabatic and nonisentropic; the stagnation temper-
ature changes during the process, since T is constant, and by Eq. (6.20), T,
changes with 4. The process is shown in Fig. 6.lc.

The changes in gas temperature, density, pressure, velocity, and stagnation

temperature are predictable from the basic equations. The purpose of this section is
to demonstrate how these three processes can be treated analytically on the basis of
such equations.

ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOzzLES

A conduit suitable for isentropic flow is called a nozzle. As shown in Fig. 6.1a, a
complete nozzle consists of a convergent section and a divergent section joined by
a throat, which is a short length where the wall of the conduit is parallel with the
axis of the nozzle. For some applications, a nozzle may consist of a divergent
section only, and the throat connects directly with the receiver. The configuration of
an actual nozzle is controlled by the designer, who fixes the relation between , the
cross-sectional area, and L, the length of the nozzle measured from the entrance.
Nozzles are designed to minimize wall friction and to suppress boundary layer
separation. The convergent section is rounded and can be short, since separation
does not occur in a converging channel. To suppress separation in the divergent
section, the diverging angle is made small, and this section is therefore relatively
long. The nozzle entrance is sufficiently large relative to the throat to permit the
velocity at the entrance to be taken as zero, and the temperature and pressure at the
entrance to be assumed equal to those in the reservoir.

Generalized treatments, including general heat transfer to and from the gas, injection of gas into the
conauit, variations in specinc heal and molecular weight, chemical reaclions, the drag of internal
bodies, and change of phase, are given in Refs. I and 3.
 II: Fluid Mechanics
140 SECT1ON

section is to
ncrease the velocity and.
The purpose of the convergent decreas
the pressure of the gas. At
low Mach
numberS
tne process conforms essentiallse the
for incompressible flow [Eq. (4.67)]. In the conver
Bernoulli relation Sec.
usual sonic at the throat. Mach
tion flow is always subsonic,
but it may become number
in a convergent nozzle. In the diveroen
greater than unity cannot be generated
tion, the flow may be subsonic or supersonic.
The purpose divergent se
of the
section
differs shaply in the two situations. In subsonic now the purpose of the section ic t
reduce the velocity and regain pressure, in accordance with the Bernoulli equation
An important application of these nozzles is the measurement of fiuid flow, which ie
discussed in Chap. 8. In supersonic flow, the usual purpose of the divergent section
is to obtain Mach numbers greater than unity ror use in jet engines, equipment used
to produce very fine sprays, or experimental equipment such as wind tunnels.
Flow through a given nozzle is controlled by fixing the reservoir and receiver
pressures. For a given flow through a specine nozzle, a unique pressure exists at
each point along the axis of the nozzle. The relation is
conveniently shown as a plot
of p/po versus L, where
Po is the reservoir pressure and p the pressure at point L.
Figure 6.2 shows how the pressure ratio varies with distance and how changes in
receiver pressure at constant reservoir
pressure affect the pressure distribution. The
pressures at the throat and in the receiver are denoted by
P, and P, respectively.
Ifp,
and po are equal, no flow occurs and the
pressure distribution is represented
by line aa. If the receiver pressure is
Occurs and a
slightly below the reservoir
pressure, flow
pressure distribution such that shown
as
by line abc is
Pressure recovery in the established.
convergent section is shown
by line bc. The maximum
velocity occurs at the
throat. If the receiver
and the velocity pressure is further reduced, the flow rale
at the throat
throughout the nozzle increase. A
limit is attained when the velocity
becomes sonic. This case is shown
and Ma =
1. The ratio by line ade, where p, = P,
p'/po is called the critical
r Flow is subsonic at all other pressure ratio and is denoted Dy
points on line ade.

PilPo

PlPo

FIGURE 6.2 -

Variation ol
pressure ralo with
distance from
nozzle inlet.
 CHAPTER 6: Flow of Compresible Fluids 141

conslant tlow rate Maximum low rale

1.0
Pressure ratio, P/Po

FIGURE 6.3
Mass flow rate through nozzle.

As the receiver pressure is decreased from that of point d to that of point e, the
mass flow rate through the nozzle increases. The fiow rate is not affected by reduc
tion of pressure below that coresponding to critical flow. Figure 6.3 shows how
mass flow rate varies with the pressure ratio p,/Po- The flow rate attains its maxi-
mum at point A, which is reached when the pressure ratio in the throat is reduced to
its critical value. Further reduction in pressure p, does not change the flow rate.
The reason for this is as follows: When the velocity in the throat is sonic and the
cross-sectional area of the conduit is constant, sound waves cannot move upstream
into the throat and the gas in the throat has no way of receiving a message from down-
stream. Further reduction of the receiver pressure cannot be transmitted to the throat.
f the receiver pressure is reduced to the level shown by point f in Fig. 6.2, the
pressure distribution is represented by the continuous line adghf. This line is unique
tor a given gas and nozzle. Only along the path dghf is supersonic flow possible. If
the receiver pressure is reduced below that of point, for to
example,
pressure at the end of the nozzle remains at that of point f and fow through the
point &, the
nozzle remains unchanged. On issuing from the nozzle into the receiver the gas suf-
ers a sudden pressure drop from that of point f to that of point k. The pressure
cnange is accompanied by wave phenomena in the receiver. If the receiver pressure
is held at a level between
points e and f, pressure distribution curves of the type
dsg'i and dhkj are found. Sections dg and represent isentropic supersonic flow.
The sudden pressure jumps 88 and hi' represent shock waves, where the flow
changes suddenly from supersonic to subsonic. Shocks are thermodynamically irre-
versible and are accompanied by an increase in entropy in accordance with the
Second law of thermodynamics. Curves g'i and Hj represent subsonic Rows in which
ordinary pressure recovery is taking place.
The area below line adghf is not accessible to any kind of adiabatic flow.
Isentropic flow is confined to the subsonic area aded'a and the single line dghf.
The qualitative discussions of Figs. 6.2 and 6.3 apply to the flow of any com-
pressible fuid. Quantitative relations are most casily found for ideal gas flow.
142 SECTION I: Fluid Mechanics

flow
Equations for isentropic
the flow of ideal gas through n0zz/lee ar
The phenomena occurring in
derivable from the basic equations
given earlier in this ode
Scribed by equations chapter.
Change in gas properties during flow. The density and temperature pathe of the
gas through any isentropic flow are given by Eqs. (0.14) and (6.15). The constannts

are evaluated from the reservoir condition. This gives

(6.23)
To
p-/Y 1-1/Y
Po
(6.24)
These
equations apply to both frictionless subsonic and supersonic flow, but they
must not be used across a shock front.

Velocity in nozle. In the absence of friction, the mechanical energy balance

[Eq. (6.6)] becomes simply
ap- -
(6.25)
Eliminating p from Eq. (6.25) by substitution from Eq. (6.23) and integrating from
a lower limit based on the reservoir, wherep Po» Po» andu
=
P = =
0, gives

f)--
Integrating and substituting the limits yield,
Po p
after
p
rearrangement,
(6.26)
AMach number form of
u from Eq. (6.26) into the firstEq. (6.26) of
is convenient. It
is derived by
stitution from Eq. (6.23). This equality Eq. (6.18) and eliminating subsnu
gives p/P% Dy s

(6.27)
Solved explicitly for the
pressure ratio, Eq.
(6.27) becomes
Po
+I(y (6.28)

1)/2Ma?)1/(1-1/
-

The
criticul pressure ratio,
ing p tor p and 1.0 for Ma: denoted by r,, isfound from Eq. (6.28) by stitut-

Su
2 -1/y»
For air at 300 K, (6.29
y ==14 and r, =
0.528.
 CHAPTER 6: Flow of Compressible Fluids 143

The mass velocity is found by calculating the producl ol u and p, using

Eqs.(6.23) and (6.26).

Gp - ( )1-I/y
(6.30)

Effect of cross-sectional area

The relation between the
change in cross-sectional area, velocity, and Mach
number is useful in correlating the various cases of nozzle flow. Substitution of
p
from Eq. (6.25) into the continuity
equation (6.2) gives
dudS
ud=0 (6.31)
Subscript S is used to call attention to the fact that the flow is isentropic. From
Eq. (6.9)

(6.32)

Eliminating (dp/dp), from Eqs. (6.31) and (6.32) gives

and, by substituting Ma from Eq. (6.1),

Ma-1)= (6.33)
Equation (6.33) shows that for subsonic flow, where Ma «1, the velocity
increases with decreasing cross section (converging conduit) and decreases with
increasing eross section (diverging conduit). This corresponds to the usual situa-
tion of incompressible fow. Lines abc, ade, g'î., and j of Fig. 6.2 represent
examples. For supersonic flow, where Ma > 1, the velocity increases with in-
creasing cross section, as in the diverging section of the nozzle. This conforms to
ine dghf of Fig. 6.2. The apparent anomaly of supersonic flow is a result of the
variation in density and velocity along an isentropic path. Since the mass flow
rate is the same at all points in the nozzle, by continuity the cross-sectional area
of the nozzle must vary inversely with the mass velocity up. The velocity steadily
increaseswith Mach number, and the density decreases. However, at Ma = 1, the
value of Ggoes through a maximum. In the subsonic regime the velocity increases
faster than the density decreases, the mass velocity increases, and S decreases.
In the supersonic regime, the increase in velocity is overcome by a sharper de-
crease in density, the mass velocity decreases, and S increases to accommodate the
total mass flow. This behavior of G is demonstrated by studying the first and sec-
ond derivatives of Eq. (6.30) in the usual manner for investigating maxima and
minima.
144 SECTION II: Fluid Mechanics

a convergent-divergent nozzie tempcrature f

at a
EXAMPLE 6.1. Air enters 1s that of the diseh6 k
20 The area one-halr
throatnumber
(1.000°R) and a pressure of
atm.
in the throat is 0.8, whoge of
Assuming the Mach
ne divergent section. (a) at the throat: preSSurc, temperature, linear volne
values of the following quantities

density, and mass velocity? (b)

What are the values or p , , and G corespon
the noZzle is to be used supersonically, whar g
to reservoir conditions? (c) Assuming
maximum Mach number at the discharge of the divergent section? For air y=
14 and
= 29.

Solution
(a) The pressure at the throat is calculated from Eq. (6.28):

0.036
1)/2]0.8310-1714)
20 (1 +[1.4
P= 13.12 atm
From Eq. (6.10), since R = 82.056 x 107 atm.m°/kg mol K,

20x 29
82.056 12.72
x 10-3 x 555.6 kg/m° (0.795 lb/ft)
Substituting Po/ Po from Eq. (6.10) into Eq. (6.26) gives, for the velocity in the throat,

-/Y
2y RTo
Mg--)

2 x 1.4x 82.056 x 10-3 x 555.6

29(1.4- 1) /1-0.656-1/14
=1.175 (m atm/kg)
These units
are converted to meters per second as follows. From App. 1, | atm=
1.01325x 10° N/mf. By definition, 1 N 1 kg m/s*. Hence =

=
I.1175v1.01325 x 10 =
355.7 m/s (1, 167 fi/s)
The density at the throat is, from
Eq. (6.23),

PP =
12.72x 0.6564 =9.41 kg/m' (0.587 Ib/ft)
The mass velocity at the throat is
G, =
u,P = 355.7 x 9.41 =
3348
kg/m* (686 Ib/fts s) .s .

IThe masS velocity can also be calculated

ture at the throat is, Irom Eq. dircctly by use of Eq. (6.30).] The temp
(6.24),

=
555.6 x
0.656-/4 =
492.5 K (886.5"R)
(b) From Eq. (6.29)

/1

r )
0.528 P 20 x 0.528 = 10.56 atm
 CIAPTER 6: Flow of Compressible Fluids 145

From Eqs. (6.24) and (6.29)

T 463 K (833.4"R)
From Eq. (6.23)

- -()
=12.72 x 0.528/14 = 8.06 kg/m' (0.5031b/te°)
From Eq. (6.30)

G'= 4312.2 x 20 x 1.01325 x 10 52gl/14. /

1.4 1
=
3,476 kg/m* s (712 1b/ft s)
,4 76
8.0643I m/s (1,415 fus)

(c) Since, by continuity, G x 1/S, the mass velocity at the discharge is

G= 3,476 1,738 ken?.s (356 1b/f s)

2

From Eq. (6.30)

1/1.4
1,738=|E*1.4X 12.72 x 20 x 1.01325 x 10
0.4

-1/14
JG)
()-( 0.1294

This cquation is solved for p,/po o give

Pr 0.0939
Po

From Eq. (6.27) the Mach number at the discharge is

Ma,-14505
0.09391-17141)2.20

ADIABATIC FRICTION FLOW

Flow through straight pipes of constant cross section is adiabatic when heat trans-
fer through the pipe wall is negligible. Although there is usually some heat trans-
fer, adiabatic flow is often a good approximation to actual conditions. The process
Is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 6.15. The typical situation is a long insulated
 146 SECTION I1: Fluid Mechanics

and temperature and flows at a

at .

enters at a given pressure

pipe into which gas diameter of
the pipe and
tne
pressure maintaine
speed of the gas may at
and
determined by the length the
low exit pressure, reach
long lines and with
a
outlet. In pass through the:Sonic
the however, Tor
a 8as to
the sonic velocity. It is not possible, the gas entere
barrier from the direction of
either subsonic or supersoc now, ir
number will decrease but wit
than 1, the Mach
the pipe at a Mach number greater a constant discharo
is made, by maintaining
not become less than 1. If an attempt
pressure and lengthening
the pipe, to force the gas
to
cnange
irom subsonic to Su
to subsonic, the mass iow rate will decrease to
personic fiow or from supersonic
prevent such a change. This effect is called choking.

The friction parameter

The basic quantity that measures the effect of friction is the friction parameter

This arises from the integration Eq. (6.8). of In adiabatic friction flow, the
SL/#
temperature of the gas changes. The viscosity also varies, and the Reynolds number

and friction factor are not actually constant. In gas flow, however, the effect of
temperature on viscosity is small, and thc effect of Reynolds number on the friction
factor fis still less. Also, unless the Mach number is nearly unity, the temperature
change is small. It is satisfactory to use an average value for f as a constant in cal-
culations. If necessary, f can be evaluated at the two ends of the conduit and an
arithmetic average used as a constant.
Friction factos insupersonie fow are not well established. Apparently, they are
approximately one-half those in subsonic flow for the same Reynolds number.
In all the integrated equations in the next section, it is assumed that the entrance
to the conduit is rounded to form an
isentropic convergent nozzle. If supersonic
flow in the conduit is required, the entrance nozzle must
include a divergent section
to generate a Mach number greater than 1.

Equations for adiabatic friction flow

Equation (6.8) is multiplied by p/p, giving
pu sa 0
du+ 2p r
(6.34)

It is desired to obtain
integrated form of this equation. The
an
form is one
containing the
Mach number as most useful integral
the dependent variable and the ction
parameter as an
friC
inated from Exy. independent
variable. To
(6.34) accomplish this, the density factor
is
du /u are found from using
Eq. (6.18), and
Eqs. (6.2) and relationships between Ma, dpll
eliminated by using Eqs. (6.4), (6.I3), (6.I1). Quantity dT /T, when it appe
and (6.18). The
results are
dp +(y- 1)Ma? dMa
1+1 1)/2|Ma Ma (6.35)

Also
du p 42 a
4 Ma (6.36)
 CHAPTER 6: Flow of Compressible Fluids 147

Substitution from Eqs. (6.35) and (6.36) into Ey. (6.34) and rearrangement give the
tinal differential equalion

2(1 Ma ) dMa
THyMa'{1 +I(y -1)/2]Ma°) (6.37)
Formal integration of Eq. (6.37) between an entrance station a and exit station b
gives

JLd- H JMa,
2(1 Ma) dMa
yMa'il +[( - 1)/2]Ma*}

-L)
H TH

Y+1 Ma+[(y-1)/2]Ma}\ (6.38)

rMa2 Ma, 2
Ma2[1 +[(7 1)/2]Ma;|
-

wheref is the arithmetic average value of the terminal friction factors, (Ja + S)/2,
and L = Lb-La.

Property equations. For calculating the changes in pressure, temperature, and

density, the following equations are uscful.
In adiabatic friction flow the ratio of the inlet and outlet
direct integration of Eq. (6.35) between the limits
pressures is found by
p» Pa» and Ma,, Ma, to give
Pa Mab 1+[(y- 1)/2]Ma
P Ma y 1+( 1)/2]Ma, (6.39)

The temperature ratio is calculated from Eq. (6.20), noting that 7oa Tob: so

40)
From Eq. (6.40) and the temperature form of Eq. (6.18) for the Mach number of an
ideal gas,
yRTgMa, TYRT,Maj
Ta t2MCp (6.41)
From Eq. (6.16)
2MCp

R 42)
Substituting c,M/R from Eq. (6.42) into Eq. (6.41) and solving for the temperature
ratio give

T + -1)/2]Mag (6.43)
T 1+I(y -1)/2]Ma
 148 SECTION I1: Fluid Mechanics

gas equation of state

(6.10).
from the
density ratio is calculated
The
(0.9) and (0.43), respectively
e
by Eqs.
pressure and temperature ratios given

PaPal_ May /1+[(y-D/2]Ma

644)
PsT Ma, Y1+ [(y- 1)/2]Mag
Maximum conduit length. To ensure that tne conaitons or a problem do
not
call for the impossible phenomenon of a crossing of the Sonic barrier, an equation i
needed giving the maximum value offL/ra consistent With a given entrance Mach
number. Such an equation is found from Eq. (6.33) Dy ChooSing the entrance to the

conduit as station a and identifying station bas the asterisk condition, where
Ma 1.0. Then the length L,-L, represents the maximum length of conduit that
can be used for a fixed value of Ma, This length is denoted by Lmax Équation (6.38)
then gives

Lmax +21+Iy -1D/2]Ma, (6.45)

TH Ma(y + 1)

Corresponding equations for p/p', T/T', and p/p* are found from Eqs. (6.39),
(6.43), and (6.44).

Mass velocity
To calculate the
Reynolds number for evaluating the friction factor, the mass
velocity is needed. From Eq. (6.18) and the definition ofG

Ma=pu)

p?yTR/M pyTR/M PYP

and YTR
G
pMa =
Ma,/PYP (6.46)
Since, for constant-area fHow, G is
evaluated at any point where the gas
independent of length, the mass velocity can o

at the entrance to the conduit

properties are known. Normally the condn
are used.

EXAMPL.E 6.2. Air fhows irom

a
reservoir
straight pipe. The
pressure and through an
isentropic nozze n a long
(555.6 K), lemperature in the reservoir R
(a) What respectively,_and
is the value ot
the
Mach number 20 atm
ndare
05.
J Lma,/ ru'? (b) What are at the entrance of the pi
ear velocity, and maSS the lin
man/" 400?
velocily when
L,= Lma? (c)pressure, temperature,
What is the mass ac hen
Solution
v
() Valucs lor
substitulion m
Eq. (6.45) arey= 1.4 and Ma, =
O.0. 1

|0.052 1
241 +1(1.4-1)/210.05
(1.4 + 1)0.05 1 =280
 CHAPTRR 6: Flow
oT Compressible lFluids 149

)The pressure at the end of thie iscntropic nozzle p, is given by Eq. (6.28):
0 20
+I(1.4 - 1)/210.0521.4/(14-1) 1.0016 20 atm
The pressure, tempernture, and density change in lhe nozzlc arc negligible, and except
for lnear velocity, the reservoir conditions also pertain to the
pipc entrance. From
Example 6.1, the density of air at 20 atm and 1,000°R is 0.795 1b/f*. The acoustic
velocity is, from Eq. (6.17), including 8, in the numerator,

a 14 x 32.174 x
1,000 = 1,550 ft/s (472.4 m/s)
The velocity at the entrance of the pipe is

4= 0.05x 1,550 = 77.5 ft/s (23.6 m/s)

When L, =Lmax tlie gas leaves the
pipe at the asterisk condition, where Ma, =
1.0.
From Eq. (6.43)
1,000 24
1.2
T* 21+ [(1.4 1)/2]0.052)
T'=834°R (463.3 K)
From Eq. (6.44)

0.79 1/21+ ((1.4 1)/2j0.052)

p 0.0s V 2.4
p' = 0.0435 Ib/r (0.697 kg/m°)

From Eq. (6.39)

20 0.05
M2
P=0.913 atm
The mass velocity through the entire pipe is

G=0.795
a = u' =
x 77.5 =
0.0435u
1416 ft/s (431.6 m/s)
= 61.61 lb/ftt s (300.8 kg/n-s)
Since the exit velocity is sonic, «" also be calculated from
can
Eq. (6.17) using
T=T° = 834°R (463.3 K):

834
a=u=550 1000 =1,416ft/s (431.6m/s)
(C) Using Eq. (6.45) withf Lmon/rH = 400 gives

400 = 1 -14+ 1 2l+Mag(1.4+

[04- D/2Ma|
1)
bis equalion must be solved for Ma, by trial and error. The final result is Ma,=
0.04194. Then
0.04194,
- (77.5) = 65.0 f/s (19.8 m/s)
0.05
G = 65.0 x 0.795 = 5 1 . 7 Ib/ns s (252.4 k g / n s)
150 SECTION 11: Fluid Mechanics

IsOTHERMAL FRICTION FLOW

The temperature of the fluid in compressible now tnrough a conduit of onstant

transter or heat through the conduit
cross section may be kept constant by a
wall
heat to keen t
contact with air transmit sufficient
Long, small, uninsulated pipes in
flow nearly isothermal. Also, for small
Mach
numbers, the pressure pattem for
isothermal flow is nearly the same as that for adiadauC now Ior the same entrance

isothermal flow may be used.

conditions, and the
The
simpler equations for
basic equation for isothermal flow is simple. It is obtained by introducing
the mass velocity into the mechanical energy balance [Eq. (6.8)] and integrating

directly.
Multiplying Eq. (6.8) by p gives
dL
o dp +pu du + UJ
2rH
(6.47)
Since pu G , u du = - (Gp*) dp, and p= Mp/(RT), Eq. (6.47) can be written

RTPdp-G+ CHdL _ (6.48)

2rH
Rearranging Eq. (6.48) and integrating between stations a and b givee

P-P= 2n Pb
(l,- L,)| (6.49)
TH
where r is the hydraulic radius of the
pipe or channel.
The density
ratio Pal Ps may be used in place of p,/P, in Eq. (6.49). Equ
tion (6.49) can also be used when the
Then, in place of 7, an arithmetic temperature change over the conduit 1s Sia
average
adiabatic flow at low Mach numbers temperature may be used. For exampl
(below about 0.3) follows the
closely. equau

EXAMPI E 6.3. Air at l.7 atm

gauge and 15°C enters a horizontal
that is 70 m long. The now rate of the 75-mm s pipe
flow, what is the presSure at the
entering air q is 0.265 m'/s. Assuming i
discharge end of the
pipe?
Solution. Use Eq. (6.49). The
quantities needed are

D =
0.075 m
TH 0.075
4 0.01875 m
= 0.0174 cP
(App. 8) =
1.74 x
10 kg/m-s
273
288 3.31 kg/m?
A=.07527
4 .00442 m
 HAPTER 6: Flow o[ Compressible Fluids 151

Then G=P 0.265 x 3.31 198.5 kg/m s

A 0.00442
198.5
Re = 0.0755x .74 x 10-3 * 8.56 10

0.000 15 x = 0.00061
D 0.075
S= 0.0044 (Fig. 5.10)
Let (Pa + Ph)/2 = p, so

P-P= (Po - p»{pa t Po) = 2p(Pa- Pa)

From Eq. (6.49)

PaPb )
where p. =2.7 aum
M=29
L= 70 m
R= 82.056 x 10-* m° atm/kg mol K (Table 1.2)
T=15+273 = 288 K

By trial, p is found to be 1.982 atm and p, =1.264 atm.

Check: Since I atm = 101,325 N/nm* = 101.325 kg/m s |Eqs. (1.14) and (1.15)),

82.056 x10- x 288 x198.6 (0.0044

O1R75T"1.264
P=2.7-

1.982 x 29 x 101,325
=
1.264 atm abs or 0.264 atm gauge

The average pressure is

_2.1+ 1,264 = 1.982 atm

Solution of Eq. (6.49) for G and differentiation with respect to pressure Pp

yields a maximum mass velocity GmaxPevWM/(RT), an exit velocity Ve.mas =
RT/M, and an exit Mach number Ma,= 1//.This apparent choking condition.
however, is not physically meaningful for isothermal flow because at such high
velocities and high rates of expansion, isothermal conditions are not possible.
Heat transfer in isothermal flow
The steady-ffow energy equation (6.22) and Eq. (6.20) for the stagnation tem-
perature combine to give, after noting that T,= 7
2
(6.50)
Substituting G/p for u gives the mass-velocity form of Eq. (6.50),

-)
In these equations Q/nm is the heat Now into the gas in joules per kilogram.
(6.51)

Equations (6.49) to (6.51) are used for subsonic flow only.

 Mechanics
I1: Fluid
152 SECTiON

SYMBOLS

Area, m* or ft
or ft/s; ag,
at pipe entrance
Acoustic velocity in fluid, m/s at constant pressure; c, at constans
heat, J/g. °C or Btu/lb. F;C
Specific
volume
D Diameter, m or ft
dimensionless; J, at station a, f, at station b:
Fanning friction facto,
f. average value
Mass velocity, kg/m*. s or lb/ft s; G,, in receiver; G,, at throat; G', value
G
when Ma = 1.0; Gmax, maximum value
Gravitational acceleration, m/s* or ft/ss
32.174 ft 1b/lb, s
Newton's law proportionality factor,
Enthalpy, J/g or Btu/lb; H, at station a; Hy, at station b; H, stagnation
value; Hsa H,, at stations a and b; Ho, at reference temperature; H", value
when Ma = 1.0

Friction loss, N m/g or ft 1b,/lb; hfs, loss from skin friction

k Roughness parameter, m or ft
Length, m or ft, L, from entrance to station a; L, to station b; Lma length
of pipe when Ma = 1.0 at outlet
Ma Mach number, u/a; Ma, at station a; Ma, at station b; Ma, at nozZZle
discharge
M Molecular weight of fluid
Mass, kg or Ib
Mass flow rate, kg/s or lb/s
P Pressure, N/m or
Ib,/ft: Pa» at station a; ph, at station b; p, in receiver,
P at throat of
convergent-divergent nozzle; po, in reservoir; P, Vaiu when
Ma =
1.0; p, average value
Quantity of heat, J or Btu
Gas law
constant, 8.314
Critical pressure ratio, J/g mol Kor 1,545 ft lb,/lb mol °R
p"|po
Hydraulic radius of conduit, or m
Cross-sectional area of conduit, m* or ft
Temperature, K or °R;
T, station a; at
T, at nozzle throat; 7 rclerence T, at station b; T, stagnaO vialie
Fluid velocity, m/s or value; T*, value when Ma =

value; u, al throat ol It/s, u, at station

a; u,, at nation
station b;
V
Ma = 1.0
convergenl-divergent nozzle; u', valucu, wne
stug
Average lluid velocily, V
Z Heighl above datunm planc,.xin maximum discharge vclocily
ft
or

Greek Letters

Kinctic cnergy coTCCTion

laclor,
Momentum correction lactor a,, al
station a:
,, al Stauo
 CHAPTLR 6: Flow of Compressible Fluids 153

y Ratio ol specilic heats. c,/

Density of uid. kg/m' or Ib/ft: P P
al stalions a and b; p, at throat of
convergent-divergent nozzle: Py, reservoir: p", value when Ma= 1.0
in
Absolute viscosity, kg/m s or lb/ft s

Subscripts

AS statio
At stationb
Isentropic flow
Stagnation value
Reference value, reservoir conditions

PROBLEMS

6.1. For the inlet conditions of Example 6.2, what is the maximum length of pipe that
may be used if the pipe is 2 in. in diameter? What is it for the inlet conditions of
Example 6.32

6.2. Natural gas consisting essentially of methane is to be transported through a 20-in.-ID

Pipeline over fat terain. Each pumping station increases the pressure to 100 1b,/in.
abs, and the pressure drops to 25 lb/in." abs at the inlet to the next pumping station
S0 mi away. what is the gas fiow rate in cubic feet per hour measured at 60°F and 30 in.
8 pressure?

6.3. A divergent-convergent nozzle has the proportions shown in Table 6. 1. Air (y= 1.40,
M=29.0) enters the nozzle from a reservoir in which the pressure is 20 atm abs and the
emperature 1s 3 0 K. Fiot t e pressure, the temperalure, and the Mach number versus
the length of the noZzle when (a) the fHow rate is a maximum without shock and with
subsonic discharge and (b) the tlow is isentropic and the discharge is supersonic.

TABLE .1

Data in Prob. 6.3

Length Diameter Length Diameter

Reservoir 0 Throat 0.30 0.25

D.025 0.40 0.28
0.050 0.700 0.50 0.3
0.075 0.575 0.60 0.45
0. 100 0.500 0.70 0.0
0.150 0.375 0.80 0.68
0.200 0.300 0.90 0.84
Receiver 1.00 1.00

G.4. A standard I-in. Schedule 40 horizontal steel pipe is used to conduct chlorine gas. The
gas enlers the pipe through a rounded entrance at a pressure of 6 atm abs, a temperature
ol 120C, and a velocity of 35 m/s. (a) What is the maximum possible length of the
154 SECTION 11: Fluid Mechanics

and stagnation temperature o

the gas at the end
Pipe?
PIpe at What are thelength?
(6) maximum pressure
Assume adiabalic mow. For chlorine, y ==13%e
nd
M 70.91.
6.5. Air at 25°C enters a section of 2-in. Schedule 40 steel pipe at a gauge pressure of
310 kN/nm* and a flow rate of 1,200 kg/h. Assuming isothermal fiow, what is the res-

sure drop in 60 m of pipe?

6.6. Calculate the stagnation temperature for air flowing at 200"C and 1.5 atm if the veloc-
ity is 0.9 of the sonic velocity.

6.7. Air enters a 25-mm (1-in.) Schedule 40 steel pipe at 350 K and p =5x 10° N/m2. The
velocity is 120 m/s. Assuming flow is adiabatic, for what length of pipe would the air
leave at sonic velocity ?

6.8. Calculate the source

pressure required to deliver 13 x 10° standard cubic feet per day
(SCFD) of CO to a customer 60 mi. away. By contract the pressure at the customer's site
must be at least 300
Ib,/in. gauge. The pipe is 10 in. in diameter. Long pipelines may
be considered isothermal at the
T=70°F, p = I atm.
ground temperature of 60°F. Standard conditions are

REFERENCES
1. Cambel, A. B. Handbook
1961, pp. 8-5 to 8-12.
of Fluid Dynamics. Ed. V. L. Streeter. New York: McGraw-Hil,
2. Cambel,
A. B., and B. H. Jennings.
Gas Dynamics, Ncw York:
3.
p 85-8S6. McGraw-Hill, 1998,
Shapiro, A. H., and W. R. Hawthorne. J. Appl. Mech. 14: A-317 (1947).