EN GLIS H L I T E R AT U R E

I TS H I STO R Y AN D I TS S I G N I F I C A N C E

F O R TH E L I F E O F TH E EN GL I SH
SPEAK I N G WO R L D

A T E X T —B O O K F OR S C H O O L S

BY

W I LL I AM LO NG , PH D
. .
( H E I DE L BE RG
)

GIN N AN D C O M PA N Y
B O S TO N NEW YOR K I AGO
CH C LO N D ON
C OP Y R I G HT , 1 909 , B Y WI LL IAM LO NG
E N T E R E D AT ST A I NE
T O RS
’
H A LL

I
A L L R G HTS R E S E R VE D

t h e a tb c n a n m B re n
I
G N N A N D C O M PAN Y P R O
P R I E T OR S B OS T O N U S A . . .
 TO

I
F R EN D

C H T
IN GR ATITU DE FO R

HIS C O N TIN U ED HELP IN THE

PREPARA TION OF

THIS BOO K
 P R E F AC E

T h i s bo ok w h ic h p re se n ts th e wh ol e splend i d h i story of
,

E n gli s h li te rat u r e f ro m A n gl o S a x o n t
-
i m e s to th e close of th e
V ic tor i an E ra h as th re e s p e cific a i m s Th e fi rs ti s to c re ate o r
, .

t o e n c ou rage i n e v e ry s t u d e n tt h e d e s i re to r e a d th e b e st b ook s ,

an d t o k n ow li t e ratu re i t se l f rat h e r th an w h at h as be e n w ri tte n

ab ou t li t e rat u re . Th e s e con d is to i n te rp re t l i te rat u re bot h pe r
son ally a n d h i s t or ic ally t ,
h at is to s h ow h ow a gre at book ge n
,

e rally re fl e c t s n oton ly t h e au th or s li f e an d th ou gh tb u tal so th e

’

s pi r i t of t h e age an d th e id e al s of th e n ati on s h i s t ory

’
Th e.

th i rd aim is to s h ow by a s t ,
u dy of e ac h s u cc e ss iv e p e r i od h ow ,

ou r li t e rat u re h as s t e a dily d e v e l op e d f ro m it s fi rs t s i m pl e son gs

an d s t or i e s t o it s p re se n t c om pl e xi t y i n p ros e an d p oe try .

To carry ou t th e se a i m s w e h av e i n trod u c e d th e foll owi n g

f e atu re s :
( )
I A b ri e f a cc u rat
,
e s u mm ary o f h i s t o r ica l e v e n t s an d s oci al

c on di ti on s in e ac h p e r i od an d a c on s id e rati on of th e id ea l s
,

w h ic h s ti rre d th e w h ol e n ati on as in th e d ays of E li zabe th

, ,

b e fore th e y f oun d e xp re ss i on in li te ratu re .

( )
2 A s t u dy of t h e v a r i ou s li t e rary e p oc h s i n t u,
rn s h o wi ng

w h ate ac h gai n e d f ro m th e e p oc h p re c e di n g an d h ow e ac h a id e d
,

i n th e d e v e l o pm e n tof a n ati on al li te rature .

( )
3 A r e a d abl e bi o g ra p h y o f e v e ry i m p o rta n t w r i
,
t
e r s h owi ng

h ow h e liv e d an d w ork e d h ow h e m e t su cc e ss or fail u re h o w

, ,

h e i n fl u e n c e d h is age an d h ow h is age i n fl u e n c e d h im
, .

( ) A dy d aly s i s of e v e ry au t h or s b e stwork s an d of
’

4 s tu a n a n ,

m an y of th e book s re qu i re d for c oll e ge e n tran c e e x ami n ati on s

-
.

(5) S e l e c ti on s e n o u g h — e s p e ci ally f rom e arli e r w r i t e rs an d ,

f rom wri te rs n otlik e ly to b e f ou n d in th e h om e or s c h oo l lib rary

vi E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
i dic pi i c w k d di c ti
’

to n at e t he s r t o f e a h a u th o r s o r ; an re o ns

as t o t he b e st w o rk s to r e a d a n d ,
w h e r e s u c h w o rk s m a y b e

fou n d in i n e xp e n s ive e di ti o n s .

(6 ) A f ra n k u n te c
,
h n ica l di s c us s i o n o f e a c h gr e at w ri t e r s

work as a w h ol e an d a c ri tical e stim ate of h is re l ative pl ac e

,

a n d i n fl ue n c e in ou r li t e rat u re .

e ac h e rs at t
i

A i f h e lp s t o st ud e n t s an d t h e e n d of
(7) se r e s o

e a c h c h ap t e r i n cl udi n g s u m m ar i e s se l e c t
, ,
i o n s for re adi n g bibli og
,

rap h ie s a li s tof s u gge st

,
iv e qu e sti on s an d a c h ron ol ogical tabl e of
,
~

i m porta n te ve n ts in th e h i story an d li te rature of e ac h p e ri od .

T h h t t h i b k w h av e re m e mb e re d R
( )
8 ro u g o u s oo e oge r

A sc h am s s u gge s ti on m ad e ov e r th re e c e n turi e s ago an d s till

’

p e rti n e n t th at tis a p oor w ay to m ak e a c h ild l ov e s tu dy by

,
’

be gi n n i n g wi th th e th i n gs w h ic h h e n aturally di s like s We '

.
”

h ave l aid e m p h as i s u po n th e d e li g h ts o f li t e ratu re ; w e h av e

t re at e d b oo k s n ot as m e re i n s t ru m e n t s of re s e arc h —
w h ic h is
t h e d an ge r i n m os t of ou r s tu di e s — b u t rath e r as i n stru m e n ts
of e n j oym e n t an d of i n s pi rat i on ; an d by m aki n g ou r stu dy as
at trac tive as p os s ibl e w e h ave sou gh tt o e n c ou rage t h e st ude n t

t o rea d wid e ly for h im s e lf t o c h oose t

,
h e b e s t b ook s an d to
,

f orm h is own j ud gm e n t about w h at ou r fi rs t A n gl o S ax on -

" ”
wri te rs call e d th e th i n gs worth y to b e re m e mb e re d .

To th ose w h o m ay u se th i s b ook in th e i r h om e s or in th e i r
class room s th e w ri te r ve n tu re s to o ff e r on e or two f ri e n dly s u g
,

ge s ti on s ou tof h is ow n e xp e ri e n ce as a t
e ac h e r of y oun
g p e o pl e .

Fi rst th e am ou n t of s pace h e re give n to diffe re n t p e r i od s an d

,

aut ors
h is i n d e x of th e re l ative am ou n t of ti m e to b e
n ot an

s pe n t u pon t h e di ffe re n t s u bj e c ts T h u s t o te ll th e story of

.
,

S pe n se r s life an d id eal s re q u i re s as m u c h s p ac e as to te ll th e
’

st o ry of T e n n y s on ; b u t t h e ave rage cl as s will s p e n d its ti m e

m ore pl e asan t ly an d p ro fi tably wi th th e l atte r p oe t th an wi th
th e fo rm e r S e c on d m an y au th ors w h o are an d ou gh t to b e
.
,

i n cl ud e d in th i s h i story n e e d n ot b e s tu di e d in th e cl as s roo m .
 P R E FAC E vii
A te x tb ook is
-
n ota cate c h i s m b u t a s tore h ous e in w h ic h o n e ,

fi n d s w h ath e wan ts an d so m e good th i n gs be s id e F e w cl asse s

,
.

will fin d ti m e to s tu dy B l ak e or N e w m an for i n stan c e ; b u t ,

in n e arly e v e ry cl as s th e re will b e f ou n d on e o r two s tu d e n ts

w h o are at trac te d by t h e my s tici s m of B l ak e o r by th e p ro fou n d
s pi ri tuali ty of N e w m an S u c h s tu d e n ts s h ou ld b e e n c ou rage d to
.

foll ow th e i r ow n s pi ri ts an d to s h are wi th th e i r cl as s m ate s th e

,

joy of th e i r di s cove ri e s A n d th e y s h ou ld fin d in th e i r te x tb oo k
.
-

th e m at e r i al for t h e i r ow n s tu dy an d re adi n g .

A th i rd su gge sti o n re l ate s to th e m e th od of te ac h i n g l i te ra

t ur e ; an d h e re it m i h tb e w e ll t o c o n s id e r th e w ord of a r t
g g e a

p oe t th at i f you wou ld k n ow w h e re th e r ip e s t c h e rr i e s are

,
—
,

as k t h e boy s an d th e bl ackbi rd s I t is su rp ri s i n g h ow m u c h a
.

you n g p e rson will ge tou tof th e M e re /a m tof Ve n i c e an d s om e ,

h ow arr iv e at S h ak e s p ea re s opi n i on of S hyl ock an d P orti a if

’

w e d o n ot bot h e r h im too m u c h wi th n ote s an d c ri tica l d ire c

ti on s as t o w h ath e ou g h tt o se e k an d fin d T u rn a c h ild an d a .

d on k e y l oose in th e sam e fi e ld an d th e c h ild h e ad s s trai gh tfor

,

t h e be au ti f u l s p ots w h e re b rook s are ru n n i n g an d bi rd s s i n g i n g ,

w h il e th e d on k e y tu rn s as n atu rally to we e d s an d th i stl e s I n

o

ou r s t u dy of li t e rat u re w e h av e p e rh ap s t oo m u c h symp at hy
wi th th e l atte r an d w e e v e n i n s i st th at th e c h ild co m e back
,

f rom h is ow n qu e s t of th e id e al to j oi n u s i n our c r i tical c om

p an io n s h ip . I n re adi n g m an y te x tbo ok s of l ate an d in vi s i ti n g
-

m an y cl ass roo m s t ,
h e w r i te r h as re c e iv e d th e i m p re ss i on th atw e
lay t oo m u c h s t re s s o n se c o n d h an d c ri t ici s m p asse d d ow n from
-
,

bo ok to book an d w e se tou r p u pils to se arc h i n g for fi gure s of

s p e e c h an d e l e m e n t s of s t yl e as if th e gre atbook s of th e world
,

w e re s ubj e c tto c h e mical an aly s i s T h i s s e e m s to b e a m i stak e.

,

for tw o re a son s fi rs t th e av e rage y ou n g p e rson h as n o n atu ra l

,

i n te re sti n s u c h m atte rs ; an d s e c on d h e is u n abl e to app re ci ate ,

th e m . He f e e l s u n c on s ci ous ly wi th C h au c e r :
An d as for m e th ou g h th a t m y w itb e
,
ly te '

O n b ook é s for to re d e I m e d e ly té .
viii E NG LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
I n de e d ,
m any m atu re pe rson s ( i n cl u di n g th e w ri te r of th i s h i story)
are o f t e n u n abl e t o e xpl a i n at fi rs tt h e c h arm or th e s t yl e of an
au t h o r w h o pl ea se s th e m an d th e m ore p rof ou n d th e i m p re s s i o n
m ad e by a book th e m ore di ffi c u l t itis to giv e e xp re s s ion to ou r
,

th ou gh ta n d fe e li n g To re ad a n d e n j oy good book s is wi th u s
. ,

as wi t h C h au c e r th e m ai n th i n g ; to an alyz e th e auth or s s tyl e or

’

e xpl a i n o u r ow n e n j oy m e n tse e m s o f s e c on d ary an d s m all i m p or

ta n ce . H owe ve r th atm ay b e w e s tate f ran kly our ow n con victi on

,

th at th e d e t a il e d s t u dy a n d an aly s i s o f a fe w s t a n d ard w or k s

w h ic h is th e on ly li te rary pab ul u m give n to m an y you n g p e opl e i n

our s c h ool s b e ars th e sam e re l ati on to true li te ratu re thatth e ol
og be ar s t o re li g i o n or p syc h ol ogy t o f r i e n d s h ip O n e i s a m ore
y ,
.

o r l e s s u n w e lc om e m e n t a l di s cipli n e th e ot h e r is th e joy of li f e .

Th e w ri te r v e n t u re s t o s u gge st t h e re f ore t ,
h at s i n c e li te ra
, ,

tu re i s our s u bj e c t w e b e g i n a n d e n d wi t
,
h goo d book s an d th at
we s t a n d as id e w h il e t h e grea twri te rs s p e ak th e i r ow n m e s sage
to our p u pil s . I n stu dyi n g e ac h s u cc e s s iv e pe ri od le t th e s t u ,

d e n tbe g i n by re adi n g th e b e s t that th e age p rod u c e d ; le t h im

f e e l in h is ow n w ay th e p owe r a n d m yste ry of B e ow u lf th e ,

broad c h ari ty of S hak e s p e are th e s u bli m i ty of M il ton th e ro

, ,

m an tic e n t h u s i as m of S cot t; an d th e n w h e n h is ow n t as t
, e is

pl eas e d an d sati s fi e d a n e w on e will ari s e — to k n ow som e

, ,

th i n g abou tth e au th or t h e ti m e s in w h ic h h e liv e d an d fi n ally

, ,

of c r i t ici s m w h ic h in its s i m plici ty is th e di sc ove ry th atth e m e n

, , ,

an d wo m e n of ot he r age s we re ve ry m u c h lik e ou rs e lve s l ovi n g as ,

w e l ov e be a ri n g t
, h e sa m e b urd e n s an d f oll owi n g th e sam e i d ea l s
,

Lo , wi th he
t an c e n ti
R oot
s of m an
’
s n at
u re

Tw i e s
n he
t et
e rn a l
P ioass n o f son
g .

E v e r Lov e fan s it;

E v e r L ife fe e d s it;
Ti m e c an n o t a
ge i t;
D eath ca n n o ts a l y .
 P R E F AC E ix
To an s we r th e qu e sti on s w h ic h ari s e n atu rally b e twe e n te ac h e r
an d p u pil c o n c e rn i n g t h e b ook s th atth e y re ad is on e obj e ctof
,

th i s vol u m e I t a i m s n ot s i m ply to i n stru ctb utal so to i n s pi re

.

to t ra c e t h e h i s tor ica l d e v e l op m e n tof E n gli s h li t

e rature
,
an d at

th e s am e ti m e to all u re its re a d e rs to th e b e s t b oo k s an d th e
b e stw ri te rs A n d f rom b e gi n n i n g to e n d itis wr i tte n u p on th e
.

ass u m p t i on th atth e fi rstvi rtu e of su c h a work is to b e acc u rate ,

an d t h e s e c on d to b e i n te re s ti n g
.

Th e au th or ack n owl e d ge s wi th gr ati tu d e an d app re ci ati on

, ,

h is i n d e b te d n e ss to P rof e ssor W illi am L y on Ph e lp s for th e

u s e of h is li t e rary m a f E n l an d an d t o th e k e e n cri tic
p o g , ,
s

te ac h e rs of li t e rat u r e an d h i s t ory w h o h av e re ad t
,
h e p roo f s of
th i s book an d h av e i m p rov e d itby th e i r goo d su gge sti on s
, .

WI L L I AM J . L ON G
A
S T M F O R D , C ONNE C T I C U T
 C ON T E N T S
P AG E

CH A PT E R I I NT R O D U C TI O N .
—
T HE ME ANING OF
L IT E R AT U R E

Th e S h e ll an d th e B o o k .
Q u a li ti e s of i
L te ra tu re . Te s ts of i
L te ra tu re .

Th e O b j e c t i n stud yi ng i
L te ra tu re . Im p o rtan c e of i
L te ra tu re . S um
m ar y of th e S u b j e c t . B b i li o
g ra p h y .

C HA PT E R I I . THE A N G LO -
S A X ON OR O L D E -
N GLIS H
P E R I OD 10

Fi tP ty w lf ” “ ”
“
Lam e n t Th e
’
O ur rs oe r . Be o u . D e or s .

Sea f a re r .
” "
F g h t a t F i n n s b u rg h
Th e i .
” "
Wa ld e re .
"
A gl n o -S a x on

L if e . O ur i
F rs t S p e e c h C h r s ta n W r te rs . i i i . N rth o um br ia n i
L te ra tu re .

Bede . C ae d m o n . y w lf D e liC ne u . c ne of N rth o um br i

an L i te ra t re u .

A lf re d . S um m ar y B i b li g p h y Q
. o ra . u e s to n s i . C h ro n o l gy
o .

C HA P TE R I I I . THE A N G L O N O R MAN P E R I O D —

Th e N o rm a n s . Th e C o n q ue s t . L i te rary I d e a ls of th e N o r m an s . G e of f y
re

of Mo n m o u th . Wo rk of th e F re n c h \Vri te rs . La y a m o n
’
s
“
B ru t .
”

Me tri c a l R o m an c e s . Th e P e ar l . M i sc e ll an e o u s L i te ra tu re of th e N o r
m an P i e r od . S um m ar y . B b i li o
g ra p h y .
Q u e s ti o n s . C h ro n o l o
gy .

CH A PT E R IV . T HE AG E O F CH AU CE R .

H i s to ry of th e P i e r od . F iv W ri te
e rs of th e Ag e . C h au c e r . La n g l an d .

Pi e rs P l wm
o an .
”
J oh n \Vyc li f . J oh n Man d e vill e . S u m m a ry . B ib li
o
g rap h y .
Q u e s ti o n s . C h ro n o l o gy .

CH A PT E R V . T HE R E V VA L O F I LE AR NI NG .

P o liti c a l C h an g e s . L i te ra tu re of th e R e viv l
V ya tta n d S u rre y Ma o ra .
V
. l ys ’

"
Mo rte d A rth u r ” S u m m a ry ’
. . i li
B b o g rap h Q u e s to n s C h ro n o o g y . i . l y .

C HA PT E R VI . T HE AG E OF E L Z AB E I TH .
99
P li ti l
o ca S u m m ar y . C h a rac te r s t
ics i of th e E li z ab e th an A ge . Th e N o n
i P e t E dm
D ra m a tc o s . und M i n o r P o e ts Th o m as S ac kvill e
S pe nse r . . .

P h ili p S i d y G g ne . e or e C h ap m a n M ic h ae l D ra y to n T h e O ri gi n o f
. .

th eD ra m Th e R li gi a . e o u s P e ri o d o f th e D ra m a M i rac l e an d Mys te ry .

P l ay Th e Mo l Pe ri
s . ra od of th e D ra m a . Th e I nte r ud e s l . Th e A ti ti
r s c

P e ri d o f th e D ra m a
o . C l as s i c a l I fl n uenc e u p on th e D ra m a . S h ak e
s p e a re s
’
P re d e c e ss o rs i n th e D ram a C h ri s to p h e r Mar l o w e . . Sha k e s p e are .

X
 CO NT E NTS xi
PAG E

Dec li n e of th e D ra m a . Sh a k e sp a e re s
’
C o n te m p o ra ri e s an d S u c c e s s o rs .

Be n J o n s on . B e a u m o n ta n d Fl th e c er . J oh n W e b s te r . Th o m as M i dd l e
to n . Th o m as H e yw ood . Th o m as I) e kk er . M as s i n g e r . F o rd i le y
. Sh r .

P ro s e Wri te rs . F ra n c is
ic h d H o k e S idB ac on . R ar o r . ne y R a l i gh
. e .

J oh n F o xe . C am de n a d K ox H k l y ta d P c h as Th o m as
n n . a u n ur . N o rth .

S um m ar y . B b i li o g r ap h y Q ti o s Ch l og y
. ues n . ro n o .

CH A PTE R VI I . T HE P U R ITA N A G E I 86

Th e P it ur an Mov e m e n t . Ch gi g I d
an l L it n ea s . e ra r y Cha ra c te r s tc s i i .

Th e T ra n s to n ii P oe t
s . S am u e l D an i e l . Th e S o n g W i te r Th e S p e n
rs .

s e r an i P oe ts . Th e Me ta p h y s i c a l P oe ts . J oh n D on n e . G e o rg e H e rb e rt .

Th e C av a li P o e ts Th o m s C e w R o b e t H e ri c k S c kli g d
er . a ar . r r . u n an

L v l c
o J o h n Mil to Th P o e W ri te s J h B y a R ob e tB
e a e . n . e r s r . o n un n . r ur

ton Th m . B w Th o m s F ll e
o J e e m y T yl o r R i c h a d B x te
as ro ne . a u r . r a . r a r .

I a k VV lt S m m y B i b li og p h y Q e s ti o s C h o l ogy
z a
‘
a on . u ar . ra . u n . ron .

C HAP TE R V I I I PE R I OD . OF THE RES T O R ATI O N 236

H i s to ry of th e P i e r od . L te ra r i y C h a ac te i s ti c s J o h n D y d e n
r r . r . S am u e l
B u te r l . Ho b b e s an d L oc ke . E v e ly a d P e p y n S m m ry B i b l i
n s . u a . o
gra p h y .

Q u e s ti o n s . C h ro n o l og y .

C HA P TE R I X . E I G HT E E N T H CE N TU R Y L IT E R A
TU R E 258

H i s to ry of th e P e ri o d . L te ra ri y C h a rac te ri s tc s i . Th e C l as s i c A ge .

Al x e an d e r P
J os e ph A d d is o
op e Th e Ta tl e
. Jo d n ath an S wift . n . r an

S am e l J oh s B s w ll L ife of J o h s o
” ”
Th e S p c t t L a te r
’
e a or . u n on . o e s n n .

A g s t Wri t s E d m d B k e E d w d G ib b n Th e R e viv a l of
u u an er . un ur . ar o .

R o m an ti c P e try Th o m G r y O liv e r G o l d s m i th
o Willi am C o wp e r
. as a . . .

R ob t B s
er W illi m B l a k e Th e Mi o P o e ts of th e R om ti c
u rn . a . n r an

R viv a l
e J am e s Th o m o W illi am C lli n s G e o ge C ab b J m e s
. s n . o . r r e . a

M c ph sa Th o m a C h atte rto Th m s P c y Th e F i rs t E g li s h
e r on . s n . o a er . n

N o v e li s ts Me a i g o f th e N v e l P e c rs
. f th e N o v e l D i o v ry
n n o . r u o rs o . sc e

of th e Mo d rn N o v e l D i e l D e foe S am e l R i h d s on H ry
e . an . u c ar . en

F ie l d i g S m o ll e tt a d S te e
n . S m ma y B i b li o g ra p h y Q e ti o n rn . u r . . u s ns .

C h ro l gy no o .

C HAP TE R X . T H E AG E OF R O MA N T IC IS M 3 69
H i s to ri c a l S u m m a ry . L te ra r i y C h a ra c te ri s ti c s of th e Age . Th e P oets

of i i s m W ill i am W d s w o rth S m l T yl
R o m an tc C l ri d g . or . a ue a or o e e .

R b t S o th e y W l te S
o er tt B y P y B y s h S h e ll e y J o h
u . a r co . ro n . e rc s e . n

K t P o se Wri te s f th e R m a ti c P e i d C h rl s L m b T h m as
ea s . r r o o n r o . a e a . o

D Q i c e y J an e A s te n
e u n W a l te S a v a g La d or S u m m ry B i b li g
. u . r e n . a . o

rap h
y Q e ti o n s C h o o l gy
. u s . r n o .
xii E N GLISH L IT E R ATU R E
P AG E

C HA PT E R X I . T HE I TOR I A N
V C AG E 452

H i s to ri c a l S u m m a ry . i
L te ra r y C h a rac te r i ti c
s s . P oe ts of th e Vi c to ri an
Ag e . A lf re d Te n n y s on . R o b e r tB ro w i n ng . Mi n o r P oe ts of th e V i c to r i an
A ge . E li zab e th N o v li s ts f
B a rre tt R o s s e tt . i . Mo rri s . S wi n b u rn e . e o

th eV i c to i a A g C h a l e s D ic k
r n W illi am Mak e p e
e . Th a k e y r ens . ac e c ra .

G g E li t M i
e or e N o v li ts f th e V i c to ri a A ge C h a l R d
o . n or e s o n . r es ea e .

A th y T ll p C h a l o tte B o te B lw L y tt C h rl es K i g l e y
n on ro o e . r r n
"

. u er on . a n s .

M rsG k ll
. as Bl km e . M e d i th Ha d y
ac S te v E s ayi ts
o re . er . r . e n son . s s

of th e V i c to ri n Ag M l y C lyl e R s ki Ma tth ew A rn l d
a e . ac a u a . ar . u n . o .

N e w m a Th e S p i i t o f Mo d e L i t t
n . S mm yr B i b li o g r p h y rn e ra u re . u ar . a .

Q ti
ue s Ch
on s l gy
. ro n o o .

GE N E R AL I
B B L OG R A I P HY
IN D E X 5 73
 —
F U L L P A G E I L L U S T R AT I O N S
P AG E

C AN T E R B U R Y P I L G R I M S F r orztzlr
p ze e e
'

F ro m R o ya l MS .
,
I 8 D i i , i n th e B r t s h
. ii Mu s e u m

THE MAN U S C R I P T B O O K 30
Aft th p i ti g i th
er e a n n n e C o n g re s s i on a l L ib ra r y ,
b y J oh n W . Al x
e a n de r

G E O F F R E Y C HA U C E R 68
Aft th R wli
er e Pa n son a stel P o rtra i ti n th e B o d l i e an i
L b ra r y ,
x
O fo rd

I 50
Aft er th e p ortra tb y i J oh n E v e re tt M ill a i s . P ro p e rt y of th e M e tropo li ta n
M u s e u m o f Art

A M E R I C AN M E MOR IAL W IN D O W , STR AT F O R D 1 55

E D MU ND BU R KE 2
98
F ro m i t
a n o ld pr n

A L F R E D T E NN Y S ON 458
Aft th p t i tb y
er e o r ra G e o r ge F re d er i c Wa tts
S IR A L A HA D
G 465
A ft th p t i tb y G g F d i W tt
er e o r ra e or e re er c
'

a s

C HA R L E S D I C K E N S 4 88
Aft th p t i tb y D i l M li
er e o r ra an e ac se

T HO M A S C A R L Y L E 5 28
Aft th p t i tb y J m M N i ll Wh i tl
er e o r ra a es c e s er

I
L TE R AR Y MA P O F E N G L AN D 5 68

x iii
 L I S T O F I L L U S T R AT I O N S

A P AG E AN U S C R I P T O F B E O W U L F
F R O M T HE M

S T ON E H E N G E O N S A L I S B U R Y P L A IN
,

INI T I A L L E TT E R O F A M s C O P Y O F S T L U K E S. .
’
GOS PE L

R U IN S A T W H I T B Y

C E D M O N C R O S S AT WHI T B Y A B B E Y
/

LE FI E R I C S O N S VE S S E L’

C AN T E R B U R Y C A T H E D R A L A s I T W A S C O M P L E T E D L O N G A F T E R

T H E C O NQ U E S T
’

R E MA IN S O F T H E S C R I P T O R I U M O F F O U N TA IN S A B B E Y

I M A R O INN

j o H N WY C L I F
S P E C I M E N O F C A X I O N S P R IN T IN G IN T H E Y E A R 1 4 8 6
’ ‘ ’

E D M U N D S P E NS E R 10 2

W I L L I A M S HA K E S P E A R E
ANN E HAT HA WAY C O TTA G E I 42
B I R T H P L A C E O F S HA K E S P E A R E I 45
T R INI T Y C H U R C H S T R A T F O R D O N A V O N
,
- -

BE N j o N S ON
J O HN M I TON L

J O HN U N YANB

L BRI ARY AT T R INI T Y C OL L E G E , C AM B R I D G E

W E S T M IN S T E R

j o N AT H A N S WI F T
TR INI T Y C OLL E G E , D U B L IN 272

j os E PH A D D I S ON
SA M U E L J O HN S ON
T HO MA S G R AY

C HU R C H A T S T O K E PO G E S
30 9
xiv
 E NG L S I H L IT E R ATU R E XV

P AC E

O L VE RI G O L D S M TH I
WI L L I M A C O WP E R
317
R OB E R T BUR NS
I
B R TH P L AC E OF BU R NS
THE AU L D I
B R G , AY R ( A YR I
B R DGE
)
DANI E L D E F O E
W I L L I A M W O R D S WO R T H
WO R D S WO R T H ’
S HO M E AT R Y DA L M OU NT
S A M U E L TAY L O R COLE R DGEI
R OBE RT S O U THE Y 3 94
WA L T E R S C OT T

A B B OTS F O R D
G E OR G E GOR DO N ,
L OR D B Y R ON
P E RC Y B Y S S H E S HE L L E Y
C HA R L E S L A M B

C H R I S T S H O S P I TA L L O N D O N
’
,

T HO MA S D E Q U IN C E Y

R O B E R T B R OW NIN G
MR S . B R OW NIN G
WI L L I A M MA K E P E AC E TH A C K E R AY
G E OR G E I
E L OT

T HO M A S B A B ING TON M A C A U L AY
U NI V E R S I T Y O F E D IN B U R G H

J O HN R U S K IN 5 39
Q UA D R AN G L E O F O R I E L C O L L E G E , O X F OR D S S3
2 E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
se e m s a pl ac e o f d re am s an d m ag ic To e n te r a n d e n j oy th i s .

n e w w o r ld t o l ov e g o o d b oo k s for t
,
h e i r o w n s a k e is th e c h i e f ,

th i n g ; to a n a ly z e an d e xpl a i n th e m is a l e s s j oy o u s b u t s till
a n i m p or t a n t m at te r B e h in d e v e ry b o o k i s a m a n ; b e h i n d
.

th e m an is th e ra c e ; a n d b e h i n d th e ra c e a re th e n atu ral a n d
s o ci al e n vi ro n m e n t s w h os e i n fl u e n c e is u n c o n s ci o u s ly re fl e c ted .

T h e s e al s o w e m u s t k n o w i f th e b oo k i s to S p e ak its w h o l e ,

m e s sag e . I n a wo rd w e h av e n o w re a c h e d a p o i n t w h e re w e
,

wi s h to u n d e rs ta n d a s w e ll as to e n j oy li te ra tu re ; an d th e
fi r s t s te p s i n c e e x ac t d e fi n i ti on is i m p os s ibl e i s to d e te rm i n e
, ,

s o m e o f it s e sse n t i a l q uali ti e s .

Q u a l i ti e s o f L i t e r a tu re T h e fi r s t s i g n ific a.nt th i n g is t h e

e sse n t i a lly a rti s tic q u ali ty of a ll l i te ra tu re A ll ar t is th e .

e xp re s s i on O f li f e in f o r m s o f t ru th an d b e au ty ; or
rat h e r itis th e r e fl e c ti o n o f s om e tru th a n d b e au ty
,

w h ic h are in th e w o rld b u t w h ic h r e m a i n u n n otic e d u n til

,

b ro ug h t to ou r a tte n ti on by s o m e s e n s i tiv e h u m an s o u l j u s t ,

as t h e d e lic ate c u rv e s of th e s h e ll r e fl e c t s o u n d s a n d b a r m o
ni e s t oo f a i n t t o b e ot h e r wi s e n otic e d A h u n d re d m e n m ay .

p as s a h ay fie ld a n d s e e on ly th e s w e aty toil a n d th e wi n d ro w s
o f d r i e d g ras s ; b u t h e r e i s on e w h o p au s e s by a R o u m a n i an

m e a d o w w h e re g i rl s ar e m a ki n g h ay an d s i n g i n g a s th e y w or k
, .

He l o ok s d e e p e r s e e s tru th a n d b ea u ty w h e re w e s e e o n ly
,

d e a d g ra s s a n d h e r e fl e c ts w h at h e s e e s in a li ttl e p oe m i n
,

w h ic h th e h ay te ll s its o w n s to ry
Y e t d y fl o w e am I
s er a
’
s rs ,

A d I h ve d
n a k m y l t w td gh to f d e w
ru n as s ee ra u .

Yo un g i
m a de n s c am e a n d s an
g m e to m y d e a th ;
T h e m oon l oo k s d ow n an d s e e s m e i n m y s h ro u d ,
Th e s h ro u d o f my l as td e w .

Y e s te rd a y s fl o w e rs th a tare y e ti n m e
’

M u s t n e e d s m a k e w ay fo r all to m orro w s fl o w e rs ’
.

T h e m a i d e n s too th a t s an g m e to m y d e ath
, ,

M u s te v e n s o m a k e w a y fo r all th e m a i d s
Th a ta re t
o c om e .

An d as my sou l , so t he
oo t i r s ou l will b e
La d e n wi th fragra n c e of h e d a y s go n e b y
t .
 I NT R OD U CTI O N 3

T h e m a i d e n s th a tto—m orro w i s w ay c om e h
t
W il l n o tre m e m b e r th at I o n c e d id b l oom ,

F or th e y wil l o n l y se e th e n e w b o rn fl o w e rs -
.

Ye t wil l m y p e rf u m e l ad e n s o u l b r i n g b ac k
-
,

A s a s w e e tm e m o r y to w om e n s h e a rts
,
’

T h e i r d a y s o f m a i d e n h oo d .

A n d th e n th e y wil l b e s o rr y th a tth e y c am e
T o S i n g m e to m y d e a th ;
A n d all th e b u tte rfl i e s wil l m o u rn for m e .

I b e ar a w a y w i th m e
T h e s u n s h i n e s d e a r re m e m b ranc e a n d th e low
’
,

S o f tm u rm u rs o f th e s p r i n g .

M y b re a th i s s w e e ta s c h il d re n s p ra ttl e i s ; ’

I d ran k i n all th e w h ol e e ar th s fru i tf u l n e s s ’

,

T o m a k e o f i tth e f ra gr a n c e o f m y s o u l
T h ats h a l l ou tl i v e m y d e ath l .

"
On e wh o re a ds
ly th a t fi rs t e xq u i s i te li n e Y e s te rd ay s
on ,
’

”
fl o w e rs a m I c an n e v e r a ga i n s e e h ay wi th o u t r e c a lli n g th e
,

b ea u ty th at wa s h idd e n f rom h is e y e s u n til th e p oe t f ou n d it .

I n th e s a m e pl e a s i n g s u r p r i s i n g w ay all a r ti s tic w o rk m u s t
, ,

b e a ki n d o f re v e l a ti on T h u s a r c h i te c tu re i s p ro b a bly th e
.

old e s t of t h e a rts ; y e t w e s till h a v e m a n y b u ild e r s b u t fe w

ar c h i te cts t h ati s m e n w h o s e w o r k i n w ood o r s ton e s u gg e s ts
, ,

s o m e h idd e n t ru th an d b e au ty to th e h u m an s e n s e s S O in .

li te ratu re w h ic h is th e ar t th at e xp re s s e s l i f e in w ord s th at
,

app e a l t o ou r o w n s e n s e o f t h e b e au ti f u l w e h av e m a n y w ri te rs ,

b u t fe w a r ti s ts I n th e b road e s t s e n s e p e rh a p s l i te r atu re
.
, ,

m e an s S i m ply th e w r i t te n r e c or d s o f th e ra c e i n cl u di n g a ll its ,

h i s tory a n d s ci e n c e s a s w e ll a s i ts p o e m s a n d n o v e l s ; in th e
,

n ar ro w e r se n s e li te ra t ur e i s th e arti s tic r e c or d of li f e an d m o s t ,

of o u r w r i t i n g i s e xcl u d e d f rom it j u s t as th e m as s of ou r ,

b u ildi n g s m e re s h e l te r s f ro m s tor m a n d f rom c o ld ar e e x

, ,

cl u d e d f rom ar c h i te c tu re A h i s tory or a w or k of s ci e nc e m ay
.

b e a n d s om e ti m e s i s li te ratu re b u t on ly a s w e f or g e t th e
,

s u bj e c tm a t
-
te r a n d th e p r e s e n tati on of f a c ts in th e s i m pl e
b e au ty of its e xp re s s i on .

1 F rom Tb e B a r d o f t/2e D i m b ov ztza , F

'

i i
rs tS e r e s , p 73. .
4 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
Th e c o n d q ua li ty of li te ratu re i s its s u gg e s tiv e n e s s its
se ,

a ppe al t o ou r e m o t i on s a n d i m ag i n ati on ra th e r th an to o u r
i n te ll e c t I t is n ot s o m u c h w h a t it s ay s as w h at it
.

iv
S gg t
h at c o n s ti tu te s i ts C h arm Wh e n
u es e
a w ak e n s i n u s t .

”
M il ton m ak e s S atan s ay My s e l f am H e ll h e d oe s n ot s tate
, ,

a n y f a c t b u t ra t
,
h e r Op e n s u p in th e s e th re e tr e m e n d ou s
w ord s a w h ol e w o rld of s p e c u l ati on an d i m ag i n ati on Wh e n .

F a u s tu s in th e p re s e n c e o f H e l e n a s k s Wa s th i s th e f a c e ,
”
th at a l u n c h e d a t h o u s a n d S h ip s ? h e d oe s n o t s ta te a f a c t
o r e xp e c t a n an s w e r He o p e n s a d oor th ro ug h w h ich o u r
.

i m ag i n ati on e n te rs a n e w w or ld a w or l d of m u s ic l ov e ,
‘

, ,

b e a u ty h e r o i s m — th e w h ol e S pl e n did w or ld o f G r e e k li te ra
, ,

tu re . S u c h m ag ic is in w o rd s Wh e n S h a k e s p e ar e d e s c r ib e s
.

th e y o u n g B i ro n a s s p e aki n g
In s uc h a p t an d g ra c i o u s w o rd s
Th t g d a a pl y
e e ars a r u a n t a th is t
t al e s ,

h e h as u n c o n s ci ou s ly g iv e n n o t o n ly a n e xc e ll e n t d e s c r ip ti on
o f h i m s e l f b u tt h e m e a s u re O f all l i te ra tu r e w h ic h m a k e s u s
, ,

pl ay tru an t wi th th e p re s e n tw orld an d r u n a wa y to l iv e a wh il e
in th e pl e asan t r e a l m o f f an cy Th e p rovi n c e of a ll a r t i s n o t
.

to i n s tru c t b u t to d e li g h t a n d o n ly as l i te rature d e li g h ts u s ,

"
c aus i n g e a c h r e ad e r to b u ild i n h is ow n s o u l th at l ordly
pl e a s u re h o u s e o f w h ic h T e n n y s on d re am e d in h is P a l a c e
”

i s it w or th y o f its n am e
”
o f A rt , .

Th e th i rd C h a ra c te ri s tic o f li te ra tu re a r i s i n g di r e c tly f ro m ,

th e oth e r tw o is its p e rm a n e n c e
,
Th e w o rld d o e s n ot liv e by
.

b re ad a l on e N otwi th s tan di n g its h u rry an d h u s tle

.

P m er t
an e n
a n d a ppa r e n ta b s o r p ti on in m ate ri al th i n g s it d oe s ,

n o t willi n ly le t a n b e au ti f ul th i p i h T h i i v e n m o re
g y n g e r s s s e .

tr u e o f its s on g s th a n o f its p a i n ti n g an d s c u lp tu r e ; th o u h
g
p e r m an e n c e is a q uali ty w e s h ou ld h ardly e xp e c t in th e p re s
e n t d e l u g e of b oo k s a n d m a a z i n e s p o u r i n d d i
g g a
y a n n gh t
f rom o u r p re s se s i n th e n am e of l i te ra tu re B u t th i s p r o bl e m .

of t oo m an y b o ok s is n o t m od e r n as w e s u pp os e I th as b e e n
, .

a p ro bl e m e v e r s i n c e C a x t on b rou h t t h e fi rs t p r i n ti n g p r e s s
g
 I NT R O D U C TI O N 5

f rom F l a n d e rs f ou r h un d r e d y e a rs
, d o w of
ag o , an d i n th e Sh a

We s tm i n s te r A bb e y O pe n e d h is li ttl e s h op a n d a dv e r ti se d
”
h is wa r e s a s g o od a n d c h e p e E v e n e ar li e r a th ou s an d
.
,

y e ars b e f or e C a x ton an d h is p r i n ti n g p r e s s th e b u s y s c h o l ars ,

of t h e g re at lib rar y o f A l e x a n d r i a f o u n d th a t th e n u mb e r of
pa r c h m e n ts w as m u c h too g re at for th e m to h an d l e ; an d
n o w w h e n w e p r i n t m or e in a w e e k t
,
h an all th e A l e x a n d r i an
s c h ol a r s c o u l d c o py in a c e n t ur y it w o u ld s e e m im po s s ibl e
,

th at a n y p rod u c ti on c ou ld b e p e rm a n e n t; th at an y s on g or
st or y c o u ld liv e t o g iv e d e l i g h t in f u ture ag e s B u t li te ratu re .

i s lik e a r iv e r in fl ood w h ic h g rad ua lly p u r ifi e s i ts e lf in tw o

,

way s ,
th e m u d s e ttl e s to th e b ottom an d th e s c u m r i s e s to
—
,

th e top Wh e n w e e x am i n e th e w r i ti n g s th at by c om m on c on
.

s e n t c on s t i tu te ou r l i te ratu r e th e cl e ar s tre am p u r ifi e d of its

,

d ros s w e fin d a t l e as t tw o m ore q u a li ti e s w h ic h w e c a ll th e
, ,

te s ts o f li te ra tu re a n d w h ic h d e te r m i n e i ts p e rm a n e n c e
, .

T e sts of Li te r ature Th e fi r s t of th e se 1 3 u n I v e r s ality th at

.
,

is th e a pp e al to th e wid e s t h u m an i n te re s ts an d th e s im
,
.

p l e s th u m a n e m ot i o n s T h o u h w e S p e a k of n at
g . i o n a l an d ra c e

l i te ratu re s lik e th e G r e e k o r T e u ton ic an d th oug h ea c h h as

, ,

c e rta i n s u p e r fi ci al m ar k s ar i s i n g o u t of th e p e c u li ar
Um ty
v e rs a h
I ti e s of I ts ow n pe opl e I t I S n e v e rth e l e s s tru e th at
,

g oo d l i te ra tur e k n o w s n o n ati on ali ty n or a n y b ou n d s sa v e ,

th os e of h u m an i ty I t i s O cc u pi e d c h i e fl y wi th e l e m e n tar y
.

p as s i on s an d e m oti on s — l ov e an d h ate joy an d s orr ow f e ar

, , ,

an d f a i t h w h ic h are a n e s s e n ti al pa rt of o u r h u m an n atu re ;
,

an d t h e m o re it r e fl e c ts th e se e m oti on s th e m ore s u r e ly d o e s
i t a w ak e n a r e s p on se i n m e n of e v e ry ra c e E v e r y fa th e r .

m u s t r e s p on d to th e p a ra bl e o f t h e p rodi g al s o n ; w h e re v e r
m e n ar e h e r oic th e y will a ck n owl e d g e th e m a s te r y of H om e r ;
,

w h e re v e r a m an th i n k s on th e s tran g e p h e n om e n on of e vil in
'

th e w o r ld h e will fin d h is ow n th ou g h ts i n th e B oo k of J o b ;
,

i n w h a te v e r pl a c e m e n l ov e th e i r c h ild re n th e i r h e arts m u s t ,

b e s ti rr e d by th e trag ic s or row of Q a zp u s an d K i ng L e a r
‘ '
’
.

A ll th e s e ar e b u t S h i n i n g e x a m pl e s o f th e law th a t o n ly as a
6 E N G L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

b ook o r a li ttl e s on g a pp e al s to u n iv e rs al h um an i n te re s t d oe s
it b e c om e p e r m a n e n t .

Th e se c o n d te s t is a p u r e ly p e rs o n al o n e a n d m ay b e e x ,

”
p re s s e d i n th e i n d e fi n i te w o rd s tyl e I t i s on ly i n a m e c h an .

ic al s e n s e th at s tyl e is th e ad eq u ate e xp re s s i on
"

St yle ”
of t h ou g h t or th e p e c u l i a r m an n e r of e xp r e s s i n g
,

h e d e fin i ti on s th a t a r e f ou n d in
”
th oug h t or a n y o th e r of t
,

th e r h e to r ic s I n a d e e p e r s e n s e s tyl e i s th e m an th a ti s th e
.
, , ,

u n c o n s ci o u s e xp re s s i o n o f t h e w r i te r s o w n p e rs on ali ty I t i s
’
.

th e v e r y s ou l o f on e m an r e fl e c ti n g a s in a g l as s th e th o u gh ts
, ,

an d f e e li n g s o f h u m a n i t y A s n o gl a s s is C ol orl e s s b u tti n g e s
.
,

m ore or l e s s d e e ply th e r e fl e c ti on s f ro m its s u r fa c e s o n o ,

au t h or c an i n te r p re t h u m an li f e wi th ou t un c o n s ci o u s ly g ivi n g
to it th e n ativ e h u e of h is o w n s ou l I t is th i s i n te n s e ly p e r
'
.

s on a l e l e m e n t t h a t c on s ti tu te s s tyl e E v e ry p e rm a n e n t book .

h a s m o re or l e s s o f th e s e tw o e l e m e n ts th e obj e c tiv e a n d th e ,

s u bj e c tiv e th e un iv e r s al an d th e p e rs on al th e d e e p th oug h t
, ,

a n d f e e li n g o f t h e ra c e r e fl e c te d a n d c o l or e d by th e w r i te r s
’

o w n li f e a n d e xp e r i e n c e .

Th e Ob jec ti n stu d y i n g L i te r atur e A s id e f rom th e pl ea s ure .

of re a di n g o f e n t e ri n g i n t
o a n e w w or ld an d h a vi n
, g o u r i m ag i
n at i on q u ick e n e d th e s tu dy of li te ratu re h a s on e d e fi n i te
,

o bj e c t a n d t
, h at is to k n o w m e n N ow m an is e v e r a d u a l
.

c re atur e ; h e h as a n o u tw a rd a n d an i n n e r n a tu re ; h e is n ot
o n ly a d oe r o f d e e d s b ut a d re a m e r o f d re a m s
, an d t o k n ow

h im th e m an of an y a g e w e m u s t s e ar c h d e e p e r th an h is
, ,

h i s to ry H i s to ry re c o rd s h is d e e d s h is o u tward a c ts l arge ly ;
.
,

b u t e v e ry g re a t a c t S p r i n g s f r o m an id e al a n d to u n d e rs ta n d ,

th i s w e m u s t re ad h is l i te ra tu r e w h e re w e fin d h i s id e a l s ,

re c ord e d Wh e n w e re a d a h i s tory of th e A n g l o S a x on s f or
.
-
,

i n s tan c e w e l e a rn th atth e y w e re s e a r ov e rs pi ra te s e xpl ore r s

,
.
, , ,

g e at e ate rs a n d d r i n k e rs ; a n d w e k n o w s o m e th i n g o f th e i r
r

h ov e l s an d h a bi ts an d th e l an d s w h ich th e y h arr i e d a n d lu n
, p
d e re d A ll th at is i n te re s ti n g ; b u t it d oe s n ot te ll u s wh at
.

m os t w e wa n t to k n o w a b ou t th e s e old an c e s t o rs of ou rs ,
 I NT R OD U C TI O N 7

n ot o n ly w h at th e y d id b u t w h a t th e y th ou g h ta n d f e l t h o w
,

th e y l oo k e d on li f e a n d d e ath ; w h at th e y l ov e d w h at th e y ,

f e are d an d Wh atth e y r e v e re n c e d i n G od an d m an T h e n w e
, .

tu rn f ro m h i s tor y to th e li te ratu r e w h ic h th e y th e m s e lv e s
p r od u c e d a n d i n s tan tly w e b e co m e a cq u a i n te d T h e s e h a rdy
, .

p e opl e w e re n ot s i m ply fi g h te rs a n d f re e b oote r s ; th e y w e re

m e n l ik e o u r s e lv e s ; th e i r e m oti on s aw ak e n i n s tan t r e s p on s e
in th e s ou l s o f th e ir d e s c e n d an ts A t th e w or d s o f th e i r.

g l e e m e n w e th r ill a ga i n to th e i r wild l ov e of f r e e d om an d th e
op e n s e a w e g ro w te n d e r a tth e i r l ov e o f h om e an d p atr i otic ,

at t h e i r d e ath l e s s l oya l ty to th e i r C h i e f w h o m th e y c h os e ,

f or th e m s e lv e s a n d h o i s te d o n th e i r s h i e ld s i n s y m b o l o f h i s
l e ad e r s h ip O n c e m or e w e g ro w r e s p e c tf u l in th e p r e se n c e
.

of p ur e w om a n h o od o r m e l a n c h o ly b e f o r e t
, h e s o rrow s an d
p robl e m s of li f e or h u m bly c on fid e n t l ooki n g u p to th e G od
, ,

w h om th e y d are d to ca ll th e A llfath e r A ll th e s e an d m an y .

m or e i n te n s e ly re a l e m oti on s p a s s th r o u g h o u r sou l s a s w e
r e ad t h e f e w s h i n i n g f ragm e n ts o f v e rs e s th at th e j e al ou s
ag e s h a v e l e f t u s .

I t is s o wi th an y ag e or p e opl e To u n d e r s tan d th e m w e
.

m u s t r e ad n ot S i m ply th e i r h i s tory w h ic h re c or d s th e i r d e e d s , ,

b u t th e i r li te ra tu re w h ic h r e c or d s th e d r e am s th at m a d e th e i r
,

d e e d s p os s ibl e S o A r i s totl e w a s p ro fo u n dly r i g h t w h e n h e

.

"
s a id t h a t p oe try is m ore s e r i ou s an d p h il o sop h ic a l th an h is
” "
tor y ; a n d G oe th e w h e n h e e xpl ai n e d l i te ratu re a s th e
,

”
’

h u m an iz ati on o f th e w h ole w or ld .

I m p ortan c e of L i te r atur e I t i s a c u r i o u s an d p r e v a l e n t
.

O pi n i on t h a t l i te ra tu r e l ik e a ll ar t i s a m e re pl a y o f i m ag i n a
, ,

ti on pl e a s i n g e n ou gh lik e a n e w n ov e l b u t wi th ou t a n y se r i
, , ,

o u s or ra c tic a l i m p t c N th i c ld b e f rth e r f r om
p or a n e o n g ou . a

th e tru th L i te ra tu re p r e s e r v e s th e id e a l s of a p e opl e ; an d
.

id e al s l o v e f ai th d u ty f r i e n d s h ip f re e d o m re v e r e n c e
—
, , , , ,

a re t h e p art of h u m an l i f e m o s t w or th y of p re s e r v ati on Th e .

G re e k s w e re a m arv e l ou s p e opl e ; y e t of all th e i r m i gh ty

w or k s w e C h e r i s h o n ly a fe w id e al s — id ea l s of b ea u ty in ,
8 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
p e ri s h abl e s ton e an d id ea ls o f tru th in i m p e ri s h abl e p ros e
,

an d po e try I t w as s i m ply th e id ea l s o f th e G re e k s a n d
.

H e b re w s an d R om an s p re s e rv e d in th e i r li te ratu r e w h ic h
, ,

m ad e th e m Wh at th e y we re an d w h ic h d e te r m i n e d th e i r v a l u e
,

to f u tu re ge n e ra ti on s O u r d e m o c ra cy th e b oas tof all E n g li s h

.
,

s p ea ki n g n at i on s is a d re am n otth e d o u b tf u l a n d s o m e ti m e s
,

di s h e a r te n i n g S p e c ta cl e p re s e n te d in ou r l e g i s la tiv e h a ll s b ut ,

th e l ov e ly a n d i m m or tal id ea l o f a f re e an d e q ua l m a n h ood ,

p re s e rv e d as a m os tp re ci ou s h e r itage in e ve ry gr e at li te ra tu re
f ro m th e G re e k s to th e A n g l o S ax on s A ll o ur ar ts o u r s c i -
.
,

e n c e s e v e n ou r i n v e n t
,
i on s are f o u n d e d s q u a re ly u p on id e al s
for u n d e r e v e ry i n v e n ti on is s till th e d r e a m of B e ow zdf th a t ,

m an m ay ov e r c o m e th e f orc e s of n a tu re ; a n d th e f o u n d a ti on
o f all o ur s ci e n c e s a n d di s c o v e r i e s i s t h e i m m o rtal d re am th at
s h a ll b e a s g od s k n o wi n g g ood a n d e vil
" ”
men , .

I n a w ord o ur w h o l e civili z ati o n ou r f re e d om o u r p rogre s s

, , , ,

o ur h om e s ,
o u r re li g i o n r e s t s o lidly u p o n
, id e al s for th e i r
f oun d ati on N o th i n g b u tan id ea l e v e r e n d u re s u p on e arth I t
. .

is th e re f o re i m p os s ibl e to o v e re s tim a te th e p ra c tic a l i m p o r tan c e

of li t e ra tu re w h ic h p re s e rv e s th e s e id e a l s f r om fath e rs to
,

S on s w h il e m e n C i t
, ie s g ov e rn m e n ts C ivili za ti on s van i s h f rom
, , , ,

th e f a c e of th e e ar th I t is on ly w h e n w e r e m e m b e r th i s
.

th at w e a pp r e ci ate th e a c ti on of th e d e v o u t M u s s u l m an w h o ,

pick s u p a n d ca re f u lly p r e s e r v e s e v e ry s c rap of p a p e r o n

w h ic h w or d s are w r i tte n b e ca u se th e s c rap m ay p e rc h an c e
,

c on ta i n th e n am e o f A ll a h a n d th e id eal i s too e n orm ou s ly

,

i m p or tan t to b e n e gl e c te d or l os t .

S um m ary of th e S ub je c t We are n ow r ea dy if n ot to .
,

d e fi n e at l ea s t to u n d e rs ta n d a l i ttl e m ore C l e arly th e Obj e c t

,

o f o ur p re s e n t s t u dy L i te ra tu re i s th e e xp re s s i on of li f e in
.

w ord s o f tru th an d b ea u ty ; it is th e w r i tte n r e c ord o f m an s ’

s pi r i t of h is t
, h ou gh ts e m o ti on s as pi rati on s itis th e h i s tory
, , ,

an d t h e o n ly h i s to ry of th e h u m an s ou l I t i s c h a ra c te r i z e d
, .

by i ts arti s tic i ts s ug g e s tiv e its p e rm an e n t q ua li ti e s I ts tw o

, , .

te s ts ar e its u n iv e r sa l i n te re s t a n d its p e r s on a l s tyl e I ts .

 C H APT E R II
THE An GLo—S AX ON 0 R OL D E N GLI S H P E R I OD -

I . OU R F I R S T POE TR Y
Beow u l f . H e re 15 li e s tan d th e
th e stor y of B e o w u l f th e , e ar

re a te s t e pic or h e ro ic p oe m in ou r l it e ratu re I t b e g i n s wi th
g , , .

a p ro l og u e w h ic h is n ot an e s s e n ti al p ar t Of th e s tor y b u t
, ,

w h ic h w e r e vi e w g l adly fo r t h e sak e o f th e s pl e n did p o e tic a l

c on c e p ti on th at p rod u c e d S cyld ki n g o f th e S p e a r D an e s , .
1

A ta ti m e w h e n th e S p e a r D an e s w e re w i th o u t a ki n g a s h i p c am e ,

s ai l i n g i n t
o t h e i r h a b or I t w as fi l l e d wi th tre as u re s an d w e a p o n s o f
r .

w ar ; a n d i n t h e m i d s to f th e s e w a rl i k e th i n g s w as a b a b y s l e e p i n g No .

m a n s a il e d t h e S h i p ; i t c a m e o f i ts e l f b ri n g i n g th e C h i l d w h o s e n a m e , ,

w as S c yl d .

N o w S c yl d g re w a n d b e c a m e a m i g h ty w a rr i o r a n d le d t h e S p e ar ,

D a n e s fo r m a n y y e a rs a n d w as t h e i r ki n g
, Wh e n h is s o n B e o w u l f h ad .
2

b e c o m e s tro n g a n d wi s e e n o u g h to r u l e th e n Wy rd ( F a te ) w h o s p e a ks , ,

b u to n c e to a n y m a n c a m e a n d s to od a th a n d ; a n d i tw as ti m e fo r S c yl d
,

to go . T h i s is h o w th e y b u ri e d h i m :
T h e n S c yl d d e p a te d a tw ord o f W y rd s p o k e n r , ,

T h e h e ro to g o to th e h o m e o f th e g od s .

S a d l y th e y b o re h i m to b r i n k o f th e o c e a n ,
C o m rad e s , st il l h e e d i n g h is w o rd o f c om m an d .

Th e re r od e i n th e h a rb o r t h e p r i n c e s s h i p , re a d y ,
’

W i th p ro w c u r v i n g p r o u d l y an d s h i n i n
g s a i l s se t .

S h i p w a rd th e y b ore h i m , th e i r h e ro b e l o v e d ;
Th e m i g h ty th e y l a i d a tth e f oo t o f th e m as t .

T re as u re s w e re h e re
t f ro m fa r an d n e ar
g a th e re d ,
B y rn i e s of b a ttl e , a rm o r a n d s w o rd s ;
N v
k e e l s a i le d o u to f a h a rb or
e er a

S o p l e n d i d l y tr i c k e d wi th th e tr a p p i n s o f w a r
s
g .

1 Th i
e re my t y
s a b t th i s erld h awh i h outi i m gi ti b twh i h i
s o e ro c s rs ou r a na on , u c s
ne v x p l i d I t f p b b ly t m l g d f th A gl S x wh i h w h v
er e a ne . re e rs
,
ro a , o so e e en o e n o- a on s c e a e
su
p p l d f m th
ie ro o id d b y m v g
e r so u rc e s , a
g g ti e d g li m p f th p t
so e a ue s u es on s an se s o e as
in th p
e m i t lf
oe se Th i i
.
tth B w lf w h i h
2 sf th p m
s no e eo u o s e ro o e oe .

IO
 TH E AN G L O S AX O N -
P E R I OD I I

Th y e h e ap e d on h is b o s o m a h o a rd of b ri gh t je we l s
To f a re wi th h i m fo rth o n th e fl o od s g re a t b re as t ’
.

N o l e s s g i f tt
h e y g av e th an th e U n k n ow n p ro v i d e d ,

Wh e n a l o n e a s a C h i l d h e c a m e i n f ro m th e m e re
, , .

H i gh o er
’
h is h e a d wav e d a b r i gh tg o l d e n sta n d ard

N ow le tth e w a v e s b e ar th e i r w e a l th to th e h o l m .

S ad s o u l e d th e y g a v e b a c k i ts g i f tto th e o c e an
-
,

M o u rn f u l th e i r m oo d as h e s a il e d o u tto s e a .
1

An d no m y s th e p oe t n e i th e r c ou n s e l o r n o r h e ro c an te l l
an ,
”
sa , ,

w h o re c e i v e d t h a t l ad i n g ”
.

O n e o f S c y l d s d e s c e n d a n ts w a s H ro t h g ar ki n g o f th e D an e s ; a n d
’

w i th h i m th e s to ry o f o u r B e o w u l f b e g i n s Hr oth g a r i n h i s Old ag e h ad .

b u i l tn e ar th e s e a a m e a d h a l l c a ll e d H e oro t th e m os t s p l e n d i d h a l l i n ,

th e w h o l e w o r l d w h e re t h e ki n g a n d h i s th a n e s g a th e r e d n i gh tl y to
,

fe as tan d to l i s te n to th e s o n gs o f h i s g l e e m e n O n e n i g h t as th e y w e re .
,

a ll s l e e p i n
g a f r i gh tf u l m o n s t
, er G r e n d e l b ro k e i n t o t h e h al l k i l l e d
, , ,

th i r ty o f th e S l e e p i n g w a r r i ors a n d c a r r i e d o ff th e i r b od i e s to d e v o u r
,

th e m i n h is l a i r u n d e r th e s e a Th e a p p a l l i n g v i s i tw a s s p e e d il y re p e a te d
.
,

a n d fe a r a n d d e a t h re i g n e d i n th e g re a t h a l l T h e w a r r i o rs f o u g h t a t .

fi rs t; b u t fl e d w h e n th e y d i s c o v e r e d th a t no w e ap on c ou l d h a rm th e
m on st er He o ro tw as l e f td e s e r te d a n d s il e n t F o r tw e lv e wi n te rs G re n
. .

d e l s h or r i b l e r a i d s c on ti n ue d a n d joy w a s C h a n g e d to m ou rn i n g a m o n g
’
,

th e S p e a r D a n e s .

A t a s tth e r u m o r
l of G re n d e l c r os s e d o ver he
t se a he
to t l an d o f th e
G e a ts , w h e re y ou n g h e ro d w e l t i n th e h o u s e o f h i s
a u n c le King ,

H y g e lac B e o w u l f w a s h i s n a m e a m a n o f i m m e n s e s tr e n g th a n d
.
,

an d a m i h t
c o u ra g e , g y s wi m m e r w h o h a d d e v e l o p e d h i s p o w e rs figh t
n i c k e rs w h a l e s w a l ruse s a n d s e a l s i n th e i c e b ou n d n o r th e rn
" ”
i n g th e , , ,

oc e an . Wh e n h e h e a rd th e s to r y B e ow u l f w a s s ti rre d to g o a n d fi gh t ,

h e m o n s te r a n d f re e th e D a n e s w h o w e re h i s f a t h e r s f ri e n d s
’
t ,
.

W i th fou r te e n c om p a n i o n s h e c ros s e s th e s e a T h e re i s a n e x c e l l e n t .

b i t o f o c e a n p oe tr y h e r e ( 11 Z I O an d w e
g e t a v i v i d i d e a o f th e
.

h os p i ta l i ty o f a b r a v e p e op l e b y fo l l o w i n g th e p oe ts d e s c r i p ti o n o f
%
’

B e ow u l f s m e e t
’
i n g w i th K i n g H ro th ga r an d Q u e e n We alh th e ow a n d ,

of t h e joy a n d fe as ti n g a n d s to r y te ll i n g i n H e oro t Th e p i c tu re o f — .

“
We a lh th e ow p as s i n g th e m e ad c u p to th e w ar ri o rs w i th h e r o w n h a n d
i s a n ob l e o n e a n d p l a i n l y i n d i c a te s t
, h e re v e re n c e p a i d b y th e s e s tron g
m en t o t h e i r w i v e s a n d m o th e rs N i g h t c o m e s o n ; th e fe a r o f G re n d e l.

i s a g a i n u p o n th e D an e s a n d a ll w i th d ra w a fte r th e ki n g h as w arn e d
,

B e ow u l f o f t h e fr i gh tf u l d a n g e r o f s l e e p i n g i n th e h al l B u t B e ow u l f .

l i e s d o w n w i th h i s w a rr i ors s a y i n g p rou d l y th a t s i n c e w e ap on s w i l l
, ,

1 B w lf 11
eo u 6 5
,
f . d i g t
2 -
0gg tth
,
a lli t ti f th igi l
re e re n er n o su es e a e ra on o e or na .
1 2 E N GL I S H L IT E R ATU R E
n o ta v ai l he
ag a n s t t i e r, h e
m on s t will ra p p e l w i th h i m b a re h an d e d a n d
g
tr u s tt
o w a rri or s s tre n g th
a
’
.

F o r th fro m th e fe n s f rom th e m i s ty m o o rl an d s , ,

G re n d e l c a m e g li d i n g G o d s w ra th h e b o re
1 ’

C a m e u n d e r c l o u d s u n ti l h e s a w c l e arl y , ,

G li tte ri n g w i th g o l d p l a te s th e m e a d h a l l o f m e n ,
.

D o w n fe l l th e d oo r t h o u g h f as te n e d wi th fire b a n d s ; ,

O pe n i ts p ra n g a tth e s tro k e o f h is p aw .

S w o l l e n wi th r ag e b u rs ti n th e b a l e b r i n g e r ; -

F l am e d i n h is e y e s a fi e rc e li gh t l i k e s t fi re
2
,
.

Atth e s i g h t o f m e n ag a i n s l e e p i n g i n th e h a l l G re n d e l l a u gh s i n h i s ,

h e a rt th i n ki n g o f h is
,
se i z e s t h e n e are s t S l e e p e r c ru s h e s h is ,

b o n e c a se w i th a b i te te ars h i m l i m b f ro m l i m b a n d s w a l l o w s h i m
" ”
, .
,

Th e n h e c re e p s to th e c ou c h o f B e o w ul f an d s tre tc h e s o u ta c l a w o n l y ,

to fin d i tc l u tc h e d i n a g r i p o f s t ee l A s u dd e n te rro r s tri k e s th e m o n .

st e r s h e a rt H e roa rs s t
’
. ru
gg l e s t ri e s t o j e r k h i s a r m f re e ; b u tB e o w u l f
, ,

l e a p s to h is fe e t an d g rap p l e s h is e n e m y b a re h a n d e d To a n d fro th e y .

s u rg e T ab l e s are o v e rtu rn e d ; go l d e n b e n c h e s ri p p e d f rom th e i r fas te n

.

i n gs ; th e w h o l e b u il d i n g q u a k e s a n d o n l y i ts i ro n b a n d s k e e p i t fro m ,

fa l l i n g to p i e c e s B e o w u l f s c o m p a n i o n s are o n th e i r fe e tn ow h ac ki n g
.
’
,

v a i n l y a t th e m o n s te r wi th s w ord s a n d b a ttl e a x e s a d d i n g th e i r s h ou ts -
,

h e c ra s h i n g o f f u rn i tu re an d t h e h o wl i n g o f G re n d e l
" ”
to t w ar s on g .

Out s i de i n t h e tow n th e D a n e s s tan d s h i v e r i n g a tth e u p roa r S l o wl y .

t h e m on s t er st ru
gg l e s to th e d o o r d rag g i n g B e o w ul f w h os e fi n g e r s , ,

c r a c k wi t h t h e s tra i n b u t w h o n e v e r re l a x e s h i s fi rs tg i p
, S u d d e n ly a r .

wi d e w o u n d ope n s i n th e m o n s te r s s i d e ; th e s i n e w s s n a p ; th e w h o l e ’

ar m i s w re n c h e d o ff a t t h e s h o u l d e r ; a n d G re n d e l e s c ap e s s h ri e ki n g
ac ro s s t h e m oor a n d p l un ge s i n t , o t h e se a t o d ie .

B e o w u l f fi rs te x u l t s i n h is n i g h ts w o r k ; t h e n h e h an g s t h e h u g e a rm
’

wi th i ts te rr i b l e c l a w s fro m a c ro ss b e am o v e r th e ki n g s s e a t as o n e -
’
,

w o u l d h a n g u p a b e ar s s ki n a fte r a h u n t Atd a yl i g h t c am e th e D a n e s ;
’
.

a n d a ll d a
y l on g i n t h e i n te rv al s o f s i n g i n g s to r y te l l i n g s p e e c h m ak -
, , ,

i n g a n d g i ft g i v i n g th e y re tu r n to w o n d e r a t th e m i g h ty " g r i p o f
, ,

G re n d e l an d t o re j oi c e i n B e o w u l f s v i c t o ry
’
.

Wh e n n i gh t fa l l s a g re a t fe as t i s s p re ad i n He o ro t an d th e D a n e s ,

s l e e p o n c e m o re i n t h e g re a th a l l A t m i d n i g h t c o m e s a n o th e r m o n s te r .
,

1 G d lre nf th E t ( gi
e ,
o t) e th d th h d w th m k t lk
o en an th h d w
r ac e , e ea s a o , e ar s a e r, e s a o

an
g g i
e r, l v i ly ll d g d f fi d f h ll C i b d t I t d h d ly
s a so a r ou s ca e o
’
s oe , en o e ,
a n s
’
ro o , e c . n ee ar
b e x p l i d th tth l tt t m
e a ne a d d i ti
e at th er igi l p m m d p b b ly b y
er s a re a on s o e or na oe , a e, ro a ,

m on k w h p i d th m
s o co i pt A b li f i “ y d th m i gh ty p w
e e a n u sc r . t lli g th e e n
'
t ,
e o e r c on ro n e
d ti i
es n es of m i th hi f
e n, li gi m tiv f th p i I li
s e c e re 56 w fi d ou s i o e o e e c . n ne 1 0 e n a c u r ou s
b l di g f p g
en n o d C h i ti
a a n an b e li f wh Wy d i wi th t d b y th wi G d
r s an e e re r s s oo e se o
”

l ti ( i q t
, .

2 S m m y f II 7
u ar 7 7 W h v
o . t i di td i
10- 2 t
. e a e no n ca e n ou r ra n s a on or n uo a

t i
on s f m G m t ro t M l y B rook etc ) wh
a e , p t f th e t x t
or e , m itted e, . e re ar s o e a re o .
 TH E A N G LO —
S AX O N PE R IOD 1 3

a h orri b l e , h a l f h u m an
-
c re a t
u re ,
1
h e r of
m ot G re n d e l , rag n i g to a v e n ge
her ffs p ri n g S h e th u n d e rs a tth e d oo r ; th e D a n e s l e a p u p a n d gr as p
o .

h e i r w e a p o n s ; b u tth e m on s te r e n te rs s e i e s A e s c h e re w h o i s f ri e n d a n d
! ad v i s e r o f th e ki n an d ru s h e s aw a y w i th h i m o v e r th e fe n s
t ,
z ,

g , .

/T h e o ld s c e n e s o f s or ro w a r e re v i e w e d i n t h e m o r n i n g ; b u tB e o w u l f
\
s ay s s i m p l y :

"S or row n o t w i s e m a n
l I ti s b e tt
, e r fo r e a c h .

T h a th is f r i e n d h e a v e n g e th a n th a th e m o u rn m u c h a .

E a c h o f u s s h a l l th e e n d a w a i t
O f w o rld ly l i fe : le th i m w h o m a y g a i n
H o n o r e re d e a th T h a ti s fo r a w a rr i o r.
,

Wh e n h e i s d e ad a fte rw ard s b e s t , .

Ar i s e ki n g d om s g u a rd i a n ! L e tu s q u i c kl y g o
’
,

To v ie w t h e trac k o f G re n d e l s ki n s m a n
’
.

I p rom i s e i tth e e : h e w i l l n o te s c ap e ,

N or i n e a r th s b os om n or i n m ou n ta i n w o o d
’
-

, ,

N or in oc e an s d e p t h s g o w h e r e h e wi l l 2
’
, .

Th enh e g i r d s h i m s e l f fo r th e new fi gh t a n d fo l l o w s th e tra c k of th e

l’ s e c o n d e n e m y a c ro s s th e fe n s . H e re i s H ro th g ar ’
s d e s c r i p ti o n of he
t

p l ac e w h e re l i v e i i ts o f e l s e w h e re as h e c a l l s ”
h e m on s te rs ,
t sp r , hem
t :

Th e y i n h a b i t
T h e d i m l an d th a tg i v e s s h e l te r to th e w o l f ,

T h e w i n d y h e ad l an d s p e r i l o u s fe n p a t hs , ,

Wh e re u n d e r m ou n ta i n m i s t th e s tre a m fl o w s d o w n
, ,

An d fl ood s th e g ro u n d N o t fa r h e n c e b u ta m i l e .
, ,

T h e m e r e s ta n d s o v e r w h i c h h a n g d e a th C h i l l g ro v e s
,
-
,

A w ood fas tro ote d o v e rs h ad e s th e fl ood ;

-

T h e re e v e r y n i gh ta g h as tl y m i ra c l e
I s s e e n fir e i n th e w a te r N o m a n k n o w s
, .
,

N o tth e m os tw i s e t h e b o ttom o f th a tm e r e
, .

T h e firm h o r n e d h e a th s ta l k e r th e h a r t w h e n p r e s s e d
-
, , ,

We ar i e d b y h o u n d s a n d h u n te d f ro m a f a r , ,

W i l l r a th e r d ie o f th i rs tu p o n i ts b an k
T h a n b e n d h i s h e ad to i t I tis u n h ol y . .

D ark t o t h e c l ou ds i ts y e as t y w a v e s m o u n tu p
Wh e n w i n d s ti rs h a te fu l te m p e s t ti l l th e a i r ,

G ro w s d r e a r y a n d th e h e a v e n s p o u r d o w n te a r s 3
, .

B e o w u l f p l u n ge s i n to i l e p l a c e w h i l e h is c o m p an i o n s w a i t
th e h o rr b ,

fo r h i m o n th e s h o re . F o r a l o n g ti m e h e s i n k s th ro u g h th e fl o o d ; th e n ,

1 G re n d e l s m o th e r b e
’
l g l t th B t ( gi t)
on s a so o Sh i e ll d é m w y lf
o en an ra ce . e s ca e rz
‘

( sea w lf)
o ,
m e r e w if ( se a w om a n ) , g r u n a wy r e n
g
’
( b o tto m m o n ste r) , etc .

2 F r om G arn e tt’ s B e ow u lf , II . 1
3 8 4
—1
3 94 .
3 F ro m M or le y ’ s v i e r s on , 11 . 1 35 7
-
1
3 76.
 I 4 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

b o ttom , G re n d e l s m o th e r r u s h e s ou tu p o n h im an d d rags
’
as h e re a c h e s
i n to v w h m t w m a t h i m f r o m b e h i n d an d
h im e
a e
ca r e s e a,
o n s e rs s a r

wi h h i t k T h d f h i s s w o rd i s t u rn e d
gn a s h h i s ar m o r t t e r u s s e e g e o .

wi th th e m i gh ty b l o w h e d e a l s th e m e r e w zf ; b ut i th a rm s n otth e m on
'

st C as ti t h w o as i d e h e g p
r i s h e r a n d tri e s t o h u r l h e r d o w n
er . n g e e a p n , ,

w h i l e h e r c l aw s a n d te e th c l as h u p o n h is c o rs l e t b u t c a n n o t p e n e tra te
th e st e e l r i n gs S h e th ro w s h e r b u l k u p o n h i m c r us h e s h i m d o w n
. , ,

d raw s a h o r t s w o rd an d p l u n g e s i t a t h i m ; b u t a g a i n h i s s p l e n d i d
s
’
b y rn i e s a v e s h i m He is w e a ie d n o w a n d o p p re s s e d S u dd e n l y as
. r ,
.
,

h is e y e S w e e p s th e c a v e h e c a tc h e s S i g h t o f a m a g i c s w o rd m a d e b y
, ,

th e g i a n t s l o n g a go too h e a v y fo r w a r ri o rs to wi e l d
,
S tru gg l i n g u p .

h e s e i e s th e w e a p o n w h i r l s i t a n d b r i n g s d ow n a c ras h i n g b l o w u p o n
z ,

e r s ne c k I t s m as h e s th ro u g h th e ri n g b o n e s ; t h e m e r e w zf
'

’
th e m on s t .

fa l l s a n d th e fi gh tis w on
,
.

T h e c a v e i s f u l l o f tre as u re s ; b u t B e ow u l f h e e d s th e m n o t fo r n e a r ,

h i m l i e s G re n d e l d e a d f ro m th e w o u n d re c e iv e d t
,
h e p re v i ou s n i gh t .

A ga i n B e o w u l f s w i n g s th e g re a ts w ord an d s tri k e s o ff h is e n e m y s h e ad ’

a n d 10 as t h e v e n o m o u s b l ood to u c h e s t
,
h e s w ord b l ad e th e s te e l m e l t s l i ke ,

i c e b e fo re th e fi re a n d o n l y th e h i l ti s l e f ti n B e o w u l f s h a n d
,
T a ki n g th e ’
.

h il ta n d th e h e a d t h e h e ro e n te rs th e oc e a n an d m o u n ts u p to th e s h ore
,
.

O n l y h i s o w n f a i th f u l b a n d w e re w a i ti n g th e re ; fo r th e D an e s s e e ,

i n g th e o c e a n b u b b l e wi th f re s h b l ood th o ug h ti t w as a ll o v e r wi th th e ,

h e ro a n d h ad go n e h o m e A n d th e re th e y w e re m o u rn i n g in H e o ro t w h e n
.
, ,

B e o w u l f re tu rn e d w i t h th e m o n s trou s h e a d o f G re n d e l c arr i e d o n a
l s p e a r S h a f tb y fo u r o f h i s s t ou t e s t fo l l o w e rs .

I n th e l as tp a r to f th e p o e m th e re i s a n o th e r gre a t fi g h t B e o w ul f i s .

n o w a n o ld m a n h e h as re i g n e d fo r fi f ty y e ars b e l o v e d b y a ll h is p e o ,

p le . He h a s ove rc om e e v e r y e n e m y b u t o n e a fire d r a g o n k e e p i n g ,

w a tc h o v e r an e n o r m o u s t re as u re h i d d e n a m o n
g t h e m o u n ta i n s On e .

d a y a w a n d e re r s tu m b l e s u p o n th e e n c h a n te d c a v e a n d e n te r i n g ta k e s , ,

a j e w e l e d c u p w h il e t h e fire d r a k e s l e e p s h e a v il y T h a ts a m e n i g h tth e .

d rag o n i n a f ri g h tf u l rag e b e l c h i n g fo r th fi re an d s m o k e r us h e s d o w n
, , ,

u pon t h e n e a re s tv i l l a g e s l e a v i n g a t r a i l o f d e at
, h a n d te rro r b e h i n d h i m .

A g a i n B e o w u l f go e s forth to c h am p i o n h i s p e op l e As h e a p p ro ac h e s .

h e d ra go n s c a v e h e h as a p re s e n ti m e n tth a td e a th l ur k s wi th i n :
’
t ,

S a to n t h e h e a d l a n d th e re th e w a rri o r ki n g ;
F are w e l l h e s a i d t o h e a rt h c o m p a n i o n s tru e -
,

T h e g o l d f r i e n d o f th e G e a t -
s ; h i s m i n d w as s ad ,

D e a th re ad y r e s tl e s s
-
An d W y rd w as d ra w i n g n i g h
, .
,

Wh o n ow m us tm e e tan d t
ouc h t
he ag e d m an ,
To se e k h e tre as u re th a th i s
t s ou l h ad sa ve d
An d se p ara t
e h i s b od y f ro m h is l i fe .
1

1 B e ow u lf , II . 24 1 7
-
2 42
3, a free re nde r i n
g .
 TH E AN G L O — S AX O N P E R I OD 1 5

Th e re is a fl i l l u m i n a ti o n l i k e th a t w h i c h c om e s to a d y i n g
as h of ,

m an i n w h i c h h i s m i n d r u n s b a c k o v e r h i s l o n g l i fe a n d s e e s s o m e t
,
h ing
o f p ro f o u n d m e a n i n g i n t h e e l e m e n ta l s o rro w m o v i n g s i d e b y s i d e w i th
m a g n i fi c e n t c o u r ag e T h e n fo l l o w s th e fi gh t w i th th e fire d ra k e i n
.
,

w h i c h B e o w u l f w rap p e d i n fire a n d s m o k e is h e l pe d b y th e h e ro i s m o f
, ,

Wig la f o n e o f h i s c o m p a n i on s Th e d r ag o n i s s l a i n b u tth e fire h as

, .
,

e re d B e o w u l f s l u n g s a n d h e k n o w s t h a t W y r d i s a th a n d T h i s is
’
ent .

h i s th o u g h t w h i l e W ig laf re m o v e s h is b a tte re d a r m o r
,

O n e d e e p re g re t I h a v e : th a tto a s o n
I m ay n o tg i v e th e a r m o r I h a v e w o rn ,

T o h e ar i ta f te r m e F o r fi f ty y e a rs .

I ru l e d th e s e p e op l e w e l l an d n o ta ki n g ,

O f th os e w h o d w e l l aro u n d m e d a re d o pp re s s ,

O r m e e tm e w i th h is h os t s A th o m e I w a i te d .

F o r th e ti m e th a tW y rd c o n tro l s Mi n e ow n I ke p t .
,

N o r q u arre l s s ou gh t n o r e v e r f a l s e l y s w o re
, .

N o w w o u n d e d s ore I w a i tfor jo y t
” 1
, o c om e
, .

He se n d s Wig la f i n to he
t fi re d ra k e fi ll e d w i th
’
s ca ve , wh o fi n ds it
ra re t r e a s u re s a n d m o s t w o n d e r f u l o f a ll a g o l d e n b a n n e r f ro m w h i c h
, ,

l i gh t p ro c e e d s an d i ll u m i n e s all th e d a r k n e s s B u t Wig la f c are s li ttl e .

for th e tre as u re s ; h i s m i n d i s f u l l o f h is d yi n g C h i e f H e fi l l s h is h a n d s .

wi th c o s tl y o rn a m e n ts an d h u rri e s to th ro w th e m a th is h e ro s fe e t Th e ’
.

o ld m a n l oo k s w i t h s o rro w t th e g o l d th a n k s th e ”
a L o rd of a ll th a tb y
,

d e a th h e h a s g a i n e d m ore r i c h e s for h i s p e o p l e a n d te l l s h is f a i t h fu l ,

t h a n e h o w h i s b o d y s h a l l b e b urn e d on t h e Wh a l e n e s s o r h e ad l an d : ,

M y l i f e i s w e l l p a i d fo r th i s h oard ; a n d n o w
C a r e fo r t h e p e o p l e s n e e d s I m ay n o m o r e
’
.

B e w i th t hem B i d th e w arr i ors ra i s e a b a rro w

.

A f te r th e b u r n i n g o n th e n e s s b y th e s e a
, ,

O n H ro n e s n e ss w h i c h S h a l l r i s e h i g h a n d b e
,

F o r a r e m e m b ra n c e t o m y p e op l e S e a f a re r s .

Wh o f ro m a f ar o v e r th e m i s ts o f w a te rs
D r iv e fo a m y k e e l s m ay c a ll i tB e o w u l f s M o u n t
’

H e re a f te r ”
T h e n th e h e ro fro m h i s n e c k
.

P u to ff a g o l d e n c o l l ar ; t o h is t h an e ,

T o th e y o u n g w a rr i o r
g a v e i t w i th h i s h e l m , ,

Arm l e ta n d c o rs l e t; b a d e h i m u s e th e m w e ll .

T h ou artth e l as t Wae g m u n d i n g of o u r ra c e ,

F o r f a te h as s w e p tm y ki n s m e n a ll a w a y .

E ar l s i n th e i r s tre n g t h a re to th e i r M a k e r g on e ,

A n d I m u s tfo l l o w th e m ” 2
.

1 Li f d i g M l y v i II 2 ’
nes 2 7 9 742 2 0 a re e re n er n 7 99 8 6 e rs o n ,
-
, . or e s . 2 - 2 1 .
1 6 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
Beo uw l f w as s ti ll l i v i n
g w h e n W i g la f s e n t a m e s s e n g e r h u rr i e d l y to

l w h t h y m th y f d h i m d e a d a n d th e h u g e d r ag o n
h is p e o p ;e e n e c a e e o u n ,

d e a d o n th e s an d b e s i d e h i m .

Th e n t h
h e G ot
’
s p e op l e y il ere a re d a m gh t p i
Wi th s h i e l d s a n d a rm o u r h u n g a s h e h ad as k e d , ,

A n d i n th e m i d s tth e w a rr i o rs l a i d th e i r l o rd ,

L a m e n ti n g T h e n t
. h e w a r ri ors o n th e m o u n t
K i n d l e d a m i gh ty b a l e fire th e s m o k e ros e
B l a c k f ro m t h e S w e d i s h p i n e th e s o u n d o f fl a m e ,

M i n g l e d w i th s o u n d o f w e e p i n g ; w h i le s m oke
S p re ad o v e r h e a v e n T h e n u p o n th e h il l
.

T h e p e o p l e o f th e We d e rs w r o ugh ta m ou n d ,

Hi g h b ro a d a n d to b e e e n fa r o u ta ts e a
‘

, ,
s .

In t e n d a ys t h e y h a d b u il ta n d w a l l e d i ti n
As th e wi s e th o u g h tm os tw o r th y p l a c e d i n i t
R i n gs j e w e l s o t
,
h e r tre as u re s f ro m t
,
h e h o a rd .

T h e y l e ftth e r i c h e s go l d e n joy o f e a rl s , ,

I n d u s t for e ar t
,
h to h o l d w h e re y e ti tl i e s ,

U s e l e s s a s e v e r T h e n ab o u t th e m o u n d
.

T h e w a rri o rs rod e a n d r a i s e d a m o u rn f u l s o n g
,

F o r th e i r d e a d ki n g e x al te d h i s b ra v e d e e d s ,

Ho l d i n g i tfitm e n h o n o u r th e i r li e g e l o rd ,

P ra i s e h i m a n d l ov e h i m w h e n h i s s o u l i s fl e d .

T h u s th e [G e a ts ! p e op l e s h a re rs o f h is h e a th
’
,
r ,

M o u r n e d th e i r c h i e f s fa l l p ra i s e d h i m o f ki n g s o f
’
, , , men
T h e m i l d e ta n d th e ki n d e s t an d to a ll
s ,

Hi s p e o p l e g e n tl e s t y e a rn i n g fo r th e i r p ra i s e
,
1
.

O n e is te m p te d to li n ge r o v e r th e d e ta il s of th e m a g n i fi c e n t
e nd ing : t h e u n s e l fi s h h e roi s m o f B e ow u l f th e g r e a t p roto typ e ,

of K i n
g A l f re d ; th e g e n e rou s g r i e f of h is p e o pl e i g n or i n g ,

g old an d j e w e l s in th e th ou gh t o f th e gre a te r tr e a s u re th e y
h ad l o s t; th e m e m or i a l m ou n d on th e low cl i ff w h ic h w o u ld ,

c au se e v e ry r e tu rn i n g m ar i n e r to s te e r a s tra i gh t c o u r s e to
h a r b or in th e r e m e m b ra n c e of h is d e a d h e r o ; a n d th e p u re
p oe try w h ic h m ark s e v e ry n obl e li n e B u t th e e pic is g re at .

e n ou gh an d s i m pl e e n o u h t o s p e ak for i t se l f S e a r c h th e
g .

li te ratu re s of th e w orld an d y ou will fin d n o oth e r s u ch ,

pic tu re o f a b rav e m an s d e a th ’
.

1 L i ne s
3 5 6
1 -
3 1 82 ( M o r l e y ’
s v i e rs o n ) .
I8 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
h ad f ou r a w h ic h ( i e tw o in th e fi rs t h al f
cc e n ts ,
th re e of . . ,

an d on e in th e s e c o n d ) u s u a lly b e g a n wi th th e s a m e s o u n d o r

l e tte r Th e m u s ica l e ff e c t w a s h e i gh te n e d by th e h a rp wi th
.

w h ic h th e g l e e m an acc om pan i e d h is s i n g i n g Th e p oe tic a l .

f o r m will b e se e n C l e ar ly in th e f oll o wi n g s e l e c ti on f r om th e
w on d e rf u lly r e ali s tic d e s c r ip ti on of th e f e n s h a u n te d by G re n
d e l I t will n e e d o n ly on e or tw o r ea di n g s a l ou d to S h o w th a t
.

m an y of th e s e s tran g e l ooki n g w or d s a re p r a c tic a lly th e s a m e

-

as t h os e w e s till u s e th ou g h m an y of th e v ow e l sou n d s w e re
,

p ron o u n c e d d i ff e re n tly by ou r a n c e s tors .

Hi e d y g e l l on d
Wa rige a th w u l f h le o th u
,
-
, w i n d i ge e ss as ,
na

F re c n e fe n g e l ad , -
h ae r fy rg e n s tre a m
t -

U n d e r n aes s a g e n i p u n t i
h e r g e w i te th ,
F lo d u n de r fold an . N i s th ze t fc or h e o n o n ,
M i l g e m e arc e s
-
,
h aets e m e r e
t stan d e h,
t
O fe r th ze m h o n g i a th b r i n d e b e a rw as

Th y e
( ) a d a rk s om e l an d
Wa rd ( i n h ab i t) w o l f C l i ffs , ,
wi n d y n e sse s,

F ri
g h tf u l fe n p a t h s w h e re m ou n t i
a n st
re a m

U n d e r n e s s e s m i s ts her ( d o w n w ard ) w a n d e rs
’
ne t ,

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h . I tis n o t far h ence,
B y m il e m e a s u re , h a t th e m e re
t an d s ,
st

Ove r wh i c h h an g r im y g ro v e s .

Wi ds i th Th e p oe m Wid s ith th e wid e g oe r or w an d e r e r

.
"
,
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,

i s i n p a r t a t l e a s t p ro b a bly th e o ld e s t in o u r l a n g uag e Th e
, ,
.

au t h or a n d th e d ate Of its c om p o s i ti on a r e u n k n o w n b u tth e

p e r s on al acc o u n t o f th e m i n s tre l s li f e b e l on g s to th e ti m e ’

b e f ore th e S a x on s fi rs t cam e to E n g l an d I t e xp r e s s e s th e
1
.

w an d e ri n g li f e of th e g l e e m an w h o g oe s f o rth i n to th e w orld ,

to a bid e h e re or th e re a cc o rdi n g as h e i s re w ar d e d for h is ,

S i n in F rom th e n u m e rou s r e f e re n c e s to ri n g s an d r e wa rd s
g g .
,

a n d f r om t h e p ra i s e g ive n to ge n e r ou s g iv e r s i t w o u ld s e e m ,

I P b b ly t th f th t y th gh m p t f th p m m t h v b
ro a o e ou r ce n u r , ou so e ar s o e oe us a e ee n

add e d l at
erTh u s th e po e ts a s
. 1 0 2) t h a th e y
s t e d E o r m a n r ic , w h o d e d e i r
-
3 75 , vi i i .

a n d Q u ee n E a lh h ild w f
h o se ath e r , E a d w i n , d e d Ctr 5 6 1 Th e d i fli c u lty o f n g a da ti e . . fixi
to t i v
h e poe m i s a p pa re n t I t c on ta n s se e ra re e re n c e s to sc e ne s an d c h a ra c te rs i n
. l f
B eow u lf .
 TH E ANG L O —
S AX O N PE R I OD 1 9

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20 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
th at l i te ra tu re p ayi n g p ro f e ss i on be g an v e ry e ar ly in ou r
as a

h i s tor y a n d a l so th at th e p ay w a s b a re ly s u ffi ci e n t to h o ld
,

s o u l an d bo dy t og e th e r O f a ll ou r m od e rn p oe ts G o ld s m i th . ,

w an d e ri n g ov e r E u rop e payi n g for h is l od g i n g wi th h is s on g s

is m o s t s u gg e s tiv e of th i s fi rs t re c ord e d s i n g e r of o u r ra c e .

His l as t li n e s re a d :
T h w d i g th y w h h p e o g f m e
us an er n ,
e o s a s n s or n

P v m y l d a d te l l th i
a ss o ered an an s, n e r ne ,

An d spe a k th e ir h an
t ks , an d e v e r, s o u th h
o r n o rt ,

Me e ts o m e o n e kil l e d i n s i n g i f ts s o n g s a n d f re e ,

Wh o w o u l d b e ra i se d a m o n g h is f rie n d s to fa m e ~

A n d d o b ra v e d e e d s ti l l l i g h ta n d l i fe a re g o n e .

H e w h o h as th u s w ro u g h th i m s e l f p ra i s e s h a l l h a v e
A s e ttl e d g l o ry u n d e r n e a th th e s ta rs 1
.

D e or ’
s L am en t . In D e or we h av e a n ot e r h pic tu r e of th e
S a x on s cop , or m i n s tre l
w a n d e r i n g b u t in m an ly ,
n ot i n g l ad ,

s o r ro w I ts ee m s th a tth e s c o p s livi n g d e p e n d e d e n ti re ly u p on
’

h is p o w e r to pl e a s e h is c h i e f an d th a t a t an y ti m e h e m i g h t ,

b e s u ppl a n te d by a b e tte r p o e t D e or h ad th i s e xp e r i e n c e an d .
,

c om forts h i m se l f in a g r i m w ay by re ca lli n g v ar i ou s e x a m pl e s
o f m e n w h o h a v e s u ffe re d m or e t h an h i m s e l f Th e p oe m is .

a r ra n g e d i n s trop h e s e a c h on e te lli n g o f s om e a fli ic t e d h e ro
,

a n d e n di n g wi t h th e s am e re f ra i n : H i s s o r r ow p a s s e d a w ay ,

s o w ill m i n e D e or i s m u c h m or e p oe tic th an
. Wid s ith "
,
"

an d i s t h e on e p e r f e c t ly r ic 2
of t h e A n g l o S ax on p e r i od -
.

We l a n d fo r a w o m an kn e w too we l l e x i l e .

S tro n g o f s ou l th a te a r l , s o rro w s h a rp h e b o re
To c o m p a n on s h i
i p h e h a d c are a n d w e a r y l o n g i n g ,

Wi n te n f re e z i n g w re tc h e d n e s s Woe h e fo un d ag a i n .
, ag a n i ,

A f te r t
h a t N i th h a d i n a n e e d h ad l a i d h i m
S ta gg e r i n g S i n e w w o u n d s s orro w S m i tt-
e n m an ! -

7 7 ml lze [11 1 s a ls o
'

ozre r w e n t; m ay

Th e S e af are r . w on d e r f u l p oe m o f Th e S e a fare r
Th e
se e m s to b e in tw o di s ti n c tp arts Th e fi rs ts h ow s th e h ard s h ip s .

1 L i nes I
3S
—I ly v i
4 3 ( Mo r e s e rs on )
’
.

2
A ly i r c is a s h ort poe m re e c t n g fl i so m e
pe rson a l e m oton , i lik l v
e o e or gr if
e . Tw o
othe r A gl n x
o-S a on poe m s, Th e Wife ’
s Co m p l ia nt
”
an d T h e Hu s ba n d
’
s Me s sa ge ,”
be l on g to th i l s c as s .

3 F i rs t s tro
ph e of B roo ke s
’
v i e rs o n , s tor y of E a r ly E n
g li s h L il e r a l u r e .
 TH E A N G LO — S AX O N P E R I OD 21

c
of o e an li f e b u t s tro n ge r th an h a rd s h ip s i s th e
btl e c all of su

th e s e a T h e s e c on d p a r ti s an a ll e go ry i n w h ic h th e tr o u bl e s
.
,

of t h e s e a m an a re sy m b o l s of th e trou bl e s of th i s l i f e a n d th e ,

c all o f th e o c e an is th e c all in th e s ou l to b e u p an d a wa y to i ts
tru e h om e wi th G od Wh e th e r th e l as tw a s a dd e d by so m e m on k
.

w h o s a w th e a ll e g or ic a l p o s s ibili ti e s o f th e fi r s tp a r t o r w h e th e r ,

s o m e s e a l o vi n g C h r i s t
-
ia n S c o p w r ote b oth is u n c e rtai n F oll ow , .

i n g are a f e w s e l e c te d li n e s to S h o w th e s pi r i t o f th e p oe m
Th e h i l fl e w i
a h ow b o tm
n s d th I he d o l y
e rs a u e an e re ar n

Th e r oa r o f th e s e a, ic e -
co l d w a ve s ,
an d th e s on
g of he
t s w an
F o r p as ti m e th e g a n n e ts y s e rv e d
h e ki tti w a k e s c h a tte r
’ ’
me t cr

F or l au g h te r o f m e n ; a n d fo r m e a d d r i n k t h e c al l of t h e se a m e w s .

Wh e n st
o rm s o n th e ro c ky c l i ffs b e a t, t h e n th e t e rn s , i c
y fe a th e re d ,
-

M ad e w e r ; fu ll o f tth e s e a
an s e a g l e fo re b od i n l y s c re a m e d
g ,

T h e e ag l e wi th p i n i o n s w av e w e t .

T h e S h ad o w s o f n i g h tb e c a m e d a r k e r i ts n o w e d f ro m t h e n o r th ,

Th e w o r l d w as e n c h a i n e d b y th e f ro s t h a i l fe l l u p o n e a r th
’
T w as t h e c o l d e s to f g ra i n Ye tth e th o ug h ts o f m y h e a r t n o w a re
.
:

th ro b b i n g
T o te s t th e h i g h s tre a m s th e s a l t w a v e s i n tu m u l tu o u s p l a y
, .

D e s i re i n m y h e a rte v e r u rg e s m y s p i r i tto w a n d e r ,

T o s e e k o u tth e h o m e o f th e s tr an g e r i n l a n d s a f a r o ff .

T h e re i s n o o n e th a td w e l l s u p o n e a rth s o e x a l te d i m i n d ,
n ,

B u tt h a th e h a s a l w a y s a l on g i n g a s e a f a r i n g p a s s i o n ,
—

F o r w h a tth e L o rd G o d S h a l l b e s to w b e i th on o r o r d e a th , .

N o h e a rtf o r th e h a rp h as h e , n or fo r ac c e p tan c e o f tre as u re ,

N o p l e as u re h as h e i n a wi fe , no d e l i g h ti n th e w o rl d ,

N o r i n a ug h ts a v e th e ro l l o f he b
t i l lows ; b u ta l w a y s a l on gi n g ,

A y e a rn i n g u n e as i n e s s h as te n s h i m o n to th e s e a
, .

T h e w ood l a n d s a re c a p tu re d b y b l o s s o m s t h e h a m l e ts g ro w f a i r , ,

B road m e a d o w s a re b e a u ti f u l e a r t h a g a i n b u rs t s int o l if e , ,

A n d a ll s ti r t h e h e a r to f th e w a n d e re r e ag e r to j ou rn e y ,
.

S o h e m edit e s g o i n g a fa r o n t h e p a th w a y o f ti d e s
c

at
1
.

Th e c u c k o o m ore o v e r g i v e s w ar n i n g w i th s o rro wf u l n o t
, , e ,

S u m m e r s h a rb i n g e r s i n g s a n d f o re b o d e s to th e h e a rtb i tte r s o rro w

’
, .

N ow m y s p i r i tu n e as i l y tu rn s i n th e h e a r ts n a rro w C h a m b e r
’
,

N ow w an d e rs for t h ov e r t h e ti d e o e r th e h o m e o f th e w h a l e
’
, ,

To th e e n d s o f t h e e a rth — a n d c o m e s b a c k to m e .

E a ge r an d g re e d y ,

T h e l on e w a n d e r e r s c re a m s a n d re s i s tl e s s l y d r i v e s m y s o u l o n w a rd
, ,

O v e th e w h a l e p a t
r h o v e r th e trac t
-
s of t
, h e se a 1
.

1 S
f
ea P t I I d d i g v i i T l ti / m Old E g / 1 P d y
a re r, ar ,
n s
’
e rs o n , n ran s a on s ra n 25 1 o r .
22 E N GLI SH L IT E R ATU R E
Th e F i gh tatF in n sb u r gh an d Wald ere . Tw o o th e r of o u r o ld
" ”
e st p oe m s w e ll d e s e rv e m e n ti on Th e F i gh t at F in n s b u rgh .

i s a f rag m e n t o f fi f ty l i n e s d i s c o v e r e d on th e i n s id e o f a ,

pi e c e of p ar ch m e n t d raw n ov e r th e w ood e n c ov e r s o f a b ook

o f h om ili e s I t i s a m ag n ifi c e n t w ar s on g d e s c r ibi n g wi th
. ,

H om e ri c p o w e r th e d e f e n s e o f a h all by Hn azf wi th s ix ty
l

w a rr i o rs aga i n s t th e a tta ck of F i rm an d h i s arm y A t m id

,
.

n i g h t w h e n Hn a
,
e f a n d h is m e n are s l e e pi n g th e y ar e s u r ,

r o u n d e d by an ar my ru s h i n g i n wi t h fire an d s w o rd H n ae f .

s p ri n g s t o h is f e e t at t h e fi rs t a l a rm an d w ak e n s h is w arr i or s
wi th a call to ac ti o n th at r i n g s lik e a b ug l e bl as t
T h i o e tw d d w i g i s n or i
as he e d go fl y i g
ar a n n s, n s r a ra n n ,

N or of h
t i s h i gh h al l a re h e h o rn s
t a b u rn i n g
B u tth e y ru s h u p on us h e re n ow th e ra v e n s s in g,
G ro wli n g i s th e g ra y w ol f , g r i m th e w a r w ood ra t l
te s ,
'
-

S h i e l d to s h f t w 2
a i s an s e ri n g .

Th e fi gh t l a s ts fiv e d ay s , b u t th e f rag m e n t e n d s b e f ore we

l e arn th e o u tc o m e
Th e s a m e fi g h ti s c e l e b ra te d by H roth g ar s
.
’

l e e m a n at t h e f e a s t i n H e or o t a f ter t h e s l a yi n g o f G re n d e l
g , .

Wald e r e is a f ragm e n t of tw o l e av e s f rom w h ic h w e g e t ,

on ly a g li m p s e of t h e S tory of Wa ld e re ( Wa l te r o f A q u i ta i n e )
a n d h is b e t r oth e d b rid e H ild g u n d w h o w e r e h os tag e s a t th e ,

c o ur t o f A ttil a T h e y e s c a p e d wi th a g re a t tre a s u r e an d in
.
,

c ros s i n g th e m ou n ta i n s w e re atta ck e d by G u n th e r an d h is
war ri ors am on g w h o m w a s Wal te r s form e r c om ra d e H ag e n
,
’

, .

Wal te r fi gh ts th e m a ll a n d e s c ap e s Th e sa m e s tory w a s .

w ri tte n in L ati n in th e te n th c e n tu ry an d is als o p art o f th e ,

O ld G e r m a n i e lu n e u lze d T h o u gh th e sa ga did n ot ori g i

'

g .

n at e wi t h th e A n g l o S a x o n s th e i r v e r s i o n o f it is th e Olde s t
-
,

th at h as c o m e d o w n to u s Th e c h i e f s i g n ifi c an c e o f th e s e .

"
Wald e r e f r ag m e n ts l i e s in th e e vid e n c e th e y a ff ord th at
"

o u r an c e s t o r s w e r e f a m ili ar wi t h th e l e g e n d s a n d p oe tr y of
ot h e r G e r m a n ic p e opl e s .

1 I t i s an o pe n q u e s ton i wh th th i p e m l b t
e er s o ce e ra e s th e fi gh t a tw h c h i H we i , th e
Da n i l
sh ea d e r, e , f ll or a la ert fig h tl d b y H gi t t v
e en s ,
o a e n ge a e f’ s d e a th .

9 B roo k e s
’
tra n s l tia on , H i stor y of E a r ly E n g li s h L i te r a tu r e . F or a n oth e r ea r ly b atte l
so n g se e Te n n y ’
so n s B a tte l of B ru n a n b u rh .
”
 TH E AN G L O S AX O N -
P E R I OD 23

II . A NG LO -
S AXON L I FE
We h a v e n ow r e a d s om e of ou r e arli e s t r e c or d s a n d h av e ,

b e e n s ur p ri s e d p e rh a p s th a t m e n w h o a re g e n e rally d e s c r ib e d
, ,

in th e h i s to r i e s a s s ava g e fi g h te rs a n d f r e e b oote rs c ou ld p ro
d u c e s u c h e xc e ll e n t p oe try I t i s th e obj e c t of th e s tu dy of
.

all l i t e ra tu re t o m ak e u s b e t te r acq u a i n te d wi th m e n n ot ,
—

s i m ply wi t h th e i r d e e d s w h ic h i s th e f un c ti on o f h i s tory b u t
, ,

wi th th e d re a m s a n d id e al s w h ic h u n d e rl i e a ll th e i r a c ti on s .

S o a r e adi n g of th i s e a r ly A n g l o S a x on p oe tr y n ot on ly m a k e s -

u s a cq u ai n t e d b u t a l s o l e ad s t
,
o a p r o f ou n d r e s p e c t fo r t he
m e n w h o w e r e o u r a n c e s tor s B e f o r e w e s tu dy m o r e o f th e i r
.

li te ratu r e iti s w e ll to gl an c e b r i e fly a t th e i r l i f e an d l an g u ag e .

Th e N a m e O r i g i n ally th e n a m e A n g l o S a x on d e n ote s tw o
.
-

of t h e th re e G e rm a n ic tr ib e s J u te s An g l e s an d S a x on s
,
—
, , ,

w h o in th e m iddl e o f th e fi f th c e n tu r y l e f tth e i r h o m e s o n th e

s h ore s of t h e N or th S e a a n d th e B a l tic to c on q u e r a n d c o l on i z e
di s tan t B r i ta i n A n g e l n w a s th e h om e of on e tr ib e a n d th e
.
,

n am e st ill cli n g s to th e s p ot w h e n c e s om e of ou r f or e f ath e rs

sa il e d o n t h e i r m om e n tou s v oy ag e T h e old S ax on w ord .

a n u l o r oug u l m e a n s a h oo k an d t h e E n g li s h v e r b a ng le i s
g ,

u se d i n v a r i ably by Wa l t on an d o ld e r w r i t e r s in t h e s e n s e of
fi s h i n g We m ay s till th i n k th e re f ore of th e fi rs t A n g l e s a s
.
, ,

h ook m e n p os s ibly b e c au s e o f th e i r fi s h i n g m or e p ro bably

-
, ,

b e cau se th e s h ore w h e re th e y l iv e d a t th e f oot of th e p e n i n ,

s u l a of J u t l a n d w as b e n t in th e s h ap e o f a fis h h ook Th e
, .

n a m e S a x on f r o m s ear s a x a s h ort s w o r d m e an s t
, ,
h e s w ord ,

m an a n d f r om th e n a m e w e m ay j u d g e so m e th i n g o f th e
,

te m p e r o f th e h a rdy fi gh te rs w h o p r e c e d e d th e A n g l e s i n to
B r i ta i n Th e A n g l e s w e re th e m os t n u m e r ou s of th e c o n
.

q u e ri n g tr ib e s an d f ro m th e m th e n e w h om e w a s c all e d
,

A n g la lo n d B y gra d u a l C h an g e s th i s b e c a m e fi rs t E n g le lon d
.

an d t h e n E n g l an d .

M ore th an fiv e h u n d re d y e ar s af te r th e l an di n g o f th e s e
tr ib e s an d w h il e th e y c a ll e d th e m s e lv e s E n g li s h m e n w e fin d
, ,

th e L a ti n w r i te rs of th e M iddl e A g e s s p e ak i n g o f th e i n h a bi tan ts
24 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
of B ri tai n A ng lzsax one s th at is , S a x on s of E n g l an d , — to
'

—
as ,

di s ti n g u i sh th e m f r om th e S a x on s of th e C on ti n e n t I n th e .

L ati n C h arte rs of K i n g A l f re d th e sa m e n a m e a pp e ars ; b u t i t

is n e v e r s e e n or h e ard in h i s n a tiv e s p e e c h T h e re h e a lwa y s .

" " " "

s p e ak s o f h is b e l ov e d E n gle lo n d an d of h is b rav e B u g li s e
p e o pl e I n th e S ix te e n th c e n tu ry w h e n th e Old n am e of
. ,

E n g li s h m e n cl u n g to th e n e w p e o pl e r e s u l ti n g f ro m th e u n i on
o f S ax o n an d N or m an th e n a m e A n g l o S a x o n w as fi r s t u s e d -
,

in th e n ati on al s e n s e by th e s ch ol ar C a m d e n in h is H i s t
l
ory

B ri ta in an d s in ce t h e n i t h as b e e n i n g e n e ra l u s e a m on g
of
E n g l i s h wr i te r s I n re c e n t y ea rs th e n am e h a s ga i n e d a wid e r
.

s i gn i fic a n c e un t il it is n ow u se d to d e n ote a S pi r i t rath e r th an
,

a n at i on th e b rav e vi g or ou s e n l ar gi n g S pi r i t th at c h a ra c te r
, , ,

i z e s th e E n g li s h s p e aki n g ra c e s e v e ryw h e r e an d th at h a s
-
,

a l re a dy p u t a b ro a d b e l t o f E n g l i s h law an d E n g li s h lib e r t y
arou n d t h e w h o l e w or ld .

Th e L if e I f th e li te ratu r e of a p e o pl e S p r i n g s di re c tly o u t
.

o f it s l i fe th e n th e s t
, e rn b arb arou s l i f e o f ou r S ax on f o re ,

fath e rs w ou ld s e e m at fi rs t g l a n c e to p rom i s e l i ttl e of g ood

, ,

l i te ratu re O u tw ar dly th e i r li f e w as a c on s tan t h a rd s h ip a p e r

.
,

p e tu a l s tr u
gg l e ag a i n s t sa v a g e n atu re a n d s a v a
g e m e n B e h i n d .

th e m w e r e g l o om y f or e s ts i n h a bi te d by wild b e a s ts a n d s till
wild e r m e n an d p e o pl e d in th e i r i m agi n ati on wi th d rag on s
,

an d e vil S h ap e s I n f ron t o f th e m th u n d e r i n g a t th e v e r y
.
,

dik e s for e n tran c e w as th e tre ac h e ro u s N orth S e a wi th its

, ,

fog s a n d s to rm s an d ic e b u t wi th th a t in d e fin ab le c al l of th e ,

d e e p th at a ll m e n h e ar w h o liv e l on g b e n ea th its i n fl u e n c e .

H e re th e y live d a b ig bl on d p ow e r f u l ra c e an d h u n te d an d
, , , ,

f ou gh t an d sa il e d an d d ran k an d f e a s te d w h e n th e i r l ab or w as
,

d on e A l m os t th e fi r s t th i n g w e n otic e ab ou t th e s e b ig f ea r
.
,

l e s s c h ildi s h m e n i s th a t th e y l o v e th e s ea ; a n d b e c a u s e th e y
,

l ov e itth e y h e ar a n d a n s w e r its c all

1 Willi am Ca m d e n ( 1 5 5 I -
I 62 3 ) , o n e of E ng l a n d s e ar
’
li e s ta n d iq
gre a te s ta n t u a ri an s .

His fi rs t w k or , B r i ta n n i a , a i
L a tn h s tor i y of E ng l
a n d, h a s b ee n ca ll
ed
“
th e c o mm o n s u n
wh e rea tou r m od e rn w r t
e rs i v
h a e a ll n d ki l ed th e i li l
r tte torc h e s .
”
26 E N G LIS H L IT E R ATU R E
an d a re v e re n c e w om an to w h om h e w o u ld p re s
fo r th e on e

ent ly r e tu rn i n tr i u m p h S o w h e n th e w ol f h u n t w a s o v e r or
.
,

th e d e s p e ra te fi g h t w a s w o n th e s e m i gh ty m e n w ou ld g ath e r ,

i n th e b an q u e t h all a n d lay th e i r w e a p on s a s id e w h e re th e
,

o p e n fire w o u ld fl a s h u p on t h e m a n d th e re l i s te n to th e s o n g s ,

o f S c op a n d G l e e m a n — m e n w h o c ou ld
p u t in t o a d e q u at
,
e

w ord s th e e m oti on s an d a s pi rati on s th a t all m e n f e e l b u tth at

o n ly a f e w c a n e v e r e xp r e s s

Mus i c an d s o n g w h e re h e h e roe s
t s at

T h e g l e e w o o d r a n g a s o n g u p ro s e
-
,

Wh e n H ro th ga r s S c op ga v e th e h a l l g oo d
’
ch ee r .
1

I t i s th i s g re a t a n d h idd e n l i f e o f th e A n g l o S a x on s th at -

fi n d s e xp re s s i on in a ll th e i r li te ra tu re B ri e fly , it is s u m m e d .

up i n fiv e g re at p r i n cipl e s , p e rson a l fr e e d om — th e i r l ov e of ,

th e i r re s p o n s iv e n e s s to n a tu re th e i r r e li g i on th e i r r e v e r e n c e , ,

fo r w om a n h ood a n d th e i r s tru gg l e for g l ory as a r u li n g m otiv e

,

in e v e ry n obl e l i f e .

I n r e adi n g A n g l o S a x o n p oe tr y iti s w e ll to r e m e m b e r th e s e
-

fiv e p ri n cipl e s for th e y a r e lik e th e li ttl e s p r i n g s

Sp i g
r n f s o
,

A g l S x a t th e h e ad of a gre a t r iv e r
n o- a on C l e a r p u re s p r i n s o f
g , ,
P ty
oe r
p oe try an d o u t of th e m th e b e s t o f o u r li te r atu re
,

h a s a lway s fl ow e d T h u s w h e n w e r e ad
.
,

B l as to f th e t
e m p e s t— i ta i d s o u r o a rs ;
R ol l i ng of h un de r
t i th u rts u s n o t;

R ush of h e h u rr
t i c an e — b e n d i n g i ts nec k
To s p e e d us w h i th e r ou r wi l l s are b e n t,

we re a li ze th atth e s e s e a ro ve rs
pi r i t of ki n s h ip wi th
h a d th e s

th e m gh t iy li f e of n atu re ; a n d ki n s h ip wi th n a tur e i n v ar i ably

e xp r e s s e s i tse l f in poe try A gai n w h e n w e re ad
.
, ,

N ow b at
h th e m an
O h i s troub l e s N o p l e a s u re d oe s h e l a c k ,
’
e rc om e .

N or e e d s , n or
st j e we l s, h e o y s o f m e ad ,
n or t j
N or y tre as u re th a tth e e a r t
an h c an g i v e ,
0 ro y a l w o m a n , i f h e h a v e b u tth e e , 2
1 F ro m B e ow u lf , II . 106
3 a f ree tra n s la toni .

2 T ra n s l ed
at f ro m TIre H u s b a n d ’ s M es s ag e , w i tt r en on a i
p e c e o f b ar k Wi th w
. on
d e rfu l poe ti i
c igh t th
ns e ba r k i t lf se is re p re se n te d as t
e ll in g i ts s tor to th ey wif f e, ro m
 T H E A N G L O — S AX O N PE R I OD 27

we k n ow d e a l i n g wi th an e s s e n tia lly n o bl e m an n ot a
w e ar e ,

s av ag e w e ar e fa c e to f a c e wi th th at p ro f ou n d r e v e r e n c e for
w om an h ood w h ic h i n s pi re s th e g re a te r p artof all good p oe try ,

an d w e b e g i n t o h o n or a s w e l l as u n d e rs t an d ou r a n c e s t o rs .

S o in th e m atte r o f g l ory o r h on or itw a s a pp ar e n tly n o tth e , ,

l ov e o f fi gh ti n g b ut ra th e r th e l ov e of h on or r e s u l ti n g f rom
,

fi g h ti n g w e ll w h ic h an i m a te d o u r f ore f ath e r s in e v e ry c am
,

H e w as a m an d e s e rvi n g o f r e m e m b ran c e w a s th e
”
p a ig n .

h i g h e s t th i n g th at c ou ld b e s a id of a d e ad w ar r i or ; an d H e
"

”
is a m a n d e s e r vi n g o f p ra i s e w a s th e h i g h e s t tr ib u te to th e

livi n g Th e w h ol e s e c r e t of B e ow u l f s m i gh ty li fe is s u m m e d
.
’

”
h e l a s tli n e E v e r y e ar n i n g for h is p e o pl e s p ra i se
’
u p in t , So .

e v e ry t r ib e h ad i t s S c op o r p oe t m o re i m p or t,
an t t h a n an y ,

w arr i or w h o p u t th e d e e d s of its h e roe s i n to th e e xp re s s iv e

,

w ord s th at c on s ti tu te l i te ratu re ; an d e v e ry b an q u e t h al l h ad
its g l e e m an w h o san g th e S c o p s p o e try i n or d e r th atth e d e e d
’

an d t h e m a n m i gh t b e r e m e m b e re d O r i e n ta l p e o pl e s b u il t .

m on u m e n ts to p e r p e tu a te th e m e m or y o f th e i r d e ad ; b u t ou r
an c e s t or s m a d e p oe m s w h ic h s h ou ld liv e an d s t i r m e n s s ou l s ’

l on g a f te r m on u m e n ts of b rick an d s ton e h ad c ru m bl e d a way .

I t is to th i s i n te n s e l o v e o f g l or y a n d th e d e s i r e to b e r e m e m
b e re d th atw e a r e i n d e b te d fo r A n g l o S a x on li te ratu r e -
.

Ou r F i r s t S p ee c h O u r fi r s t r e c or d e d s p e e c h b e g i n s wi th
.

th e s on g s of Wi d s ith an d D e or w h ic h th e A n g l o S a x on s m ay ,
-

h av e b rou g h t wi th th e m w h e n th e y fi rs t c on q u e r e d B ri ta i n .

A t fi r s t g l a n c e th e s e s on g s in th e i r n a tiv e d re s s l o ok s tra n g e
a s a f ore i g n t on u e ; b u t w h e n w e e x am i n e t h e m c a re f u lly
g
w e fin d m a n y w or d s th a t h av e b e e n f a m ili a r S i n c e C h ild h oo d .

\Ve h av e s e e n th i s in B e ow u lf ; b u t in p ros e th e r e s e m bl an c e

i
th e tm e wh en th e b i rc h tree g re w i
b e s d e th e se a unt il th e e xil ed m an fou n d It an d

stri pp ed th e b a r k a n d ca r v e d on i ts f
su r ac e a m e s s age to th e w o m an he l v
o ed . Th i fi
s rs t

o f a ll E ng li sh l v
o e s on gs d e se r v
es to ra n k wi th Va l e n tn e s i ’
d e sc r p to n i i of S ilv ia :

Wh y , ma n , sh e is m i n e ow n ,

An dI i as r c h in h a vi g su c h a e
n jwl e

A tw ty
s en sea s , if a ll t i
h e r san d w e re pe a r l ,

Th w t e a r an d
a e r ne ct th e r oc k s p u re go d l .

Tw o Ge n tle m e n f Ve r on a
o ,
II , 4
.
28 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
of th is o ld spe e ch v e n m ore s triki n g H e re
to ou r ow n is e .
,

fo r in s tan c e i s a f ragm e n t o f th e s i m pl e s tory o f th e c o n

,

q u e s t of B ri tai n by ou r A n g l o S a x on an c e s to rs : -

He r He n g e s tan d ZE S C h is sunu ge fu h t
on w i th B ry ttas , on h ze
t re s t
o we
h aar o fs log o n e o e r th u s e n d a
th e is g e c w e d e n C re c c a n fo rd , a n d t e ra f w w .

-
l
A n d th a B r y ttas th a fo r le to n C e n t o a d , a n d m i d m y c lu m e g e fl u g on t o

i
L u n d e n b y r ig ( A t th s tm e H e n g e s ta n d
.
i e s c , h is s o n , o u g h t ag a n s t A f i

S TO N E HE N G E O N S A L I S B U R Y P L A IN
,

P ro b a b ly th i f t m p l f th tiv B i t
e ru n s o a e e o e na e r on s

th e B r to n si at the p l a c e w h i c h i s c a l l e d C r a yfo rd a n d th e re S l e w fo u r
th o u s a n d m e n . A n d th e n th e B ri to n s fo rs oo k ent l a n d , a n d wi th m u c h K
fe ar fl e d to L o n d o n to w n .
)
1

Th e d e r w h o ti tte rs th e s e w ord s al ou d a fe w ti m e s will

re a

s pe e dily r e c og n i z e h is o w n t on g u e n ot s i m ply i n t h e w ord s ,

b u t al s o in th e w h ol e s tr u c tu re of th e s e n te n c e s .

F rom s u c h re c ord s w e s e e th at ou r S pe e c h is T e u ton ic in

its or i g i n ; a n d w h e n w e e x am i n e an y T e u ton ic l an g uag e w e
l e arn th a t it is on ly a b ran ch of th e g re at A ry a n or I n d o
E urop ean f a m ily o f l a n g u age s I n li f e a n d l an g u a g e th e re .
,

fo re w e a re r e l ate d fi rs t to th e T e uton ic ra c e s a n d th rou gh

, ,

th e m to a ll th e n ati on s of th i s I n d o E u ro p e an f am ily w h ic h -
, ,

st ar ti n g wi th e n o rm o u s vi g o r f rom th e i r or ig i n a l h om e ( p ro b
a bly in c e n t ra l E u ro p e S p r e a d s ou th w ard a n d w e s tward d r iv ,

in g o u t th e n ativ e tr ib e s an d s l owly d e v e l opi n g th e m i g h ty

C ivili z at i on s o f I n di a P e r s i a G r e e c e R o m e an d th e wild e r b u t
, , , ,

m ore vi g or ou s li f e o f th e C e l ts an d T e u ton s I n a ll th e se .

1 F th e A n g lo- S a x on Ch r on i c le , re c o rd o f th e e a r 4 5 7
ro m y .

2
A i
c c o rd n g to S e e tt w i i l
h e o r g n a h o me o f th e r an s i s Ay
p a c e d I n c e n tra o r n o rth e rn l l
E u ro pe , ra th e r th a n i n Ai
s a , a s wa s o n c e a s s u m e d S e e Th e H i s tor y of L a n g u ag e , p 1 0 3
. . .
 T H E AN G LO — S AX O N P E R I OD 29

l an g u ag e s S an s k r i t I r an i an G r e e k L a ti n C e l tic T e u ton ic
, , , , ,

w e re c og n i z e t h e s am e r ootw ord s f or f ath e r an d m oth e r for ,

G od a n d m an for th e c om m on n e e d s a n d th e c o m m on r e l a
,

ti on s o f li f e ; a n d s i n c e w ord s a r e wi n d o w s th rou g h w h ic h w e
se e t h e s o u l o f th i s o ld p e opl e w e fin d c e r ta i n id e a l s of l ov e
, ,

h om e f a i th h e r oi s m l ib e r ty w h ic h s e e m to h av e b e e n th e
, , , ,

v e ry l i f e of ou r f or e fath e r s an d w h ic h w e re i n h e r i te d by th e m
,

f rom th e i r old h e ro ic an d c on q u e r i n g an c e s tor s I t w as on .

th e b ord e r s o f th e N or th S e a th at ou r f ath e rs h al te d for u n

n u m b e re d c e n t u r i e s ou t h e i r w e s tw ar d j ou rn e y a n d s l o wly ,

d e v e l op e d th e n ati on a l l i f e an d l an g u ag e w h ic h w e n ow c a ll
A n g l o S a x on
-
.

I t i s th i s old vi g orou s A n g l o S a x o n l an g u ag e w h ic h f or m s
-

th e ba s i s o f o u r m o d e rn E n g li s h I f w e r e ad a p ara gra p h
.

f r om an y g ood E n g l i s h b ook a n d th e n a n a ly z e it
D ua l Ch ar m , ,

ter o f ou r a s w e w o u ld a fl o w e r to se e w h at I t c on ta i n s w e
, ,

L
fi n d tw o d i s ti n c t cl a s se s of w or d s Th e fi r s t cl as s
an gu g e
.
,

c on ta i n i n g s i m pl e w or d s e xp r e s s i n g th e c om m on th i n g s of li f e ,

m ak e s u p th e s tr on g f ra m e w or k of ou r l an g uag e T h e s e w ord s .

are lik e t h e s te rn an d b a re b ra n c h e s of a m i g h ty oak a n d i f ,

w e l o ok th e m u p i n t h e di c ti on ary w e fin d th a ta l m o s t i n v ar i
a bly t h e y c om e to u s f r om ou r A n g l o S a x on an c e s tor s Th e -
.

s e c on d a n d l ar e r cl as s o f w or d s is m ad e u p o f t h os e th atg iv e
’

g
g ra c e v ar i e ty orn am e n t to o u r s p e e c h
, , ,
T h e y ar e lik e th e .

l e av e s a n d bl os s om s of th e s am e tre e a n d w h e n w e e x am i n e ,

th e i r h i s tor y w e fin d th a t th e y c o m e to u s f ro m th C e lt
e s ,

R om a n s N or m an s a n d o th e r p e o pl e s wi th w h om w e h av e
, ,

b e e n in c on ta c t in th e l on g y e ar s o f our d e v e l op m e n t Th e .

m os t p r om i n e n t C h a ra c te r i s tic of ou r p r e s e n t l a n g u age th e re ,

f ore i s its d u a l c h ar ac te r I ts b e s t q u ali ti e s

‘

, .
» st re n t
g h —
,

p li c i ty d,i r e c tn e s s c o m e f ro m A n g l o S a x o n s o u r c e s ; its -

e n or m ou s add e d w e a l th o f e xp r e s s i o n i t s c o m p r e h e n s iv e n e s s
, ,

i ts pl as tic ad a p ta bili ty to n e w c on di ti o n s a n d id e a s a r e l ar g e ly ,

th e r e s u l t o f a ddi ti o n s f rom oth e r l a n g u ag e s an d e s p e ci a lly ,

o f it s g ra d u al a b s o r p t i on o f th e F re n c h l a n g uag e a fte r th e
 3O E N GLI S H L IT E R ATU R E

N orm an C on q u e s t I t is th i s d ua l c h ara c te r th i s c om bi n ati on

. ,

o f na t iv e an d f ore i g n of i n n ate an d e x otic e l e m e n ts w h ic h ac

, ,

c o un ts for th e w ea l th of o u r E n g li s h lan g u age a n d l i te ratu r e .

To s e e it in c on c re te f or m w e s h o u ld rea d in s u cc e s s i on
,

B e o w u lf a n d P a ra d i s e L os t th e tw o g re a t e pic s w h ic h s h o w
,

th e roo ta n d th e fl ow e r o f o u r l i te ra ry d e v e l op m e n t .

C H R I S TI A N W R IT E R S O F T H E A N G L O S A X O N
III .
—

P E R I OD
T h e li te ra ture o f th i s p e r i o d f all s n a tu ra lly i n to tw o divi
s i on s p ag an an d C h r i s ti an Th e f orm e r r e p re s e n ts th e
,
— .

p oe try w h ich th e A n g l o S a x on s p rob ably b rou g h t wi th th e m

-

i n th e f o rm of o ra l s aga s th e c ru d e m ate r i a l ou t of w h ic h
,
—

li te rature w as s l owly d e v e l o p e d on E n g li s h s o il ; th e l atte r r e p

re se n t s t h e w r i ti n g s d e v e l o p e d u n d e r te ac h i n g of th e m on k s ,

aft er t h e o ld p aga n r e l i g i o n h ad v a n i s h e d b ut w h il e it s till ,

re t ai n e d i ts h o ld o n t h e li f e an d l a n gu ag e of th e p e o pl e In .

re adi n g o u r e a rl i e s t p oe t r y i t 1 5 w e ll t o re m e m b e r t h at all o f
it w as c o pi e d by th e m on k s an d s e e m s to h a v e b e e n m ore or
,

l e s s a l te re d to g ive i ta r e li g iou s c o l ori n g .

Th e c om i n g of C h r i s ti an i ty m e an t n ot s im ply a n e w li f e
a n d l e a d e r fo r E n g l a n d ; it m e a n t a l s o t h e w e al th o f a n e w
Th e S c op is n o w re pl a c e d by th e li te ra r y m on k ;
’Ei gd at m o n k th ou h h e liv e s am on c o m o p pl
g uag e .

n gh
" ,g g m n eo e an d
J
S p e ak fiw it h th e E n g li s h ton g u e h a s b e h i n d h im all th e c u l tu r e
,

an d l i t a r
y re sou rc e s of th e L a ti n l a n g u ag e Th e e ff e c t is
é zz
.
.

s e erL il an t ly in ou r e arly p ro s e an d p oe try .

7 Noith u m b r i an L i t
‘ ’
e r at I n g e n e ral tw o gre a t s c h ool s o f
’

, u re .
,

C h r i s ti a n i n fl u e n c e c a m e i n to E n g l an d an d s p e e dily p u t an
,

end t o t h e f r i g h tf u l w a r s th a t h ad w age d c on ti n u ally a m on g

th e v ar i ou s p e tty ki n gd om s o f t h e A n g l o S ax on s Th e fi rs t of
-
.

th e s e u n d e r th e l e ad e r s h ip o f A u g u s tin e ca m e f ro m R o m e
’

~
, , .

I t s p re ad in th e s o u th a n d c e n te r of E n l an d e s p e ci ally in
g ,

th e ki n gd om o f E s s e x I t f ou n d e d s c h ool s a n d p arti a lly e d u

.

c at ed t h e ro u g h p e opl e b u t it p rod u c e d n o l a s ti n l i
,
g te ratur e .
32 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU RE

is a m o d e l .E v e r y k n o w n a u th o r i ty o n th e s u bj e c t , f rom

P li n y to G ild as w a s c ar e f u lly c on s id e re d ; e v e ry l e ar n e d pil

,

Th F i r t
e s g r i m to R o m e w a s c o m m i s s i on e d by B e d e to ra n sa ck
Hi t y f
s or o th e arc h iv e s an d t o m a k e c o pi e s o f p a p a l d e c r e e s
E gl d
an
a n d roy a l l e t te r s ; a n d to th e s e w e r e a dd e d th e te s
n

tim on y o f a bb o ts w h o c ou ld s p e a k f ro m p e r s o n a l k n o wl e d g e o f

e ve n t s o r r e p ea tt h e tra di ti on s o f th e i r s e v e ra l m on as te r i e s .

S id e by s id e wi th th i s h i s to r ic a l e x a c tn e s s are m ar v e l ou s
st o r i e s o f sa i n t s a n d m i s s i on a r i e s I t w as a n ag e o f c re d u li ty
. ,

a n d m i ra cl e s w e r e i n m e n s m i n d s c o n t
’
i n u ally Th e m e n o f .

RU IN S AT W H I TB Y

w h om w rote liv e d live s m or e w on d e r f u l th an an y rom an c e

he ,

an d t h e i r c o u rage a n d g e n tl e n e s s m ad e a tre m e n d ou s i m p re s
s i on on t h e rou g h w a rlik e p e opl e to w h om th e y c am e wi th
,

o p e n h an d s a n d h e ar t s I t is th e n a tu ra l w ay of all p r i m i tiv e
.

p e o pl e s to m ag n i f y th e w ork s o f th e i r h e ro e s an d so d e e d s of ,

h e ro i s m an d k i n d n e s s w h ic h w e re p ar t o f th e d a ily li f e of
,

th e I r i s h m i s s i o n a r i e s w e re s oon tra n s form e d i n to th e m i ra cl e s

,

of t h e S a i n ts B e d e b e li e v e d th e s e th i n g s a s all o th e r m e n did
.
, ,

an d r e c or d s t h e m wi th c h ar m i n g S i m pl ici ty j u s ta s h e re c e iv e d
,

th e m f ro m bi s h o p or a bb o t N otwi th s ta n di n g its e rrors w e

.
,

ow e t o t h i s w o rk n ea r ly all o u r k n o wl e d g e o f th e e i g h t C e n
tu ri e s o f o u r h i s to ry f oll owi n g th e l an di n g o f C ae sar in B r i ta i n
 TH E A N G LO S AX O N -
PE R I OD 33

C lE D M O N S e ve n th C u ry )
( e nt

N o w m u s tw e h y m n t
he M a s te r of h e av e n ,
T h e m i g h to f th e M a k e r , th e d e e d s o f th e h e r,
at F
Th e th o ugh to f H i s h e art He , L o rd e v e r l as ti n g , .

E s ta b l i s h e d o f o ld w o n d e rs :
he
t s o u r c e o f a ll

C re a to r all h o l y H e h u n g th e b r i gh th e a v e n
-
, ,

A roo f h i g h u p re are d o e r th e c h i l d re n o f m e n ;
’
,

T h e K i n g o f m a n ki n d th e n c e a te d f o r m or ta l s r

T h e w o r l d i n i ts b e a u ty th e e arth s p re a d b e n e a th
, th e m ,

H e L o rd e v e rl as ti n g o m n i p o te n t G o d 1
, , .

I f B e ow u lf f r ag m e n ts of ou r e ar l i e s t p oe tr y w e re
an d th e
b r oug h t i n to E n g l an d th e n th e h y m n g iv e n a b o v e is th e fi rs t
,

v e r se of a ll n ativ e E n g li s h s on g th at h as c om e d o w n to u s ,

an d d m on i s th e fi rs t p oe t to W h om w e c a n g iv e a d e fi
n i te n am e an d d ate Th e w or d s w e r e w r i tte n a b ou t 66 5 A D
. . .

f ou n d c opi e d a t th e e n d of a m an u s c r ip t of B e d e s
’
an d are

E c c le s i a s ti c a l Hi s tory .

Li fe of d Wh a t l i ttl e w e k n ow of C ae d m on th e An gl o
m on .
,

S ax on Mi l ton as h e i s p rop e r l y c a l le d i s tak e n f ro m B e d e s ac c ou n t 2

’

, ,

of t h e Abbe ss H i l d a a n d of h e r m o n as te r y a tWh i tby H e re is a f re e .

an d c on d e n se d tran s l a tion o f B e d e s s tory

’

Th e re w as , i n t
he m on as t
er y of h e Ab b e s s
t H i ld a , a b ro th e r d i s ti n
g u i s h e d b y th e g r ac e o f G o d , f or th a t h e c ou l d m a k e poe m s tre a ti n g
o f g oo d n e s s a n d r e l i g i o n Wh a te v e r w as tra n s l a te d to h i m ( fo r h e c o u l d
.

n o t re a d
) of S a c r e d S c r i p tu re h e S h or t ly r e p ro d u c e d i n p oe ti c fo r m of

g re a ts w e e tn e s s an d b e a u ty o n e of . N all he E
t g l i s h p oe ts c o u l d e u a l
n q
h i m , fo r h e l e a rn e d n o tth e ar to f s o n g f ro m m e n , n or s an g b y th e a rts o f
m en . R her
at d id h e i v e all h i s p oe tr y as a fre e g if t f rom G od an d
re c e ,

fo r th i s re as on h e d i d n e v e r c o m p os e p o e tr y o f a v a i n or w o r l d l y ki n d .

U n ti l o f m a t ure a e h e l i v e d as a l a y m a n a n d h a d n e v e r l e a rn e d a n y
g
p o e tr y I.n d e e d s o i g n o
, r a n t o f s i n i
g g n w a s h h
e t a ts o m e ti m e s a ta fe a s t , ,

w h e re i tw as th e c u s tom th a t for th e p l e as u re o f a ll e ac h g ue s ts h o u l d
sin i n t h e w l d i f o m th t ab l e w h e n h e s aw t h e h ar p c o m i n g
g u rn , o u r s e r e

to h i m an d g o h o m e a s h a m e d N o w i th a p p e n e d o n c e th a t h e d i d t
.
h is
th i n g a t a c e r ta i n fe s tiv i ty a n d w e n t o u t to t ,
h e st al l t o c a r e fo r t he
h o rs e s th i s d u ty b e i n g a s s i g n e d to h i m fo r th a t n i g h t As h e S l e p t a t
,
.

1 d m on s
‘
y
H m n , C oo s ”
k v i
’
e r s on , i n Tr a n s la tion s f r om Old E n g li s h P oetr y .

2 E c c le s i a s ti c a l H i s tory , I V, xxiv .
34 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
"
th e us u a l ti m e o n e s to od b y h i m s a y i n g : C aed m o n s i n g m e s o m e th i n g
, , .

I c a n o ts i n g h e a n s w e re d a n d th a ti s w h y I c am e h i th e r fro m th e
n ,
”
,
”
fe a s t B u th e w h o s p a k e u n to h i m s a i d ag a i n C ze d m o n s i n g to m e
.
”
, , .

An d h e s ai d
"
Wh a t s h a l l I s i n g ? an d h e s a i d S i n g th e b e g i n n i n g
,
” "
,

o f c re a t ed t h i ngs T h e re u p o n C aed m o n b e g an to s i n g v e rs e s th a t h e
.
”

h ad n e v e r h e a rd b e fo re o f th i s i m p o r t: N o w s h o u l d w e p ra i s e th e
"
,

e Fat T
”
p o w e r a n d w i s d om of t h e C re a t or t h e w or k s o f t h ,
h er h i s is t h e .

s e n s e b u tn o t t h e fo rm o f th e h y m n t h a th e s a n g w h il e s l e e p i n g .

Wh e n h e a w ak e n e d C ae d m on re m e m b e re d th e w ord s o f th e h y m n
,

a n d ad d e d t o t h e m m a n y m o re I n th e m o rn i n g h e w e n tto th e s t
. e w a rd

of t h e m o n as te r y l a n d s a n d S h o w e d h i m th e g i f t h e h a d r e c e i v e d i n
slee p . T h e s te w a rd b ro ug h th i m to H i l d a w h o m a d e h i m re p e a t to th e ,

m on k s t h e h y m n h e h a d c o m p o s e d a n d a ll a g re e d t h a tt h e g ra c e o f G o d
,

w as u p o n C ae d m o n To t e s th i m t .h e y e x p o u n d e d to h i m a b i to f S c r i p
tu re f ro m t h e L a ti n a n d b a d e h i m i f h e c o u l d t o t u rn i t i n t o p oe t
, ry , .

He w e n t aw a y h u m b l y an d re tu rn e d i n th e m or n i n g w i th a n e x c e l l e n t
p oe m . T h e re u p on H i l d a re c e i v e d h i m a n d h is fa m i l y i n to th e m on as te r y ,

m a d e h i m on e o f t h e b re th re n a n d c o m m a n d e d th a tt
,
h e w h o l e c o u rs e o f
B i b l e h i s to r y b e e x p ou n d e d to h i m H e i n tu rn re fl e c ti n g u p o n w h a th e
.
,

h a d h e a rd tr a n s fo rm e d i t i n to m o s t d e l i g h tf u l p oe tr y an d b y e c h o i n g
, ,

i t b a c k to th e m o n k s i n m o r e m e l od i o u s s ou n d s m ad e h is te a c h e rs h is
l i s te n e rs I n a ll th i s h is a i m w as to tu r n m e n fro m wi c k e d n e s s a n d to
.

h e l p th e m to th e l o v e an d p rac ti c e o f w e l l d o i n g .

[T h e n fo l l o w s a b ri e f re c o rd o f C a e d m o n s l i fe a n d a n e x q u i s i te pic t u re
’

o f h is d e a t h a m i d s t th e b r e th re n ! A n d s o i t c a m e to p ass [s ay s th e
.

s i m p l e r e c o rd h a t as h e s e r v e d G od w h i l e l i v i n i n p u ri t y of m in d
! t g
a n d s e re n i t y o f s p i ri t s o b y a p e a c e fu l d e ath h e l e ftth e w orl d a n d w e n t
,

t o l oo k u p o n H i s f a c e .

Cae dm on Work s Th e g re ate s tw or k attr ib u te d to C ze d m on

’
s .

i s th e s o c all e d P a r ap h ra s e I ti s th e s to ry of G e n e s i s E x od u s
-
.
, ,

a n d a p art o f D a n i e l t o ld i n g l o wi n g p o e tic l an g u ag e wi th a
, , ,

p o w e r o f i n s i gh t an d im ag i n ati on w h ic h o f te n ra i s e s it f rom
parap h ra s e i n to th e r e al m of tru e p oe try T h ou gh w e h av e .

"
B e d e s a s s u ra n c e th atC ae d m o n tran s f orm e d th e w h o l e c ou r s e
’

o f B ibl e h i s t o ry i n to m o s t d e li h t
g f u l p oe tr y n o w o r k k n ow n
”
,

c e r ta i n ly to h av e b e e n c omp os e d by h im h as c o m e d o w n to u s .

I n th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y th i s A n l o S a x on P a ra h r a s e w a s
g p
-

di sc o v e re d an d attrib u te d to C ae d m on an d h is n am e is s till ,

a s s o ci a te d wi t h it th o u gh it is n ow a l m os t c e rta i n th at th e
,

P a r ap h r a s e is th e w o r k of m o r e th an on e w r i te r .
 T H E AN G LO — S AX O N P E R I OD 35

A s id e f rom th e d o u b tfu l q u e s ti on of a u th ors h ip e v e n a ,

ca s u a l re adi n g of th e p oe m b r i n g s u s i n to th e p re s e n c e o f
a p oe t ru d e i n d e e d b u t wi t h a g e n i u s s tron g ly s u g g e s tiv e a t
,

ti m e s o f th e m atc h l e s s M il ton Th e b ook o p e n s wi th a h y m n .

o f p ra i s e an d t
,
h e n te ll s o f th e f all of S atan an d h is r e b e l an ge l s
fr om h e a v e n w h ic h i s f am iliar to u s in M il to n s P a ra d is e L os t
,
’
.

T h e n f oll ow s th e c r e ati on o f th e w or ld an d th e P a rap h ra se b e ,

g i ns t o th r ill wi th th e o ld A n l o S a x on l o v e o f n a t
g u re -
.

H e e fi tth e E t
r rs l F ath e g d o f ll e rn a r, u ar a ,

Of h e a v e n a n d e a rt
h ,
i
ra s e d u p th e fi rm am e n t,
Th e A l m i gh ty L o rd s e tfir m b y H is stro n
g p owe r
Th i s r oo m y l an d g r as s g re e n e d n o t y e tth e p l a i n
O c e a n fa r s p re a d h i d th e w an w a y s i n g l oom .

Th en he
w as t S p i r i tg l o r i o u s l y b r i g h t
O f He a v e n
’
s Ke e pe r b o rn e o ve r h e de e p
t
S wi f tl y T h e L i fe g i v e r , th e A n g e l s L o rd ,
’
-
.

O v e r th e a m p l e g ro u n d b a d e c o m e fo r th L i gh t .

Q u i c kl y t h e H gh n i Ki
g s b d d n g w as o b e e d ,
’
i i y
Ove r he w h e re s h o n e gh ts h o li ly
’
t as t
e t ray .

Th en p ar te d He , L o rd o f tr u m p h a n tm g h t, i i
S h ad o w f ro m sh i n i ng , d ar k n e s s from th e l i gh t .

L i gh t, b y th e W ord of G od , w as fi r s tn a m e d d ay 1
.

A f te r re c ou n ti n g th e F all an d th e
stor y of P arad i s e , th e ,

D e l u g e th e P a rap h ra s e i s c on ti n u e d in th e E x od u s of w h ic h
, ,

th e p oe t m a k e s a n obl e e pic r u s h i n g on wi th th e s w e e p of a ,

S a x on a rm y to b attl e A s i n g l e s e l e c ti on i s g iv e nh e re to S h o w
.

h ow th e p oe tad ap te d th e s tory to h is h e ar e r s
T h e th e y s aw n ,

F o th a d f w d f i g Ph aoh w
r n or y
ar ar n , ar
’
s a r a r ra

G l idin g on , a g ro ve o f s p e a rs ;
—
g l i tt
e ri n g th e h os ts !
F l u tte re d th e re th e b a n n e rs e re ,
h
t th e fo l k t h e m arc h tr od .

O n w ard s s u rg e d th e w a r s tro d e t h e s p e a r s a l on g , ,

B li c k e r e d th e b ro ad s h i e l d s ; b l e w a l ou d th e tr u m p e ts .

Wh e e l i n g rou n d i n g y re s y e l l e d th e fo w l s o f w a r , ,

O f th e b a ttl e g r e e d y ; h o a rs e l y b ar k e d th e ra v e n ,

D e w u p o n h is fe a th e rs o e r th e fa l l e n c o r p s e s
’
,

S w a r tth a tc h o os e r o f th e s l a i n ! S a n g a l o u d th e w o l v e s
-

A te v e th e i r h o rr i d s o n g h op i n g fo r th e c a rr i o n 2 , .

1 G en e s i s , 1 1 2— 1
3 1 ( M or l e y) .
2 E x od u s , 1 5 5 ff .
( B rooke ) .
36 E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
B e s id e s th e P a rap h ra s e w e f rag m e n ts of th e h av e a fe w
sa m e g e n e r al c h ar a c t e r w h ic h ar e a t tr ib u te d to th e s c h oo l of

C dm T h l o e s t o f th e se i s j u d i h
t i n w h ic h th e s tory
ae o n e n
.
g ,

o f a n a p oc ryp h a l b oo k o f t h e O ld T e s tam e n t is d on e i n to
vi g oro u s p oe try H ol o f e rn e s is r e p re s e n te d as a sav ag e an d
.

c ru e l V iki n g re v e li n g in h is m e ad h all a n d w h e n th e h e ro ic
,

J udi th c u ts o ff h is h e ad wi th h is ow n s w ord an d th row s it

d ow n b e f ore th e warri or s of h e r pe opl e ro u s i n g th e m to ,

b a ttl e a n d vic tor y w e rea c h pe rh ap s th e m os t d ram ati c an d

,

b r illi an t p oi n tof A n g l o S a x on li te ratu r e -

.

C Y N E WU L F E
( gi h th C e ntu ry
)
O f C y n e w u l f , g rea te s t of th e A n g l o S a x on p oe ts , e xc e p ti n g -

on ly th e u n k n ow n au th or o f B e ow u lf , w e k n ow v e ry li ttl e .

I n d e e d it w as n ottill 1 8 4 0 m ore th an a th ou sa n d y e ars a f te r

, ,

h is d e ath th at e v e n h is n a m e b e ca m e k n ow n
,
Th o u g h h e is .

th e on ly o n e of o u r e ar ly p oe ts w h o s i g n e d h is w or k s th e ,

n a m e w as n e v e r pl a i n ly w r i t te n b u t w o v e n i n to t h e v e rs e s i n ,

th e f or m o f s e c re t ru n e s 1
s u gg e s ti n g a m od e r n C h ara d e b u t , ,

m o re di ffi c u l t o f i n te r p re t ati o n u n til on e h as f ou n d th e k e y
to th e p oe ts s i g n atu r e
'

Work s of Cy n e w u l f Th e on ly s i gn e d p oe m s of C y n e w u l f
.

a re Th e Ch r i s t, j u li a n a , Th e F a te s o
f h e Ap os tle s ,
t an d E le n e .

U n s ig n e d poe m s attr ib u te d to h im or h is s c h ool are A n d r ea s ,

1 R u ne s w e re i i iv l
p r m t e e tte rs of th e o ld n o rth e rn a l ph ab e t . In a fe w pa s sage s C y n e
w lf
u u se s ea c h run e to re p re se n tn oton ly l a etter b u ta w ord b e g i i
nn ng wi
th th a t e t l
te r .

T h u s th e ru n e ~ e
q u i va le n t o f C s ta n d s for c e n e ( e e n , k c ou ra ge o u s ) Y
for yf e l ( e
, ,
in vil
th e se n se of w re tc he d ), fo r a y d ( n e e d ) , W f or w y n
N ( joy ) , U fo r a r ( o u r) , L fo r lag u
( l ake ) , F fo r w l
f oah ( fee , e a th ) U s n g th e r u n e s e
. i q iv l
u a ent t o t h e se se e n e tt e rs , v l
C y n e wu lf i h de s a n d a tth e sa m e tm ei re v l
ea s h is n am e in c e rt
a n i v e rse s of Th e Ch r i st,
i
for n s tanc e :

T h e n th e Cou r ag e h e a r t
ed u ak e s ,
-
h e n th e q
n g ( L ord ) h e h e ars w Ki
k
S p e a to th ose h o on ce o n ea rth b u tob e e d Hi m ea ,
y w kly
Wh e a s ye tth e r Ye a r n i n g p a m a n d th e r N e e d m o s te a s
il i i ily
Co or mf t m i gh t d i v
sc o e r . G on e i s th e n th e I Vi n som e n es s
Of th e e a rth ’ s a d o rn m e n ts l Wh a tto Us as m e n be l on g e d

Of th e o s o f j y lif e wa s l k oc ed , l on g ago , i n L a h e fl ood .

A ll th e F ee o n e a rth .

Se e B roo k ’
e s Hi stor y of E a r ly E n g li s h L i te r a tu r e , p p 3 7 7— 3 7 9 , . or Th e Ch r i st of
Cy ne w u lf , e d b y C oo . k l
,
a so by Go ll anc z .
 TH E AN G L O S AX O N -
PE R I OD 37

th e P h oen ix , th e D r e a m f
o he R
t ood , th e D e s c e n t i n t
o He ll ,

Gu th la c , th e Wa n d e re r a n d s om e o f th e R iddl e s T h e l a s t ar e
, .

s i m ply li t e rary c on u n d ru m s i n w h ic h s om e w e ll k n o w n o bj e c t -
,

lik e th e b o w or d r i n ki n g h or n is d e s c r ib e d in p oe ti c l an g uag e , ,

an d t h e b e ar e r m u s tg u e ss th e n am e S o m e o f th e m lik e T h e .
,

” ”
S wa n 1
an d Th e S torm S pi r i t a r e u n u s u a lly b e a u ti f u l , .

O f a ll th e s e w o r k s th e m os t c h a ra c te r i s tic is u n d o u b te dly
Th e Ch r i s t a did a c ti c p oe m i n th r e e p arts th e fi r s t c e le b rat
,

in g th e N a tivi ty ; th e s e c on d th e A s c e n s i on ; an d ,
Th Ch i t
e r s " "
th e th i rd D oom s d ay , te lli n g th e torm e n ts of th e ,

wick e d an d th e u n e n d i n g joy of th e r e d e e m e d C y n e w u lf tak e s .

h is s u bj e c tm atte r p a rtly f ro m th e C h u r c h li tu rg y b u t m ore

-
,

l arg e ly f ro m th e h om ili e s of G re g ory th e G r e at Th e w h ol e is .

w e ll w ov e n tog e th e r a n d c on ta i n s s om e h y m n s o f g re atb e a uty

,

a n d m a n y p a s sag e s o f i n t e n s e d ra m at ic f o r c e T h r oug h ou tth e .

p oe m a d e e p l ov e for C h ri s t a n d a re v e r e n c e f or th e V i rg i n
M a r y are m an i f e s t M or e th an a n y o th e r p o e m in an y l an g u ag e
.
,

Th e Ch r i s tr e fl e c ts th e s pi r i to f e a r ly L a ti n C h r i s ti an i ty
H e r e is a f rag m e n t c om pa ri n g li f e to a s e a v oy ag e a ,
—

c o m p ar i s on w h ic h o cc u r s s oon e r o r l ate r to e v e ry th o u g h tf u l
p e rs on an d w h ic h fi n d s p e r f e c t e xp r e s s i on in T e n n y s on s
,
’

”
C ros s i n g th e B ar .

N ow
’
ti s m os t l i ke i ps as i f w e fare i n sh

O n th e o c e a n fl ood c ol d , ov e r th e w ate r ,

D ri vi n g o ur v e s s e l s th r o u gh th e s p a c i ous s e as
Wi th h o rs e s o f th e d e e p A p e r i l o u s w ay is th i s .

O f b o u n d l e s s w a v e s a n d th e re a re s to rm y s e as ,

O n w h i c h w e tos s h e re i n th i s ( re e l i n g ) w o r l d
O e r th e d e e p p a th s O u rs w as a s o r r y p li gh t
’
.

1 My r ob e is i l
n o se e s s wh il e I tre a d th e e a rth,
O r ta rr y ’
n e ath th e b an k s , o r s tr i th e sh a ;ll w
o s

B u tw h e n th e se i i
S h n n g w n gs, i th i s d e p th o f a i r ,
B e ar m e a o l ft ab o v the e be n d i n g s h o re s

Wh e re men ab id e , an d fa r th e w e lki n s st
’
re n gth
O v th m l ti t d
er e v y m th
u u e s c on e s e, en

Wi th h i g wh i
ru s d l m l di
n r an c e ar e o ou s s o u n d

My i m t i g A d lik
ra en w d i g
s n s . n e a an er n S p i itr

I fl t w
oa i d ly
un fl d d fi ld
e ar e o er
’
oo an e .

(B gh m v i i T lf
rou a
’
s e rs o n , n ran s . r om Old E n
g .
38 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

U n t il l
il e d u n to th e l a n d
a t as t w e s a ,

O v e r th e tro u b l e d m a i n H e l p c a m e to u s .

T h a tb ro u g h t us to th e h a v e n o f s a l v a ti o n ,

G o d s S p i ri tS o n a n d g a n te d g ra c e to u s
'
-
,
r

T h a tw e m i g h t k n o w e e n fro m th e v e s s e l s d e c k ’ ’

Wh e re w e m u s tb i n d wi th a n c h orag e s e c ure
Ou r oc e a n s t e e d s o ld s t al l ion s o f t h e w av e s
,
.

I n th e tw o pic p oe m s o f A n d r e a s an d E le n e C y n e w u lf
e

i( f h e b e th e a u th or) re a c h e s th e v e ry s u m m i t of h is p oe ti c al
Ad
n d a rt A n d re a s a n u n s i g n e d p o e m
rea , an . re c ord s th e s tory
, ,

m "
en
of S t A n d r e w w h o c ro s s e s t h e se a to re s c u e h is
.
,

c om ra d e S t M atth e w f ro m th e c a n n ib al s A y o un g s h ip
.
.

m a s te r w h o s a il s th e b oa t tu rn s o u t to b e C h r i s t i n d i s g u i se .

M a tth e w i s s e t f re e an d th e s av ag e s are c on v e r te d by a m i r
,

a cl e
1
I t i s a s pi ri te d p oe m f u ll o f r u s h an d i n cid e n t a n d th e
. , ,

d e s c rip ti on s o f th e s e a ar e th e b e s t in A n g l o S ax o n p oe try -
.

E le u e h as for i ts s u bj e c tm a tte r th e fin di n g of th e tru e -

c ro ss I tte ll s of C on s tan ti n e s vi s i on o f th e R oo d on th e e ve
.
’

o f b at tl e A f te r h is vic to ry u n d e r th e n e w e m bl e m h e se n d s h is
.

m oth e r H e l e n a ( E l e n e ) to J e r u sa l e m in s e ar c h o f th e or i g i n al
c ros s an d th e n ail s Th e p oe m w h ich is of v e ry u n e v e n q u ali ty
.
, ,

m i g h t p rop e rly b e p u t at th e e n d o f C y n e w u lf s w o rk s He
’

a dd s t o t h e p o e m a p e rs on a l n ote s ig n i n g h is n a m e i n r u n e s ; ,

"
an d i f w e a cc e p tt
,
h e w on d e r f u l V i s i o n o f th e R ood a s C y n e
w u l f s w ork w e l e arn h ow h e f ou n d th e c r os s atl a st i n h is o w n
’

h e ar t T h e r e is a s u gg e s ti on h e re of th e f u tu r e S i r L a u n fal
.

an d t h e s e a r c h for th e H oly G ra il .

De c li n e of North u m b ri an L i te ratu re . Th e s am e n o r t e rn h
e n e rgy w h ic h h ad b u il t u p l e arn i n g a n d li te ratur e s o ra pidly
in N orth u m b r i a w a s i n s tr u m e n ta l i n p u lli n g it d o w n ag ai n .

T o ward th e e n d o f th e ce n tu ry in w h ic h C y n e w u l f liv e d th e ,

D a n e s s w e p t d o w n on th e E n g li s h c oas ts an d o v e r w h e l m e d
N o rth u m b ria M on as te r i e s an d s c h ool s w e r e d e s troy e d s c h o l
.

ar s a n d te ac h e r s a lik e w e r e p u tto th e s w ord an d lib rar i e s th at ,

1 Th e so u rc e of A n d r ea s is an e ar ly G ree k lg e e nd of S t A n d re w th at
. f
ou n d i ts
w ay to E l
n g a n d a n d w as
p ro b a b ly k n ow n to C y w lf
ne u I n so m e br i f L ti f
e a n or m , now l ost.
4O E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
Lif e an d Ti m es of Alf red i . an d F o r th e h i s tory of Alf re d ’
s tm e s ,
d e ta i l s o f th e te rr i fic s tr u gg l e w i th th e re a d e r m u s t N orth m e n th e ,

b e r e fe rre d to th e h is tor i e s Th e s tru ggl e e n d e d w i th th e T re a ty of .

We d m ore i n 8 7 8 wi th th e e stab l i sh m e n to f Alfre d n o ton l y a s ki n g

, ,

o f We sse x b u t a s o v e r lo rd of t
,
h e w h o l e n or th e rn c ou n try T h e n th e .

h e ro l a i d d o w n h is s w o rd an d se t h i m se l f as a l i ttl e C h i l d to l e arn
,

to re ad an d w ri te La ti n s o th a t h e m i gh t l e ad h is p e o p l e i n p e ac e as
,

h e h ad le d th e m i n w ar I ti s th e n th a tAlf re d b e gan to b e th e h e ro i c
.

fi gu re i n l i te rature th at h e h ad f or m e r l y b e e n in th e wars aga i n st

th e N orth m e n .

Wi th th e sa m e p ati e n c e an d h e ro i sm th at h ad m arke d th e lon g

st r ggl e fo r f re e d o m
u Alfr e d se t h i m s e lf to th e t
,
a sk o f e d u c a ti n g h is
e
p p o l e F i
. s t h e ga ve t
r h e m l a w s be gi n n i n g w i th t h e Te n C o m m an d ,

m e n ts a n d e n d i n g w i th th e G o l d e n R u l e an d th e n e s tab l i sh e d c o u r t s ,

w h e re l aws c o u l d b e fai th fu l l y ad m i n i s te re d Safe from th e D an e s .

b y l an d h e c re ate d a n avy a l m o st th e fi r st of th e E n gl i sh fl e e ts to
, , ,

d r iv e th e m fro m th e C o as t T h e n w i th p e ac e a n d j u s ti c e e s tab l i sh e d
.
,

Wi th i n h is b ord e rs h e se n t to E u ro p e fo r sc h o l ars an d te ac h e rs an d
, ,

se t t h e m ov e r sc h o o l s th a t h e e s ta b l i sh e d Hi th e rto all e d uc ati on .

h ad be e n i n La ti n ; n ow h e se t h i m se lf th e tas k fi rs t of t e ac h i n g , ,

e ve r y f re e bo rn E n gl i s h m a n t
-
o re ad an d w r i t e h is ow n l a n gu a ge a n d ,

se c on d Of t ,
ra n s l a ti n g i n to E n gl i sh th e b e s tbook s for th e i r i n s tru c
ti o n . E v e r y p o or sc h o l a r w as h o n ore d ath is C o ur ta n d w a s s p e e d i l y
se t t o w o rk a t t e ac h i n g o r t ran s l a ti n g ; e ve r y w an d e re r bri n gi n g a
boo k o r a l e af o f m an usc ri p tfro m th e p i l l age d m on aste ri e s of N orth
u m b ri a w a s s u re o f h i s r e w ard I n th i s w a y th e fe w f rag m e n ts of .

n at i v e N orth u m bria n l i te ra tu re w h i c h w e h a v e be e n s tu d y i n g w e re , ,

sa ve d to th e w o rl d . Alf re d an d h is l
sc h o a r s r e as u re d t
t he rare f rag
m e nts an d c o
p ed i th e m in t
he We stSa xon d i al e c t Wi th th e e xc e p
-
.

i
ton of C ae d m on Hym n w e
’
s , h av e h a rd ly a s i n gl e l e af f ro m th e gr e a t
li te ra tu re of N orth u m b r i a in th e d ia l e c ti n wh i c h i tw as fi r s tWI i tte n .

Work s of Alf re d A s id e f rom h is e d u c ati on al w ork A l fr e d

.
,

is k n o w n c h i e fly a s a tr an s l ator A f te r fi g h ti n g h is c o un tr y s .
’

b attl e s an d at a ti m e w h e n m o s t m e n w e re c on te n t wi th m il
,

ita ry h on o r h e b e gan to l e a r n L ati n th at h e m i g h t tra n s l ate

, ,

th e w o r k s th at w ou ld b e m os t h e lp f u l to h is p e opl e H is .

i m po r tan t tra n s l ati on s a re f o u r in n u m b e r : O ro s i u s s Un i v e r ’

s a l Hi s t
ory a n d Ge o ra h th l di w k i l h i t y
g p y e e a n
g or n
g e n e r a s or ,
 TH E ANG L O — S AX O N PE R I O D 4 I

v e ra l c i ed s H th e fi rs t g r ea t h is tor
1
’
for se entur e s ; B e i s t
ory ,
/

ical w or k w ri tte n on E n g li s h s o il ; P op e G re g or y s S h ep
’

ll e w s B ook i n te n d e d p e ci ally for th e cl e rgy ; an d B oe th iu s s

' ’ ’

, es

th e fa v or i te p h il oso p h ic a l w o r k of
‘

Co ns ola tzozzs of
th e Middl e A g e s .

M ore i m p ortan tth an an y tra n s l ati on is th e E ng lzs /z or S ax on

'

C/zrom c le T h i s w a s p rob ably a t fi r s t a d ry r e c ord e s p e ci a lly of

’

.
,

Th S
e ax on
i m p ortan t bi rth s an d d e ath s in th e We s tS ax on -

Ch m id n e
ki n gd om A l f r e d e n l arg e d th i s s c an t re c or d b e g i n
.
,

n in g t h e s tor y wi th C ae sar s c on q u e s t Wh e n it to u c h e s h is
’
.

ow n re i g n th e d ry c h r on icl e b e c o m e s a n i n te r e s ti n g an d
c on n e c te d s tory th e , _
_

n at i on in its own lfl gpg g e Th e re c o

r n
re i gn .
,

p rob a bly by h im s e l f i s a S pl e n did b it of w ri ti n g an d s h ow s ,

cl e a rly h is cl a i m to a pl a c e in li te ratu re as w e ll a s in h i s to ry .

T h e C/zr om c le w a s c o n ti n u e d a f te r A l f r e d s d e ath a n d i s th e
'
’

b e s t m on u m e n t of e arly E n g l i s h p ros e th at is l e f t to u s H e re .

an d t h e r e s ti rr i n g s on g s ar e i n cl u d e d in th e n ar ra tiv e l ik e ,
” ”
Th e B a ttl e o f B ru n a n b u rh an d Th e B attl e of M a ld on 2 .

Th e l a s t e n te r e d 9 9 1 se v e n ty fi v e y e a rs b e f or e th e N or m an
, ,
-

C on q u e s t is th e s wa n s o n g o f A n g l o S a x on p oe try
,
Th e -
.

C/zrom c le w as c on ti n u e d fo r a c e n tu r y a f te r th e N or m a n C on
’

q u e s t an d i s e x tre m e ly v a l u abl e n ot on ly a s a re c or d of
,

e ve n t s b ut a s a li t e r ar y m on u m e n t s h o wi n g t h e d e v e l op m e n t
of our l a n g u ag e .

Clos e of th e An glo S ax on P e r i od A f te r A l f re d s d e ath th e r e

’
-
.

is l i ttl e to r e c or d e xc e p t th e l o s s o f th e tw o s u p r e m e obj e c ts
,

of h is h e ro i c s t ru g g l e n a m e ly a n a t i on a l li f e an d a n ati on a l
, ,

li te ratu r e I t w as at on c e th e s tre n g th an d th e w e ak n e s s of
.

th e S ax on th at h e l iv e d ap a rt as a f re e m an an d n e v e r j o i n e d
‘

e ff or t s willi n ly wi t h a n y l arg e b ody o f h is f e ll ow s Th e tr ib e

g .

w a s h is l arg e s t id e a of n a ti on a l i ty an d wi th all ou r a d m i ra ti on , , ,

1 I t is n ot c e r t
a n i th at th e tra n s l ti
a on of B e d e i s th e w k
or of A lf re d ,
th o u gh i t i s

ge n e ra lly
attr b u te d to h i m i .

2 S e e Tr a n s la ti on : f r om Old E n
g li s h P oe tr y or Te n n y so n s
’ "
B atte l of B ru n an b u rh .
”
42 E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E

w e m ust c on f e s s as w e fi r s t m e e t h im th at h e h a s n ot e n oug h
se n se of u n i t y to m ak e a g re at n ati o n n or e n o u gh c u l tu r e to ,

p rod u c e a g rea t li te ratu re A fe w n obl e p ol i tic a l id e a l s re .

p e ate d in a s c ore o f p e tty ki n g d o m s an d a f e w l i te rar y id e al s ,

c o pi e d b u t n e v e r i n c re as e d th ati s th e s u m m ar y of h is li te r ,
—

ar h i sto ry F o r a f u ll c e n tu ry a fte r A l f r e d li te ra tu r e w a s p rae

y .

tic ally a t a s t an d s till h avi n g p rod u c e d th e b e s to f w h ic h itw as ,

c a pabl e an d E n g lan d w a i te d for th e n ati on al imp u l s e an d for

,

th e c u l tu re n e c e s s ar y fo r a n e w an d g re ate r a r t B oth of th e se .

c am e s p e e dily by w ay of th e s e a in th e N or m an C on q u e s t
, , .

S u m m ary of An g l o- S ax on
li te a t e b e gi wi th s o gs a d P e ri od . O ur r ur ns n n

t ri e o f a ti m
s o s w h o T t ic a c e t w e en livi g
ur th b o d s of
e u on n s o rs e re n on e r er

th e N th S or Th e tri b s f th e s
ea . to r th e J te s A g l e
e e a d S x
o e an c e s rs , u , n s, n a on s ,

co q n d B i t i i th e l a tt h a lf f th e fif th e t ry
u e re r a n n d l i d th e f
er d o c n u , an a ou n a

ti on o f th E g li h ti
e Th fi t l
n s di g w na p b b ly b y a t i b f J te
on . e rs an n as ro a r e o u s,

un d chi f
er c a ll d b y t e s h e ch i c l e H e g i s t a d H o a Th e d te i d o b t
e ro n n n rs . a s u

f l ; b tth e y e a 4 4 9 i
u u pt d by m r th i t i s s ac c e e os s o r an .

T h es e ld to o w e h d y w ri
an c e s d rs a v e y e t w e e c ap b l
re ar ar o rs a n se ro rs , r a e

o f p o fo rd nd b l e m ti
un a s Th i r p no try fl t th i d b l
e o on t . e oe re ec s s ou e n a u re .

It s bj t w
su c h i fly t
ec s h e se a d th e p l
e re gi g be t b ttl s dve t e an un n oa s , a e , a n ur ,

b av d d
r e th g l
ee y fw is, e d th l v or f h m o A t lli t a ti o
a rr o rs , an e o e o o e . ccen , a er n ,

an d aban pt b k i th e m i d d l e f e a h li e g v th i p try ki d f
ru re a n o c n a e e r oe a n o

m a ti l h y th m
r a I ge
r l th p try i e rn t a d m b a d p v d e d
. n n e ra e oe s a es n so e r, n er a

b y f t li m a a d li g i
s f li g A c a f l
an re d i g f th
o us f w ee m i i gn . re u re a n o e e re a n n

f gm e t f A g l o S x o li t t e e v e l s fi s t iki g h a t ri ti
ra n s o n -
a n e ra u r r a ve r n c ar c e s cs :

th elov f f dom ; e o
p iv e e s s t
re e t e p c i lly i
re s h r st
ons e n o n a u re , s e a n e e rn r

m oo d ; t s g li gi
s ron c vi ti re a d a b li e f i o us W y d r F te ; e v e
on c on s , n e n r , o a r r

e c n f e w m h o d ; a d d e v o ti on t gl o ry as th
or o an o nli g m tiv e i v ry
a o e ru n o n e e

w a i r lif
rr o
’
s e .

I t dy w
n our s h av e u oted ( I ) th e g e at e p i c o h e i c p o e m B w lf
e n : r r ro eo u ,

an d a f e w f ag m e t f r fi tp try c h n s oWid s i th ”
o ur D L me t
rs oe , su as , e or s
’
a n ,
”

an d Th S af a e
( 2) C h
e ct i t i c f A gl S x life ; th e f m f
re r .
”
a ra er s s o n o- a on or o our

fi t p e c h ( 3 ) Th e N th m b i c h l f w ri te
rs s e . orB d fi th i t ri
u r an s oo o rs . e e , our rs s o an ,

b l e on
g to th i s h l ; b t ll h i e x t t w k
s sc oo i La tiu Th tw g
a t s an or s a re n n . e o re a

p eto C dm o
s are d C y w lf N th m b i
ae n an li te a t e fl ri h d b tw e e
ne u . or u r an r ur ou s e e n

65 0 d 85 0
an I th e y 86 7 N th m b i w
. n c q e d b y th D
e ar who or u r a as on ue r e an e s ,

d t y d th m
e s ro e te i ed th li b i
o n as ti i g r e s an e li t li te t e ra r e s c o n a n n our ar es ra u re .

( 4 ) T h e b g i i g f E gli h p e nn n e w i ti g s od e A lf e d ( 8 4 8
n s O m st
ro s r n un r r ur o

im p t t p r or an w k f th i ge i th A gl S a x C h i c l e w h i c h w as
ose or o s a s e n o -
on ro n ,

r e vi d d
se l a g d b y A lf d d w h i h w as c ti e d f m
an en r e th
re tw , an c on nu or o re an o

cen t ri e u I t i th o l d t h i t ri l e c d k o w t a
s s e es E op e s o
n a ti i ca r or n n o n ur an
y on n
.

i ts ow n to n g u e .
 TH E AN G LO S AX O N -
PE R I OD 43

S e l e ction s for R e ad i n g . M i s c e ll a n e ou s P oe try . Th e S e a fa r e r, Lo ve L e tte r

( Hu s b an d
’
s i l Ex d s
M e s s ag e ) , B a tte l of B r u n a n b u rh , D e or
’
s L a m e n t, R d d e s, o u ,

Th C h is t A d D a m o f th e R o d e x t c t i n C o k d Ti k
’
e r , n re as , re o , ra s o an n er s

T l ti
ran s a f m O ld E g li s h P o e t y l ( G i a d C o m p y ) ; J d i th t
on s ro n r nn n an u , ra n s

l a ti b y A S C o k G d e l e c ti s a f n d a l o i B k H i t ry f
on . . o . oo s on re ou s n ro o e s
’
s o o

E a ly E g li h L i t t d M l y E gli h W i te v l I an d 2 ’
r n s e ra u re , an or e s n s r rs , o s . .

J R C Ha l l s p e t a l ti ; C h il d B e o w lf ( R iv i d
’ ’
B w lf eo u . . . . ro s r ns a on s u e rs e

L it t e S e ie s) ; M
e ra u r i s a d Wy tts Th e T l e f B w lf ; E a l Th
r o rr n a
’
a o eo u r e s
’
e

D eed f B e o w lf ; M e t i c l v e i n s b y G m tt J L H l l L m d e
s o uetc r a rs o a e , . . a , u s n, .

P A f w p g p h s f th e A g l S x C h i l i M ly E g li s h
r os e . e a ra ra o n o -
a on ro n c e n an
’
s n

P e ; t s l a ti s i C o o k a d Ti k e r s O ld E g li h P
ro s ra n on n n n
’
n s ro s e .

B i b i ogra p h y 2 His t
ory l F o r th e . . fa c ts of th e A gl n o -
S a x on c on q u e s t of

l
E n g an d c o n s u t rs ta g o o d te tb o o l fi x -
k : M o n tgo m e ry p p 3 1 5 7 , .
-
, or Ch ey y ne ,

p p 3 6 84
.
— . f ll
F o r u e r tre a tm e n t s e e G re e n , c h 1 ; T ra ! , v o l ; . il . I R am s e y s
’

l i i y
F o u n d a to n s o f E n g a n d ; Tu m e r s H s to r o f th e
’
A l x
n g o S a o n s ; F re e m a n s
’
-

i y A ll
O ld E n g s h H s to r ;
’
en s li nA l x l k
g o S a o n E n g an d ; C o o s L i e o f
’
f Al
f re d ; -

A e s o f K i g A lf d i te d b y W H S t v e s o ; C P l m m e
L ife L if
’
d
’
ss r n re , e . . e n n . u r s e

d T i m e s f A lf d th e G t; E D l s N ti a l L if
’
an o a d Chre te r i th e re a . a e a on e n a ra c n

M i o r o f E ly E gl i h L i t t
rr ; R h y s C e l ti c B i ta i
ar n s e ra u re s
’
r n .

L itera t ure A gl S x T x t L i b a y o f A n glo S a x

. P o e try a d A l b i
n o-
a on e s . r r — on , n on

S e ie s r f A gl S x a d M i dd l e E g li s h
o P e t y ( G i a d C m p y) ;
n o- a on n n o r nn n o an

B ll e s L tt e S e i s o f E g li h C l a s i c s s c I ( H e a th
e e r s J W B i gh t
r e n s s , e . . . r
’
s

A g l S x R e ad e ; S w e e ts A g l S a x P i m e
n o -
a on r
’
n o -
on r r .

G l PV k
en er a J s d Te B i k C a m b i d g H i to y M o l e y ( f l l
or s . us e ra n ,
n r n , r e s r , r u

ti tl s d p b li h
e an i G e l B i b li g ap h y )
u s e rs n en ra o r .

Sp i l W k k e s H i s to y f E a l y E gli h L i te t ; E a l s ’
B
’
ec a or s . ro o r o r n s ra u re r e

A g l S x L i te a t ; L e wi s s B g i i g o f E g li h L i t a t ; A o l d
n o -
a on r u re
’
e nn n s n s er u re rn
’
s

C l ti c L i t t e ( f
e l ti s f S x a d C l t) ; L gfe l l o w s P e t a d
e ra u r o r re a on o a on n e on
’
o s n

P e t y of E u p ; H l l s O ld E gl i h I d yl ; C yl e y C l i c M y th
o r ro e a
’
n s s a
’
s as s s, or

G e b e s M y th
u r f th N th l d s ( f N
r
’
My th o l o gy ) ; C lyl
s o E s y e or an or o rs e ar e s
’
s a ,

Th e H e a s D ivi i ty ro n .

B w lf p s t s l ti
eo b y J R C H l l E a le M
u , ro i e d Wy tt; ran a on s . . . a ,
r , o rr s an a

m ti e l ve si
r ca b y G a m e tt J L H a ll L m s d er on stc Th E x e te B k ( , . .
, u n, e . e r oo a

c ll e c t
o i f A gl S x o on t xt ) e d it d a d t
o l t d b y G ll c Th e
n o -
a n e s , e n ra n s a e o an z .

C h r i t o f C y w lf p o e t a l ti
s b y W h i tm a ; th
ne m u
p e m te x t d
,
r s r ns a on n e sa e o ,
an

t l ti o b y G l l d b y C o o k C ae d m s P p h as e t x ta d t a
’
ran s a n , o an c z , a n . on a ra r , e n r ns

l ati b y T h rp
on , C tts E l e J d i th a d o th e r A g l S a x o P m
o e . a rn e
’
en , u , n n o- n oe s .

T a l a ti f A d d th P h ix i G ll a c s E x e te r B k B d e s ’ ’
r ns
s s on o n re a an e oe n n o n z oo . e
,

H i t y i T m p l C l s i s ; th s m e wi th th e A g l o S a x on C h n i c l e (
s or , n e e a s c e a n -
ro on e

v l m ) i R h s A ti q ri L i b ry
o u e n o n
’
n ua an ra .

1 Th i s is an a d m ra b e i l li ttl e b oo k , c on ta n ng i i th e c re a m of A gl n o—S a x on p oe tr y ,

in f re e tran s l tia on s , wi th t no es . T ra n s l ti
a on s f r om Old E n
g li s h P r os e i s a c om pa n i on

v l o um e .

2 F or f ll ti tl
u e s an d li
p u b s h e rs o f ge n e ra l f r e e re n c e b oo k s , an d fo r a li s to f i n e x pe n
‘

s iv e t
e ts x an d h e p s, l se e G e n e ra B b o gr a p h l i li y tth a e e n d of th i s bo o k .
44 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
S u gge s tive Q ue s ti on s .
1 I Wh
. a t is th e l i
re a to n of h i stor y an d l i te ra tu re ?
Wh y sh ou ld b o th s ub j e c ts x p l i th e q
be st th t
ud e d i to g e th e r ? E a n ua li ti es a

c h a t i
ar c ll g
e r ze t li t t a H y
re a t x t b k i h
e ra u rei t y v p.
p l d as an e -
oo n s or e er a ea e

t y o ou w k f li te t ? Wh t li t y q li ti h v y
as a or o ra u re ti d i a e ra r ua es a e ou no ce n

sta d d h i t i a l w k
n ar s or c h as th e f Mac or l y P e tt G i b b G
s , s uc os o au a , r sc o ,
on , re e n ,

M tl y P a k m a
o e , d J h F i ke ?
r n , an o n s

2 Wh y d id th A g l S a x o s c o m e to E g l d ? W h a t i d
. e n o- d th m to
n n an n uc e e

m i ? D id i i l i l if
h f ? D
re a n
y h g e an i t h c d san i t ma
oc c u r n e r ea , or n e r nner o e o

y ou k w no
y c ial p o li t
an i c l i st
so i t ti s wh ic h t
or h y b g ht a d wh i c h n u on e ro u , an

w til l h
e s i h? c er s

3 F . m th li t
ro t y h av e
e d w h a td
e ra u re y k ouw ab t o A gl re a , o ou no ou ur n o

S x a on c est s ? an W h t vi t e s d id th y a d m i e i m ? H w w s w m
or a r u e r n en o a o an

re g d d ? C an y o
ar e mp e t h A g l S x i d l of wom an wi th th t f
u co ar e n o- a on ea a o

o th ti
e r na th R m on s ,f i ta c e ? e o an s or ns n

4 Te l l i y. w w o d th g
n our o l q li ti e s of A g l S x p o try H w
n r s e e n e ra ua n o- a on e . o

d id i td iff r i n i t m t i l fo m f m m o d e
e s e p r cat y ? W h tp s ag s s e e m t
r ro rn oe r a a s e o

y ou w t h l a
or i g d m e m b
rn n i g ? C a an
y o e xpl i
re wh y pe try i m er n n u a n oe s o re

a b d un ta d m an e i t nst i g th p or i th e e a li e s t li te ra t e
n e re n f a ll an ro s e n r ur o

na ti s ? on

5 T l l
. th e te y f B w l
f W
s or h a t a pp e aol t o y o eo m s t
u i th p . m ? Wh y s u o n e oe

i i t w k f o a ll ti m e
s a or th
r A g l S x w l d y w h y i i t w th y
,
o r, a s e n o -
a on s ou sa ,
s or

t b o em m b
e r d ? ( N te th p m
e e re tq li ty f li t t e d th i d e a l
o e er an e n ua o e ra u r , an e s

an d e m ti wh i h
o on s m ph i d i B w lf ) D c ri b th b i l f
c a re e as z e n eo u . es e e ur a s o

S yl d
c d f B w lf D
an o th e p e m t c h
eo u .
y m o al l oe s ? E x p l a i th o ea an r e s s on n e

C h i ti r s e lem e t i
an th i p ag e p ic
n s n s an .

6 N am . m th e f so li s t p o e m s a d d e s c ib e th
e o er o o u r e ar e
yo lik e e , n r e on u

b t H w d
es . th
o fi g e i o fi t p try ? H w i
oe s e sea ur t e eg n d d ? ur rs oe o s n a ur r ar e

W h t p m v e a l th e lif f th
a oe re
p s
p t ? H w do y e o a c tf e sco or oe o ou c oun or

th e i ch a
se r ous ct of A g l S ax ra
p ter
r y ? C mp th
n S xo o- d th on oe o a re e a n an e

C l t wi th e g d to th e g l d m
e r ar f lif as h w i th e i l i te t e a so e n e ss o e s o n n r ra u r .

7 W h . t e f l a
p p s d
us i d p o t u y v ur m o
g e a c s t ? Wh t e r se r e a on our n e o rs a

p p ur d id th e h p
os e v i re i ti g th i p m s Wo l d th h rp d d y
ar se r e n c n e r oe ? u e a a an

th i g t n m de
o our
p t y ? o rn oe r

8 Wh ti m . tb y N
a th m b ri
s e an li t t ? Wh or th g a tN rth m
u an e ra u re o a re e re o u

b i r an w ri t ? Wh t b s i d th e D a i h c n q e s t c a d th e d e c li
e rs a e es f n s o u us e ne o

N th m b i li te t ?
or u r an ra u re

9 F . w h t i
or B d e w o th ya to b s m e m b
e e d ? Te l l th e s t ry f C se d m o
r e re re o o n,

d d i B e d s H i t y W h at w l m tis i t d
’
d i C dm
’
a s re c o r e n e s or . ne e e en n ro uce n ae on s

p oem ? W h a t ff c td id C h i ti i ty h v e p A g l S x li t t ? C
s e e r s an a u on n o -
a on e ra u re an

y ou q t y p g s f m C ae d m t h w th tA g l S x c h a te w as
u o e an as s a e ro on o s o a n o- a on ar c r

no tc h g e d ban t g iv a w d i u ti ? If en
y h v ne
e a d M il t Pre c d L t on ou a e r on s
’
ara zs e os ,

w h at e m b l c a e th e e b tw
r se an th a t p o m a d C d m
es r r P m p/
e een e n ae on s
’
o I r an

1 Th e ch e if j
ob e c t o f th e se q u e s ton s i is n ot t
o se r v e as a re vi w e ,
or to p re pa re fo r
e x a m i n a to n , i b u t ra th e r to se tth e s tu d e n tth n i ki ng fo r h m s e i lf b a ou t w h a th e h a s rea d
Afwq
.

e i
ue s to n s o f a n a d v a n c e d n atu re a re i n se rte d, wh i c h ca ll f or s
pe c i a l stu d y a n d re
se a rc h in i nt
e re s tn i g fi lde s
.
 TH E AN G LO — S AX O N P E R I OD 45

10 . Wh at a re
y e w lf p m ? D e s c i b e a y th a t y h av e e d
th e C n u oe s r n ou r a .

How d o th e y c o m p a e i n s p i i t a d i x p s i wi th B w lf ? wi th C ae d
r r n n e re s on eo u

m o ? R ad T/ P fi w m x ( w h i c h i s a t a s l a ti f m th e L a ti ) i B k e ’
’
n e ze r n on ro n n ro o s

H i to y f E a ly E g li s h L i t t e o r i G l l c
s r o r E x e te r B o o k
n i e ra u r , n o an z s
’
, or n

C oo k s T s l ti
’
f m O ld E g li h P o e t y
ra n a d te ll w h a t e l e m
on s ro ts y n s r , an en ou

fi d to s h o w th a tth e p e m i
n tof A g l o S x o o i g i C o m p a e th v i e w s
o s no n -
a n r n . r e

of at e i
n B e o w lf a d i th e C y e w lf p o e m s
ur n u n n n u .

1 1 D e s c ri b e th e A n g l S x n C h o i c l
. Wh t is i ts v l e i o l o -
a o r n e . a a u n ur an

g ag e li te a t e an d h i to ry ? G iv a t f A lf e d s lif d f hi
’
u , r ur ac c o , s e n un o r e an o s

w o k f o li te a t e H ow d e s A g l o S a x o n p s e c om p a e i i t s t wi th
r r r ur . o n -
ro r n n e re

th e p e t y ? o r

C H R O N O L OG Y
H I ST O R Y L I T E R AT U R E

i g of H gi s ta d Ho s a
Lan d n en n r

i B it i n r a n

47 7 . L d i g of S o th S a x o
an n u ns

5 47 . A g l e s s e ttl N rth m b i
n e o u r a
547 . G i ld a s
’
s H i s to ry
5 97 . L d i g o f A g s ti e
an n d h is u u n an

m o ks C v i n f Ke t . on e rs o n o n

61 7 . E a d wi e ki g f N th m b ri
n , n o or u a

63 5 — 66 5 C o m i g f S t A i d
. Co n o . an . n

v e rs i of N o rth m b i a on u r 664 . C azd m o n at Wh i tb y

67 3 7 3 5
-
. Be de
C y e w lf p
n u oe m s

86 7 . D an e s c on q uer N o rth um b ri a
A lf re d , ki n
g of We s s e x 8 6o . A gln o —S a x on C h ro n i c l e b e g u n
87 8 . De f e a t of D an e s . P e ac e of

W e d m o re
90 1 . D e a th of A lf re d 99 1 . Las t k n ow n p o e m f o th e A gln o

S xo p ri d Th
a n e o , e B a tte l of

Ma l d o t ed n, en er in A gl n o

S xo C h o ic l e
a n r n

10 1 3
-
10 42 . D an i sh p e ri o d
10 16 . C n u t, g ki n

1 042 . Ed w a rd th e C on fe s s or . S a x on
i o d to e d
per re s r

1 0 49 . We tm i s t A b b e y b
s n er e
gu n
1 0 66 . Ha l d l t of S ax
ro , as on ki n
gs .

N m C o q stor an n ue
 C H AP TE R I II

THE AN GLO N OR M -
A N P E R I OD
1 . HI S TO R I C A L I N T R O D U C TI O N
N o rm an w h ic h is en ed
s oft fo rm of
'

Th e N orm an s . Th e n am e ,
a

N o rth m an te l l s its ow n s to ry Th e m e n w h o bo re th e n am e c am e
,
.

o ig i n a l l y f ro m S c a n d i n avi a
r ban d s of b ig b l on d f e a rl e ss m e n ,
—
, ,

c ru i s i n g af t e r p l u n d e r an d a d v e n t u re in th e i r Viki n g s h i p s an d ,

b ri n gi n g te ror w h e re ve r th e y a pp e a re d I t w as th e se sam e C h i l
r .

d re n o f \Vod e n w h o u n d e r th e D an e s ra v e n fl ag h ad b l o tte d ou t
,
’
,

N orth u m b ri a n c i v i l izati on in th e n i n th c e n tu ry La te r th e sa m e rac e .

of m e n c a m e p l u n d e ri n g a l o n g t h e F re n c h c oasta n d c on qu e re d th e
w h ol e n o rth e rn c ou n try ; b u t h e re th e re su l ts w e re a l toge th e r di ffe r
e n t I n st
. e a d of b l o t ti n g ou ta su p e ri or c iv il i z a ti on as th e D an e s h ad ,

d on e th e y p rom p tly aban d on e d th e i r ow n

, T h e i r n am e o f N o r .

m an d y s til l c l i n gs to th e n e w h o m e ; b u t all el s e t h at w as N o rse

d i sa pp e a e d a s th e c on q u e ro rs i n te rm a rr i e d w i th th e n a tiv e F ran k s
r

an d a c c e p t e d F re n c h id e a l s an d s p o k e t h e F re n c h l an gu age So .

ra p i d l y d id t h e y ad o p t an d im p rov e th e R o m an c i vi l i a ti on o f th e z

n at ive s th a t f ro m a rud e trib e o f h e a th e n Vi k i n gs th e y h ad d e v e l

, ,

ope d w i t h i n a s i n gle c e n tu ry i n to th e m o s t p oli sh e d an d in te l l e c tu a l

p e o p l e i n a ll E u o p e Th e u n i on o f N ors e an d F re n c h ( i e R om an
r . . .

G a l l i c ) b l ood h ad h e re p rod u c e d a rac e h avin g th e b e stq ual i ti e s of

both , th e w i l l p o w e r an d e n e rgy o f th e on e th e e age r c u ri os i t y an d ,

viv i d i m agi n ati on of th e oth e r Wh e n th e se N o rm an F re n c h p e o p l e .

-

a pp e ar e d in An l o S a x on E n l an d t h e y b rou gh t w i th th e m th re e
g g
-

n ot e w o rt h y th i n gs : a l iv e l y C e l ti c di s p o s i ti on a vi go ro us an d p ro ,

gre s s i e La ti n c iv i l i a ti on an d a R o m an c e l an gu age
v z We are to
, .
1

th i n k o f th e c on q u e ro rs th e re fo re as t h e y th ou gh t an d s p ok e of
, ,

th e m se l v e s in th e D o m e sd ay Book an d all th e i r c o n te m o rary l i t

p er

u re n o tas N o rm an s b u tas F h a t is F re n c h m e n
'

at , a n ez t r , .
,

1
AR o m a n ce l a n gu age wh b i i L ti
is on e tth l i l g g f li t
o se as s s a n, no e c as s c an ua e o e ra
tu re , b u ta v lgu a r or p p l L ti
o p k
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I t li
a an , ih
S pa n s , an d F h w i gi lly d i ff td i l t f th v lg L ti li gh tly
re n c e re o r na e re n a ec s o e u ar a n, s
m od ifi ed b y th e m i n g li g f th R m
n o ld i wi th the ti
e o f th
a n so q d p vi e rs na ve s o e c on u e re ro nce s .

46
48 E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
w h ic h w as c on ti n u e d for a c e n tu ry a fte r
'

A ng lo S a x on Clzr on ze /e ,
-

H asti n gs fi n d s m uc h to p ra i s e in th e c on q u e ro rs on th e o th e r h an d
,

th e N o rm a n s e v e n b e fo re th e C on q u e s t h a d n o gre a t l ov e fo r th e
, ,

F re n c h n ati on Afte r c o n q u e ri n g E n gl a n d th e y b e gan to re gard itas

.

h o m e a n d s p e e d i ly d e v e l o p e d a n e w s e n se of n ati on a l i t y G e off rey s ’

.

u l a H i story } w ri tte n l e ss t h an a c e n t u ry a f t er t h e C on q u e s t
p p
o r ,

m ad e c on q u e ro rs an d c on q u e r e d a l ik e p ro u d o f t h e i r c oun try by
its st o r i e s o f h e roe s w h o c u r i ou s l y e n o u gh w e re n e ith e r N orm an
, ,

n o r S ax on b u t c re ati on s of th e n ative C e l ts T h u s d oe s l i te ra tu re
,
.
,

wh e th e r in a ba ttl e son g or a h i story of te n p l ay th e c h i e f rol e in th e ,

d e v e l op m e n tof n a ti on a l i t y On c e th e m u tu a l d i s tru s tw as ov e rc o m e
2
.

th e t wo rac e s grad ua l l y u n i t e d an d o u to f t h i s un i on of S ax o n s a n d ,

N orm an s c am e th e n e w E n gl i sh l ife an d l i te ra tu re .

L i te rary I de al s of th e Norm an s Th e c h an ge in th e l i f e o f th e c on .

q u e ro rs f ro m N o rse m e n to N orm an s f ro m V iki n gs to F re n c h m e n , ,

is s h o w n m ostc l e ar l y in th e l i te ratu re w h i c h th e y b rou gh tw i th th e m

to E n gl an d Th e old N ors e stre n gth an d gran d e u r th e m agn ifi c e n t
.
,

sa ga s t e l l i n g of t h e tragi c s tru ggl e s of m e n a n d god s w h i c h s ti l l s ti r ,

us rofou n d l y — t h e se h av e a ll di sap p e a r e d I n t h e i r p l ac e i s a
p , .

b ri gh t va ri e d ta l kativ e l i te ratu re w h ic h run s to e n d l e ss v e rs e s an d

, , , ,

w h ic h m ak e s a w on d e rfu l rom an c e ou t o f e ve ry s u bj e c t it tou c h e s .

Th e th e m e m ay b e re l i gi on or l ov e o r c h iva l ry o r h i sto ry th e d e e d s ,

o f Al e x an d e r o r t h e m i sd e e d s of a m on k ; b u t th e a u th o r s p u r p os e
’

n e v e r v ar i e s H e m us tte l l a ro m an ti c s tory an d a m u se h is au d i e n c e
.

an d t h e m o re won d e rs an d i m p o ss i b i l i ti e s h e re l a te s th e m ore su re l y ,

is h e b e l i e ve d We are re m i n d e d in re adi n g of th e n ati v e G au l s

.
, , ,

w h o w o u l d st o p e v e ry t rav e l e r an d c o m p e l h im t o t e l l a st o ry e re h e

p ass e d on T h e re w as m ore of th e G au l th an of the N ors e m an in

.

th e c on q u e rors an d far m o re of fan c y t h an of th ou gh t o r f e e l i n g in

, '

th e i r l i te ra t u re I f you w ou l d se e th i s in c on c re te form re ad th e
.
,

C/za n son a e R ola n d th e F re n c h n ati on a l e p i c ( w h i c h th e N o rm an s

’
,

1 S ee p 5 1 . .

2 I ti s n t i
e re s tn g to i n ot
e th a ta ll t
he il
c h ro n c e rs o f th e pe r i
od , wh th e e r of E ng li sh o r

N or ma n bi rth ,
un it e in i
a d m ra ton o f i
th e gre u re s s a tfi g
s o r , as i t w a s then of E n g li h hi t y
un d e rs t
ood . B ru tu s , Arth u r , He n g s t, H ors a , E d a r d th e C o n e s s o r , a n d W
i wa m of f illi
N or m a n d y a re a ll a lik w
e se td o n a s E n g sh h e roe s li
I n a F re n c h po e m o f th e th rt
. ee n th i
ce n tur y ,
for i n st
a nc e , w e re ad t "
h a t th e re i s n o a n d i n th e or d l
h e re s o m an g oo d w l w y
ki n gs an d sa n ts i ha v liv
e e d as i n th e il s e of th e E ng li sh s uc h as th e stro n g ar id
v A
b ra e rth u r, E d m un d , an d Cn ut ”
i i l
T h s n a to na p oe m , c e e b ra tn g th e E n g i s h
. l i l
E dw d w w i tt i F
ar , as r en n re n c h b y a o r m a n m on N o f We s t m n st er k
b b e , a n d i ts rs t i A y fi
h C lt
e roe s a re a S x e , a a on , a n d a D a n e . J
( S ee u s se ra n d , L i te r a ry H i story of th e E n g
s ‘
li P pl I ff )
eo e, ,
1 12 .
 TH E A N G L O -
N O R M AN P E R I O D 49

fi rs t p u t i n to l i te ra ry form ) in c on tra stw i th B e ow u lf wh i c h v o i c e s

, ,

th e S ax on s th ou gh t an d f e e l i n g b e fo r e th e p ro fou n d m y s te y of
’
r

h u m an l i fe I t is n ot o u r p u rp os e to d i sc u ss th e e vid e n t m e ri ts o r
.

th e s e ri ou s d e f e c t s of N o rm a n F re n c h l i t e ra ture -
b u t o n l y to p o i n t ,

ou t t w o fac t s w h i c h i m p e ss t h e s tud e n t n a m e l y th a t An g l o S a x o n
r , ,
-

l i te ratu re w as a t on e ti m e e n orm ou sl y su p e ri o r to th e F re n c h an d ,

th a t th e l a tt e r wit h i ts e v i d e n t i n f e r i o ri ty ab so l u te ly re p l a c e d th e
, ,

Th e fac t is to o of te n i gn ore d say s P ro f e sso r S c h o fie ld

" ”
form e r .
, ,
l

th a tb e f o re 1 0 6 6 th e An gl o S a x on s h ad a b o d y of n a tiv e l i te ra t
-
u re

d i s ti n c tl y su p e r io r to an y w h i c h th e N o rm an s or F r e n c h c o u l d b oas t
att h a t ti m e th e i r p ros e e s p e c i a l l y w as u n p a ra l l e l e d fo r e x te n tan d

p o w e r i n a n y E u ro p e a n v e rn ac u l a r W h y th e n d oe s t h i s su p e ri or
.
”
, ,

l i te ratu re d i sa p p e ar an d for n e a ly th re e c e n tu ri e s F re n c h re m a i n
r

su p re m e s o m u c h so t
,
h a tw ri te rs on E n g l i sh so il e v e n w h e n th e y d o ,

n o tu s e t h e F re n c h l an gu age sti l l s l a v i s h l y c o py th e F r e n c h m od e l s ?
,

To u n d e rs tan d th i s c u ri ou s p h e n o m e n on it is n e c e s sa ry o n l y to
re m e m b e r t h e e l a tiv e c o n d i ti on s of th e tw o rac e s w h o l iv e d si d e by
r

s id e in E n gl a n d O n th e o n e h an d th e An gl o S a x on s w e re a c on
*
-
.

q u e re d p e o p l e an d w i th ou t l i b e rty a g e at l i te ratu re i s i m p oss i b l e

,
r .

Th e i n ro ad s of th e D an e s an d th e i r o w n triba l w ars h ad a l re ad y
d e s tro y e d m u c h o f th e i r w ri ti n gs an d in th e i r n e w c on di ti on of ,

se rv i t ud e t h e y c ou l d h a rd l y p r e se rv e w h at re m a i n e d Th e c on q u e r .

in g N o rm an s on th e o th e r h an d r e p re se n te d th e c ivi l i a ti o n o f
, ,
z

F ran c e w h i c h c oun try d u i n g th e e arl y Mid d l e Age s w as th e l i te rary

, ,
r ,

a n d e d u c at i on a l c e n te r o f all E u rop e T h e y c am e to E n g l an d a t a .

ti m e w h e n th e i d e a o f n a ti on a l i ty w a s d e ad w h e n c u ltu r e h ad alm ost ,

van i sh e d w h e n E n gl i sh m e n l i v e d ap artin n arrow i sol ati on a n d th e y

,

b rou gh t w i th th e m law c u l tu re th e p re s ti ge of su c c e ss an d above

, , ,

a ll t h e s tron g i m p u l s e to s h a re in th e gre a t w o rl d s w o k a n d to j o i n
’
r

in th e m ovi n g c u rre n ts o f th e w or l d s h i sto ry S m a l l w o n d e r th e n

’
.
, ,

th a t t h e yo u n g An gl o S ax on s f e l t th e q u i c k e n i n g of th i s n e w lif e
-

an d t u rn e d n a t u ra l l y to t h e c u l tu re d an d p rogr e ss iv e N o m an s as r

th e i r l i te ra ry m o d e l s .

II . L I T E R AT U R E OF THE N O R M A N PE R I OD
I n th e A dv oc ate s L ib ra r y di n b u rg h th e re is a b e au ti at E

f u lly ill u m i n a te d m an u s c r ip t w r i tte n a b ou t I 3 3 0 w h ic h g iv e s

, ,

u s an e xc e ll e n t pic t u r e of t h e li te ra tu re o f th e N o r m a n p e r i od .

1 E n
g li s h L i t
eratu re f r om th e N or m a n C on g ue s tto Ch a u c e r .
50 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
In e x am i n i n g it w e a re to re m e m b e r th at li te rature w as in
th e h an d s of th e cl e rg y an d n o bl e s th a t th e c o m m on p e opl e
c ou ld n otre ad an d h ad o n ly a f e w s on g s an d b all a d s fo r th e i r
,

li te rary p orti on We a re to re m e m b e r a l s o th at par c h m e n ts

.

w e r e s c a r c e a n d v e ry e x p e n s iv e an d tha t a s i n g l e m a n u s c r ip t
,

o ft e n c on t a i n e d a ll th e r e adi n g m a tte r of a c a s tl e or a vill ag e .

H e n c e th i s old m an u s c rip tis as s u gg e s tiv e as a m od e rn lib rary .

I t c o n ta i n s ov e r f orty di s ti n c t w o rk s th e g re a t b u lk o f th e m
,

b e i n g rom a n c e s T h e r e are m e tr ica l or v e rs e rom an c e s of

.

C AN T E R B U R Y C A T H E D R A L A S I T WA S C O M P L E T E D LO NG
A F T E R T H E C ON Q U E S T

F re n c h an d C e l tic an d E n g li sh h e ro e s lik e R ol an d A r th u r , ,

an d T r i s t ra m a n d B e vi s o f H a m p t
, on T h ere a re s tor i e s o f
.

A l e x a n d e r th e G re e k ro m a n c e of Fl or e s an d B lan c h e fl e u r
, ,
”

a n d a c o ll e c t ion of O r i e n ta l tal e s c a ll e d Th e S e v e n Wi s e
”
M a ste rs .
T h e re ar e l e g e n d s of th e V i rg i n an d th e s a i n ts a
.

p a ra p h ra s e of S c r ip tur e a tre a ti s e on th e s e v e n d e adly s i n s

, ,

s om e B ibl e h i s t or y a d i s p u t e a m o n g bi r d s c o n c e rn i n w
,
g om e n ,

a l ov e s o n
g or tw o a vi s i on o f P urgato ry a v ul ga r s to ry
, ,

wi th a G allic fl av or a c h r on icl e of E n g li s h ki n g s an d N or m an
,

baron s an d a p ol i tic a l s ati re T h e re a r e a fe w oth e r w ork s

, .
,
 TH E AN G L O -
N O R M AN P E R I O D 5 1

s i m il arly i n c on g r u ou s c rowd e d tog e th e r in th i s typic a l m an u

,

s c r ip t w h ic h n o w g iv e s m u t
,
e t e st i m on y to th e li te ra ry tas te of
th e ti m e s .

O bvi ou s ly it is i m p o s s ibl e to cl a s s i f y s u c h a v a r i e ty We .

n ot e s i m ply t h at i ti s m e di ae va l i n s pi r i t a n d F r e n c h in s tyl e ,

a n d e xp re s si o n an d t h at s u m s u p th e ag e A ll th e s ch ol a r ly .

w ork s of th e p e r i od lik e William o f M al m e s b u r y s H is tory ,

’

a n d A n se lm s
1
Cn r D e n s Hom o a n d R og e r B a c on s Op u s
’ ’

M aj u s th e b e g i n n i n g of m o d e rn e xp e r i m e n ta l s ci e n c e w e re
, ,

wr i tte n in L ati n ; w h il e n e arly all oth e r w ork s w e re w r i tte n

in F re n c h or e l s e w e r e E n g l i s h c opi e s o r tran s l a ti on s o f F re n c h
,

or i g i n a l s E xc e p t for th e adv a n c e d s tu d e n t th e r e f or e th e y
.
, ,

h ardly b e l on g to th e s tory of E n g li s h li te ratu r e We s h all .

n ot e h e re on ly o n e o r t w o m a r k e d li te rar y typ e s lik e th e R im ,

in g C h ron icl e ( or v e r s e h i s tory ) an d th e M e tr i ca l R o m an c e ,

an d a f e w w r i t e r s w h o se w or k h a s e s p e ci al s i g n ifi c a n c e .

Geoff re y of Mon m ou th ( d I 1 G e off re y s H i s tor ia R eg m n ’

.

B rit a n n ia i s n ot e w or t h y n ota s li te ratu re b u trath e r as a s ou rc e

, ,

b oo k f rom w h ic h m an y l ate r w r i te rs d r e w th e i r l i te ra r y m ate

r i al s . A m o n g th e n a tiv e C e l tic tr ib e s a n i m m e n s e n u m b e r of
l e g e n d s m an y of th e m of e xq u i s i te b e au ty h ad b e e n p re
, ,

s e rv e d t h rou g h f ou r s u cc e ss iv e c o n q u e s ts o f B r i ta i n G e o ff r e y .
,

a We l s h m o n k c o ll e c te d s om e of th e s e l e g e n d s a n d a id e d
, ,

c h i e fly by h is i m ag i n a ti on wr ote a c om pl e te h i s tory of th e ,

B r i ton s H i s a ll e g e d au th or i ty w a s a n a n ci e n t m an u s c r ip t in
.

th e n a tiv e We l s h ton g u e c o n t a i n i n g th e liv e s an d d e e d s o f all

th e i r ki n g s f rom B r u tu s th e a ll e ge d f o u n d e r of B r i ta i n d ow n
, , ,

to th e c om i n g of J u li u s C ae s a r 2 F ro m th i s G e o ff re y w rote h is .

h i s tory d o w n to th e d e ath of C a dwa l ad e r i n 6 8 9

, .

”
Th e H i s to ry is a c u r i o u s m e dl e y o f p ag an a n d C h r i s ti a n
l e g e n d s of c h ro n icl e c om m e n t an d p u r e i n v e n ti on — a ll
, , , ,

1 A lm w n se I t li b y b i th b tw t h i f m
as a n a w k wh il h l d i g th
an r ,
u ro e s a ou s or e o n e se e

of C an te rb u r y .

2 D u ri n g th e R o m a n oc c u pan c y of B r ta i i n oc c u rre d a c u r ou s i m i gli

n n li
g of
C e tc
an d R o m an tra d ton s ii . Th e We l s h'

i
b e ga n to a s s oc a te th e r n a ton a h e ro i i l A wi rth ur th
R o m a n a n c e s to rs ; h e n c e th e s tor y o f B ru tu s,
g re atg ran d s on of ZE n e as ,
-
th fi t ki g
e rs n

of B r t i i
a n , a s re a t e d b y G e off re lan d L a y y a m on .
5 2 E NG L I S H L IT E RATU R E
re cord e d inm i n u te d e ta il a n d wi th a g ravi ty w h ic h m ak e s it
cl e ar th at G e o ff re y h ad n o c on s ci e n ce or e l s e w as a g re at ,

j ok e r A s h i s to ry th e w h o l e th i n g is ru bbi s h b u t it w a s e x
.

tra ord in ar ily s u cc e s s f u l a t th e ti m e a n d m ad e all w h o h e ard i t ,

w h e th e r N o rm an s or S a x on s p ro u d of th e i r o w n c ou n try I t
,
.

i s i n te r e s ti n g to u s b e c a u s e it g a v e a n e w d i re c ti on to th e
li te ra ture o f E n g l an d by s h o wi n g th e w e al th of p oe try a n d
f o m an c e th a t lay in its ow n tra di ti on s o f A r th ur a n d h is
k n i gh ts S h ak e s p e are s K i ng L ea r M al ory s M or te d Ar t/zn r
.
’

,
’ ’

a n d T e n n y s on s l ly /ls of t h e K i ng w e r e f ou n d e d o n th e w or k
’
i

of t h i s m o n k w h o h ad th e g e n i u s to p u t u nw r i tte n C e l tic tr a
,

di ti on in th e e n d u r i n g f or m of L ati n p ros e .

Work of th e F re n c h Wri te rs Th e F re n c h l i te ratu r e of th e

.

N orm an p e ri od i s i n te re s ti n g c h i e fly b e ca u s e of th e a vid i ty
wi th w h ic h f ore i g n w r i te r s s e i z e d u p o n th e n ativ e l e g e n d s an d
m a d e th e m p op u l ar i n E n g l an d U n til G e offre y s p r e po s te r
’
.

o u s c h r on icl e a pp e a r e d th e s e l e g e n d s h a d n o t b e e n u s e d to
,

an
y e x te n t as li t e ra ry m a t e r i al I n de e d th e y w e re s c ar c e ly
.
,

k n o w n in E n g l an d th ou g h f am ili ar to F re n c h and I tali an

,

m i n s tr e l s. L e g e n d s of A r th u r a n d h i s c ou r t w e r e p ro ba bly
fi rs t tak e n to B ri tta n y by We l s h e m i gra n ts in th e fi f th an d
s ix t h c e n tu r i e s T h e y b e c am e i m m e n se ly p o pu l ar w h e re v e r
.

th e y w e r e told a n d th e y w e re s l owly c arr i e d by m i n s tre l s a n d

,

st ory t
-
e ll e rs all o v e r E u ro p e T h at th e y h ad n e v e r r e c e iv e d
.

li te rary f o rm o r r e cog n i ti on w as d u e to a p e c u li ar i ty o f m e d i
ae v al l i t e ra tu re w h i c h re q u i re d th a t e v e ry tal e s h o u ld h av e
,

s o m e a n ci e n t au t h or i ty b e h i n d it G e o ffre y m e t th i s d e m a n d
.

by c r e ati n g an h i s to r ic a l m an u s c rip t of We l s h h i s tory T h at .

w a s e n ou g h fo r th e a g e Wi th G e off re y an d h i s a ll e g e d m an u
.

s c r ip t t o r e s t u p on th e N o rm a n F r e n c h w r i te rs w e re f r e e to
,
-

u se t h e f as ci n a ti n g s to r i e s w h ic h h a d b e e n for c e n tu r i e s i n th e
po s s e s s i on o f th e i r w a n d e ri n g m i n s tre l s G e off re y s L a ti n .
’

h i s tor y w as p u t i n to F re n c h v e r s e by G aim ar ( c 1 1 5 0 ) an d .

by Wac e (c . a n d f r om t h e s e F r e n c h v e r s i on s th e w ork
w a s fi r s t tra n s l a t e d in t o E n g li s h F r om abo u t 1 2 0 0 on war d
.
 TH E AN G L O -
N OR M AN P E R I O D 53

A r th ur an d G u i n e v e re an d th e m atc h l e s s b an d of C e l tic h e roe s

th at w e m e e t l a te r ( 1 4 7 0 ) in M a l o r y s M or te d A r t h n r b e c am e
' ’

th e p e r m a n e n t p os s e s s i o n o f o ur l i te r a tu re .

L ay am on s B rut ( e
’
T h i s is th e m os t i m p or tan t of
.

th e E n g li s h r i m i n g c h ron icl e s th at is h i s tor y r e l ate d in th e , ,

f orm of d ogg e re l v e rs e p r ob ably b e ca u s e p o e tr y is m or e

,

e as ily m e m o r i z e d t h an p ro s e We g iv e h e r e a f re e re n d e r i n g
.

o f se l e c t e d l i n e s at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f th e p o e m w h ic h te ll us '

all w e k n o w of L a y a m on th e fi rs t w h o e v e r w r ote a s an
,

E n g l i s h m a n for E n g li s h m e n i n cl u d i n g in th e te rm all w h o ,

l ov e d E n gl an d an d ca ll e d it h om e n o m atte r wh e re th e i r ,

an c e s t o r s w e r e b or n .

N ow th e re w a s p r i e s ti n th e l a n d n a m e d L a y a m o n
a H e w as s o n o f .

L e o v e n a th — m a y G o d b e g ra c i o u s u n to h i m H e d w e l t a t E rn le y , a t a .

n ob l e c h u r c h o n S e v e r n s b a n k H e r e a d m a n y b o o k s , a n d i t c a m e to
’
.

h is m i n d to te l l th e n ob l e d e e d s o f th e E n g l i s h T h e n h e b e g an to .

j o u rn e y fa r a n d w i d e o v e r th e l a n d to p ro c u re n ob l e b o o k s fo r au th o ri ty .

H e to o k th e E n g l i s h b o o k th a t S a i n t B e d e m a d e a n o th e r i n L a ti n th a t ,

S a i t A l b i m ad e
n n ,
1
an d a t h i rd b oo k th a t a F r e n c h c l e r k m ad e n am e d ,

W c a e.
2
L a y a m o n l a i d th e s e w o k s b e fo re h i m a n d tu r n e d th e l e a v e s ;
r

l o v i n g l y h e b e h e l d th e m P e n h e to o k a n d w rote o n b oo k s ki n a n d
.
,
-
,

m a d e th e t h re e b oo k s i n to o n e .

Th e p oe m b e g i n s wi th th e d e s tru cti on o f T r oy a n d th e
" ”
fl ig h t of f E n e a s th e d u k e i n to I ta ly B ru tu s a g re at .
,

g ran d s on o f fE n ea s g a th e rs h i s p e o pl e an d s e ts o u t to fin d
,

a n e w l an d i n t h e We s t T h e n f o ll o w s th e f ou n di n g of th e
.

B ri to n ki n g d om a n d th e l as t th i rd of th e p oe m w h ic h i s o v e r
, ,

th i r ty th ou sa n d l i n e s in l e n g th i s ta k e n u p wi th th e h i s tory ,

of A rt h u r an d h is k n i g h ts I f th e B r i tt h ad n o m e r i ts of its
.

ow n ,
it w o u ld s till i n te r e s t u s f or i t m a r k s th e fi rs t a pp e ar ,

an c e of t h e A r th ur i a n l e g e n d s in o u r o w n to n g u e A s in gl e .

se l e cti on is g iv e n h e re f rom A r th u r s dyi n g s p e e c h fam iliar ’

to u s in T e n n y s on s Mor t e a Art h u r Th e r e ad e r will n otic e

’ ’ ’
. .

h e r e tw o th i n g s : fi r s t th at th ou g h th e p o e m i s al m o s t p u r e
,

1 P ro b a b ly a L a tn i c op y of Be de .

2 Wac e ’
s tra n s l tia o n of G e of f y
re .
S4 E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
A n g l o S a x on
-
fi r s t s p e e c h h a s a l re ady d ropp e d m an y in
,
1
ou r

fle c tio n s an d i s m o r e e as ily r e a d th a n B e ow u f
l ; s e c o n d th a t ,

F re n c h i n fl u e n c e i s al re ady at w or k in L ay am on s rim e s an d
as s on an c e s th at i s th e h arm on y re s u l ti n g f ro m u s i n g th e
, ,

s am e v o w e l s o u n d i n s e v e ra l s u cc e s s iv e li n e s :

A n d i c h w u lle v a re n o A v a lu n
t : And I wi l l f a re to A v a lu n ,
To v a i re s t a lre m a id e n e , To f a i re s t o f a ll m a de n s , i
T o A rg a n te th e re u e u e , q T o A rg an te th e u e e n , q
A lv e n s wi th e s c e on e . A n e l f v e r y b e a u ti f u l .

An d h e o sc a l m i ne w u n de n An d sh e sh a ll my w ou n d s
M ak i e n a l le i s un d e , Ma ke a ll s o u n d ;
A l h al m e m a k i e n A ll w h ol e m e m ak e
Mi d h a le w e i y e d re n c h e n . Wi th h e a l i n g d r i n k s .

An d he
s e ot ic h c um e n w u lle A n d a g a i n wi l l I c o m e
To m i n e k i n e r i c h e T o m y ki n g d om
A n d w u n ie n m id B r u tte n A n d d w e l l w i th B r i t on s

M id m u c h e le re wun ne . Wi th m i c kl e joy .

A a e th an w o rd e n E ve n (wi t h ) th e s e w o rd s
Th e r c om of s e w e n de n T h e re c a m e f ro m th e s e a
Th a tw e s a n s c e o r tb a tli t
hen, A s h o rtl i ttl e b oa tg l i d i n g ,

S c e o v e n m id u hen,
t S h o v e d b y th e w a v e s ;
A n d tw a w i m m e n th e r i n n e ,
A n d tw o w o m e n th e re i n ,

Wu n d e rl i c h e i d ih te . Wo n d ro u s l y a tti re d .

An d h e o nom e n A h u r an an
rt A n d th e y to o k A r th u r a n o n
An d an e ov s t
e h ine v e re d e n A n d b o re h i m h u rri e d l y ,

An d so f te h i n e ad u n l e id e n ,
A n d s o ftl y l a i d h i m d o w n ,

An d for th g u n n e n li th e n . A n d fo r th g a n g l i d e .

Me tri c al R om an ce s . L ov e ,
c h ival ry a n d re li g i on all p e r , ,

v ad e d by th e s pi r i t o f ro m an c e th e s e are th e th re e g re at ,
—

li te ra ry id e al s w h ic h fin d e xp re s s i on in th e m e tr ic a l rom an c e s .

R e ad th e s e r om an c e s n ow wi th th e i r k n i g h ts a n d f a i r l ad i e s , ,

th e i r p e ri l ou s adv e n tu r e s a n d te n d e r l ov e m a ki n g th e i r m in -
,

st re ls
y an d to u rn am e n ts a n d g or g e o u s c a v alc ad e s — as if ,

h u m an i ty w e re o n p arad e a n d li f e i ts e l f w e re o n e tu m u l tuou s ,

h olid ay in th e O p e n air a n d y o u h av e a n e pi t o m e of t he,

—

w h ol e c h ildi s h c re d u l ou s s ou l of th e Middl e A g e s Th e
, .

O ly
7 n w d i b tth h d d d fifty i f F
on e or n a ou h i gi A t y l t
re e un re an s o re n c or n . cen ur a er
R o be rt Ma n n y n g u se s on e F re n c h w d i i g h ty wh il C h
or n e , e auc e r h as one in s i x or s e v en .

Th i i l
s n c ude s re p e ii
tton s , an d is a f i ti m t th th
a r es a e ra er an an e x ac tc o m p u ta ton i .
56 E N GLISH L IT E R ATU R E
L a te r th e var i ou s
c on c e rn i n g on e h e r o w e r e g ath e re d
s on g s

e b e ca m e a n e pi c lik e t h e Ch a n s on a e
’
tog e th e r a n d th e G e s t ,

R ola n d o r a ki n d o f c o n ti n u e d b a ll ad s to r y h ardly d e s e rvi n g

, ,

1
th e n am e of e pic l ik e th e G e s t ob i n f i ooa
’
e o
, f R .

Th e m a tte r o f R o m e c o n s i s te d l a rg e ly o f ta l e s f rom G r e e k
an d R om an s ou rc e s ; a n d th e tw o g re a t cycl e s o f th e s e
r o m a n c e s d e a l wi t h th e d e e d s o f A l e x an d e r a fa v or i te h e r o , ,

an d t h e s i e g e o f T r oy wi th w h ic h th e B r i to n s th o ug h t th e y
,

h a d som e h i s toric c o n n e c ti on To th e s e w e re a dd e d a l arg e .

n um be r of t al e s f rom O r i e n t a l so u r c e s ; a n d in t h e e x u b e ra n t
i m ag i n a ti on of th e l a tte r w e s e e th e i n flu e n c e w h i c h th e
S ara c e n s — th o s e n i m bl e wi ts w h o g av e u s o u r fi rs t m od e rn
s ci e n c e s a n d w h o s t ill r e v e l e d in th e A ra b i a n N igh ts — h ad
b e g u n to e x e r ci s e o n th e li te ratu r e o f E u ro p e .

To th e E n g li s h re ad e r at l e a s t th e m o s t i n te re s ti n g o f th e
, ,

r om an c e s a r e t h o s e w h ic h d e a l wi th th e e xpl o i ts o f A r th u r

Th m tt
e a
an d h is K ni g h t
e,
s of t h e R o u n d T a bl e th e r ic h ,
—

° f B it i
r a ne st st or e h ou s e o f r om an c e w h ic h o u r li t e ra tu r e h as

e v e r f ou n d T h e re w e r e m an y cycl e s of A r th u r i an rom an c e s
.
,

c h i e f of w h ic h are th os e o f G aw ai n L au n c e l ot M e rli n th e , , ,

Q u e s t o f th e H oly G r ail an d th e D e ath o f A rth u r I n p r e , .

c e di n g s e c ti on s w e h a v e s e e n h ow th e s e f a s ci n ati n g r o m an c e s
w e re u s e d by G e o ff re y an d th e F re n c h w r i te rs a n d h ow , ,

th ro u g h th e F r e n c h th e y f o u n d th e i r w ay i n to E n gl i s h ap
, ,

p e ar i n g fi r s t in o u r s p e e c h in L ayam on s B r ut Th e p o i n t to ’
.

re m e m b e r i s t h at w h il e th e l e ge n d s are C e l tic in or i g i n th e i r
, ,

li te rary f orm i s d ue to F re n c h p oe ts w h o or i g i n ate d th e m e t ,

r ic a l ro m an c e A ll ou r e ar ly E n g li s h ro m an c e s ar e e i th e r c o pi e s
.

or tra n s l a t i on s o f th e F r e n c h an d th i s i s tr u e n oton ly of th e
m atte r o f F ran c e a n d R o m e b u t of C e l tic h e r o e s lik e A r th u r , ,

a n d E n li s h h e ro e s lik e G u
g o f War wick an d R o bi n H oo d
y .

1 An E n g li sh b oo k in wh i h c s uc h ro m a n ce s w e re wr t i
te n w as ca ll ed a Ge st or J e st
B oo k . So l
a s o a tthe be gi i g
nn n of C u r sor M a n d i (e . 1
3 20 ) we re a d :

Me n j i
y e rn e n e s ts f o r to h e re
An d ro m a u n ce re d e i n d e rse m an e re , iv
an d th e n fo ll w o s a su m ma r y of th e gre atc yl c e s of r o m an ce , wh i ch we a re c o n s id ie r ng .
 TH E A N G L O -
N O R M AN P E R I O D 57

Th e m o s t i n te r e s ti n g of a ll A rth ur i a n rom a n ce s ar e th os e
of th e G aw a i n cycl e ,
1
an d of th e s e th e y of
stor S i r Ga w a i n

Si G w i
r a a n
an d h e Gre e n K
t d i ng fo r n ig h t i s b e s t w o r th re a ,

an dt h G e m a n y re a s on s
re e n F i rs t th ou g h th e m ate r i a l is tak e n .
,

K i gh t
n
f rom F re n c h s o u r c e s th e E n g li s h w orkm an s h ip is
2
,

th e fi n e s tof ou r e a r ly r om an c e s S e c on d th e u n k n ow n a u th or .
,

”
of t h i s r om an c e p ro b a bly w rote a l s o Th e P ear l an d i s th e ,

g r e a t e s t E n
g li s h p oe to f th e N or m an p e r i od T h i rd th e p oe m .
,

i ts e lf wi th its d ram ati c i n te re s t its v ivid d e s c rip ti on s an d its , ,

m ora l p u ri ty i s on e of th e m os t d e li g h tf u l old rom an c e s in

,

an
y l a n g u ag e .

I n f o r m S i r Ga w a i n is a n i n te re s ti n g c o m bi n ati on of
F r e n c h an d S a x on e l e m e n ts I t i s w r i tte n in a n e l ab orate .

st a n z a c o mbi n i n g m e t e r a n d a lli t e rati on A t th e e n d of e a c h .

”
st a n za i s a r i m e d r e f ra i n c a ll e d by th e F r e n c h a tail r i m e , .

We g iv e h e re a b r i e f o u tl i n e of th e s tory ; b u t i f th e r e ad e r
d e s i re s th e poe m i ts e l f h e is advi se d to b e g i n wi th a m od e r n ,

v e r s i on a s th e o ri g i n a l is i n th e We st M idl an d d i al e c t an d is
,

e xc e e di n g ly d ifli c u lt t o f ol l ow .

O N w Ye
n e s d y wh i l A thar
’
d h i k i gh t a
a , k p i g th e r ur an s n s re ee n e

Y u l e ti d e fe as ta t C am e l ot a g i g a n ti c k n i gh ti n g re e n e n te rs th e b a n q u e t
,

h a l l o n h o rs e b a c k a n d c h a l l e n g e s th e b r a v e s t k n i g h t p re s e n t to a n
e x c h an g e o f b l o w s ; t h a t i s h e w i l l e x p os e h i s n e c k to a b l o w o f h i s
,

o w n b ig b at tl e ax i f a n y k n i g h t w il l a g r e e t
-
, o ab i d e a b l o w i n r e t u rn .

A f te r s o m e n a tu ra l c o n s te rn a ti o n a n d a fin e s p e e c h b y A rth u r G a w a i n ,

ac c e p t s t h e c h a l l e n g e ta k e s th e b a ttl e a x a n d w i th o n e b l o w s e n d s t
,
he -
,

g i an ts h e a d ro l l i n g th ro u g h th e h a l l T h e G re e n K n i gh t w h o i s e v i
’
.
,

d e n tly a te rr i b l e m ag i c i a n p i c k s u p h i s h e a d a n d m o u n ts h i s h o r s e
,
.

H e h o l d s o u t h i s h e ad a n d th e g h a s tl y l i p s s p e a k w a r n i n g G a w a i n to ,

b e f a i th f u l to h i s p ro m i s e a n d to s e e k th r ou g h th e w o r l d ti l l h e fi n d s th e
G re e n C h a p e l T h e r e o n n e x tN e w Y e ar s d ay th e G re e n K n i g h tw il l
.
,
’
,

m e e th i m a n d r e tu rn t h e b l ow .

T h e s e c o n d c an to o f th e p o e m d e s c r i b e s G aw a i n s l o n g j ou r n e y
’

th rou g h th e wi l d e r n e s s o n h is s te e d G r i n g o l e t an d h i s a d v e n tu re s w i th ,

1 T y g f th th M l y i m ki g G w i f l
en n son oe s ar er an d i v t Th t
a or n a n a a n a se an rr e e re n . a

s ee m st b o mi t k ; f
e a i ll th
s a li t m
e or G w i i
n a xtt A th the e ar es ro ances a a n s, n e o r u r, e

no b l t f k i gh t th m
es o n tl v d
s, d h e d f ll th h
os o e f th R an d T bl on o re o a e e roe s o e ou n a e .

2 Th w v i F
e re e re h v i
a r ou s f th t y ; b ti t m
re n c i gi lly f m th
e rs on s o e s or u ca e or na ro e

I i h wh th h w
r s , e re e ll d C h li
e ro as c a e uc u nn .
58 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
sto rm l d wi th wi l d b e as ts an d m o n s te rs as h e s e e k s i n v ai n for
an d c o , ,

t h e G re e n C h a p e l O n C h r i s tm a s e v e i n th e m i d s t o f a v as t fo re s t h e
. , ,

”
f
o f e rs a p ra e r t y o
"
M ar y m i l d e s t m o th e r s o d e a r
,
a n d i s r e w ard e d ,

b y s i g h t o f a g re a t c as t l e He e n te rs a n d i s r o y a l l y e n te r ta i n e d b y
.

t h e h o s t a n a g e d h e ro a n d b y h is wi fe w h o i s th e m os t b e a u ti f u l
, , ,

w o m an th e k n i gh t e v e r b e h e l d G a w a i n l e arn s th a t h e i s a t l a s t n e a r
.

th e G re e n C h a p e l a n d s e t l e s d o w n for a l i ttl e c o m fo r t a f te r h is
t,

l on g que st .

T h e n e x tc an t o sh ow s t h e l i fe i n th e c as tl e a n d d e s c r i b e s a c u ri o us ,

c o m p ac tb e t w e e n th e h o t w h o g o e s h u n ti n g d a i l y a n d th e k n i g h t w h o
s , , ,

re m a i n s i n t h e c as tl e to e n te r ta i n th e y o u n g w i fe T h e c o m p ac t i s th a t .

a t n i g h te a c h m a n s h a l l g i v e t h e o th e r w h a te v e r g ood th i n g h e ob ta i n s
d u r i n g th e d ay Wh i l e th e h os ti s h u n ti n g th e y o u n g w o m a n tr i e s i n
. ,

v a i n to i n d u c e G a w a i n to m a k e l o v e to h e r a n d e n d s b y g i v i n g h i m a ,

ki s s Wh e n th e h os tre tu rn s a n d g iv e s h i s g u e s tth e g a m e h e h as ki l l e d
.

G a w a i n re tu r n s th e ki s s O n th e th i rd d ay h e r te m p t
. at i o n s h av i n g ,

t wi c e f a i l e d th e l ad y o ffe rs G a w a i n a r i n g w h i c h h e re fu s e s ; b u tw h e n
, ,

s h e o ffe rs a m ag i c g re e n g i rd l e th a t w i l l p re s e r v e th e w e a re r f ro m
d e a th G a w a i n w h o re m e m b e rs t h e g i an ts a x s o s oo n t o fa l l o n h i s
’
, ,

ne c k , ac c e pt s t h e g i rd l e a s a "
j e w e l fo r th e j e o p a rd y a n d p ro m i s e s
”

t h e l ad y to k e e p th e g i ft s e c re t H e re th e n a re tw o c o n fl i c ti n g c o m .
, ,

p ac t s W
. h e n t h e h o s t re t u rn s a n d o ff e rs h i s g a m e G a w a i n re t u rn s th e ,

ki s s b u ts a y s n o th i n g o f th e g re e n g i rd l e .

Th e l a s t c an to b ri n g s ou r k n i g h t to th e G re e n C h ap e l a f te r h e i s ,

re p e a t e d l y w arn e d t o t u rn b a c k i n h e fa c e o f c e r t
t ai n d e at h Th e .

C h a p e l i s a te rri b l e p l a c e i n th e m i d s t o f d e s o l a ti o n ; a n d as G a w a i n
a p p r oa c h e s h e h e a r s a t e rr i fyi n g s o u n d th e g r a ti n g o f s te e l o n s t on e
, ,

w h e re th e g i a n t i s s h arp e n i n g a n e w b a ttl e ax Th e G re e n K n i g h t -
.

a p p e ars a n d G a w a i n
, tr u e to h is c o m p a c t o ffe rs h i s n e c k fo r t
, h e b l ow , .

T wi c e th e ax s w i n gs h a rm l e s s l y ; th e th i rd ti m e i tf a l l s o n h is s h o u l d e r
an d w o u n d s h i m Wh e re u p on G a w a i n j u m p s fo r h is ar m o r d r aw s h i s
.
,

s w o rd a n d w a r n s t
, h e g i a n t th a t th e c o m p a c t c a l l s for o n l y o n e b l o w ,

an d t h a t i f a n o th e r i s o ff e re d h e wi l l d e fe n d h i m s e l f
, , .

T h e n th e G re e n K n i gh t e x p l a i n s th i n gs He i s l ord o f th e c as tl e .

w h e re G a w a i n h as b e e n e n te r ta i n e d for d a y s p as t Th e fi rs ttw o s wi n g s .

of t h e a x w e re h a r m l e s s b e c a u s e G aw a i n h a d b e e n tr u e t o h is c o m p a c t

an d t wi c e re tu rn e d th e ki s s T h e l as tb l o w h ad w o u n d e d h i m b e c a u s e
.

h e c on c e a l e d th e g i f t o f th e g re e n g i rd l e w h i c h b e l o n g s to th e G re e n ,

K n i gh tan d w a s w o v e n b y h is w i fe M o re o v e r th e w h o l e th i n g h as b e e n .
,

ar ra n e d b
g y Mo rg a i n th e f a y w o m a n ( a n e n e m y o f Q u e e n G u i e v e r e n
-
,

w h o a p p e a rs o f t e n in t h e A r th u r i a n ro m an c e s ) F u l l o f s h a m e G aw a i n .
,

t h ro w s b a c k th e g i f t a n d i s re a d y to a ton e fo r h i s d e c e p ti o n ; b u t th e
G re e n K n i g h t th i n k s h e h as a l re a d y a to n e d a n d p re s e n t s t h e g re e n ,

g i rd l e as a f re e g i f t G a w a i n r e tu r n s to A r th u r s c ou r t te l l s th e w h ol e
’
.
,
 T H E AN G LO -
N OR M AN P E R I OD 59

st
or y f ran kl y a n d e v e r a f te r
, h a tth e
t k n i g h ts of h e R ou n d
t T bl w a e e ar

g re e n g i rd l e i n h is h o n o r
1
a .

”
Th e P e arl m an u s c rip t wi th S ir G aw a i n
. I n th e sa m e

a r e f oun d t h re e oth e r r e m ar k a bl e p o e m s w r i tte n a b o u t I 3 5 0 , ,

” " "
an d k n o w n t o us in o r d e r a s Th e P e a r l , C l ean n e s s , , ,

”
an d Pa ti e n c e Th e fi rs t is th e m os tb e au ti f u l a n d r e c e iv e d
.
,

i ts n a m e f r om th e tra n s l ator an d e d i to r R ic h ar d M orr i s i n , ,

" "
1 8 64 P ati e n c e
. i s a p arap h ra s e of th e b oo k o f J on a h ;
" ”
C l e an n e s s m ora li z e s on th e b as i s of B ibl e s tor i e s ; b ut
”
Th e P e a r l is a n i n te n s e ly h u m an a n d r e a li s tic pic tu r e
fa th e r s gr i e f for h is li ttl e d au g h te r M arg are t My
’
of a ,

”
p re ci o u s p e rl e w y th o ute n s p ot I t i s th e sadd e s t o f a ll .

o u r e a r l y p oe m s .

O th e g v e o f h i l i ttl o e c o v e e d o v e wi t
n ra h fl owe s t
s h e f th e r e n , r r r , a

p o u rs o u th i s l o v e a n d g r i e f ti l l , i n t
h e s u m m e r s ti l l n e s s , h e fal l s l
as e e p ,

w h i l e w e h e ar i n th e s u n s h i n e th e d ro w s y h u m o f i n s e c ts an d th e f a r
a w a y s ou n d o f th e re a p e rs s i c k l e s He d re a m s th e re a n d th e d re am
’
.
,

g ro w s i n to a v i s i o n b e au ti f u l H i s b o d y l i e s s ti l l u p o n th e g r a v e w h il e
.

h is s p i r i t g o e s to a l a n d e x q u i s i te b e y o n d a ll w o rd s , w h e re h e c o m e s ,

s u d d e n l y u p on a s t re a m t h a th e c an n o tc ross As h e w a n d e rs a l o n g th e .

b a n k s e e ki n g i n v a i n fo r a fo rd a m ar v e l r i s e s b e f o re h is e y e s a c r y s ta l
, , ,

c l i ff a n d s e a t
,
h i t a l i ttl e m a i d e n w h o r a i s e s a h a p p y s h i n i n g
e d b e n e at ,

fa c e , th e f ac e o f h is l i ttl e M arg a r e t
— .

M ore th e n m e ly s te m y d re d e a ros ,
I o d f u ll s t lle a n d d o rs t
st
y ll e
e n o tc a

Wy th ygh e n o p e n a n d m o u th fu l c l os ,

I s to d as h e n d e as h a w k i n h a l l e .

He d a re s n otspe a k
fe a r o f b re a ki n g th e s p e l l ; b u t s w e e t a s a l il y
fo r
s h e c om e s d o w n t h e c r y s ta l s tre a m s b a n k to m e e ta n d s p e a k w i th h i m
’
,

an d t e l l h im o f t h e h a pp y l i f e o f h e a v e n a n d h o w to l i v e to b e w o r t hy
o f i t I n h is oy h e l i s t f i ri e f ; t h
.
j e ns o rg e t t n
g a ll h i s
g h en t
, e h e ar t o f

t h e m a n c r i e s o u t f or i ts o w n a n d h e s tr u gg l e s to c ro s s th e s tre a m to ,

j oi n h e r I n th e s tru gg l e th e d re a m v a n i s h e s ; h e w a k e n s to fin d h is
.

e y e s w e t a n d h is h e ad o n t h e l i ttl e m o u n d t h a t m a r k s th e s p o t w h e re
h is h e a r ti s b u ri e d .

1 Iti ft ll g d th ti th i m
s o en a e e w h v a v y p ti l f d ti f th
n s ro a n ce e a e a er oe ca ou n a on or e

O d r f th G t
er o wh i h w i ti t t d b y E dw d I I I i 3 49 ; b tth h i t y f
e a r e r, c as ns u e ar ,
n 1 u e s or o

th d
e or m k th i
er x t m ly d b tf l Th
a es s e d
re will b h i fly i t t d i m
e ou u . e re a er e c e n e re s e n co

p i g th i
ar n m wi th B w lf f i t
s ro an c e t wh t eo w idu l h v tk ,
or t n s a n ce ,
o s ee a ne ea s a e a e n roo

i E gl
n n d an .
60 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

F ro m th e id e a l s p oe m s an d f rom p e c u l iari
of th e s e th re e ,

ti e s o f s tyl e a n d m e te r it i s p ro b a bl e th a t th e ir a u th or w rote
,

al s o S i r G a w a i n a n d t h e G re e n K n ig h t I f s o th e u n k n ow n .
,

au t h or i s th e on e g e n i u s o f th e ag e w h o s e p oe try o f i ts e l f
h a s p ow e r to i n te re s t u s an d w h o s ta n d s b e tw e e n C y n e w u l f
,

an d C h au c e r a s a w or t h y f o ll o w e r of th e on e an d f ore r u n n e r
of th e oth er .

Mi s c e llan eou s Li te r a tu r e of th e N orm an P e r i o

w e ll d . I t is
n i g h i m p os s ibl e t o cl a s s i f y t h e r e m a i n i n g l i te ratu r e o f th i s
p e ri o d an d v e ry li ttl e of it i s n ow r e ad e xc e p t by adva n c e d
, ,

st ud e n t s .T h os e i n te re s te d i n th e d e v e l opm e n t of tran s i "

ti o n E n g li s h will fin d i n th e A n tr on R i w le i e R u l e of th e ,
. .

A n c h o re s s e s ( e t h e
. m o s t b e au t i f u l b i t o f old E n g l i s h

p rose e v e r w ri tte n I t is a b ook of e x c e ll e n t r e li g i ou s a dv ic e

.

a n d c o m f or t w r i t te n for th r e e l adi e s w h o wi s h e d to l iv e a
,

r e li g i o u s li f e wi th o u t h o w e v e r b e c o m i n g n u n s or e n te r i n g
, , ,

a n y re li g i o u s o rd e rs Th e a u th o r w as B i s h o p P oor e o f S a li s
.

b u ry a cc ordi n g to M orto n w h o fi rs t e di te d th i s o ld cl a s s ic
, ,

O rm s Or i n u lu i n w r i tte n s oo n a f te r th e B r u t i s a
’

in 1 8 5 3 .
, ,

p arap h ra se o f th e g o s p e l l e s s on s for th e y e ar s o m e w h at a f te r ,

th e m an n e r of C ae d m on s P a rap h ra s e b u t wi th ou t a n y of
’

C ae d m on s p oe tic fire a n d or i g i n ali ty Cu r sor M a n d i ( e 1 3 2 0 )

’

. .

i s a v e ry l on g p o e m w h i c h m a k e s a ki n d of m e tr ic a l r o m an c e
o u t o f B ibl e h i s t ory a n d s h o w s t h e w h ol e d e ali n g of G od wi th
m an f rom C r e a ti on to D om e s d ay I t i s i n te re s ti n g a s s h o w .

i n g a p arall e l to th e cycl e s of m i racl e pl a y s w h ic h a tte m p t ,

to c o v e r th e s am e v a s t g r ou n d T h e y w e r e f orm i n g in th i s .

ag e b u t w e will s tu dy th e m l a te r w h e n w e try to u n d e rs ta n d ,

th e rise o f th e d ra m a in E n g l an d .

B e s id e s th e s e g rea te r w o rk s an e n orm o u s n u m b e r of f a bl e s ,

an d s a t i re s a pp e ar e d in th i s ag e c opi e d or tr an s l a te d f ro m ,

th e F re n c h lik e th e m e tr ic al rom a n c e s Th e m os t f a m o u s o f
, .

”
th e s e a re Th e O w l a n d th e N i g h ti n g a l e a l on g d e b a t e ,
—

b e tw e e n th e tw o bi rd s on e re p re s e n ti n g th e gay s id e of li f e
, ,

th e oth e r th e s te r n e r s id e o f law a n d m ora l s an d La n d ,

 TH E AN G L O — N O R M AN P E R I OD 61
"

” ”
of C o c k ay gn e , i . e . L u x u ry L a n d , a ke e n s atre i on m on k s
an d li g i on
m on a s t ic re .
1

Wh il e m os t o f th e li te ra tu re of th e ti m e w as a c o py of th e
F re n c h a n d w as i n te n d e d o n ly for th e u pp e r cl a s s e s h e r e ,

an d t h e re w e r e s i n g e rs w h o m ad e ba ll ad s for th e
B ll d
a a s
c om m on p e opl e ; an d th e s e n e x t to th e m e tr ic a l ,

ro m an c e s a r e t h e m os t i n te re s ti n g an d s i g n ifi c a n t of all th e
,

w or k s o f th e N or m an p e r i od O n a cc ou n t of its ob s c ure ori .

g i n a n d i ts o ra l tr a n s m i s s i on t h e b a ll a d i s a lw a y s t h e m os t ,

di ffi c u l t of l i te rary s u bj e c ts We m ak e h e re on ly th r e e s u g
2
.

g e s ti o n s w h ic h m a , y w e ll b e b o r n e in m i n d : t h a t b a ll a d s w e re

p rod u c e d c on ti n u ally in E n g l an d f rom A n g l o S ax on tim e s -

un t il th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tur y ; th at for c e n tu r i e s th e y w e re
th e on ly re ally p o p u l a r li te rature ; an d th at in th e b a ll ad s
a l on e on e i s a bl e t o u n d e rs t an d t h e c om m on p e opl e R e ad .
,

" ”
for i n s tan c e th e b all ad s of th e ,
m e rr i e gr e e n w oo d m e n ,

w h ic h g ra d u ally c oll e c te d i n to th e Ge s te of B oh i n H ood a n d ,

ou will u n d e rs t an d b e t t e r p e r h ap s t h a n f r o m re a di n
g m an y
y , ,

h i s tor i e s w h atth e c o m m on p e 0 p 1e o f E n g l an d f e l ta n d th ou g h t
w h il e th e i r l ord s an d m a s te r s w e re b u s y wi th i m p os s ibl e m e t
r ic al ro m an c e s .

I n th e s e s on g s s p e ak s th e h e a rto f th e E n g l i s h f olk Th e re .

i s l a wl e s sn e s s i n d e e d ; b u t th i s s e e m s j u s ti fi e d by th e o pp r e s
s i on o f t h e ti m e s a n d by th e b ar b a r o u s s e v e r i ty of th e ga m e
l a w s A n i n te n s e h atre d o f s h a m s an d i n j u s tic e l ur k s in e v e r y
.

son g ; b u t th e h atre d i s s av e d f rom bi tte rn e s s by th e h u m or

wi th w h ic h c ap tiv e s e s p e ci ally r ic h c h ur c h m e n are , ,

l e ctu re d by th e b an d i ts w h il e th e y s q u i rm at s i gh t0 ,

1 i i lly C k yg ( v i ly p ll d ) w i t d d t i d i l
Or g n a oc a ne a r ou s s e e as n en e o r cu e

c ou n tr y Av l
of m wh t C v t D Q i t l t
a o n , so e a as e r an e s
’
on u xo e a er

c h iv l y I
a r L x y L
. d v y th i g w
n u
g d t
ur t; h an e er n as oo o ea ou

an d h i g l d w i th
s n k ; b tt d l k f ll i t d f i ; t
e ca es u e re ar s e n s ea o ra n

2 Ch il d ’s E d S c otti s h P op u la r B a lla d s i s th e m os tsc h o a r

n
g li s h an an d c om p e t e l ly l
ll i
co e t
c o n i n ou r a n g u a ge l
G u m m e re s Old E n g li s h B a lla d s i s a good s h ort or
’
.
'
w k .

P fro e s s or Ki I
ttre d ge s n trod u c to n to th e C a m b r d g e d to
’
e n i
o f C h d s B a lla d s i s t
’
he i ii il
v y j
b e s t s u m m a r y o f a e r d i fli c u lt s u b e c t F o r an e te n d e d d sc u s s o n of th e te rar . x i i li y
c h arac ter of th e b a ll d
a ,
se e G u m m e re
’
s Th e P op u la r B a lla d .
62 E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E

tor tu re s p re p a r e d b e f o r e t h e i r e y e s i n o r d e r to m a k e t h em

iv e h
up t e r g i o ld e n p u r se s a n d t h e s c e n e g e n e ra lly e n d s in
g
a b itof wild h or s e pl -
a y . T h e r e i s fi g h t i n
g e n ou g h a n d a m ,b u s h
an d s u dd e n d e a t h l u r k a t e v e r y tu rn o f t h e l o n e ly r oa d s b ut

th e re i s a s l h h o n e s t c h iv a l r y f o r w o m e n an d a g e ner
o a rou g , ,

h i o f pl u n d e r wi th t h e p oo r an d n e e dy A ll li te r a tu r e
ou s s a r n g
.

RE M A IN S I
OF THE S C R P T O R U M O F F O U I NTA IN S A B B E Y
( F ou rtee n th ce nt y)
ur

”
d re am e xp re s s e d an d R o bi n H ood is th e d rea m of
a ,

or an t a n d o pp r e s s e d b u t e s s e n ti ally n obl e p e 0 p 1e s tr u g ,

d e te r mi n e d to b e f re e .

r e p oe t ical th an th e b all ad s an d m or e i n te re s ti n g ‘

an t h e ro m a n c e s ar e th e li ttl e ly r ic s of th e p e r i od
, ,

th o se te a rs a n d s m il e s o f l on g ag o th at c r y s talli z e d
i n to p oe m s to te ll u s th at th e h e ar ts of m e n a re
,

"
al ik e i n a ll ag e s Of th e s e th e b e s t k n ow n a re th e
.
,
L uv e
”
R on l( ov e r u n e or l e tte r) of T h o m as d e H al e s (c .
64 E N GLIS H L IT E R ATU R E

th e C h a n s o n d e R o la nd ; (h) Ma tte r of G re e c e an d R om e , an e n d e ss l ser es i

of fab l o u us ta l e s ab o u t Al x e an d e r, a n d a b o u tthe ll f T y ;
Fa o ro
( c ) Ma tte r of

En g l d an , stor es i vi o f H
of Be s p to n , G u y o f r am , Wa wi c k R b i o n Ho o d , e tc ; .

Ma tte r of Br i ta i ta l e s h a vi
n, n g fo r t h e r h e ro e s rt h ur i A an d h is k i gh ts
n of

th e R o u n d Tab l e . Th e b e s t o f th e s e ro m a n c e s i s S i r G a wai n an d th e G re e n

K i gh tn .
( 5) M i s c e ll an e o u s li t e ra tu re , — th e A n c re n R i w le , our b e st p i ec e of

e ar ly E ng li sh p ro s e ; O rm
’
s O rrn u lu m ; C u rs o r M u n d i wi th i ts , s u gg e s t iv e
p a ra ll l e to th e Mi rac l e p l a y s ; an d ba ll ad s , lik e K i n g Ho rn an d th e Ro b in
Hoo d s o n gs , wh ic h w e re th e on ly p oe try of th e c om m on p e 0 p 1e .

S e l e c ti ons f or R e ad i n g . F or ad v an c e d stud e n ts , an d as a s tud y of l an g ge , ua

l
iv e i M i E g li h P ty a d i M ly li ly E ng sh
’ ’
a fe w s e e c to n s as
g n n an s n s oe r n n an s

P e;ro s e le c ti o f m th e O m l m B t A
or s R iw l
ns d Ki g H ro r u u , ru , n c re n e , an n o rn ,

e t i M
c .
, i n d S k t S p im o rr s a n f E ly E g li h Th d i a ry s t d e t
ea
’
s ec e ns o ar n s . e or n u n

wil l g t a b e tt i d a f th li te a t
e f th p i d by
er i g th e f ll w
e o e r u re o e er o us n o o

i g S ir G w i
n : m de i d b y J L \Ve t i A th i a R o m a s S ri s
a a n, o rn z e . . s on , n r ur n nc e e e

( N tt) ; Th e N R l (A v i by J M t i
’
u R iw l ) m d un s u e n c re n e , o e rn e rs o n . or on , n

K i g C l as i c ; A c a i a d N i c l t tra s l te d b y A L g (C w l l
’
n s s s u C )
ss n n o e e , n a . an ro e o .

Tri tan d I l t i A th i a R o m a c e s ; E a s Th e H i gh H i s t y f th e ’
s an se u , n r ur n n v n s or o

H ly G il i T m p l e C l as i c s ; Th P
o ra , n l Og d po e e si fi i B ll s s e e ar ,
s oo
’
s r s ve r o n e e

Le tt s S e i J e we tts e x c ll t m tri l v i ( C w e l l ’
re r es, or Th e e en e ca e rs o n ro

S o n g o f R l a d i K i g C l a i c a d i R iv i d L i te a t e S i e ; E ’ ’
o n , n n s s ss s, n n e rs e r ur er s v an s

tra s l a ti ff y H i s to ry in T m p l C l i c ; G t Th Mab i gi on ’
f G
’
n on o eo re s , e e as s s ues s e no ,

i E v ry m a s L i b a y
n e S L i e s B o y Mab i og i ( i e We l h f i y t l s
n
’
r r , or . an r
’ ’
s n on . . s a r a e

a d n m ro ) ; S l c te d B a ll ad i A th aa m P
an c e s S i
e e d i P c ke t s, n en u re s s e r e s , an n o

C l s ic ; C a yl e y d F l a h ty P e t y f th e P p l e ; B te s A B a ll a d B k ’ ’
a s s an er s o r o eo a s oo .

B i b l i ogra p h y 1 His t ory T x tb h Mo tg m e ry p p 5 8 8 6 . Ch y y . e -

oo , n o , .
—
, or e ne ,

p p 88 1 44 F r f l l t G ch 2 ; T ill ; G d i J e w tts ’
.
-
t e tm . e o u t
er
c r a en , re n, . ra ar n e r, e . e

S t ry f th e N m a ( S t i s f th e N a ti S ie ) ; F e m Sh t
’
o o or ns or e o on s er s re an s or

H i to ry f th
s N m o C q t; H tt s K i g a d B a age ( O xf d
e or an on ues u on
’
n n ro n or

Man l s o f E n g li h H i s t y )
ua s or .

L it e ra t ure G l W k J us s e d ; Te B ri k ; Mi tc h ll o l 1 F m
. en era or s . ra n n n e , v .
, ro

C l t to T d
e ; Th e C m b i d g e H i to ry
u or f E g li h L i t a t a r s o n s er u re .

Sp i l W h S c h fi ld s E g li h L i te ra t e f m th e N rm n C o n q e t
’
ec a or s . o e n s ur ro o a u s

to C h a c e ; L e wi s B e gi n i g f E g li h L i t ; Ke E p ic
’
d R
’
u r t s n n s o n s e ra u r e rs an o

; S i t b ry Th F l ri h i d th e R i f A ll go ry ;
’
m c
an e a n s
g f R ma ce u s e ou s n o o n an se o e

N w ll s K i g A th a d th e R d T b l e ; M y d i Th e A th
e e
’
n r ur f th e n oun a a na e r, r ur o

E g li h P e t ; R h y S t di i th A th i Le g d s ’
n s o s s s u es n e r u r an en .

B ll d C h il d s E g li h d S c tti h P p l B ll d ; G m m
’
O ld
’
a a s . e n s an o s o u ar a a s u er s

E g li h B a ll ad (
n s v l m e ) ; H litt E a ly P op l P e t y f E g l a d ;
s on e o u az
'

s r u ar o r o n n

C a yl y n d F l a h e rty
e a P o try f th P e p l ; P e c y R li q e s f A c i t ’
s e o e o e r
’
s e u o n en

E gli h P e t y i
n s E v e ry m o L i b a ry r , n an s
’
r .

T xt T e l t i s, t Mo r is d S k e ts S p
ran s a i m e s f E a ly E g li h ;
on s , e c . r an a
’
ec n o r n s

M i S i G aw i
o rr s s
’
a d t h e G ee
r K i gh t i E ly E g li h T x t S ri s ;
a n n r n n , n ar n s e e e

ti tl d p b li h e f l B i b li g aph y tth d f
’

1 F or f e s an b ks G u s rs o re e re n ce oo se e e ne ra o r a e en o

thi b k s oo .
 TH E AN G LO— N O R M AN PE R I O D 65

Madd e n ’
s L a ya m o n
’
s B ru t, te t a n d tra n s x la ti on (a sta n d a rd wo k r , b u t ra re ) ;
Th e P
x t a d t s l ti
e ar lb y G ll
, tec ; th me p m p o
n ve si ra n a on , o an z e sa oe , r se r on ,

b y O g d m e ti l ve i
s oo s b y J e we t,t W i M i t h ll d M e a d ; G o ff e y
r ca rs o n , e r c e , an e r
’
s

H i t y t s l ti
s or i G ile s S ix O ld E g li h C h
, ra n i c l ( B h A ti q i a n
a on , n s
’
n s ro n es o n s
’
n uar

L ib a y ) ; M l y s E
r r ly E g li h P R m or e c ; J y c e s O ld C e l ti c R o
’
ar n s ro s e o an es o
’

G e ts Th M b i gi i B y s M bi g i o ; A th i ’ ’
; L
’
m an c e
s ; u s e a no on an e r s o a no n r u r an

R m o c es S e iean
(t l ti ) Th B e ll L tt e S i s e c 2 (
r s c d)
ra n s a on s . e es e r s e r es, . an n o u n e ,

wil l o t i th t x t of a l a g
c n a n mb f w k f th i s p e i o d wi th
e e ot
s e r e n u er o or s o r , n s

a d i t d
n ti n ro uc on s .

L g g M sh L c t e s
an ua th e E gli h L
e .
g ge ; B a d l e y
ar M ki g’
s e ur on n s an ua r
’
s a n

f E g li h ; L b y H i t y f th E gi i h L g g ; E m B i f
’ ’
o n s o un s o ur s s or o e n s an ua e e rs n s r e

H i s t y f th e E g li h L a g g ; G gh d K i tt e d g s W d
’
or o n d
s n ua e re e n o u an r e or s an

th i \Y y i E g li s h S p e e c h ; VV l h D v l pm t o f E g li s h L i t a t e
’
e r a s n n e s s e e o en n er ur

an d L an g u age .

S u gge s ti v e Qu e s ti on s . I . \Vh a t d i d th e No rth m en or i g i a lly n ha ve in

c om m on wi th th A g l S e n o -
a x on s an d th e D an e s ? W h a t b ro u gh t a b o u t th e
re m ar k ab l c h ge f m N e an ro o rth m en to N o rm a n s ? Te ll br i fly th e t y
e s or of

th e N o rm a n C o n q ue s t . H ow d id th e C on q ue sta ff ect th e life a d li te a t n r u re

of E ng l an d ?

2 . W h a t typ e s of li te ra t e ur w e r e p ro d u c e d a ft er th e C o n q u e s t? H ow d o
th e y c om p a re l i t t ? W h t w k o f th i s p i d e
wi th A gl S x n o- a on e ra u r e a or s er o ar

con s id e d re
p m w o th y o f
e tp l r i l i te t a er an n ac e n our ra u re

3 W h. t i s m e a t b y t h
a R i m i g C h i l ?n Wh t p a t d id th e y p l y i e n ro n c e s a r a n

d v e l o p i g th e i d a o f a ti
e n li ty ? W h a t l d h i t i s f th i p i d t
e n ona e s o r an o s er o o

w i t i v e ? D e c i b G ff y H is to y Wh t w a i ts m os t v al ab l
r e n e rs s r e eo re
’
s r . a s u e

e l e m e tf m th e
n i w p i t f li te a t r ?
ro V e o n o r u e

4 W h. t i L y m B
a t 9 Wh s
y d i d L a
a y a m
a c h t
on s
e h i am e f r h i s
’
r u . on o os s n o

Ch i l ? Wh t p c i a l li t a y i te e t a tta h t th p m ?
ro n c e a s e er r n r s c es o e oe

5 W h. t w th e M e ti c l R
a m c e ?
e re
s Wh t l d t th e g t r a o an a re a s o n s e o re a

i t t i th
n e re s l s n f m c i
re e M tt c as f Fr R m
es d o ro an e s, . e . a e rs o an c e , o e, an

B i t i ? Wh a t
r a n w d im p t t l m t e te s
ne li t t e i th i s ty p e
an o r an e e en n r our e ra u r n

R ad e e f th M t i c l R m
on o i E g li h a d c m m e t f e ly p
e e r a it o an c e s n n s n o n r e u on ,

as t i t o st st c t
n e re id d li t , y q li ty
ru u re , e as , a n e ra r ua .

6 T ll th t y f Si gh t W h t F h a d
'

. e G w i e d th s or G K o r a a n an e r ee n ni . a re n c n

wh t S x a l m t
a fo d i th p m ? C m p
on e e en s i t wi th B w lf t
a re un n e oe o a re eo u o

sh w t h e p i t o f i f i i ty p e i i ty w lf fi gh t wi th ’
o o nd s C mp e B n e r or an su r or . o ar eo u s

G re nd l th e F i e D a k e
e or d S i G aw i e r t wi th th e G r e K i gh t an r a n s
’
nc oun er re n n ,

h vi g i m i d ( 1 ) th e vi t e
a n n f th n h ( 2 ) t h q li t i f t h e m y (3 )
r u s o e e ro , e ua es o e ne ,

th m th d
e ef w f o
( 4 ) th p p s o f th e t g g l
a r a re R a d s e l c ti
,
s f m e ur ose o s ru e . e e on ro

Th P l a d c mp wi th D t W h t e th e p e o l a d th ’
e ea r n L m o a re e or s a en . a ar rs na n e

un iv l i t est i e h p m ?
e rs a n er s n ac oe

7 T ll . m ty p i c l s t
e o y f som th M b i gi
e \Vh e d i d th A th
a ia r ro e a no on . er e r ur n

l g d o i g i t d h w d id th e y b c m k w t E gli h d ? W h t
e en s r n a e , an o e o e no n o n s re a e rs a

m d o w i t s h av
e rn d th
r l g d ? Wh t fi
er e l e m ts d y fi d i
us e ese e en s a ne e en o ou n n

th m th ta
e tf a d i A gl S x re n o p t r y ? oun n n o- a on oe
66 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

8 . Wh at p a r t d id A pl y
ly h i t y o f B i t i ? H w l g
rth u r a i n th e e ar s or r a n o on

d id th e t g gl b tw s ru B ri t an d S a x
e e l t? Wh t C l ti
e en m es
on s d on s as a e c na an

l m t t e d i t E g li h l a g ge d li t t
e e en s en er n o n s n ua an e ra u re

9 W h
. t i b ll da d w h
s a t d i ti n ga i h a i t,f m anth f m f p oa try ? s u s es ro o er or s o e

D c ri b e th e b ll a d w h i c h y
es lik b t Wh y d id th e b l l d m e th
a ou
y e es . a a , or an an

o th f m f li te t
er or o
pp l t t h e c o m
ra u re m p e p,l ?
a W h tm dea p mo on o e a o e rn oe s

su
gg t th ees ld p p
o l a b l l od ? H o w d o th e s e c o m p a
u r i f m
a ad bje t re n or an su c

m a tt wi th th e R ob i n H o d b ll a d ?
er o a s

C HR O N O L OG Y

H I STO R Y L I T E R AT U R E

91 2 . No rth m e n se l
tt e i n N o rm a n d y
1 0 66 . B a tte l of H a s ti n g s . W illi a m ,

ki n
g of E ng l an d
10 86 . D om e sda y Boo k c om p l e ed
t
10 87 . Willi am Ru f us

10 93 . A nse lm , a rc h b is h o
p of C a n te r
b ur y A n se lm ’
s C u r D e us Hom o
1 0 96 . F i rs t C r u s a de
1 1 00 . I l e n ry I 1 1 10 . F i r s t re c o r de d M i ra c l e p l y
a in
1 1 35 . S te p h e n E ng l an d
(s e e c h ap t
e r on th e
D ra m a )
1 1 47 . S e c o n d C ru s a d e Ge of f ey
r
’
s H i s to ry
1 1 54 . H e n ry I I
1 1 89 . R i c h a rd I . Th i rd C ru s a d e
1 1 99 . J oh n L aya m on s
’
B ru t
1 21 5 . Mag n a C h arta
1 21 6 . H e n ry II I A n c re n R iw le
Un iv e i ty
rs of C am b r d ge i
c h a r te re d
1 265 . Beg i inn n
g of Ho us e of C o m
m on s . i
S m o n d e Mo n t o rt f 1 2 67 . R o g e r B ac o n
’
s O p u s M aj u s
Ed w a rd I
F i rs t c o m
p l e te P li ar am e n t 1 3 0 0 -
1 40 0 . Y k or an d Wa k e fi e l d .

M i r ac l e p l y a s

1 30 7 . Ed w d II ar C u rs o r Mu n d i
1 3 27 . E dw d I I I ar

1 338 . B e gi i g nn n of H u n d re d Y e a rs
’

W wi th ar F ra n c e B i rth of C h au c e r
S ir G a w i a n . Th e P e ar l
 C H A PT E R I V

THE AGE OF CHAU CE R

THE NE W N AT I O N A L I
L FE AN D L I T E R AT U R E
Hi s tory of th e P e r i od . Two gre a tm ov e m e n ts m ay b e n ote d in th e
c om ple x l if e of E n gl an d d u ri n g th e fou rte e n th c e n tu ry . Th e fi r st i s
i i
p o l i tc a l , an d c u l m n ate s in th e r e gn of E w a rd I t s h o w s th e i d III .

i
gro w th of th e E n gl sh n a ton a l s p r t fo l l ow i n g th e ct i
o r e s of ii vi i
d
E w ar d an d k Pri n c e on F re n c h so i l d u rin g th e H un d re d
th e B l ac ,

Y e ars War I n th e ru s h of th i s gre a tn ati on a l m ove m e n t s e p arati n g

’
.
,

E n gl an d f ro m th e p o l iti c a l ti e s of F ran c e an d to a l e s s d e gre e f rom , ,

e c c l e s i a sti c a l bon dage to R om e th e m u tua l di stru st an d j e al ou sy ,

w h i c h h ad di v id e d n ob l e s an d c om m on s w e re m o m e n ta ri l y s w e p t
a s id e by a w av e of p at ri o ti c e n th u si asm Th e F re n c h l an guage l o st .

i ts o ffi c i a l p re sti ge a n d E n gl i s h b e c a m e th e s p e e c h n o t on l y of th e
,

c o m m on e o p l e b u to f c o u r ts a n d P ar l i a m e n t a s w e l l
p .

Th e s e c o n d m ov e m e n t is so c i a l ; it fa l l s l arg e l y w i th i n th e re i gn
of E d w a rd s su c c e s s or R i c h a rd I I an d m a rk s th e gro w i n g d i sc on
’

, ,

te n tw i th th e c on tra s tb e t we e n l uxu ry an d p ov e rty b e tw e e n th e id l e ,

w e a l th y c l ass e s an d th e ov e rtax e d p e asan ts S om e ti m e s th i s m ove .

m e n ti s q u i e t an d s t ro n g as w h e n Wy c l i f a rou se s t
,
h e c on sc i e n c e o f
E n gl an d ; aga i n it h as th e p o rte n tou s ru m b l e of an a p p roac h i n g
te m p e st a s w h e n J oh n B a l l h a ran gu e s a m u l ti t
,
u d e of di sc on t en t ed

p e asan ts on B l ac k H e a th c o m m on s u s i n g th e fa m ou s te x t: ,

Wh e A d m d e l v d d E e s p
n a e an v an

Wh o h e n th
w as t e g e n tl e m an ?

an d a a n
g i itb re ak s ou t i n to th e vi o l e n t re be l l i on of WatTyl e r All .

th e s e th i n gs sh o w th e sam e S ax on sp i ri tth a t h ad w on i ts f re e d om in
h ou sa n d y e a rs s tru ggl e a ga i n s tfo re i gn e n e m i e s a n d th a tn ow f e l t
’
a t ,

i ts e lf o p p re ss e d by a s oc ia l an d i n d us tri a l ty ran n y in its o w n m id st .

As id e f rom th e s e tw o m ov e m e n ts th e a ge w a s on e of u n u sua l sti r ,

an d
p rogre ss C h iva l ry th a tm e d i ae va l i n s ti tu ti o n o f m i x e d good an d
.
,

e v i l w a s in it
, s I n di a n s u m m e r — a se n t i m e n trath e r th an a p rac ti c a l
,

sy st em T rad e an d i ts re su l tan tw e a l th an d l u x u ry we re i n c r e as i n g
.
, ,

67
68 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
e n o rm ou s ly . F ol l ow in g ik i n gs h ad fo l l o w e d gl o ry th e
tra d e , as th e V ,

E n gl i sh b e gan to b e a c on q u e r i n g a n d c o l o n i z i n g p e o p l e l i k e th e An gl o ,

S a x on s Th e n a ti v e s h e d som e th in g of h is i n s u l ari t
. y an d be c am e a
trav e l e r go i n g fi rs t t
,
o vi e w t h e p l ac e s w h e re tra d e h a d o p e n e d th e
way a n d re tu rn i n g w i th w i d e r i n t
,
e re s ts a n d a l a rge r h o r i z o n Above .

all t
,
h e fi rs t d a w n o f th e R e n a i ssan c e is h e ra l d e d in E n gl a n d a s in ,

S p a i n a n d I ta ly by th e a p p e a a n c e o f a n a ti on a l l i te ra tu re
,
r .

F iv e Wri te r s of th e Age Th e l i te rar y m o v e m e n t of th e age

.

cl e a rly r e fl e c ts th e s ti r ri n g li f e o f th e ti m e s T h e re is L a n g .

l an d v o ici n g th e s o ci a l d i s c o n te n t p rea c h i n g th e e q u a li ty o f
, ,

m e n a n d th e d i g n i ty o f l a b or ; Wycli f g r ea te s t of E n g li s h ,

r e li i ou s r e f o r m e r s
g g ivi n g th e G os p e l to th e p e o pl e in th e i r
,

own t on g u e an d t h e f re e d o m of th e G o s p e l in u n n u m b e r e d
,

tra c ts a n d add re s s e s ; G o w e r th e s c h ol a r a n d li te rar y m a n , ,

c ri tici s i n g th i s vig oro u s li f e an d pl a i n ly a f ra id of its c on s e

q u e n c e s ; a n d M a n d e vill e th e tra v e l e r ro m an ci n g a b o u t th e
, ,

w on d e rs to b e s e e n a b road A b ov e a ll th e r e is C h au c e r .
,

s c h ol a r t r a v e l e r b u s i n e s s m an c o u r t
, , i e r S h ar i n g in all th e s ti r , ,

r i n g li f e o f h is t i m e s a n d re fl e c ti n g it i n l i te ratu re as n o o th e r
,

b u t S h ak e s p ea re h as e v e r d o n e O uts id e o f E n g l a n d th e g re at .

e s t li t e ra r y i n fl u e n c e o f t h e ag e w a s th a t o f D an te P e tra rc h , ,

a n d B o cc a cci o w h o s e w o r k s t , h e n a tth e s u m m i tof th e i r in fl u

,

e n c e in I t aly p r o f o u n dly a ff e c t
, ed t h e li te ra tu re of all E u rop e .

C HA U C E R ( 1 3 40
— 1 40 0 )
Wh a tm an a rtow q uo d h e
Th ou lo k e s t as th o u w o ld e s t fin d e a n h a re ,
F or e ve r u pon th e g ro u n d I see hee
t st
a re .

A pp ro c he n e e r, a n d l o ke up m e r i ly .

He se h
met e l v ish b y h is c on t
e n a un c e .
’

( Th e H os ts d e s c r i p ti o n
’
of C h au c e r,
P l og
ro ue , S i r Th op a s )

ou R e adi n g Ch au c e r d i ffi c u l ti e s o f r e adi n g C h au c e r
Th e
'

are m o re a pp ar e n t t h a n r e al b e i n g d u e l arg e ly to ob so l e te ,

s p e l li n
g a n d th e re i s s m a ll n e c e s s it
, y for u s i n g an y m od e rn
v e r s i o n s o f th e p oe ts w or k w h ic h s e e m to m i s s th e q u i e t
’

,
 G E OF F R E Y C HA U C E R
Aft
er wli
th e R a n s on P t l P t it Oxf
as e o r ra ,
ord
7O E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
th i rd fi fte e n ye a rs ge n e ra l ly kn ow n as th e E n gl i sh p e riod is th e
,
of , ,

ti m e of C h a uc e r s r i c h e s td e v e l o p m e n t H e l i v e s a t h o m e o bs e rv e s
’
.
,

l ife c l ose ly b u tk i n d ly an d w h i l e th e F re n c h i n fl u e n c e is s ti l l s tron g

, ,

as s h o w n in th e Ca n te r b u ry Ta les h e se e m s to grow m o re in d e p e n d
,

e n to f f o re i gn m o d e l s an d is d o m i n at e d c h i e fly by t h e v i go ro u s l i fe o f
h is o w n E n g l i s h p e o p l e .

C h au c e r s b o y h o od w as s p e n t in L on d on o n T h am e s S tre e tn e a r
’
,

th e riv e r w h e re th e w or l d s c o m m e rc e w as c o n ti n ua l l y c o m in g an d
’

g o i n
g T h e re h e sa w d a i ly t h e s h i p m an of t h e Ca n t er
F i r s tP e ri od
.

h u r i Ta le s j us t h om e in h is good s h i p Mau d e layn e w i t

'
h ,

th e fasc i n a ti on of u n k n own l an d s in h is c l o t h e s an d c on ve rsa ti on .

O f h is e d u c a ti on w e k n o w n o th i n g e x c e p tth a th e wa s a gre a tre ad e r

, .

H is fa th e r w as a w i n e m e rc h an t pu r v e yor to th e roya l h ou s e h o l d
_ , ,

an d f ro m t h i s ac c id e n ta l re l a ti on b e tw e e n trad e an d ro y al ty m ay
h av e a r is e n th e fac tth a ta ts e v e n te e n y e a rs C h auc e r w as m ad e p age
to t h e P ri n c e ss E l i za b e th T h i s wa s th e b e gin n i n g of h is c on n e c ti on
.

w i th th e b ri l l i an t c ou rt w h i c h in th e n e x t forty y e ars un d e r th re e
, ,

k i n gs ,
h e w as to k n ow so i n ti m ate ly .

At n i n e te e n he w e n t w ith th e ki n g y e x ped i
on on e of h e m an
t
ti o n s of t h e H un d re d Y e ars Wa r an d h e re h e s aw c h iva l ry an d a ll
’
,

th e p age an try of m e di ae v a l w a r a tth e h e i gh to f th e i r ou tw a rd s p l e n

d or Ta k e n p ri son e r a t th e u n su c c e ssf u l s i e ge o f R h e i m s h e is sa id
.
,

to h av e b e e n ran som e d b y m on e y o u to f t h e roya l p u rse R e tu rn i n g .

to E n gl an d h e b e c am e af te r a fe w y e ars sq u i re of t
, h e ro y a l h ou s e
h o l d th e p e rson a l a tte n d a n tan d c o n fi d an t of th e ki n g I tw a s d u r
, .

in g th i s fi rs t p e r i od th a t h e m a rri e d a m ai d of h on o r to th e q u e e n .

T h i s was p robab ly Ph i l i pp a R oe t S i ste r to th e w i fe of J oh n of G au n t

, ,

th e fam o u s D uke o f L an c as te r F ro m n u m e rou s w h i m s ic a l re fe re n c e s

.

in h is e a rl y p o e m s it h as b e e n th o u gh t th a t th i s m a rr i a ge i n to a
,

n o b l e fa m ily w as n o t a h a
p p y on e ; b u t th i s is p u re l y a m atte r o f
s u p p os i ti on o r of d oub tf u l i n f e re n c e .

I n 1 3 7 0 C h au c e r w as s e n ta b roa d on th e fi rst o f th os e d i p l o m a ti c
m i ss ion s t h atw e re to oc c u py th e gre a te r p a rto f th e n e x t fi f te e n y e a rs .

Tw o y e ars l a te r h e m ad e h is fi rs t o ffi c i a l vi s i t to I ta ly to a rran ge ,

a c om m e c i a l t re at yr w i th G e n oa an d f ro m th i s ti m e is
d P i d
,
S e con er o
n otic e a b l e a rap i d d e ve l o p m e n t in h is l i te ra ry p o w e rs
an d t h e p ro m i n e n c e of I tal ian l i te ra ry i n fl u e n c e s D u ri n g th e i n te r .

v a l s be tw e e n h is d i ff e re n t m i ss i on s h e fi l l e d va ri ous o ffic e s a th om e ,

c h i e f o f w h ic h w as C o m
p tro l l e r o f C u s tom s a t th e p o rt o f L o n d on .

An e n orm o us a m oun t o f p e rson a l l abo r w as i n vo l v e d ; b u t C h auc e r

 TH E AG E O F C H AU C E R 71

se e m s to h a ve fou n d ti m e t
o f o l l ow h is Sp r i i t i n to he
t n ew fie lds of

I tal ian l i te ratu re :

F or w h an hy
t l ab o u r d oo n a1 is ,
An d h a s ty m aa d th y -
re k e n i n g e s ,

e d e o f re s t
I n st e an d ne we h in g e s ,
t
Th o u g os th o om to t h y b o u s a n oo n ,
An d , a l s o d o m b as a n
y s to on ,
Th o i tte s ta tan oth e r b o k e
u s

T il f u l l y d as w e d i s t
h y lo ke ,

An d l iv e s tth u s as a n h e rm y te .
1

In 3 8 6 C h au c e r w as e l e te
1 c d b
m e m e r of Par l a m e n tf ro m K e n t , i
an d the di i c y
stn t i i d
l E n gl sh p e r o of h is l f e an d w or e g n s i h ou gh kb i . T
P
Th ird e ri od
x i
e c e e d n g ly us b y b
in p u l ic a ff a rs an d a s re c e e r of c u s i iv
to m s , h i s h e a rtw a s s tl l t i wi
h h is oo s , f ro m h c h on l b k w i y
n at
u re c ou ld w in h im

An d as for m e , t
h ou gh t
h a tm y w i tb e l y te ,

O n b o k e s fo r to re d e I m e d e ly te,

An d to h e m ye ve I h
fe y t an d ful c re d e n c e ,

An d i n m y n h e r te h a v e h e m i n re v e re n c e
S o h e r te ly , th a tth e r i s g a m e n oon
T h a t fro m y b o k e s m a k e th m e to g oo n ,
B u th i tb e l d om o n th e h ol y d a y
se ,

S a v e c e r te y n ly w h a n th a tth e m o n th o f M a y
, ,

I s c om e n a n d th a t I h e re t
, h e fo u l e s s i n g e ,

A n d th a tth e fl o u re s g i n n e n fo r t o s p ri n g e

F arw e l m y b oo k an d m y d e v o c i ou n 2

I n th e fou rte e n th y p ol i tic s se e m s to h a v e b e e n fo r h on e st

c en t
ur ,

m e n a v e ry u n c e r t
, a i n b u s i n e ss C h au c e r n atu ra l l y ad h e r e d to th e
.

p a rt y o f J o h n o f G aun t a n d h i s f o rtu
,
n e s r ose o r f e l l w i th th ose o f h i s

l e ad e r F ro m th i s ti m e u n ti l h is d e a th h e is u p an d d ow n on th e
.

p o l i ti c a l l ad d e r ; to d ay wi th m on e y a n d good p ro sp e c ts to m o rro w
- -
,

in p o v e rt y an d n e gl e c t w ri tin g h is C om p l a in tto H is E m p ty Pu rs ”
, ,

w h i c h h e h u m o r ou s l y c a l l s h i s s av e ou r d oun in t h i s w e rld e h e re
”
.

T h i s p o e m c a l l e d th e ki n g s a tte n ti on to th e p o e ts n e e d an d i n c re ase d
’ ’

h i s p e n s i on b u th e h ad b u tfe w m o n th s to e n j oy th e e ff e c to f th i s
F o r h e di e d th e n e x t y e a r 1 4 0 0 an d w a s
u ”
u n u su a l C om p la in t .
, ,

bu ri e d w i th h on o r in We stm i n ste r Abb e y Th e l astp e ri od of h is l i fe .

,

th ou gh ou tw ard l y m o s t trou b l e d w a s th e m os t f ru i tfu l o f all ,

H is .

1 Hou s e of F a m e, 1 1 , 6 5 2 if . Th e pa s s a ge i s m o re or l e s s au t i
ob o gr a p h ca i l .

2 L eg e n d f
o Good Wom e n ,
P l
r o o gu e , 2 ll
9 ff . .
72 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

T ru th ,
”
or G oo d C ou n se l , v e a l s th e q u i e t b e au ti f u l s p i r i tof h is
”
re ,

l ife ,
u n sp o il e d e i th e r b y th e gre e d o f trad e o r th e t i c k e y o f p o l i ti c s r r

F leef ro th e p re e s , a n d d w e l l e w i t h s o th fa s tn e s s e ,
S u ffy c e u n to th y g oo d , th o u g h h i tb e s m a l ;
F or h o r d 1
h a th h a te , a n d c l i m b i n g tik e ln e s s e ,
P re e s h a th e n v y e
2
w l ov e ral ; , an d e e
3
b l e n t4
S av o u r n o m o re th an th e e b i h o e s h a l ; v

We rk w e l th y s e l f th a to th e r fol k c an s tre d e
5
,

An d tro u th e s h a l d e li v e re h i tis n o d re d e ,
.

Te m pe st
6
hee
t n og h ta l c ro k e d t
o re d re s s e ,
I n tru s to f h i r 7
th a ttu r n e th as a b al :
G re tre s te sta n ti n l i te l b e s in e s se
8 9
A n d e e k b e w a r to s p o rn e ag e n an a l
y ;
S try v e n og h t, as d o th th e c ro kk e wi th h e w al
t .

D au n t
e yse l f
’0
th ,
h a td a u n t
t h e re s d e d e
e s to t

An d h e sh a l
tro u t d e li v e re , h i ti s no d re d e .

Th hee
a tt is se n t, re c
e ve
y i n b u xum n e s s e ,
Th e w ras tl i n g fo r th i s w o r ld e h
ax e t a fa l .

He r n is n on h oo m , h e r n is b u tw i ld e r n e s s e
F th p i l g i m f th F
or ,
r , or h
ort , b e s te , o u to f hy
t sta ll
K w th y c o t e l k
no n re , oo up, h
t an k G od o f al ;
Ho l d th e h y e w e y, la tt
an d h y g o s tth e e l e d e :

A n d tro u th e sh a l d e li v e re , h i ti s n o d re d e .

Work s Ch au c e r ,
F i rs t P e ri od Th e w ork s o f C h au c e r
of .

a r e r o u g h ly d ivid e d i n t o t h r e e cl as s e s c o rr e s p o n di n g to th e ,

th re e p e r i od s o f h is li f e I t S h o u ld b e re m e m b e r e d h ow e v e r .
, ,

th a t it i s i m p os s ibl e to fi x e x a c t d ate s f o r m os t o f h is w or k s .

S om e of h is Ca n te r b u ry Ta le s w e re w r i tte n e arli e r th a n th e
E n g l i s h p e r i od a n d w e re o n ly g r ou p e d wi th th e o th e rs i n h is
,

fi n a l arra n ge m e n t .

Th e b e s t k n o w n th o u g h n ot th e b e s t p oe m of th e fi rs t , ,

p e ri od is th e R ouza u n t of th e R os e 1 1 a tran s l ati on f rom th e ,

F re n c h R om a n d e la R os e th e m os t p op u l ar p oe m of th e ,

1 wea th l .
2 th e c ro wd .
3 s uc c e ss .
4 b li nds .
5 ac t .
6 tro u b l e .

7 i . e . th e g o d d e s s F o rtu n e .
8 ki k c .
9 aw l .
10 j u dg e .

11 F o r th e y
t p ogra p h o f tte s th ey il auth or h as ad o pted th e p l a n of pu tti n il
g th e tte s o f
a ll bo o k s , a n d o f a ll im p o rt
an tw k or s ge n e ra lly re ga rd e d a s s n g e i l boo k s, in i li
ta c s nd l i ~

q
.

vid l ua p o e m s , e s sa s , y etc .
, a re i n R o m an l ette r s wi th t ti
uo a on ma r k s . Th u s w e h v
a e
th e K i
n g h ts Ta e ,
’ ”
l or th e stor y of P a la m on a nd A it rc e,
”
e r b u r y Ta le s
i n th e Ca n t .

Th i y
s s st
e m se e m s o n th e wh l o e th e b e st, th o u gh it m a y re s u l ti n s om e i n c on s st i
e nc e s i .
 TH E AG E OF C H AU C E R 73

Middl e A ge s c e f u l b u t e xc e e di n g ly ti re s om e a ll e g ory
,
a g ra

of t h e w h o l e c ou r se of l ov e Th e R os e g rowi n g in its my s tic

.

g a r d e n i s typ ic a l of t h e l a dy B e au t y G a th e rin
g th e R os e .

re p r e s e n t h e l ov e r s a tte m p t to w in h is l a dy s f a v or ; an d
’ ’
s t

th e di ff e re n t f e e li n g s aro u s e d L o v e H a te E n vy J e a l ou s y , , , ,

I dl e n e s s S w e e t L oo k s are th e a ll e g o ric al p e r s on s o f th e
,
—

p oe ts d ra m a C h a u c e r tran s l ate d th i s u n ive r s a l fa v or i te p u t

’
.
,

ti n g i n s o m e o r i g i n al E n g li s h to u c h e s ; b u t o f th e p r e s e n t
R om a u n t on ly th e fi r s t s e v e n te e n h u n d re d li n e s ar e b e l i e v e d
to b e C h a u c e r s o w n w ork
’
.

"
P e r h ap s th e b e s t p oe m of th i s p e r i od is th e D e th e of
” "
B l an c h e th e D u c h e ss e b e tte r k n o w n a s th e B ok e of th e
,

”
D uche s se a p o e m o f c on s id e ra bl e d ra m at
, ic an d e m oti on al
p ow e r w r i tte n a f te r th e d e ath of B l an c h e wi f e of C h a u c e r s
, ,
’

"
p atr on J oh n of G a u n t A dd i ti on a l p oe m s are th e C om p le y n te
, .

” " ”
to P i te , a g ra c e f u l l ov e p oe m ; t he A B C a p r ay e r to t he ,

V i rg i n tr an s l ate d f r om th e F r e n c h o f a C i s te r ci a n m on k its
, ,

v e rs e s b e g i n n i n g wi th th e s u cc e s s iv e l e tte rs o f th e a lp h a b e t;
"
a n d a n u m b e r o f w h a t C h au c e r c a ll s b a ll ad s rou n d e l s an d , ,
” "
vi r e l ay s wi th w h ic h s ay s h is f r i e n d G ow e r th e l a n d w a s
, , ,

”
fi ll e d Th e l atte r w e re i m i tati on s of th e p re v a ili n g F re n c h
.

l ov e d i tti e s .

S ec on d P e ri od Th e c h i e f w or k of th e s e c o n d or I ta li a n
.

p e r i od is Tr oi lu s a n d Cr is ey d e a p o e m of e i g h t th ou s a n d ,

l i n e s Th e o ri g i n a l s tor y w a s a fa v ori te of m an y au th or s
.

d u r i n g th e M iddl e A g e s an d S h a k e s p e are m ak e s u s e of itin

,

h is Tr o i lu s a n d Cre s s id a Th e i m m e di ate s o u r c e o f C h a u c e r s
’
.

" ”
p oe m is B o cc acci o s [ l F i los tra to th e l o v e s m itte n on e ; b u t
’

,
-

h e u s e s h is m a te r i a l v e ry f r e e ly to r e fl e c t th e id e a l s of h is ,

o w n a g e an d s o ci e t y an d s o g iv e s to th e w h ol e s tory a d r a
,

m atic f or c e an d b e a u ty w h ic h i t h ad n e v e r k n ow n b e f o re .

H ou s of F a m e i s on e o f C h a u c e r s u n fi n i s h e d p oe m s
” ’
Th e ,

h avi n g th e ra r e c om bi n ati on of l o f ty th o u gh t an d s i m pl e ,

h om e ly l an g uage S h owi n g th e i n fl u e n c e of th e g re at I ta l i an
,

m as te r I n th e p oe m th e au th or is c arr i e d aw ay in a d re am
.
74 E N GLISH L IT E R ATU R E
by a gr e a t e a g e l f ro m b r i ttl e te m pl e o f Ve n u s in a
th e ,

sa n dy wi ld e rn e s s , up to th e h all o f f am e To th i s h ou s e c om e .

a ll r u m o r s of e a rth, as t h e s p ar k s fl y u pwa rd Th e h ou s e .

st
an ds o n a ro ck of ic e
w ri te n fu l of n am e s

Of fo l k h a th
t ad d e n g re te f am e s .

M an y of th e s e h av e di sa pp e a re d a s th e ic e m e l te d ; b u t th e
o ld e r n am e s ar e cl e ar a s w h e n fi rs t w r i t te n F or m an y o f h is .

id e as C h a u c e r is i n d e b te d to D an te Ovid an d V i rg il ; b u t , ,

th e u n u s u a l c on c e p ti on an d th e s pl e n did w o r k m an s h ip a re all
h is ow n .

Th e th i r d g re at p oe m of th e p e ri o d is th e L eg e n d e of G ood e
Wi r nrn e n A s h e i s re s ti n g in th e fi e ld s a m on g th e d a i s i e s ,
.

he fa ll s l p an d a gay p ro c e s s i on d raw s n e ar F i rs t c om e s
as e e .

th e l o v e god l e adi n g by th e h a n d A lc e s ti s m od e l o f a ll wi f e ly
, ,

vi rtu e s w h o s e e m bl e m is th e d a i s y ; an d b e h i n d th e m f oll o w
,

a t rou p o f g l or i o u s w o m e n all o f w h om h av e b e e n fa i t
, h f u l in
l o v e T h e y gath e r a b ou t th e p oe t th e god u pb ra id s h im for
.

h a vi n g tra n s l a te d th e R om a n c e of th e R os e a n d f o r h is e ar ly ,

p oe m s re fl e c ti n g on th e v an i ty an d fic k le n e s s o f w o m e n .

A lc e s ti s i n te r c e d e s fo r h i m a n d o ff e r s p a r d on i f h e will a ton e
,

fo r h is e rr o r s by w r i ti n g a g l o r i ou s l e g e n d of goo d w o m e n
"
.

C h a u c e r p ro m i s e s a n d a s soon a s h e a wa k e s s e ts h i m s e l f to
,

"
th e ta s k N i n e l e g e n d s w e re w ri tte n of w h ic h T h i s b e is "
,
.

p e rh ap s th e b e s t I t is p ro ba bl e that C h au ce r i n te n d e d to
.

m ak e th i s h is m as te r pi e c e d e v oti n g m an y y e ar s to s tor i e s o f
,

fa m o u s w om e n w h o w e r e tru e to l ov e ; b u t e i th e r b e c au s e h e
w e a ri e d of h is th e m e or b e c au s e th e pl an of th e Ca n te rb u ry Ta le s
,

w a s g ro wi n g i n h i s m i n d h e a b an d on e d th e t , a s k in t h e m iddl e
o f h is n i n t h l e ge n d f ortu n ate ly p e rh a p s for th e r e ad e r will
,
-
, ,

fin d th e P rol o g u e m or e i n te r e s ti n g th an a n y o f th e l e g e n d s .

Th ir d P e ri od C h a u c e r s m a s te r pi e c e th e Ca n te r b u ry Ta le s
’
.
, ,

on e o f t h e m os t f am ou s w o r k s in all l i te ra ture fill s th e th i rd ,

or E n li s h p e r i o d o f h i s li fe Th e pl an of th e w or k i s m ag n ifi
g .

c e n t to re p re s en tth e wid e s we e p of E n gl i s h l i f e by ga th e r i n g
 T H E AG E O F C H AU C E R 75

a m otl e y c om p an y tog e th e r a n d l e tti n g e a c h clas s of s o ci e ty

te ll its o w n f av or i te s tor i e s T h o u g h th e g re a tw or k w as n e v e r
.

fi n i s h e d C h au c e r s u cc e e d e d in h i s p u rp ose s o w e l l th at in th e
,

Ca n te r b u ry Ta les h e h a s g iv e n u s a pic tu r e o f c on te mp ora ry

E n g li s h li f e its w or k an d pl ay i ts d e e d s an d d r e a m s its f u n
, , ,

a n d s y m p at hy an d h e ar ty joy of livi n g s uc h as n o o th e r s i n g l e
,

w o rk of li te ra tu re h as e v e r e q u al e d .

P l an of th e Can te rb u ry T ale s . O pp os i te o ld L on d on at ,

th e s ou th e r n e n d of L on d on B r id g e o n c e s tood th e T a b ar d
,

TA B A R D INN

Inn of S ou th w ar k , a q u ar te r m ad e fa m o u s n ot o n ly by th e
Ca n te r b u ry Ta le s b u t al so by th e fi rs t pl ay h o u s e s w h e r e
,

S h ak e s p e ar e h ad h i s tra i n i n g T h i s S o u th w a r k w a s th e p o i n t
.

o f d e p ar t u r e o f a ll tra v e l t o t h e s o u th of E n g l a n d e s p e ci a lly
,

of t h o se m e di ae v al pil gr i m ag e s to th e s h r i n e of T h om a s a
B e ck e t in Ca n te r b u r y . O n a s p ri n g e v e n i n g a t th e i n s pi r i n g
,

”
ti m e of th e y e a r w h e n l on ge n f olk to goon on p il g r i m age s ,

C h au c e r al i g h ts a t th e T a b ar d I n n a n d fi n d s it o cc u pi e d by
,

a v ar i o us c om p an y of p e opl e b e n t on a pil r i m a g e C h a n ce
g .

a l on e h a d b ro u h t t h e m to e th e r f or i t w a s th e c u s to m o f
g g ;
76 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

pil g rim s to w a i t at s o m e f ri e n dly in n u n til a s u fli c ie n t c om

p an y w e re g ath e r e d to m ak e th e j ou r n e y pl e as a n t an d sa f e
f rom ro bb e r s th at m i gh t b e e n c o u n te re d on th e w ay C h au c e r .

j oi n s th i s c om p a n y w h ic h i n cl u d e s a ll cl as s e s of E n g li s h s o ci
,

e t f r om t h e O x f o r d s c h ol a r to t h e d ru n k e n m ill e r a n d a cc e p t s
y , ,

g l a dly th e i r i n vi ta ti on t o g o wi t h th e m on t h e m or ro w .

A t s u pp e r th e j ovi a l h o s t o f th e T a b a r d I n n s u gg e s ts th at ,

to e n liv e n th e j o u rn e y e a c h of th e c om p a n y S h a l l te ll f ou r
,

ta l e s tw o g oi n g an d tw o c o m i n g o n w h a t
,
e v e r s u bj e c t s h a ll
,

s u i t h im b e s t Th e h os t will tra ve l wi th th e m a s m a s te r of
.

c e re m on i e s a n d w h oe v e r te ll s th e b e s t s tory S h all b e g iv e n a
,

fin e s u pp e r at th e g e n e ral e xp e n s e w h e n th e y a ll c om e b a ck
aga i n a s h r e wd b it o f b u s i n e s s an d a fin e id e a as t
,
— h e pil ,

gr i m s all a gr e e .

Wh e n th e y d ra w l ots for th e fi rs t s tory th e c h an c e fa ll s to

th e K n i g h t w h o te ll s o n e o f th e b e s to f th e Ca n t
, e r b u ry Ta le s ,

”
th e c h iv a l r ic s tory of Palam on a n d A r ci te T h e n th e tal e s.

foll ow ra pidly e ac h wi th its p r ol ogu e a n d e pil og u e te lli n g h ow

, ,

th e s to r y c a m e a b ou t an d its e ff e c ts on th e m e r ry c om p a n y
,
.

I n te rr u p ti on s a re n u m e r ou s ; th e n arrativ e i s f u ll of li f e an d
m ov e m e n t a s w h e n t , h e m ill e r g e ts d ru n k an d i n s i s ts on te ll
in g h is tal e ou t of s e as o n or w h e n th e y s t0 p ata f r i e n dly in n
,

fo r th e n i g h t or w h e n th e p oe t wi th s ly h u m or s ta rts h is s tor y
,
" ”
of S i r Th op as i n d rea r y i m i tati on of th e m e tr ic a l rom an c e s
,

"
of t h e d ay an d is roa re d a t by th e h o s t f or h is
, d ras ty
r m in g
y W i.th
”
C h au c e r w e l au h a t h i s o w n e xp e n s e
g a n d ,

ar e r e ady fo r t h e n e x t ta l e .

F ro m th e n u m b e r o f p e rs on s in th e c ompan y th i rty tw o in ,
-

a ll i t is e vid e n t t
, h at C h au c e r m e di tate d a n i m m e n s e w o rk o f
o n e h un d re d a n d t w e n ty e ig h t tal e s w h ic h s h o u ld c ov e r th e
-
,

w h ol e li f e of E n gl an d On ly tw e n ty f ou r w e r e w r i tte n s om e
.
-

of t h e se are i n c o m pl e te a n d o th e r s a re tak e n fr om h is e ar l i e r
,

w ork to fill ou t th e g e n e ral pl an o f th e Ca n te r b u ry Ta le s .

I n c o m pl e te as th e y are th e y c ov e r a wid e r an g e in cl udi n g

.
, ,

st o ri e s o f l o v e a n d c h iv a l ry of s a i n ts an d l e g e n d s , trav e l s , ,
78 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
so ci e ty m an n e rs ,
po rti n g m o n k an d th e fat f ri ar th e d is
th e s ,

c re e t m a n o f law th e w e ll fe d c ou n try s q u i r e th e s a il or j u s t
,
-
,

h om e f ro m s e a th e ca n n y d oc to r th e l o v a bl e p a r i s h p ri e s t
, ,
"
who t au g h t t r u e r e li g i on to h is fl o ck b u t fi rs t h e folw e d ,

i t h im s e lv e ; th e c o ars e b u t g o od h ea rte d Wy f of B ath th e

”
-
,

th i e vi n g m ill e r l e ad i n g th e pil gr i m s to t h e m u s ic of h i s b ag -

pip e — all th e s e an d m an y oth e r s f rom e v e ry wa lk of E n g li s h

,

li f e an d all d e s c r ib e d wi th a q u i e t ki n dly h u m or w h ic h s e e k s
, ,

i n s ti n c tiv e ly th e b e s t i n h u m an n atu r e an d w h ic h h as an ,

a m pl e g a r m e n tof c h ar i t y to c ov e r e v e n i ts f au l ts an d f a ili n g s .

H e re i n d e e d a s D ryd e n s ay s i s G od s pl e n ty
,
”
, ,
"
P ro b ably
’

.
”

n o k e e n e r or ki n d e r c r i tic e v e r d e s c r ib e d h is f e ll o w s ; a n d in
”
th i s i m m or ta l P r ol ogu e C h au c e r is a m od e l for a ll th os e
w h o w ou ld p u t o ur h u m an li f e i n t o wri t i n g Th e s tu d e n t .

s h o u ld r e ad it e n t i r e as a n i n trod u c ti on n ot on ly to th e p oe t
,

b ut to all o u r m od e rn li te ratur e .

Th e K n i gh t s Tale ’
A s a s tory
. Pa lam on a n d A r ci te ,
IS ,

in m a n y r e s p e c ts th e b e s t of th e Ca n te r b u ry Ta le s r e fl e c ti n g
, ,

a s it d oe s t h e id e al s of th e ti m e in r e g ar d to rom a n tic l o v e
an d k n ig h t ly d u ty T h o u gh its di al ogu e s an d d e s c r ip ti o n s
.

are s o m e w h a t t oo l o n g a n d i n t e r ru pt t h e s tor y y e t it s h o w s ,

C h a u c e r at h i s b e s t i n h is d ra m a tic p ow e r h is e xq u i s i te ,

a pp re ci a t io n of n atu r e an d h is te n d e r y e t p ro f ou n d ph il os op h y
,

of l ivi n g w h ic h c o u ld o v e r l ook m u c h o f h u m an f ra il t
, y in th e
th oug h t th at
I fi i te
n n b e e n th e s o rw e s a n d h e te re s
t
Of o l d e f ol k , an d fo l k of e n d re
t y e re s .

Th e id e a o f th e s tory w a s b or ro w e d f rom B o cc acci o b u t parts

of t h e ori g i n a l ta l e w e re m u c h o ld e r an d b e l on ge d to th e c o m
m on l i te rar y s to ck o f th e Middl e A e s L ik e S h a k e s p e ar e
g .
,

C h au c e r took th e m a te r i a l for h i s p oe m s w h e r e v e r h e f o u n d
it an d h is o r i g i n al i ty c o n s i s ts i n g ivi n g to a n o ld s to ry som e
,

p re s e n t h u m an i n te r e s t m aki n g it e xp re s s th e l i f e a n d id e al s
,

of h is o w n a e
”
I n th i s r e s p e c tth e K n i g h ts Ta l e is re m ark
’

g .

a bl e I ts n a m e s a re th os e o f a n an ci e n t civili zati on b u t its

.

,
 TH E AG E O F C H AU C E R 79

c h arac te rs are m e n an d w om e n of th e E n g l i s h n obility as

C h au c e r k n e w th e m I n c on s e q u e n c e th e s tory h a s m an y
.

a n a c h ron i s m s s u c h as t
, h e m e d iw v al tou rn a m e n t b e f ore th e
te m pl e of M a rs ; b u tth e r e ad e r s c a r c e ly n otic e s th e s e th i n g s ,

b e i n g a b sorb e d in th e d ram atic i n te re s t o f th e n arra tiv e .

”
B r i e fly th e K n i gh ts T al e is th e s tor y of tw o y o u n g m e n
’

, ,

f as t f r i e n d s w h o ar e f ou n d w ou n d e d on th e b attl e fi e ld an d
,

ta k e n p r i s on e rs to A th e n s T h e r e f rom th e i r d un g e on w in
.

d ow th e y b e h o ld th e f a i r m a id E m ily ; b oth fa ll d e s p e ra te ly
in l ov e wi th h e r a n d th e i r f r i e n d s h ip tu r n s to s tr e n u ou s
,

r iv a l ry
. O n e i s p ar d o n e d ; th e oth e r e s cap e s ; an d th e n
k n ig h ts e m pi re s n atur e — th e w h ol e u n iv e rs e f ol l ow s th e i r
, , ,

d e s p e rate e ff or ts to w in on e s m a ll m aid e n w h o p r ay s m e an ,

w h il e to b e d e l iv e r e d f ro m b oth h e r b oth e r s om e s u i tor s A s .

th e b e s t of th e Ca n t e r b u ry Ta le s are n ow e a s ily a cc e s s ibl e ,

w e o m i t h e r e all q u o tati on s Th e s tor y m u s t b e re ad e n ti r e

.
,

wi th th e P r i or e s s tal e of H ug h of L i n c ol n th e C l e r k s tal e
’

,
’

o f P at i e n t G r i se ld a an d th e N u n s P r i e s ts m e rry ta l e of
,
’ ’

C h an ticl e e r a n d th e F ox i f th e r e ad e r w ou ld a pp re ci ate th e
,

v ar i e ty a n d ch arm o f o u r fi r s t m od e r n p oe t an d s tory te ll e r -
.

F or m of Ch au c er s P oe try ’
T h e re ar e th re e p r i n cip a l m e te r s
.

to b e f ou n d in C h au c e r s v e r s e I n th e Ca n te r b u ry Ta le s h e
’
.

u s e s li n e s of t e n s yll a bl e s a n d fiv e a cc e n t s e a c h an d t h e li n e s ,

r u n in c o u pl e t s

H is e y e n twi n kl e d i n h is h e e d ar i gh t
A s d oo n th e ste rre s i n th e f o s ty n i gh t
r .

Th e sam e m ic a l m e as u re arran g e d in
us ,
se v e n li n e s tan z as
-
,

b u t wi th a d i ff e re n t r i m e c a ll e d th e R i m e ,
R oy a l is f ou n d i n ,

its m o s t p e r f e c t f o rm i n Tr oi lu s .

O b lis fu l l i gh t o f w h i c h e
,
h e b emes
t l
c e re

Ado h
rn e t al h e th ri d d e h e v e n e
t fa i re !
O s on n e s lee f , O J ov e s d o u g h te r d e r e ,
Ple s a u n c e of l ove , 0 g ood l y d e b o n a i r e ,
I n g e n ti l b e r te s a
y re d y t
o r e p a i re

O v e r ra y c au s e o f h e l e g la d n e s s e ,
an d o f

Y h e ri e d b e
-
h y m i gh tan d th y g ood n e s s e l
t
8O E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
I n h e ve ne an d h e l le , in h e an d s a
e rt l te see

IS fe l tth y m g h t, i tif
h a t l w e l d e s c e rn e ;
A s m a n , b ri d , b e s t, fis h , h e rb e a n d g re n e tre e
Th eefe l e i n ty m e s wi th v a p ou r e te rn e .

G od l o v e th an d to l o v e w o l n o u g h tw e r n e ;
,

An d i n th i s w or l d n o lyv e s c re a tu re ,

Wi th o u te n l ov e is w orth o r m ay e n d ure
-
,
1
, .

Th e th i rd m e te r is th e i g h tsyll a bl e l i n e wi th f ou r acc e n ts
e -
, th e
”
li n e s ri m i n g in c ou pl e ts a s i n th e B ok e of th e D u c h e s s e
,

Th e to h e c d e o w l p l ye
er s ou s e e ,

Wh an th a t h i r l i s te ,
h a t I d ar
t '
se ye
Th a ts h e w as l y k to to rc h e b r gh t, i
Th a te v e ry m an m ay ta e of k
gh t
-
li
Yn o u g h , and h i th h
at neve r he
t l e sse .

B e s id e s th e s ep ri n cip a l m e te r s C h au c e r in h is s h or tp oe m s ,

u s e d m an y ot h e r p o e tic a l f or m s m od e l e d a f te r th e F r e n ch w h o ,

i n th e f ou rte e n th c e n tu ry w e r e c u n n i n g w ork e rs i n e v e r y f o rm
o f v e rs e C h i e f am o n g th e s e are th e d i ffic u l t b u t e xq u i s i te
.

" ”
r on d e l N ow w e lc o m S o m e r wi th th y son n e so f te
, wh i c h ,

" ”
cl os e s th e Pa r li am e n t of F owl s a n d th e ba ll ad F l e e f ro , ,

” "
th e p re e s w h ic h h a s b e e n al re ady q u ote d I n th e M on k s ’

, .

”
T al e th e re is a m e l odi o u s m e as u r e w h ic h m ay h a v e f u rn i s h e d
th e m od e l for S p e n s e r s f a m ou s s tan z a 2
C h a u c e r s p oe try i s
’ ’
.

e xt r e m e ly m u s ic a l an d m u s t b e j u d e d by t h e e ar r ath e r th an
g
by th e e y e To th e m od e rn r e ad e r th e l i n e s a pp e ar b rok e n
.

an d u n e v e n b u t i f on e re a d s th e m o v e r a fe w ti m e s h e s oo n ,

c a tc h e s th e p e rf e c t s wi n g of th e m e as u r e a n d fi n d s th at h e i s ,

i n th e h a n d s of a m a s te r w h os e e ar is d e l ic a te ly se n s i tiv e to
th e s m a ll e s t a cc e n t T h e r e is a lil t in all h is l i n e s w h ic h i s
.

m a r v e l ou s w h e n w e c on s id e r th at h e i s th e fi r s t to s h ow u s
th e p oe ti c p o s s ibili ti e s of th e l a n g ua ge His cl a i m u p on ou r .

g rati tu d e i s tw o f old : fi r s t for di s c ov e r i n g th e m u s ic th at i s

3
,

i n o ur E n g li s h s p e e c h ; a n d s e c o n d for h is i n fl u e n c e in fi xi n g ,

th e M idl an d d i al e c t a s th e li te ra ry l an g u ag e o f E n g l a n d .

1 Tr oi l u s an d C r i s ey d e , III .
2
See p 1 0 7 . .

3 F or a s u m m ar y of C h auc e r’ s w k
or l
an d p ac e i n o u r t
e ra tu re , li se e th e C o m p a r i son

i
w th S pe n se r, p . 1 1 1 .
82 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

"
vi s i on s ca ll e d Th e S ea r ch fo r D o w e l B ob e t D ob e s t (d o w e ll , , ,

b e tte r b e s t) Th e e n ti re p oe m is in s tro n g ly acc e n te d a llite r

,
. ,

at iv e l i n e s s om e th i n g lik e B e o w u lf an d its i m m e n s e p op u l ar i ty
, ,

sh ows t h a tth e c om m on p e o pl e s till c h e r i s h e d th i s e as ily m e m

o r iz e d f o r m o f S a x on p o e t ry I ts tre m e n d o us a pp ea l to j u s tic e .

an d c o m m on h on es t y its cl ar i on c all to e v e ry m an w h e th e r
' -
, ,

ki n g p r i e s t n o bl e o r l a b o re r to d o h is C h ri s ti a n d u ty tak e s
, , , , ,

f rom it a n y trac e of p re j u d ic e or bi g o try wi th w h ic h s u c h

w ork s u s u ally ab ou n d I ts l oy al ty to th e C h u rc h w h il e d e .
,

n ou n c in g a b u s e s t h a t h ad c re p t i n to it in th a t pe r i od w as ,

on e o f t h e g re a t i n fl ue n c e s w h ic h le d to th e R e f o r m ati on in
E n g l an d I ts tw o g re at p ri n cipl e s th e e q u ali ty o f m e n b e f o r e
.
,

G od an d th e di g n i ty of h o n e s t l ab or ro u s e d a w h ol e n a ti on ,

A l tog e th e r it i s on e of th e w or ld s g re at w ork s
’
of fre e m e n .
,

p artly b e c au s e of its n a ti on al i n fl u e n c e p ar tly b e c au s e it i s

°

th e v e ry b e s t pic tu re w e p os s e s s o f th e s o ci al li f e of th e f ou r
te e n th c e n tu ry

B ie fl y P i
r ,Pl w m is l l e g y o f l i f I th fi tv i i o th t
e rs o an an a or e . n e rs s n, a

of t h e F i l d F l l o f F o l k th e p oe tl i d o w o th e M al v e H i l l o
e u ,
”
es n n rn s n

a M ay m o rn i ng
v i s i o n c om e s to h i m i n s l e e p O n th e p l a i n b e n e a th
, an d a .

h i m g a th e r a m u l ti tu d e o f fo l k a v as t c row d e x p re s s i n g th e v a ri e d l i fe
,

of t h e w o rl d A ll c l as s e s a n d c o n d i ti o n s a re th e re ; w or ki n g m e n a re
.

t o i li n g t h a t o th e rs m a y s e i e a ll th e fi rs t f ru i ts o f th e i r l a b o r a n d
z

l i v e h i gh o n th e p ro c e e d s ; a n d th e g e n i us o f th e th ro n g i s L ad y
B r i b e r y a p o w e r f u l l y d r a w n fi g u re e x p re s s i n
,
g th e c o rr u p t s o c i a l l ife ,

of t h e ti m e s .

T h e n e x t v i s i o n s a re t h o s e o f th e S e v e n D e ad l y S i n s a l l e g o ri c al fig ,

u re s b u t o w e r f u l as t h o s e o f P i lg r i m s P r og r e s s m a ki n g th e a ll e g o r i e s
’

, p ,

of t h e R o n a u n tof t
r h e R os e s e e m l i k e s h a d ow s i n c o m p a ri s o n T h e s e a ll .

o P i e rs as ki n
c am e t
g th e w a y to T ru th ; b u t P i e rs i s p l o wi n g h is h a l f
a c r e a n d re f u s e s t o l e a v e h i s w o r k a n d l e ad t hem He s e ts th e m a ll to .

h on e s t t o i l as t h e b e s tp os s i b l e re m e d y fo r th e i r v i c e s a n d p re a c h e s th e ,

g o s p e l o f w o r k as a p re p a ra t i o n for s a l v a ti o n T h ro u gh ou t th e p oe m .

P i e rs b e a rs s t on g re s e m b l a n c e to J oh n B ap ti s tp re ac h i n g to th e c ro w d s
r

i n th e wi l d e rn e s s Th e l at e r v i s i o n s a re p ro c l a m a t
. i o n s o f th e m ora l
an d s p i ri t u a l l if e o f m a n T h e p oe m g ro w s d r a m a ti c i n i t
. s int e nsit y ,

ri s i n
g to i ts h i gh e s t p o w e r i n Pi e rs s tr i u m p h o v e r D e a th
’
A n d th e n .

t h e p oe t w a k e s fro m h is v i s i o n w i t h th e s o u n d o f E as t e r b e l l s ri n g i n g
in h is e a rs .
 T H E AG E OF C H AU C E R 83

H e re ar e a li n e s to ill u s trate
fe w th e st yl e an d l an g uage ;
b u t th e w h o l e p o e m m u s t b e r e ad i f on e i s to un d e r s ta n d its

c ru d e s tre n gth an d p rop h e tic s pi r i t

In a s om e r s e s u n , w h on so f te he
w as t s on n e ,

I s c h op
1
me i n to a s h ro u d , a s I a sc h e e p w e re ,

I n h a b i te as a n h e re m i t
e, unho ly of w e rk e s ,

W e n tw y d e i n th i s w orl d , w o n d re s t
o h e re .

e in
B ot a M ay e s m o rn y n g e , on M a l v e rn e h u lle s ,
M e b y fe l a f e rl y ,
2
of fa i rie m e th ou g h te .

I w as w e ry , w e n tm e to re s te
fo rw a n d re d , an d

U ndur a b o d b an k
r e b i a b ou e s i d e
rn
3
,

A n d as I lay an d le n e d a n d l o k e d o n th e w atre s , ,

I s lu m b re d i n a s le p yn g — h i ts w y e d “s o m u ri e .

J O HN WY C L I F ( 1 3 2 4 1 3 8 4 ) —

Wycli f a s a m an is by fa r th e m os t p ow e r f u l E n g li sh fig
, ,

u re o f t h e f ou rte e n th c e n tur y Th e im m e n s e i n fl u e n c e of h i s
.

p re a c h i n g in th e n a tiv e ton g u e an d th e p ow e r of h i s L oll ar d s ,

to s ti r th e s ou l s of th e c om m on f olk are too w e ll k n ow n h is ,

tori c ally to n e e d r e p e ti ti on T h ou g h a u n iv e rs i ty m an an d a
.

p ro f ou n d s c h ol ar h e S id e s wi th L an g l an d an d h is i n te re s ts
, ,

a re wi t h th e p e 0 p 1e ra th e r th an wi th th e p rivil e g e d cl as s e s ,

for w h o m C h au c e r wr i te s H is gr e at w or k w h ic h e arn e d h im
.
,

" ”
h is ti tl e o f fa th e r of E n gl i s h p ro s e i s th e tran s l ati on of th e ,

B ibl e. Wycli f h i m s e l f tra n s l ate d th e g os p e l s an d m u c h m ore ,

of t h e N e w T e s ta m e n t th e re s t w as fi n i s h e d by h is f o ll ow e rs ,

e s p e ci a lly by N ic h ol a s o f H e re f or d T h e s e tran s l ati on s w e re .

m a d e f rom t h e L a ti n V u lga te n ot f ro m th e or i g i n al G r e e k ,

an d H e b re w an d t
,
h e w h o l e w or k w as re vi s e d i n 1 3 8 8 by
J oh n P u r v e y a di s cipl e of Wycl i f I t is i m p o s s ibl e to o v e r
, .

e st i m ate th e i n fl u e n c e o f th i s w ork b oth on o u r E n g li s h p r os e ,

an d on t h e liv e s o f th e E n g li s h p e opl e .

T h ou g h Wycli f s w ork s are n ow u n re ad e x c e p t by o cc a

’

s ion a l s c h ol ar s h e s till o cc u pi e s a v e r y h i g h pl a c e i n ou r
,

li te ratu re H is tran s l ati on of th e B ibl e w as s l owly c o pi e d all

.

l
1 c ad .
2 won d e r. 3 b roo k .
4 s ou n d e d .
84 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

v
o er E n g l an d , fix e d a n a ti on a l s tan da rd o f E n g li s h p rose
an d so

to re pl a c e th e v ar i ou s di a l e c ts P or ti on s of th i s tran s l ati on i n
.
,

th e f o rm of f a v o r i te p as s ag e s f r om S c r ip tu r e w e re c opi e d by ,

th ou sa n d s a n d fo r th e fi r s tti m e in o u r h i s tory a s tan d a rd of p u r e

,

E n g li s h w a s e s tabli s h e d i n th e h om e s of th e c om m on p e o pl e .

A S a s u g g e s ti on of th e l an g ua ge o f th at d ay w e q u ote a ,

fe w fa m ili ar s e n te n c e s f rom th e S e r m on on th e M o u n t a s ,

g iv e n in th e l ate r v e rs i on
of Wycli f s G os p e l
’

An d h e op e n y d e h i s m o u th ,
and e he m
ta u gh t , an d seide ,

B le s s i d b e n p ore m e n i n , s pi ri t

fo r th e k y n gd o m o f h e v e n e s
1
is h e rn e . B le s s i d b e n m y ld e
m e n , fo r h
t e i sc h u l e n w e l d e
2

th e he
e rt . B le s s i d ben he
t i
h a t m o rn e n , fo r th e
t i sch u e n l
be c ou m f o r tid . B le s s i d ben
he
t i h a th u n g re n
t an d th r i s t
en

rig h tw is n e s s e ,
8
hei
fo r t sc h u e n l
b e f u lfilli d . B le s s i d b e n m e rc i
f ul m e n , for th e i sc h u e n l g e te
m e rc i . B le s s i d b e n th e i th at
ben of e e ne l h e r te , fo r th e i
sc h ul e n se G od . B le ss id b e n

p e s i b le m e n , f o r th e i s c h u l e n
J O HN wy cu p b e l
c ep d
i ‘
G o d d is c h i l d r e n .

B le s s i d b e n th e i th a t s u ff re n
p e rs e c u s i o u n fo r r ig h tfu ln e s s e , for t
h e k y n g d om o f h e v e n e s i s h e m e . l
E fts oo n e y e h a n h e rd , t h a t i tw a s s e i d to e l d e m e n , h ou s c h al tn ot T
fo rs w e re , b u t th o u sc h a l t y e l de 5 th in oth si t h e L o rd
o t . B u tY se e i 6
to
y ou , th a t y e s w e re n o t fo r o n y th i n g ; b u t b e y o u r e w o rd e , y h e ,
y h e ; n a y , n a y ; a n d th at th a t i s m o re th a n th e s e , i s o f y v e l
T
Ye h a n h e rd th a ti tw a s s e i d , h o u s c h a l t l o v e th i n e ig h b o re , a n d h a te
th i n e n e m y e B u tY s e i e t
o o u , l o v e y e y o u re e n e m y e s , d o y e w e l to h m 7
.
y e

th a th a tid e n " y o u , a n d p re y e y e fo r h e m th a t p u rs u e n 9 a n d s c la u n d re n 1 0
y ou ; th a ty e b e th e s o n e s o f ou re ad r t y F i
h a t i s i n h e v e n e s , th a tm a k i th
h is su n ne t
o i
r se u po n
g oo d e an d y v e le m e n , an d re
y ne th ll
on j u s tm e n

an d u n u s t
je . Th f
e re o r e b e ye p a rfit, as y o u re h e v e n li F a d i r i s p a rfit .

i
1 th e rs l
2 ru e 3 r i gh t
e ou s n e s s 4 ca ll d e 5 yi l d e 6 sa
y
7 th e m 3 hat
e 9
p e rse c u te l
1 ”s an de r i
1 1 ra n s
86 E N GL I S H L IT E R ATU R E
wo r k in m od e rn E n g li s h h avi n g a d i s ti n c tly li te ra ry s tyl e a n d
fl a v or O th e rwi s e it is a m o s t i n te re s ti n g c om m e n tary o n th e
.

e n e ra l c u l ture an d c r e d u li ty of th e f o u rteenth c ent u ry

g .

S u m m a ry of th e Age of C h auc e r . Th e f o u rte en th centur y is re m ar k bl a e

h i sti lly f th e d e c li
or c a f f d li m ( g
or i d b y th N m ) f ne o eu a s or an ze e or an s , or

th e g o w th r f th E g li s h n a ti o o l p i i t d ri g th w a w i th F c e f o th
e n na s r u n e rs ra n , r e

p mi ro n f th e H
ne ce o se f C mm d f th e g o wi g p w
ou f th e l ab o
o o o n s , an or r n o er o r

i g l
n e s wh
c as s h ad h t f e be
,
i o d i ti h a d ly ab v e th a t f s l v ry
e re o or en n a c on on r o o a e .

Th ag p d c d fi e e w it f ot
ro u e f w h m G e ff y C h a c e r i
e ve r e rs o n e, on o o , o re u , s

on e of t h g a t t f E g li s h w i t
e re H i p try i s m a k a b l e f o i t v ri ty
es o n r e rs . s oe re r r s a e ,

i t t y i t s t a d it w d f l m l dy s w o k a d Wy lif
’
Ch a
’
s s or n e re , n s on er u e o . uc e r r n c s

tra n s l a ti f th B i b l d e v l p e d th e M i d l an d d ia le c t in t th e
on o e e ti a l la e o . o na on n

g ua
g of E gl e d n an .

I s t d y w e h av e
n o ur ot d u (1) Ch c h is lif a d w o k ; h is e a ly n e : au e r, e n r r or

F re n ch p e i d i wh i h h t r o sl t d , Th R m
n f th R
c e d w o te
e ra n a e e o an c e o e os an r

ma y mi n
p m s ; h i m id d l e o
n or I ta li p e i d f w h i c h th e c h i f p m s
oe s r an r o , o e oe

T o il id f Go d W m h i l a te
" ”
a e r a d C
r us d Th e L g d
n re s s a an e en o o o en s

or E g li h p i d i w h i h h w o k d a t h is m
n s er o , te rp i
n e t h fam cs C t e r e as ec , e ou a n er

b y T l
ur
( 2 ) L g l d th e p o ta d p r p h e to f c i a l f m
a es . an an H is c h i e f
, e n o so re or s .

w k i Pi Pl wm
or s
( 3 ) Wy c lif th e
ers li g i s e f m w h fi t t s
o an .
, re ou r or e r, o rs ra n

l a t d th e gos p l i to E g li s h d b y h i t l ti fi x d o m m
e e s n n t d d , an s ra n s a on e a c o n s an ar

o f E g li h s p e e c h
n s
( 4 ) Ma d vill e th e a l l g e d t a v e l e w h e p e e t th e e w
. n e , e r r, o r r s n s n

E g li h i te e ti d i t tl
n s n d f ll o wi g th d e v e l p m
r s n t ff
s an i g t d He an s o n e o en o o re n ra e .

i f m f l a b o k wh i c h m a c e s b o tth e w de s
’
s a tll
o us d ll orT an ec i'
e s r a ve s , o ro n a u on r

t be
o e b se d T h e fifth w ri te o f th e ag e is G o w e w h w o te i th
n a ro a . r r, o r n re e

l g age F e h La ti
an u s, d E g li s h
r nc H is c h i e f E g li s h w o k is th C f
, n , an i n . n r e on es s o

Am t i a l
au
g po m
s, t in i g on e h
on d e d a d tw e lv e t l s O f th e
e c on a ly n un r n a e . es on

th eK i gh tF l o e t a d tw o th e e th e a i n te e ti g to a m d
n r n n d or r o rs re r s n o e rn re a er .

S e l ect i on s f or R e ad i n g C h a c e s P ol g th e K i gh t Ta l N ’ ’ ’
. u r r o ue , n s e , un s

P ri s ts T l e P i
e
’
a Ta l Cl k s T l
, Th s e a e f d m o e l e ss c m
r o re s s
’
e , er
’
a e . e r o un , r or o

pl t i
e e S t d d E g li h C l a i
, n an K i g s C l a i c R iv e s i d e L i te ra t e
ar n s ss c s, n
’
ss s, r ur

S ri e tc
e s, e S k ts s c h . l e d i ti o f th P o l g K i gh ts T l e tc i p e
ea
’
oo n o e r o ue , n
’
a , e .
, s es

c i lly g
a d a d i cl d
oo ,st dy nf fo t e th e t y E g li s h
n u es a M i s c e ll a e u o ur e n -
c n ur n . n

o us
p e m s f Ch o c in M ly o E gli h P t y au Wa d s E g li h P o t
er an
’
s n s oe r or r
’
n s e s .

P i P l o wm i K i g C l s ic M d e i ll T a v e l m d i d i
e rs an , n n
’
s as s . an v e s
’
r s, o e rn ze , n

E g li h C l as i c s
n s d i Ca ll N ti l L i b a ry
s , an n ss e
‘
s a on a r .

F th or d v a c d t d e t a d as
e a t dy f l
n e
g a ge c o m p a e s l e c ti o n
s u n , n a s u o an u ,
r e s

f o m Wyc lif C h a e p
r w k M d e vill tc i M a ly E g li h P s e
, uc r s
’
ro s e or , an e , e .
, n n
’
s n s ro ,

M i a d S k e at S p e c i m f E a ly E g li h r C a ik E g li h P ro s
’ ’
or o rr s n s ens o r n s , o r s n s e

S e l e c ti S e l c ti s f m Wy c l i f s B i b l i E g li s h C l s i S ri s ’
s on . e on ro e n n as cs e e .

B i b l i ograp h y 1 His t ory T x tb h M .tg m e ry p p 1 1 5 1 4 9 C h e yn e y

. e -
oo , on o , .
—
,
or ,

p p 1 8 6 63
. F —2
f ll r t tm t G e c h 5 ; T ill ; G a d i e
. or u e re a en , re n, . ra r n r .

1 F ti tl or d p b li h f
e s anf w k G u l B i b li g p h y tth d f
s e rs o re e re n ce or s se e e n e ra o ra a e en o

th i b s k oo .
 TH E AG E O F C H AU C E R 87

Sp e c i a l Wor h s . H u tto n ’
s Ki n
g an d B a ro n ag e ( O xfo rd Man u a l s ) ; J us se
ra n d s
’
Wa yfa ri n g L ife i n th e F o u rteenth C e n tu r y; C o u lto n
’
s C h auc e r an d h is
la d ; P li P i f O ld E n g a n d ; W r g h ts H l i i s to ry i
’
of
’
E ng n au s ctu re s ro m D o m e s tc
Ma n n e rs an d S e n tm e n ts i n i l
E n g a n d d u r n g th e M d d e i i l Ag es ; T re v e lya n ’
s

l i n th e A ge of W c y lif J k y
’
E ng an d en s s In t h e D a s o f C h a u c e r ; F ro is s a rts
’
;
C h ron i l
c e , in E v y
e r m a n s L b ra r ; t
’
i y
h e s a m e , n e w e d to n , 1 8 9 5 ( Ma c m a n ) ; ii ill
L an i er s
’ ’
y i
B o s F ro ss a r t ( i e F ro is sa r ts C h ro n c e o f H s to r c a E e n ts , 1 3 2 5
’
. . i l i i l v
Ne w b l ts S t i s f o m
o
’
or e r F ro s s a rt;i Bu lfi c h
n
’
s Age o f C h iv a l ry m ay b e
r e ad in c onn ecti wi th th i s on an d th e p r e c e d i n
g p e r o ds i .

L it
era t
ure . . i k ; Mi t h l l ; Mi t s
Ge n e r a l Wor h s . J u s s e ra n d ; Te n B r n c e n o
’

t i ti c f E g li h P h p e s H i t y o f E g li h P try
’
Ch a ra c er sts ; C t s o n s oe ou r o s or n s oe .

Ch ( 1 ) L ife b y L
a u ce r b ry i S t d i
. i Ch ce ol I by W d : ouns u ,
n u es n au r, v . ar ,

E g li h M n o f L e tte s S e i e s ; P o ll d Ch P im ( 2) A i d s t
’
in n s e c r r ar s au er r er . o

st dy F J S e l l s Th e Ag e y S t di s i C h a c e
’
f Cha c b
’
u : . .
; L n o u er ou n s ur s u e n u r

(3 R o ts Th P e t y f C h a c ; L o w ll s E s y i My S t d y Wi
o
’
e o r o u er e
’
sa , n u n

d w ; H mm d Ch B i g p h ic l M al ; H m pl
’ ’
Ch
’
o s a on s ce s auc e r : a o ra a an u e s au r

P ci t
ro n u n i ; I t d ti t
a ch l d i ti
on of C h c n b y S k t L id
ro uc on s o s oo e on s au e r, ea ,

d l l a d M th
e , (3 ) T xt
n d l ti s Th e O xf d C h a c e 6 v l
a er . e s an se ec on : or u r, o s .
,

d i te d b y S k t i th t d d ; Sk S t d e ts C h c e r ; Th Gl be
’ ’
e t ea , s e s an ar ea s u n au e o

C h a c r ( M m ill
u e) ; Wo k s o f C h e ace d ited b
y L b ry ( C o w ll ) ;
an r auc r, o un s u r e

P ll a d s Th C te b y T l s E v e s l y d i ti o ; S k a ts S e l c ti o s f m
o r
’
e an r ur a e , r e e n e
’
e n ro

C h a c e ( C la e d
u P ) ; C h a c e s P l g e d v i ta l e s in S ta d
r r n on re s s u r
’
ro o u , an ar o us , n

ar d E gl i h C l s i c s ( G i n a d C m p a y ) a d i
n s th
as h o l s e ie s n n o n , n n o e r sc o r .

Mi W it n orM i a d S k e ts S p i m s o f E ly E g li s h P o s e
r er s . o rr s n a
’
ec en ar n r .

J a d s Pi s P l w m n ; S k e ts P i e P l wm ( t x t g l s ry d te )
’ ’
us s e r n er o a a rs o an e , os a an no s

W P i e s P l w m in M d n P o A l d \Vyc lif S l c t E gli h

a rre n s
’
r o an o er r se . rn o
’
s
’
s e e n s

Wo k s ; S e g t Wy l if ( H e e f th e N a ti
r r e an S e ie s) ; L e B s
’
s L ife o f c ro s o on r a
’
s

J h Wy lif T v l f S i J h M d e vill e ( m d e p e lli g) i L ib ry of

o n c . ra e s o r o n an o rn s n , n ra

E g li h C l a s s i
n s; M l y G w e s E gli h W k s cs ac a u a
’
s o r
’
n s or .

S u gge s tiv e Q I W h t a e t h e c h ie f h is to ri c a l e v e t
u e s ton s i
s of the f . . a r n our

t een th c t y ? Wh t o c i l m v e m
en ur ti ti e b l ? Wh t w i te a fl cts a o en s no c a e a r rs re e

p o l i ti l d i a l c o d i ti s
ca an s oc n on

2 T l l b i fly th s t y f C h
. e ce
r e l if Wh a tf i g i fl e c e s a e ti c
e or o au
’
r s e . o re n n u n r no e

ab l e N m a f w p o e m ill t ti g h i s th e e p e i d s o f w k Wh tq
a e e li ti e s
s us ra n r r o or . a ua

h v yo
a e ot i d i h i po e t y ? W h y i h
u n ce l l d o fi s t a ti a l p t?
n s r s e ca e ur r n on oe

G iv th p l f t h C
e t b T
e l F o w h
an t i th e P
o l g e e e er r a s ro o u r
3 .
y an ur a es .

m ar k b l ? Wh a t li gh td
a e i tth o w p E g li h life o f th e f t th c e oe s r u on n s o ur e e n n

t y? Q
ur te r ad om e puo g e s th th v i m p
or s d y
e Wh ic h h a te
s ass a a a e re s e ou . c ra c r

d o
y l ik e b e t?
ou A a
y o f th e h t s lik ti me a d w m
re n c a rac e rs e cer a n n n o en

w h o m yo k w Wh tc l s e s o f s i ty a i t d c e d ? I s C h a c e r s atti
u no ? a as oc e re n ro u u
’

td u y m p a th ti c m e ly c i ti l ?
e s e or er r ca

4 T ll i n y. r ow e w d th t l y lik b t Wh i c h ta l e s e m s t e s t
ou n or s e a e ou e es . e ru

t lif as y
o e k o w i t? M ti n a y th p e ts w h te ll to ri i v e s e
ou n en o n o er o o s es n r .

5 Q .t o d p s ge w h i h h o w C h
uo e r re a c k e e s s f b s v ti o as a s c s au er s
’
nne o o er a n,

h is h m o h i k i dn e ss i
u j d gm e t h i d li gh t i
r, s at e
n Wh t s i d f n u n , s e n n ur . a e o
88 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
h u m an n atu re d oe s h e em p h as i ze ? Mak e a li ttl e c om i
p a r s o n b e t e e n C h auc e r w
an d k p e a h vi g i m i d ( I ) th h c t
Sha es re , a ni n n e c a ra e rs d e s c r b e d b y b o th p o e ts ,

( ) th i r k wl d g
2 e f h man
no at e ( 3 ) th e o s f th i p l ts ( 4 ) th e
u n u re , e s o u rc e o e r o ,

i t e s t f th i w k
n er o e r or s .

6 D c ri b b i e fly P i
. es Pl w m e a d it a t
r h W h y i th p o e m c a ll e d
ers o an n s u or . s e

th e g s p l o f th i ily l
”
o p e ? \Vh t m e s a g e
e d e i t c
oo r t f d a b ? a s o s on a n or a or

D e s i t p p ly t
o
y
a m d e o dit i o s ? N te a y e m b l a
an o i i d as
rn c n on o n r se nce n e

b tw d ch m d m w k C lyl e
’
e P e en P l wm i er s o an P t
an d P su o e or s as ar s as an r es

t Ki g l y Mo i s D ’
A lt L h m f j h B ll
’
en , n s e s on oc t e, rr s r ea o o n a , e c .

7 F . w h a t i s
orW y lif m k b l i l i t t ? H o w d id h i w k a ff c t
c re ar a e n e ra u re ,
s or e

our l g age ? N te es e m b l e
an u d d i ff o ce b e tw e e
r Wy lif d th an c s an e re n s n c an
‘

P i ta
ur ns .

8 Wh t i s fl l l 9 W h tli g h t d o e s i t th w tl
’
. d w ll
a T au e e s th m r ave s . a ro on e en a

c on d i ti n f th o ag ? \Vh a t e s
o ti l d i ff
e e d yo te b tw e th i sen a e re n c e o u no e e n s

b ok d G ll T
’
o an l ? u i ver s rave s

C HR O N O LOG Y , F OU R T E E N TH CE N TU R Y

H I ST O R Y L I T E R AT U R E
1
3 27 . Ed w d ar 1 11
1 3 38 . Be gi n i n n
g of H u n d re d Y e a rs
’

Wa r wi th F ra n c e B rthi of C h au c e r
1 347 . C ap tu re of Ca l i a s

1 3 48
-
1 3 49 . B l cka D e a th 1
3 56 . M an d e v i lle ’
s T ra v e ls
1 3 5 9 C h a u c e r i n F re n c h
. Wa r
1 3 60 - 1 3 70
’
C h a u c e r s e ar
. ly or F re n c h
p e fio d
1 3 73 . \Vi n c h e s te r C o ll e ge , fi rs t
g re a t
p ub li c sc h oo l 1 3 70
-
1 3 8 5 C h auc e r
.
’
s Mid d l e or I t li a an

p e ri o d
1 3 77 . R i c h ard I I Wy lif d th . c an e

Lo ll d b gin R f m ti
ar s e e or a on 1 3 62
-
1 395 . Pi e rs P l wm o an

i E gl
n d n an

1
38 1 . P e as t R b lli an Wa t Tyl e e on . er 1 8
3 5
—1
400 . C a n te rb u r yT l a es

1 38 2 F . i p e te
rs t c o m l B ib l i e n E ng li s h
1
3 99 . D e p o s to n ii o f R i c h a rd II . 1 40 0 . D e a th o f C h a u c e r
H e n ry I V c h o s e n b y P li ar am e n t ( D an te
’
s D ivi na C om m e d ia , c .

1 3 10 ; P e tra rc h
’
s s on n e ts an d

p oe m s, 1
3 5
2 — 1
3 74 ; B o c c ac ~

c io s
’
ta l e s, c .
90 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
I n th e l on g re i gn of H e n ry VI I I th e c h an ge s a rel e ss vi ole n t b u t ,

h a v e m o re p u rp os e a n d S i gn i fi c an c e . H is a ge is m ark e d by a s t e ad y

in c re a s e in t h e n a ton a l p o w e r i b road by th e e n tran c e

a t h o m e an d a ,

of t h e R e f o rm a ti on b
y a s de i d oor an d by th e fi n a l s e p ara tion o f ,
”

E n gl an d f ro m all e c c l e s i a sti c a l b on d age in P a r l i a m e n ts fa m ou s Ac t

’

o f S u p re m a c y I n p re vi o u s re i gn s c h iva l ry an d th e o ld f e u d a l sy s
.

te m h a d p ra c ti c a l l y b e e n b a n i s h e d ; n o w m o n a s ti c i s m t h e th i rd ,

m e d i ae v a l i n s ti tu ti on w i th its m i x e d e v i l an d good r e c e i v e d i ts d e a t
h ,

b l o w in th e w h ole sa l e su p p re ss i on o f th e m on aste ri e s an d th e re
m ova l o f a bb o t s f rom t h e H ou s e of L ord s N o tw ith s tan d i n g th e e vi l .

c h arac te r of th e k i n g an d th e h y p o c ri sy of p roc l ai m i n g su c h a c re a
tu re t h e h e ad of an y c h u rc h o r th e d e f e n d e r of an y f ai th w e ac q u i e s c e ,

m bp
ni i) Dag of t i 3 l
upn t i
’

m o om 11) s ii) 6 gggti I 8 11 1)

t
he fil amentdr um of 1? w e nt /911mmm ” WW
W de rmato aem url as m
M at
teo

S PE C I ME N O F C A X TO N S P R
’
IN T IN G IN T HE Y E AR 1 4 86

"
in S tubb d e c l a ra ti on
w orl d o w e s so m e of its
1
S il e n tl y ’
s th a t th e

g r e a te s t d e b t
s to m e n f ro m w h os e m e m o ry t h e w o rl d re c o i l s
”
.

Wh il e E n gl an d d u ri n g th i s p e ri od w as in c on s tan t p o l i ti c a l stri f e ,

y e t ri s i n g s l o wl y l i k e th e s p i ra l fl i gh t of a n e agl e to h e i gh ts of
, ,

n at i on a l gre atn e ss i n te l l e c tua l l y i t m ov e d fo rw ard w i th b e w il d e ri n g

,

ra p id i ty P ri n ti n g w as b rou gh tto E n gl an d by C a x ton ( c

. an d .

fo r th e fi rst ti m e in h i s tory it w as p o ss i b l e f or a b ook o r an id e a to

r e ac h t h e w h o l e n ati on S c h oo l s an d u n iv e rs i ti e s w e re e sta b l i sh e d in
.

p l ac e of th e old m on as te ri e s ; G re e k id e as a n d G re e k c u l tu re c am e
to E n gl an d in t h e R e n a issan c e an d m an s S p i ri tua l f re e d om w a s
’

p ro c l a i m e d in th e R e fo rm a ti on Th e gre a tn a m e s o f th e p e ri od a re
.

n u m e rous an d S i n ifi c an t b u t l i t e ra tu re i s s t ra n g e l y s i l e n t P rob a
g , .

b l y th e v e ry tu rm o i l of th e ag e p re v e n te d an y l i te ra ry d e ve l o p m e n t ,

for l i te ra tu re i s on e o f th e a rts of p e a c e ; i t r e q u i re s q u i e t an d
m e d it at i on ra th e r th an a c tivi ty an d th e s ti rri n g l i f e of th e R e n a i s
,

san c e h ad firs tt o b e l ive d b e f ore i t c ou l d e x p re ss i t se l f in t h e n ew

li te ra tu re o f th e E l i z ab e th an p e r i od .

1 C on s titu tion a l H i stor y of E n g la n d .

 TH E R E V I VAL O F L E AR N I N G 91

Th e R ev i val of Le ar n i n g . Th e R e viva l of L e a rn i n g d e n ote s in its ,

b road e s tse n se th a tgrad ua l e n l i gh te n m e n tof th e

, h u m an m i n d af te r
th e d arkn e ss of th e Mid d l e Age s Th e n a m e s R e n a i ssan c e an d .

H u m an i sm w h i c h a re of te n ap p l i e d to th e sa m e m ov e m e n t h ave
, ,

p ro p e rl y a n a rro w e r s i gn i fic an c e Th e te rm R e n a i ssan c e th ou gh .
,
"
u s e d by m an y w r i t e rs t o d e n ot e t h e w h o l e tran s i ti on f om th e r

Midd l e Age s to th e m od e rn w orl d i s m o re c o rre c tl y a p p l i e d to ,

” 1

th e r e viva l of a rt r e su l ti n g f rom th e d i s c ov e ry an d i m i t at i on of
c l as s ic m od e l s in t h e f ou rte e n th an d fi f te e n th c e n tu r i e s H u m an ism .

ap l ie s t o th e re viva l o f c l ass i c l i t e ra t
u re a n d w a s so c a ll e d by i t s
p ,

l e ad e rs fol l o w i n g th e e xam p l e of P e trarc h b e c au se th e y h e l d th at

, ,
"
th e s tu dy of t h e c l ass i c s li t e rez h u m a n i or e s ,
i e th e m o re h u m an , . .

writi n gs ra th e r th an th e old th e o l ogy — w as th e b e s t m e an s of

,
”
,

p ro m o ti n g th e l arge sth u m an i n te re s ts We u s e th e te rm R e iv a l of v
.
.

L e arn i n g to c ov e r th e w h o l e m ov e m e n t w h os e e ss e n c e w as ac c o rd , ,

in g to La m a rti n e th at m an d i sc o v e re d h i m se lf a n d th e u n i v e rse
”
, ,

an d ,
ac c ord i n g t o Tai n e th a t m a n so lon g b l i n d e d
,
h ad su dd e n l y
, ,

o p e n e d h i s e y e s an d s e e n
”
.

We sh a l l u n d e rstan d th i s b e tte r i f w e re m e m b e r th atin th e Midd l e

Age s m an s w h o l e w o rl d c on s i s te d of th e n a rro w M e d i te rran e an an d
’

th e n ati on s t h a t c l u s te re d a b ou t it; an d th a t th i s l i ttl e

Th W l d
e or
w o rl d se e m e d bou n d e d by i m p assab l e barri e rs as i f G od ,

h ad sa id to th e i r sa i l o rs H i th e rto sh a l tth ou c o m e b u tn o fa rth e r ”

.
, ,

M an s m i n d a l so w as bou n d e d b y th e sam e n a rrow l i n e s H is c u l tu re

’
.

a s m e as u re d b y t h e g e atd e d uc tiv e sy s te m o f S c h o l as ti c i sm c on
'

sist e d n o t i n di sc ov e ry b u tra t h e r in ac c e p ti n g c e rta i n p ri n c i p l e s an d

,

tradi ti on s e s t ab l i sh e d by d iv i n e an d e c c l e s i a s t i c a l au th ori ty as th e
basi s of all tru th T h e s e w e re h is P i l l a rs of H e rc u l e s h is m e n ta l an d
.
,

s p i ri t
u a l bo u n d s t h a th e m u stn o t p ass an d w ith i n th e se l ik e a c h i l d , ,

p l ayi n g w i th l e tte re d b l ock s h e p ro c e e d e d to b u i l d h is i n te l l e c tua l

,

s y st em O n l y a s w e r e m e m b e r th e i r l i m i ta tion s c an w e a p p re c ia te
.

th e h e ro i s m of th e se t o i l e rs of t h e M i d d l e Age s gi an ts in i n te l l e c t , ,

y e t p l a y i n g w i th c h i l d re n s to y s ; i gn o ran t o f th e l a w s an d f o rc e s
’

of t h e un iv e rs e w h i l e d e ba ti n g th e e sse n c e an d l oc om o ti on of a n ge l s
,

e age r t o l e a rn y e t f o rbi d d e n to e n te r f re sh fi e l d s i n th e r i gh t o f
,

f re e e x p l orati on an d th e joy of i n div id u al d i sc ov e ry .

Th e R e v i va l sti rre d th e s e m e n as th e v o y age s of D a G am a an d

C o l u m b u s sti rre d th e m ar i n e rs o f th e M e d i te rran e an F i st c am e . r

th e sc i e n c e s an d in v e n ti on s o f th e A ab s m aki n g th e i r w ay S l o wl y r ,

1 y
S m o n d s , R ev i v a l f
o Le a r n i ng .
92 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
aga n s t ti
he j di c e of th e au th ori ti e s an d o p e n i n g m e n s e ye s to
p re u ,
’

th e u n e x p l o re d re a l m s o f n a tu re T h e n c am e th e fl ood of G re e k .

l i te ra tu re w h i c h th e n e w a rt of p ri n ti n g c a rri e d s w if tl y to e v e ry
sc h oo l in E u ro p e re v e a l i n g a n e w w o r l d o f p oe t
,
ry an d p h i l oso p h y .

Sc h o l a rs fl oc k e d to th e un iv e rs i ti e s a s a d ve n tu re rs to th e n e w w o rl d ,

o f Am e ri c a an d t h e re th e o ld a u th o ri ty re c e i v e d a d e a th b l o w T ru th
,
.

on l y w as a u t h o ri t
y ; to se arc h for tru th e v e ry w h e re a s m e n sou gh t ,

fo r n e w lan d s an d go l d a n d th e fou n t a i n of y ou t h th a t w as th e ,
—

n e w s p i ri tw h i c h a w ok e in E u ro p e wi t h th e R e viva l o f L e a rn i n g .

II . L I T E R AT U R E OF THE R E V VAL I
Th e h u n d re d fi f ty y e a rs of th e R e viva l p e r i od a re s i n
an d

g u lar ly d e s ti tu te o f g o od li te ratu re M e n s m i n d s w e re too ’

m u c h o cc u p i e d wi th r e li g i o u s an d p ol i tic a l c h a n g e s an d wi th
th e rapid e n l arg e m e n t o f th e m e n ta l h or i z on to fin d ti m e fo r
th at pe ac e a n d l e i s u re w h ic h are e s s e n ti al f or l i te rar y r e s u l ts .

P e r h ap s al s o th e fl oo ds o f n e wly d i s c ov e re d cl as s ic s w h ic h
, , ,

o cc u pi e d s c h o l ar s a n d t h e n e w p r i n ti n g p r e s s e s a lik e w e re by ,

th e i r v e ry p o w e r an d a b u n d an c e a d i s c ou rag e m e n t of n a tiv e
tal e n t R og e r A s c h am ( I 5 1 5
. a f a m ou s cl a s s ic a l S c h ol ar ,

w h o p u bli s h e d a b o ok ca ll e d Tox op h i lus ( S c h oo l o f S h o oti n g )

" "
in 1 5 4 5 e xp re s se s in h i s p re fa c e or
, a p ol o y
g a v e r y wid e , ,

S p r e a d di ss a t i s fa c ti o n ov e r th e n e g l e c t of n ativ e l i te ra tu r e
"
w h e n h e say s A n d as for y e L a ti n or g re k e to n g u e e v e r y
, ,

th i n g is s o e xc e ll e n tly d on e in th e m th at n o n e c an d o b e tte r ,

I n th e E n g ly s h ton g e c o n trary e v e r y th in g e in a m an e r s o ,

m e an ly b oth for th e m atte r an d h an d e ly n g e th at n o m an ca n

, ,
”
d o w o rs e .

O n th e C o n ti n e n t al s o th i s n e w i n te r e s t in th e cl a s s ic s
, ,

s e rv e d t o c h e ck t h e g ro w th of n ativ e l i te ratu re s I n I ta ly .

e s p e ci a lly for a f u l l c e n tu ry a f te r th e b r ill i an t ag e of D an te

,

an d Pe t ra r c h n o r e a tl i t t e w p r d c d d th I t li
g e ra
, u r as o u e a n e a an ,

l g g i l f s e e e d to g o b ackw ar d Th e tru th is th at
an u a e ts e m l .
.

1 S i s m on d i attr ib ut
es th is to tw o fi t th l k f g
ca u s e s : rs e ac o e n e ra l cu lt
u re ; a n d se c o n d ,

ti q i ty S
,

th e ab so r p ti on o f th e s c h oo s l i n th e new s u t dy f o an u . ee L i te r a tu r e o
f h e S ou th
t
f
o E u ro e ,
p I I , 4 0 0 if .
94 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

su cc e s s f u l b ook w h ic h re c e n tly se t p e 0 p1e to th i n ki n g of th e

,

u n n e c e s s ary c ru e l t y of m od e rn s o ci al c on di ti on s M o re l e ar n s .

f ro m a s a il or on e of A m e ri g o V e s p u cci s c om p a n
,
’

Ut p io a
i on s of a w on d e r f u l K i n g d om of N ow h e re in w h ic h
, ,

all q u e s t i on s o f l ab or g ov e rn m e n t s oc i e ty an d r e li gi on h av e
, , ,

b e e n e as ily s e ttl e d by s i m pl e j u s tic e an d c om m on s e n s e I n .

th i s U t op i a w e fin d f or t h e fi rs t ti m e a s th e f o un d a ti on s of ,

civili ze d s o ci e ty th e th re e g re at w ord s L ib e rty F rate rn i ty

, , , ,

E q u ali ty w h ic h re ta i n e d th e i r i n s pi ra ti on th ro u gh a ll th e v io
,

l e n c e of th e F re n c h R e v ol u ti on an d w h ic h are s till th e u n re al
iz e d id e a l of e v e r y f re e g o v e r n m e n t A s h e h e ar s of th i s
‘

w on d e rf u l c o u n try M or e w on d e rs w h y a f te r fi f te e n c e n tu r i e s ,

of C h r i s t i an i ty h is o w n l a nd is s o li ttl e c ivili z e d ; a n d as w e
,

r e ad t h e b o o k to d ay w e a s k o u rs e lv e s th e s am e q u e s ti o n
-
.
'

T h e s pl e n did d re a m is s till far f rom b e i n g re a l i z e d ; y e t it

se e m s as i f an y n a t ion c ou ld b e c om e U topi a in a s i n g l e g e n
e ra t ion s o s i m pl e a n d j u s t are th e r e q u i re m e n ts
, .

G re ate r th a n e i th e r of th e s e b ook s in its i n fl u e n c e u p on ,

th e c om m on p e o pl e is Ty n d ale s tr an s l ati on o f th e N e w
’

T e s tam e n t w h ic h fi x e d a s tan d ard o f g o od E n g li s h an d ,

at t h e s a m e ti m e b ro u gh t th at s tan d a rd n ot on ly
Ty d j m
n a

N w T t
e es a to s c h ol a r s b u tto th e h om e s o f th e c o m m on p e opl e .

m en t
Ty n d a l e m ad e h is tran s l ati on f rom th e o ri g i n a l
G re e k an d l ate r tran s l ate d p arts o f th e O ld T e stam e n t f rom
,

th e H e b r e w M u c h of Ty n d ale s w o r k w a s i n cl u d e d i n C ran
’
.

m e r s B ibl e k n o w n al s o a s th e G re a t B ibl e in 1 5 3 9 a n d w a s
’

, , ,

r e a d in e v e r y p a r i s h c h u r c h in E n l a n d I t w as t h e fo da
g u n .

ti on for th e A u th or i z e d V e rs i on w h ic h a pp e are d n e a rly a ‘

c e n tu ry l ate r an d b e c am e th e s tan d ard for th e w h ol e E n g li s h

s p e aki n g ra c e .

Wy att an d S u rr e y I n 1 5 5 7 app e a re d p rob ably th e fi rs t

.

p ri n te d c oll e c ti on of m i s c e ll an e ou s E n gl i s h p o e m s k n ow n a s ,

Ta tte l s M i s c e lla ny I t c o n ta i n e d th e w o r k o f th e s o c a ll e d
’
-
.

c ou rtly m ak e r s o r p oe ts w h ich h ad h i th e rto ci r c u l ate d in

, ,

m a n u s c r ip t f or m f or th e b e n e fi t of th e c our t A b ou t h a l f of .
 TH E R E V I VAL O F L E AR NING 95

th e se p oe m s w e re th e w or k of S ir T h om as Wya tt ( 1 5 0 3
1 5 4 2 ) a n d of H e n ry H o ward E a r l o f S u rre y ( 1 5 1 7 ,

B oth tog e th e r w r o te am o ro u s s on n e ts m o d e l e d a f te r th e I ta l
ian s i n trod u ci n g a n e w v e r s e f o rm w h ich a l th o ugh v e ry d i f
, ,

fic u lt h a s b e e n a fa v or i te e v e r s i n c e wi th o u r E n g li s h p oe ts 1
, .

S urr e y is n ote d n o t for an y e s p e ci a l w o rth or o ri g i n a l i ty of

,

h is ow n p oe m s b u t rath e r f or h is tran s l a ti on of tw o b ook s

,

”
o f V i rg il in s tran g e m e te r Th e s tran g e m e te r w a s th e bl a n k
.

v e rs e w h ic h h ad n e v e r b e fore app e a re d in E n g li s h Th e c h i e f
, .

li te rary w ork of th e s e tw o m e n th e r e f ore i s to i n trod u c e th e , ,

s on n e t a n d t h e bl an k v e rs e on e t h e m os t d a i n ty th e oth e r
,
—
,

th e m os tfl e x ibl e a n d c h ara c te r i s tic f or m of E n g l i s h p oe try ,

w h ic h i n th e h an d s of S h ak e s p ea re a n d M il ton w e re u s e d to
m a k e th e w o r ld s m a s te r pi e c e s
’
.

Mal ory s Morte d Ar th u r Th e g re a te s t E n g l i s h w or k o f

’ ’
.

th i s p e r i od m e as ur e d by i ts e ff e c t o n s u b s e q u e n t l i te ratu r e
, ,

i s u n d ou b te dly th e M or to d A r t/zn r a c o ll e c ti on o f th e A rth u

’

r i an r o m a n c e s t old i n s i m pl e a n d vivid p r o s e Of S i r T h o m a s .

M al ory th e a u th or C ax to n in h i s i n trod u c ti on s ay s th at h e
,
2
,

w as a k n i g h t an d c om pl e te d h i s w o rk i n 1 4 7 0 fi f t
, e e n y e ar s ,

b e f ore C ax ton p r i n te d it Th e r e c or d add s th a t h e w a s th e

.

"
se r v an t o f J e s u b o t h by d a y a n d n i gh t B e y o n d th at w e .

k n o w li ttl e e xc e p t w h at m ay b e i n f e r re d f rom th e s pl e n did

3

w ork i ts e l f .

M a l ory g rou p s th e l e ge n d s a b ou t th e c e n tra l id e a o f th e

s e ar c h fo r t h e H oly G ra il T h ou gh m a n y of th e s tor i e s l ik e
.
,

T r i s tram an d I s old e a re p u r e ly p ag a n M a l ory tre ats th e m

, ,

a ll in s u c h a w a as t o p r e s e rv e t h e w h o l e s pi r i t o f m e d ia v a l
y
C h r i s ti a n i ty as i t h as b e e n p re s e r v e d in n o o th e r w o rk It .

1 S ee Wor d s worth ’
0 n t/ze S on n et F or a d e ta e d s tu d y o f th s m os tpe r e ct
s s on n e t,
. il i f
v f
e r se or m , se e m li n so n s T/ze S on n e t
’
, Or ig i n , S l r u c tu r o, a n d P la c e i n P oe tr y .

1 W illi
a m C xt on ( c 1 4 2 2— 1 4 9 1 ) w a s t fi
h e rs t E n g s h p r n te r He e a r n e d th e a rt li i l
‘

. .

l l
a b road , p rob a b y a tC o ogn e o r B ru ge s , a n d a b o u t t h e e a r 1 4 7 6 s e tu p th e rs t ood e ny fi w
i i
p r n tn g p re s s i n E n g an d l i fl fi i
Hi s n ue n c e i n x n g a n a to n a a n g u a ge to s u pe r se d e th e
. i ll
v i i l
ar ou s d a ec t s , a n d i n p re pa r n g t i li
h e w a y for th e te ra r re n a ss an c e o f th e E z a b e th a ny i li
y
age , i s b e on d c a c u a ton l l i .

3 M a or l yh a s , i n ou r o w n da y , b e e n d e n t e d i ifi wi
th a n E n g s h c oun tr ge n te m a n li y l
l i
a n d s o d e r, w h o “ a s m e m b e r o f P l
a r i a m e n tfor Wa r c s h re i n 1 44 5 wi k i .
96 E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
w a s to M al ory rath e r th an to La y a m on or to th e ear ly F re n c h
w ri te rs th at S h ak e s p ea re an d h is c on te mp orar i e s tu rn e d for
th e i r m ate r i a l a n d in o u r o w n ag e h e h a s s u ppli e d T e n n y s on

an d M at th e w A rn o ld an d S wi n b u rn e a n d M or r i s wi th th e
” "
i n s pi ra ti on fo r th e I dyll s of th e K i n g an d th e D e ath of
T r i s tram an d th e oth e r e xq u i s i te p oe m s w h ic h c e n te r a b ou t
A r th u r an d th e k n i g h ts o f h is R o un d T a bl e .

I n s u bj e c tm atte r th e b oo k b e l on g s to th e m e di ae va l ag e ;
-

b u t M a l ory h i m se l f wi th h is d e s i re to p re s e r v e th e l i te ra ry ,

m on u m e n ts of th e p as t b e l on gs to th e R e n a i s s an c e ; a n d h e ,

d e s e rv e s o ur l as ti n g grati tu d e fo r atte m p tin g to p re se r v e th e

l e g e n d s an d p oe try o f B r i ta i n at a ti m e w h e n s c h o l a rs w e r e
c h i e fly b u sy wi th th e cl as s i c s of G re e c e an d R om e A s th e .

A r th u ri an l e g e n d s a r e on e o f th e g r e a t r e c u rr i n g m otiv e s o f
E n g li s h li te ratu re M a l o ry s w or k s h ou l d b e b e tte r k n o wn
’

, .

His s to r i e s m ay b e a n d s h o u ld b e told to e v e r y c h ild a s p a rt

o f h i s li t e rar y i n h e r i tan c e T h e n M al ory m ay b e r ea d for h is .

st yl e an d h is E n gli s h p ro se an d h is e xp re s s i on of th e m e di ae
v a l s pi r i t An d th e n th e s tor i e s m ay b e rea d aga i n in T e n n y
.
,

“ ”
s on s
’
Idyll s to s h ow h ow th os e e xq u i s i te old fan ci e s app e a l
,

to th e m i n d s of o u r m o d e rn p o e ts .

S m m r y of t
u h e R ev i a l of L e ar i g P e i od
a Th i t i ti p i d i t v n n r . s ra n s on er o s a

fi t rs f d li e f m th A g
on e o ec f Ch n ce d th
ro f i t l l t l p pa e e o au r, an en o n e ec ua re ra

ti on f r th A g o f E li b th
e F ea c t y
o d h lf f t C h
za e ce .t or en ur an a a a er au r no a

i g l g e at E g li h w k p p
s n e r nd d th g
s e al ta d d f li t
or a t w e a re , an e en r s n ar o e ra u re as

v y l w Th
er o . th c h ie f c
e re a re t a tf th i
re e
( 1 ) th l n g w au s e s o c c oun or s : e o ar

wi th F a d t h c ivil W
ra n c e f th R s
n d i t c t d tte ti o f m b
e a rs oks e o es s ra e a n n ro oo

an d p ty oe d d t yed o
r , an i d m a y b l e E g li h f m ili s h h d
e s ro r ru n e n no n s a e o a

be f i d a d p t s f li t t ; ( 2 ) th R f m ti i th l tte p t
en r en s n a ro n o e ra u re e e or a on n e a r ar

o f th p i d fil l e d m
e er o s m i d wi th e li g i q e ti ; ( 3 ) th R viv l f
en
’
n s r o us u s ons e e a o

L i g t h l a d li t y m t
e a rn n se sc o a rs
ge t dy n f th c l a s i c t h
e ra r en o an e a r s u o e s s , ra er

th an t th o e ati f tiv e li te
e cr t H i t i c a lly th
on o na
g i ti bl f ra u re . s or e a e s no cea e or

i t i te l l t l p g e s f
s n ec th
ua i t d ti ro f p ri ti g f
r s , th ordi v y f e n ro uc on o n n , or e sc o er o

A m i f th b g i i g f th R e f m ti
e r c a, or e e d f
nn n th g w th f p l i ti l
o e or a on , an or e ro o o ca

p weo m o g th e
r a mm n
p pl co on eo e .

I n
o t dy w
ur h v s u td ( I ) th e R viv l f L
e a i g wh at i t w a
e no e : e a o e a rn n , s,

an d th i g ifi c c f th e te m H m a i m d R i a ; ( 2) th e i
e s n an e o r s u n s an e n a ss nc e r e n

tia l li te ry w k
fl
f F lly M
’
E P U tp i d Ty
'
ue n m
ra or s, ra s us s r ai se o o , o re s o a , an n

d al l ti t; ( 3 ) W y tt ey
’
ta
e s r f th
ns a N w Te t m on o d S
e d th e
e s a en a an u rr , an
98 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
5 . Wh a t w o rk of th is pe r iod h a d th e g re a te s t e f f ec t o n th e E n g li sh lan

g g
u a e ? E p a n wh y x l i .

6 . W h at w as th e ch e i f l it e ra r y i fl n ue n c e e x e rte d by Wy a tt a n d S u rre y ?
D o yo u k ow n an
y l a te r p o e ts w h o m ad e use of th e v e rs fo rm s w h ic h
e th e y
i n tro d u c e d ?

7 . Wh i c h of Ma l o ry ’
s stor e s i d o yo u lik e b e s t? Wh e re d id th e s e s to ri e s
or ig i n ate ? Ha v e th e y an y h i st i l f
or c a o un d a to n ? i W h at tw o g re a t e l e m e n ts
d id Ma l o ry w k ? Wh c om b i n e i n h is or a ti s th e i m p t e f h is b o o k t l a t
or anc o o er

E g li h li t
n t s ? C mp T ys o
e ra u re o a re e nn
’
n s I d yll s o f th e K i g d M l ry s n
”
an a o
’

t i
s or es wi th g d t m a te i l e x p i re ar o r a , re s s o n , a n di t n t N te t
e re sh e m a k e d re s e m
. o r

b l c e s a d di ff e e n c e s b tw e th ( W Ar t an d th e N zoe lu i zg e n L i e d
’ ’
an n r e e n e or t
: a /zu r .

C HR O N O L OG Y

H I ST O R Y L I T E R AT U R E
1 413 . H e n ry V
1 415 . B a tt e l of A gi n c o u rt

1 22 . H e n ry V I 1 4 70 . Ma l o r y ’
s Mo rte d A rth u r ’

I 4 28 . S i e ge of Or le a ns . J oan of A rc C a to n , x a tB ru
ge s , p r n ts th e i
1 45 3 . E nd of H u n d re d Y e ars
’
War fi rs t b ook in E n g s h , th eli
1 45 5
— 1 48 5 . Wa rs of R ose s R e c u y e ll of th e H is to ry e s of

1 46 1 . Ed wa r d IV
1 48 3 . R ic h a rd I II 1 4 77 . F i rs t b oo k
p ri n te d i n E n g an d l
1 485 . H e n ry V I I 1 48 5 . M o r te d A r th u r p r n te d b y
’
i
C a to nx
1 4 92 . Co l um b us d is c o v e rs Am i er ca 1 4 99 . Co let , E ra s m u s , an d Mo r e
1 50 9 . H e n ry V III b rin g th e N e w L e a rn i ng to
x
O f o rd
1 509 . E ras m u s
’
s P i ra s e of Fo lly
5 16 M o re U to p i a
’
1 . s

I5 2
5 . Tyn d a le
’
s N e w Te s ta m e n t
1 5 34 . A c to f S u p re m ac y . Th e R e f o r I ntr o d u c to n i of th e son n e t

m a to n i a c c o m p li sh e d la k v e
an d b n rs e by Wy a tt
an d S ey u rr

1 5 39 . Th e G e a t B i b l e r

1
547 . Ed wa r d VI
I
SS3 1 5 57 . To tte l s M
’
i sc e ll an y
1 5 58 . E li za b e th
 C H A P TE R VI

THE AGE OF E LI Z AB E TH

I . H I S TOR Y OF T H E P E R I OD

P oli tical S u m m ary I n th e Age of E l z a e th all ou t se e m s to

. i b d b
v i
an s h f ro m E n glis h s h is to ry Afte r th e re gn s of E d w ar an d
. ar y , i d M
i d ii i
w th e fe a t an d h u m l aton a roa an d p e rse c u ton s an d re e l l on b d i b i
a t h om e , th e ac c e ss on i of a p op u l arl ike th e
so ve re i gn w as s u n ri s e

af t e r a l on g n i gh t an d i n Mi l t on s w o rd s w e su dd e n l y s e e E n l an d
’
, , g
, ,

a n ob l e an d p u i s san tn a t i on rou si n g h e rse lf l ik e a stron g m an afte r

, ,

s l e e p an d s h aki n
, g h e r i n vi n c ib l e l oc ks
”
Wi th th e qu e e n s c h arac te r
.
’
,

a st ran ge m i n gl i n o f a n d st re n gth w h i c h r e m i n d s on e o f
g
th a t i ron i m a ge w i th f a
y w e h ave n o th i n g w h a te v e r to d o
, .

I t is th e n a ti on a l l if e th a tc on c e rn s th e l i te rary s tu d e n t s i n c e e v e n a ,

b e gi n n e r m u st n otic e th a t an y gre at d e v e l op m e n t of th e n ati on a l

l if e is i n vari ab l y as soc i a te d w i th a d e ve l op m e n tof th e n ati on a l li te ra
t u re. I tis e n ou gh fo r ou r p u rp o s e th e re fo re to p o i n to u ttw o fac ts
, ,

th a t E l i z a b e t h w i th a ll h e r van i t
,
y a n d i nc o n si ste n c y ste ad i ly l ov e d ,

E n gl an d an d E n gl an d s gre a tn e ss ; an d th a t s h e i n s p i re d all h e r
’

p e o p l e w i th th e u n bo u n d e d p a tr i o ti s m w h i c h e xu l ts in S h ak e sp e a re ,

an d w i t h th e p e rs on al d e vo ti on wh i c h fi n d s a v o i c e in th e F d é lj ’
/

Qu e e n U n d e r h e r ad m i n i strati o n th e E n gl i sh n ati o n a l l i fe p ro
.

gre ss e d by g i gan ti c l e ap s ra th e r th an by s l o w h i sto ri c a l p roc e ss an d ,

E n g l i s h l i te ra tu re re ac h e d th e v e ry h i gh e s tp o i n tof its d e v e l op m e n t .

I t is p os s i b l e to in d i c a te o n l y a fe w ge n e ra l c h a ra c te r i sti c s of th i s
gre a tag e w h i c h h a d a d i re c tb e ari n g u p on i ts l i te ratu re .

Ch aracte ri s tic s of th e E li zabe th an Age . Th e m o st c h arac te r i s ti c

fe atu re of th e age w as t iv re l i gi ou s to l e ran c e wh ic h
h e c o m p ara t e ,

w as d u e l arge l y t h e qu e e n s i n fl u e n c e Th e f ri gh t
’
R e li g i ous o t .

Tol e ra tio f u l e x c e ss e s of th e r e l i g i ou s w a r k n o w n as th e T h i rty

n

Y e ars War on th e C o n ti n e n t fou n d n o p ara l l e l in E n gl an d U p on

’
.

h e r ac c e ss i on E l i za b e th fo u n d th e w h o l e ki n gd o m d ivi d e d a gain s t
i ts e lf ; th e Np rth w as l arge ly C ath o l i c w h il e th e sou th e rn c oun ti e s ,

w e re a s stron gly P rote stan t S c otl an d h ad fo l lo w e d th e R e fo rm a

.

ti on in its o w n i n te n se w ay w h il e I re l an d re m a i n e d tru e to i ts o ld
,

99
 I OO E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
re l igi ou s tra di ti on s , an d both b e l l i o u s Th e
c ou n tr es i w e re ope n ly re .

c o rt m ad e u p of b o t
u ,
h p arti e s w i tn e sse d th e r iva l i n tri gu e s o f ,

th o s e w h o sou gh t to ga i n th e ro y a l favo r I t w as d u e p artly to th e .

i n te n se ab sorp tion of m e n s m i n d s in re l igiou s q u e stion s th at th e ’

e c e d in g c e n t u ry t h o u gh a n ag e o f ad van c i n g l e a rn i n g p ro d uc e d
p r , ,

s c a rc e l y an y l i t e ra tu re w o rt h y of th e n a m e E l i z ab e th favo re d b o th .

r e l i gi ou s p ar t i e s a n d p re s e n t
,
ly t h e w o rl d s aw w i th a m az e m e n t

C a th o l i c s an d P rote s tan ts ac ti n g toge th e r a s tru ste d c o u n s e l ors o f a

g r e a t s o v e re i gn T h e d e f e a to f t
. h e S p an i s h Arm a d a e s t ab l i sh e d t h e

R e fo rm a ti on a s a fa c t in E n gl an d an d a t th e sa m e ti m e u n i te d a ll ,

E n g l i sh m e n in a m agn ifi c e n t n ati on a l e n th us i asm F o r th e fi rs tti m e .

sin c e t h e R e fo rm ati on b e gan th e fu n d a m e n ta l qu e sti on of r e l i gi o u s

,

to l e ra ti on se e m e d to b e se ttl e d a n d th e m i n d of m an f re e d f ro m , ,

re l i gi o u s f e ars a n d p e rse c u t ion s tu rn e d w i th a gre atc re a ti v e i m p u l se

,

to o t h e r f orm s of ac tiv ity I t is p a rtl y f ro m th i s n e w f re e d om of th e

.

m in d t h at th e Age of E l i ab e th re c e i v e d its g re a t l i te ra ry s ti m u l u s
z .

) A 2 I t was an age of c o m p a ra ti ve soc i a l c on te n tm e n t in s tron g

( ,
.

c on t ras t w i t h th e d a y s of L an gl an d Th e ra p i d i n c re as e o f m an u .

3 i 1 C
0c a onfac turin g tow n s gav e e m p l oy m e n t to th ou san d s w h o
t t
en m t en h ad b e fo re b e e n i d l e an d d i sc on te n te d I n c re asi n g trad e .

b rough te n o rm ous w e a l th to E n gl an d an d th i s w e a l th wa s sh are d to ,

'

t h i s e x te n t at l e as t th a tfor th e fi rst ti m e som e sy s te m a ti c c a e for

, , r

th e n e e d y w as a t te m p te d Pa ri sh e s w e re m ad e re s p on s i b l e for th e i r
.

ow n p oo r an d t ,
h e w e a l th y w e re tax e d to su pp o rtth e m o r g i v e th e m
e m p l o y m e n t Th e i nc re as e of w e a l t
. h th e i m p rov e m e n tin l iv i n g th e , ,

o pp o rt un i t i e s fo r l ab or th e n e w soc i a l c on te n t th e se a l so are fac

, ,

to rs w h i c h h e l p t o a c c ou n tfo r t h e n e w l i te ra ry ac tivi t y .

3 I tis an age o f d re a m s o f adv e n tu re of u n b ou n d e d e n t

.
, h u s i as m ,

sp ri n gi n g f ro m t h e n e w l an d s o f fab u l ou s ri c h e s re v e al e d by E n gl i sh
e x p l ore rs D rak e sa il s a roun d th e wor l d sh a p i n g th e
i m
.
,
E th
n us a s
m i gh t y c o u rs e w h i c h E n g l i s h c o l o n i z e r s sh a l l f o l l o w
t h rou gh th e c e n tu ri e s ; an d p re s e n tl y th e you n g p h i l oso p h e r B ac on
"
is sa y i n g c on fi d e n tl y I h a v e tak e n all k n o w l e d ge for m y p ro v
,
”
i n c e Th e m i n d m u st s e arc h farth e r th an th e e ye ; w i th n e w ri c h
.
,

l an d s op e n e d to th e s i gh t th e i m agi n ati on m u s t c re ate n e w fo rm s ,

to p e o p l e th e new w o rl d s . Hak luy ts ’

f a m ou s C olle c t
i on o f Voy ag es ,
an d P a r e h a s , H i s P i lg r i m ag e , w e re e v e n m ore s ti m u l ati n g to th e
E n gl i s h i m agi n a ti on th an to th e E n gl i sh ac q u i s i tiv e n e s s Wh i l e h e r .

e x p l o re rs s e arc h t h e n e w wo rl d fo r th e F oun t a i n o f Y ou t h , h er .

p o e ts a re c re a tn
g i l i te ra ry work s h at are
t youn g fore ve r M ars ton .
10 2 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
I
Th e d a p p e r d i tti e s th a t w o n td e v i s e ,
T o fe e d y o u th s fa n c y , an d th e o c ki n g f ry
’
fl
I
D e li g h te n m u c h — w h a t th e b e t f o r th y ?
Th ye h an th e p l e as u r e , I
a s l e n d e r p r i ze :

1 b e a tth e b u s h , th e b i rd s to t h e m do fly :

Wh atgo od h e re o
t f to C u d d ie c a n ar s e i ?
( P i e rs
)
C ud d i e , th e p ra i s e i s b e tte r th a n th e p r i c e ,
T h e g l o r y e k e m u c h g re a te r th a n t h e g ai n
3’

S h ep /ze r d Ca le n da r , O c to b e r
’
s

I n th e se w ord s wi th th e i r s orrow f u l s u gg e s ti on of D e or
, ,

S p e n se r r e v e al s h is o w n h e a rt u n c on s ci o u s ly p e r h a p s as n o
, ,

bi og rap h e r c ou ld p os s ibly d o His l i f e an d wor k s e e m to c e n

.

te r ab ou t th r e e g r e a t i n fl u e n c e s ,

s um m e d up ifi th re e n a m e s :
C a m b r id g e w h e re h e g re w ac ,

q u a i n te d wi t h th e cl a s s ic s an d

th e I tali an p o e ts ; L on d on w h e r e ,

h e e xp e r i e n c e d th e g l a m ou r an d
th e d i s a pp o i n tm e n to f c ou r tli f e
a n d I re l an d w h ic h s t e e p e d h im ,

i n th e b e a uty an d i m ag e ry of old
C e l tic p oe try a n d fi r s t g a v e h im
l e i s u re to w r i te h is m as te rp i e c e .

Lif e Of S p e n s e r s e a rl y l if e an d
’

E D MU ND S PE NS E R
.

p a re n t age w e kn o w l i t tl e e xc e pt ,

th ath e w as b orn in E as tS m ith fie ld n e a r th e T ow e r o f L on d o n a n d

, ,

w as p o o r H is e d uc a ti on b e gan a t th e M e rc h an t Ta i lo rs S c h oo l in
.
’

L on d on an d w a s c o n ti n u e d in C a m b rid ge w h e re a s a p oo r S i ar a n d
, z

fa g for w e a l th y s tu d e n ts h e e a rn e d a s c an t l i v i n g H e re in th e gl ori .

ou s w o r l d t h a t o n l y a p oo r s c h o l a r k n o w s h ow to c re a te for h i m se lf
h e re a d th e c l ass i c s m ad e ac q u ai n tan c e w i th th e gre a tI ta l i an p oe ts
, ,

an d w ot e n u m b e rl e s s l i t
r tl e p o e m s o f h is ow n T h ou gh C h au c e r .

w as h is b e l ov e d m a st e r h is a m b it
,
i on w as n otto riva l th e Ca n te b u ry r

Ta le s b u trath e r to e x p re ss th e d re a m o f E n gl i sh c h iva l ry m u c h as
, ,

Ar i os to h ad d o n e fo r I ta l y in O la n d o F u i os o r r .

Af te r l e avi n g C a m b ri d ge ( 1 5 7 6 ) S p e n se r w e n t to th e n o rth o f
E n gl an d on s om e un k n ow n w ork o r q u e s t H e re h is c h i e f oc c u p ati on
, .
 T H E AG E O F EL I Z AB E TH 10 3

wa s t
o fa l l in lov e an d t
o r e c or d h is m e l an c h o l y o ve r l o st
th e
R o sa l i n d in th e S lzep ne r d
’
s Ca le n d a r . U p on h is f ri e n d H arve y s ’

ad vi c e h e c am e to L on d o n b rin gi n g h is p o e m s ; an d h e re h e m e t
,

L e i c e s te r th e n a t th e h e i gh to f roya l favo r an d th e l a tte r took h im

, ,

o l i v e a tL e i c e s te r H ou s e H e re h e fi n i sh e d th e S nep ne r d s Ca le n ’
t .

d a r an d h e re h e m e t S i d n e y a n d all th e q u e e n s favo ri te s Th e c ou rt
’
, .

w as fu l l o f i n tri gu e s l y i n g an d fl a tte ry a n d S p e n se r s o p i n i on o f h is
’
, ,

ow n u n c om f o rt ab l e p o s i ti on is b e st e x p re sse d in a fe w l i n e s f rom
M oth e r H u bbard s T a l e ’

F l l l i ttl k ow s tth o th th s ott i e d

u e n e u, a a n r ,

Wh ath e l l i ti s i n s u i n g l on g to b i d e :
,

T o l os e g oo d d a y s th a tm i g h tb e b e tte r s p e n t;
,

T o w as te l o n g n i g h ts i n p e n s i v e d i s c o n te n t;

To f re tth y s ou l wi th c r os s e s a n d w i th c a re s

To h
e a tt y h e ar tth ro u g h c o m fo r tl e s s d e s p a i rs ;
To fa w n , to c ro u c h , to w a i t, to r i d e to ru n , ,

To spe n d , to g i ve , to w a n t to , be un d on e .

In 1 5 80 , i c e ste r s i n fl u e n c e S p e n se r w h o w as u tte rly

th rou gh L e
’
, ,

we ary of h is d e p e n d e n t p o si tion w as m ad e se c re tary to L o rd G re y , ,

th e q u e e n s d e p u t y in I re l an d an d th e th i rd p e rio d of h is l if e b e gan
’

, .

H e ac c om p an i e d h is c h i e f th rou gh o n e c a m p a i gn of sa v age b ru ta l i ty
in p u tti n g d ow n an I ri sh r e b e l l i on an d w a s g iv e n a n i m m e n s e e s tate ,

w i th th e c astl e o f K i l c o l m an in M u n s te r w h i c h h ad b e e n c on fis
, ,

c at e d f ro m E a r l D e s m on d on e o f t h e I ri s h l e a d e r s H i s l i f e h e re
, .
,

w h e re ac c ordi n g to th e te rm s o f h is gran th e m u s tre s id e a s an E n g

l i sh s e ttl e r h e re gard e d as l on e ly e xi l e
,

My
l u c kl e s s lo t ,

T h atb an i s h e d h ad m y s e l f l i k e W i g h tfo r l o re , ,

I n to th a tw as te w h e re I w as q u i te forg o t
,
.

I ti s i n te re s ti n g to n ote h e re a g e n tl e p o e ts vi e w o f th e un h a
pp y
’

i s l an d Af te r n e ar ly s ix te e n y e ars re s i d e n c e h e wro te h is Vi e w of
.
” ’
’

t lze S t at e o f I r e la n d
( 1 5 9 6 )
l
h is o n l y p ro s e,
w o rk i n w h i c h h e su b ,
"
m it p a c i fy i n g th e o p p re ss e d an d r e b e l l i ou s p e 0 p 1e
”
s a p l an fo r .

T h i s w as to b ri n g a h u ge forc e o f c a v a l ry an d i n fan try i n to th e

c o un t ry gi ve t
, h e I r i s h a b r i e f ti m e to s u b m i t an d af te r th a tto h un t ,

th e m d o wn l ik e w i l d b e as t s He c a l c u l a te d th atc o l d fa m i n e an d
.
, ,

s ic k n e ss w ou l d h e l th e w o k o f th e s w o rd an d t h a ta f ter t h e r e b e ls
p r ,

h ad b e e n we l l h ou n d e d for tw o w i n te rs th e f o l l o w i n g su m m e r w ou l d
1 Th Vi w w e tp b li h d till 63 3
e as n o u s e 1 .
10 4 E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E

fin d th e c o un tr y p e a e u c f l
T h i s p la n f rom th e p oe t of h arm on y
.
,

a n d b e au t y w as so m e w h at m i l d e r th an th e u sua l tre atm e n t of a

,

brave p e 0 p 1e w h ose o ffe n s e w a s th at th e y l ov e d l i b e rty a n d re l i

g i on . S tran ge a s it m ay s e e m t h e Vi e w w a s c on s id e re d m o sts t
,
at es

m an l ik e a n d w a s e x c e l l e n tl y w e l l re c e iv e d in E n g l an d
,
.

I n K i l c o l m an s u rrou n d e d by g r e a t n a tu ral b e au t
,
y S p e n s e r fin ,

ish e d th e fi rs t th re e b ook s of th e F ae ry Quee n I n 1 5 8 9 R a l e i gh .

v i si te d h im h e ard th e p oe m w i th e n th u si asm h u rri e d th e p o e t o ff

, ,

to L on d o n a n d p re s e n t
,
e d h im t o E l iz ab e t h Th e fi rs t th re e b ook s .

m e tw i t h i n stan ts u c c e ss w h e n p u b l i sh e d an d w e re a c c l a i m e d a s th e
gre a te s t w ork in th e E n g l i s h l an guage A y e a rl y p e n s i on of fi f ty .

o u n d s w a s c on f e rr e d by E l i z a b e t h b u t rare l y p a id an d t h e p oe t
p , ,

tu rn e d b ac k t o e xi l e t h at is to I re l an d aga in
, , .

S oon a f te r h is re tu rn S p e n se r f e l l in l ov e w i th h is b e au ti fu l
,

E l i z ab e th an I ri sh gi r l ; w ro te h is A /n or e tt
,
i o r so n n e ts in h e r , ,

h on o r ; an d a f te rwa rd s r e p re se n te d h e r in th e F a e i j Qu e e n a s th e ,
/
,

b e au ti f u l w o m an d a n c i n g am on g th e G rac e s I n 1 5 9 4 h e m arri e d .

E l i z ab e th c e l e b ra ti n g h is w e d d i n g wi th h is E p i th a l am i o n
”
, o n e of ,

th e m os tb e a u tif u l w e d d i n g h y m n s in an y l an gu age .

S p e n s e r s n e x t vi si t to L on d on w a s in 1 5 9 5 w h e n h e p u b l i sh e d
’
,

a n e l e gy on t h e d e a th o f h is f ri e n d S i d n e y an d th re e
”
Astrop h e l , ,

m o re b ook s of t h e F a e i y Qu e e n O n th i s vi s i t h e l iv e d aga i n a t
.

L e i c e s te r H ou se n o w o c c u p i e d by th e n e w favo r i te E sse x w h e re h e
, ,

p r o b a b ly m e t S h a k e s p e a re a nd t h e o th e r l i te ra ry l i gh t
s o f th e E l i za

b e th an Age S oon af te r h is re tu rn to I re l an d S p e n se r w as ap p o i n te d
.
,

S h e ri ff of C o rk a q u e e r o fli c e fo r a p o e t w h ic h p ro ba b l y b rou gh t
‘
, ,

ab ou th is un d o i n g T h e sam e y e a r T y ron e s R e b e l l i on b rok e o u t i n

’
.

M un s te r K il c o l m an th e an c i e n th ou se of D e sm on d w a s on e of th e
.
, ,

fi stp l ac e s attac k e d by th e re b e l s an d S p e n s e r bare ly e sc ap e d w i th

r ,

h is w ife a n d tw o c h il d re n I t is su p p o se d th a t so m e u n fi n i s h e d p a rts
.

of t h e F a e y Qu e e n w e re b u rn e d in th e c as tl e
r ,
.

F rom th e sh oc k of th i s f ri gh tfu l e x p e ri e n c e S p e n s e r n e ve r re c ov
e re d . H e re t n e d to E n gl a n d h e a rtb ok e n an d in th e fo l l o wi n g
ur r ,

y e ar ( 5 9 9 ) h e d i e d in an in n at We stm i n ste r Ac c o rd i n g to B e n
1 .

J on son h e d i e d for w an t of b re ad ; b u t w h e th e r th a t is a p oe ti c ”

w ay o f sayi n g th a th e h ad l o s t h is p ro p e rt y or th at h e ac tua l l y d i e d
of d e s t i tuti on w il l p robab l y n e ve r b e k n o w n H e w as b u ri e d b e s i d e
, .

h is m as te r C h au c e r in We stm i n s te r Abb e y th e p o e ts o f th at a ge
, ,
"
th ron gi n g to h is f u n e ra l an d a cc o rdi n g to C a m d e n , c as ti n g th e i r ,

e l e gi e s an d t h e p e n s th ath ad w ri tte n th e m i n to h is to m b ”
.
10 6 E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
th e su bj e c ts of v e ra l b ook s Th e fi r s t r e c ou n ts th e
th e se .

a dv e n tu re s o f t h e R e dc ro s s K n i g h t r e p r e s e n ti n g H ol i n e s s , ,

an d t h e l a dy U n a r e p re s e n ti n g R e l i g i on
, T h e i r c on te s ts a r e .

s y m b o lic al of t h e w or ld wid e s tr u gg l e b e tw e e n vi rtu e a n d f a i th

-

on t h e o n e h a n d a n d S in a n d h e re s y on th e oth e r Th e s e c on d
,
.

b oo k te ll s th e s tory o f S ir G u y on or T e m p e ra n c e ; th e th i rd , ,

o f B ri t o m ar t i s r e p re s e n ti n g C h as ti ty ; th e f ou rth fi f th a n d
, , ,

s ix t h o f C a m b e l a n d Tr ia m on d ( F r i e n d s h ip ) A r te ga ll ( J u s tic e )
, , ,

e sy ) S p e n s e r s pl a n w a s a v e ry e l as
’

a n d S ir C a lid ore ( C our t .

tic o n e a n d h e fill e d u p th e m e as u r e o f h i s n ar ra tiv e wi th

e v e ry t h i n g th atc au g h t h is f an cy — h i s tor ic a l e v e n ts an d p e r
‘

s on ag e s u n d e r a ll e g or ic a l m a s k s b e au ti f u l l a di e s c h iva l rou s
, ,

k n i g h ts g i an ts m on s te rs d rag on s s i r e n s e n c han te rs an d
, , , , , ,

a dv e n t u re s e n o u gh t o st o ck a lib ra ry o f fi c t i on I f y o u r e a d .

H om e r or V i rg il y ou k n ow h is s u bj e c tin th e fi rs ts tron g li n e
,

i f y ou re a d C ae d m on s P a rap /zra s e or M il ton s e pi c th e i n tro

’ ’

d u c ti on g iv e s y o u th e th e m e ; b u t S p e n s e r s g rea t p oe m ’

wi th th e e xc e p ti on of a s i n g l e l i n e in th e p rol og u e F i e r c e ,

”
w a r r e s a n d f a i th f u l l l o v e s s h a ll m or ali z e m y s on g iv
g es
—

h ardly a h i n t of w h at i s c om i n g .

A s to th e m e an i n g o f th e all e g or ic a l fi g u re s o n e i s ge n e ra lly ,

i n d ou b t I n th e fi r s t th re e b oo k s th e s h a d owy F ae ry Q u e e n
.

s om e t i m e s r e p re s e n ts th e g l ory of G od a n d s om e ti m e s E l iz a
b e th w h o w as n atu rally fl atte re d by th e p ara ll e l B r i tom arti s
, .

i s a l s o E li za b e th Th e R e d c r o s s K n i g h t is S id n e y th e m od e l
.
,

E n g l i s h m an A r th u r w h o a lw ay s a pp e ar s to r e s c u e th e op
.
,

p re s s e d i s L e ic e s te r w h ic h is an oth e r o u trag e o u s fl atte ry

, ,

U n a i s s o m e ti m e s r e l i g i on a n d s om e ti m e s th e P rote s tan t
C h u rc h ; w h il e D u e s sa re p re se n ts M ary Q u e e n of S c ots o r ,

g e n e ra l C ath olici s m I n th e l a s tth r e e b o ok s E li z ab e th app e ars

.

ag a i n a s Me rc illa ; H e n r y I V o f F ran c e a s B o u r b on th e w ar
i n th e N e th e rl a n d s a s th e s tor y o f L a dy B e l g e ; R al e i g h a s
T i m ia s ; th e e a rl s o f N o rth u m b e rl an d an d We s tm or e l an d
l( o v e rs of M ar y or D ue s sa ) a s B lan da m ou r an d Pa r id e ll ; a n d
so on t h r oug h th e wid e ran g e of c on te m p ora ry c h ara c te rs an d
 TH E AG E O F EL IZ AB E TH 10 7

e v e n ts till th e a ll e go ry b e c om e s
, as d i ffi c u l t to f oll o w as th e
s e c on d p ar t o f G oe t
’
h e s F a us t .

P oe tic al F or m . F or th e F a e ry Qu e e n S p e n s e r i n v e n te d a

new v e rs e f orm w h ic h h as b e e n c al l e d s i n ce h is d ay th e
,

S p e n s e r ia n s tan z a B e c a u s e of i ts rare b e a uty i t h as b e e n

.

m u c h u s e d by n e arly all o u r p o e ts in th e i r b e s t w o rk Th e .

an za w as an i m p rov e d f o r m o f A r io s t
’
n ew st a v a ri m a i
o s ot t ( e . .

e i g h tli n e s t
-
an z a
) an d b e ar s a cl os e r e s e m bl a n c e to on e o f
”
C h a u c e r s m os t m u s ic a l v e r se f o rm s in th e M on k s T a l e
’ ’
.

S p e n s e r s s tan z a i s in n i n e l i n e s e i g h t o f fiv e f e e t e a c h an d
’

th e l a s t of s ix f e e t r i m i n g a oa ooe oee A fe w s e l e c ti o n s f r o m
,
.

th e fi rs t b ook w h ic h is b e s t w o rth r e a di n g a re r e p rod u c e d

, ,

h e r e to S h o w th e s tyl e an d m e l ody of th e v e r s e .

A G e tl K i g h tw s p i ki g o th e p l i e
n e n a r c n n a n ,

Y c la d d
1
i n m i gh ti e a r m e s a n d s i l v e r s h i e ld e ,
Wh e re i n old d i n t s o f d e e p e w o u n d e s d i d re m a i n e

Th e c ru e ll m ar ke s of m an y a b l ood y fie ld e
Ye ta r m e s ti l l th a tti m e d id h e n e v e r wi e l d :
H is an g r y s te e d e d i d c h i d e h is fom i n g b i tt,
As m u c h d i s d a y n i n g to th e c u rb e to yie ld :
F ll u i o lly k n i gh th e s e e m d a n d f a i re d id s i tt
2
, ,

As on e fo r k n i g h tl y g i u s ts a n d fi e r c e e n c ou n te rs
3
fi tt.

An d on h i s b re s ta b loo d i e c ros se h e b o re ,
T h e d e a re re m e m b ran c e of h i s d y i n g L or d ,
F o r w h os e k e th a tg l or i ou s b a d g e h e w o r e
sw e e te sa ,

An d d e a d a s l iv i n g e v e r h i m a d or d :
’
, ,

U p on h i s s h i e l d th e li k e w as a l s o s c o r d
’
,

F or s o v e r a i n e h o p e w h i c h i n h i s h e l p e h e h ad, ,

R i gh t f a i t
h f u l l tru e h e w as i n d e e d e a n d w o r d
B u to f h i s c h e e re 4 d id s e e m e to o s ol e m n e s a d ;
Ye t n oth i n g d i d h e d re a d b u te v e r w a s y d ra d 5 ,
.

T h i s s l e e py b it, f rom th e d w e lli n g of M or p h e u s i n vi te s ,

us to
li n g e r
A n d , m o re to lulle ft h i m i n h is l
s um ber so ,

A tri c k l i n g s tr e am e fr o m h i g h r o c k tu m b l i n g d ow n e ,
A n d e v e r d ri z li n g ra i n e u p o n th e l o f t
-
,

M ix tw i th a m u rm u r i n g w i n d e m u c h li k e th e ,
so wn e
O f s w arm i n g b e e s d i d c as th i m i n a s w o w n e
, .

l
1 c ad .
2 h d m an 3 j
so t t e . m t 4 t
ou s s , ou rn a en s . c ou n e n an c e .
5 d re ad e d .
10 8 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
No h e r n oy s e
ot , p e o p l e s tro u b l o u s c ry e s ,
n or

As st i ll a re w o n t ta n n o y th e w a l l e d to w n e ,
’

M i g h t th e re b e h e a rd : b u t c a re le s s e Qu i e tl y e s ,

\Vra p t i n e rn a ll s
et i l e n c e fa rre f ro m en im ye s .

Th e d e s c r ip ti o n of U n a S h o w s th e p oe ts ’
s e n s e of id e a l b e a u ty
O n e d a y , n i g h w e ar i e o f th e y rk e s o m e w a y ,
Fro m h e r u n h a s t i e b e a s ts h e d i d a l i g h t
An d on th e g r as s e h er d a i n ty lim bs
d id la y
In s e c re t
e s h ad o w ,
far f rom all m e n s s i gh t;
F ro m her f a y re h e ad h e r fi l l e ts h e u n d igh t, l

A n d la y d h e r s to l e as i d e He r a n g e l s f ac e , .

A s th e g re a te y e o f h e a v e n s h y n é d b r i gh t, ,

A n d m a d e a s u n s h i n e i n th e s h a d y p l a c e
D id ne ve r m o r ta ! l e
y e b e h ol d s uc h h e a v e n l y g ra c e .

I t fo r tu n ed , o u to f h e th
t i c k e s tw o o d
A ra m ping
l y o n r u s h ed s ud d e i n ly ,

H u n ti n g f u l l g re e d y a f te r s a l v a ge b l o od :
S o o n e a s th e ro y a l ! V i rg i n h e d id s p y ,

W i th g a p i n g m o u th a th e r r an g re e d i l y ,

To h a v e a tto n c e d e v o u r d h e r te n d e r c o rs e :
B u tto th e p r a y w h e n as h e d re w m ore n y ,

H b ood
i s l y r a
g e a s w a
g e d w i th r e m o r s e
2
,

A n d wi th th e s i g h ta m a z d f o rg a th is f u r i ou s fo rs e
, , .

I e ad
nst f h e k i s th e r w e a rie fe e t
h e re o
t ,

A n d li c k th e r I i l l y h a n d s w i th fa w n i n g to n g ;
A s h e h e r w ro n g ed i n n o c e n c e d i d w e e t 3
.

0 h ow c an b e a u ti e m a i s te r th e m os ts tro g n ,

A n d s i m p l e tru th s u b d u e a v e n g i n g w ro n g !

Min or P oe m s . N e xt to h is m a ste r pi e c e ,
he
t S /zep /i e r d
’
s

Ca le n d a r ( 5 7 9)1 i s th e b e s t k n o w n o f S p e n se r s p o e m s ;
’

th o u g h as h i s fi rs t w or k i t i s b e l o w m a n y o th e r s i n m e l ody
, , .

I t c o n s i s ts o f tw e l v e p a s to r a l p o e m s o r e cl og u e s on e for e a c h , ,

m on th of y e ar Th e th e m e s are g e n e ra lly ru ral li f e n atu re

th e .
, ,

l ov e in th e fi e ld s ; an d th e s p e ak e rs a re s h e p h e rd s a n d s h e p
h e rd e s s e s To i n c re a s e th e r u s tic e ff e c t S p e n s e r u s e s s tran g e
.

f orm s of s p e e c h an d ob s o l e te w ord s to s u c h an e x te n t th a t ,

J o n s on c om pl a i n e d h is w or k s a re n o t E n gl i s h or an y oth e r
1 too k o ff .
2
p i ty .
3 k w no .
1 10 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

Ch arac te ri s tic s of S pen se r ’

s P oe tr y . Th e fiv e m a i n q u a l i ti e s
S p e n se r p oe tryp e r f e c t m e l ody ( 2 ) a rar e s e n s e
’

of s ar e I
( ) a

o f b e au t y ; ( 3 ) a s pl e n did i m ag i n ati on w h ic h c o u ld gath e r ,

i n to o n e p o e m h e roe s k n i g h ts l adi e s d war f s d e m on s an d

, , , ,

d rag on s cl as s ic my th ol og y s tor i e s of c h iv a l r y a n d th e th ron g

, , ,

in g id e a l s o f th e R e n a i s san c e — all p as s i n g i n g org e o u s p ro ,

c e s s i on a c ros s an e v e r c h a n g i n g an d e v e r b e au ti f u l l an d s c a p e
- -

a lof t y ora l p u r i ty a n d s e r i ou s n e s s ; a d e lic ate id e a l

( )
4 m 5 )
i s m w h ic h c ou ld m ak e a ll n a tu r e a n d e v e r y c o m m o n th i n g
,

b e auti f u l I n c on tras twi th th e s e e xc e ll e n tq u al i ti e s th e re ad e r

.

wil l p roba bly n ote th e s tran g e a pp e aran c e o f h is li n e s d u e to

h is f o n d n e s s fo r o b s ol e te w or d s lik e ey n e ( e y e s ) an d s ne n a
’
,

( s h a m e ) a n d h is te n d e n cy to c o i n oth e r s l ik e m e re ii
, to s u i t , ,

h i s ow n p u r p o s e s .

I t i s S p e n s e r s id e al i s m h is l ov e of b e au ty a n d h is e x
’

, ,

q u is it e m e l o dy w h ic h h a v e c a u s e d h im t o b e k n ow n a s th e
”
p oe ts p oe t N e arly all o u r s u b s e q u e n t s i n g e r s a ck n owl e d g e
’
.

th e i r d e li g h t i n h i m an d th e i r i n d e b te d n e s s M a cau l ay a l on e .

am o n g c ri t ic s v o ic e s a f au l t wh ic h all w h o are n ot p oe ts
q u ickly f e e l n am e ly th at wi th a ll S p e n s e r s e xc e ll e n c e s h e is
, ,
’

d ifli c u lt to re ad Th e m od e r n m an l os e s h i m s e l f in th e c on
.

f u s e d a ll e go ry o i th e F a e ry Qu e e n s kip s all b ut th e m a r k e d ,

p a s sag e s a n d s o f tly cl os e s th e b ook in ge n tl e w e ar i n e s s

, .

E v e n th e b e s t of h is l o n g e r p oe m s w h il e of e xq u i s i te w or k ,

m an s h ip an d d e li g h tf u lly m e l od i ou s g e n e ra lly f a il to h old th e ,

r e ad e r s a t te n ti on Th e m ov e m e n t is l a n g u id ; th e re i s l i ttl e
’
.

d ra m atic i n te re s t an d an u tte r ab s e n c e o f h u m or Th e v e ry
, .

m e l ody o f h is v e rs e s som e tim e s g r o w s m on ot on o u s lik e a ,

S tra u s s w a l tz too l on g c on ti n u e d We s h a ll b e s t app re ci ate .

S p e n s e r by re adi n g a t fi rs t o n ly a fe w w e ll c h ose n s e l e c ti on s -

th e F a e ry Qu e e n th e S /zep /ze r d Ca le n d a r
’

f ro m and s , an d a fe w
of th e m i n or p oe m s w h ic h e x e m pl i fy h is w on d e r f u l m e o l dy .

Com p ar i s on b e tw e e n Ch au c er an d S p e n s er . A t th e ou tse t

it i s w e ll to re m e m b e r th at th o u g h S p e n s e r re gard e d C h au c e r
,

as h is m a s te r , tw o c e n tu r i e s i n te rv e n e b e tw e e n th e m an d th at ,
 TH E AG E O F EL IZ AB E TH III

th e i r w r i ti n g s h a v e al m os t n oth i n g in c om m on We s h a ll .

a pp r e ci at e t h i s b e tter by a b r i e f c om p a r i s on b e tw e e n ou r fi r s t
tw o m od e r n p oe ts .

C h a u c e r w a s a c om bi n e d p oe t an d m an o f affa i r s wi th th e ,

l atte r p r e d om i n ati n g T h ou gh d e a li n g l a rg e ly wi th a n ci e n t or
m e di ae v a l m ate ri a l h e h a s a c u r i o u s ly m od e rn w ay of l o oki n g
,

a t li f e . I n d e e d h e is ou r on ly a u th or p re c e di n g S h ak e s p e are
,

wi th w h o m w e f e e l th orou gh ly at h om e H e th re w a s id e th e .

ou t grow n m e tr ic a l rom an c e w h ic h w a s p ra c tic a lly th e on ly

,

f orm of n a rrativ e in h is d ay i n v e n te d th e art of s tor y te lli n g

,
-

in v e r se an d b ro u g h t it to a d e g re e of p e r f e c ti on w h ic h h as
,

p ro ba bly n e v e r s i n c e b e e n e q u al e d T h ou g h a s tu d e n t of th e
.

cl as s ic s h e l iv e d w h o lly in th e p re s e n t s tu d i e d th e m e n an d
, ,

w om e n of h is ow n ti m e p a i n te d th e m as th e y w e r e b u ta dd e d
, ,

a lw ay s a t ou c h of ki n dly h u m or or r o m a n c e t o m ak e t hem
m ore i n te re s ti n g S o h i s m i s s i on a pp e ars to b e s i m ply to
.

a m u s e h i m s e l f a n d h is r e ad e r s H is m a s te ry of v a r i o u s a n d
.

m e l o di o u s v e rs e w a s m ar v e l ou s a n d h as n e v e r b e e n s u rp as s e d
in o u r l a n g u ag e ; b u t th e E n g li s h o f h i s d ay w a s c h a n g i n g
ra pidly a n d i n a v e ry fe w y e ars m e n w e r e u n abl e t
, o a pp r e ci a te

h i s a r t s o th at e v e n to S p e n s e r a n d D r yd e n for e x am pl e h e
, , ,

s e e m e d d e fi ci e n t in m e t r ic a l s kill O n th i s a cc ou n t h i s in fl u
.

e n ce on o ur l i t e ra t u re h a s b e e n m u c h l e s s t h a n w e s h o u ld
e xp e c t f r om t h e q u ali ty of h is w or k an d f rom h is p os i ti on a s
on e o f t h e g r e a te s t of E n gli s h p o e ts .

L ik e C h au c e r S p e n s e r w a s a b u s y m an of a ffa i rs b u t in
, ,

h im th e p oe t an d th e s c h o l a r a l w a y s p r e d o m i n a te s H e w r i te s .

as t h e id e ali s t d e s c r ibi n g m e n n ot a s th e y a r e b u ta s h e th i n k s
,

th e y s h ou ld b e ; h e h a s n o h u m or an d h i s m i s s i o n i s n ot to
,

am u s e b u t t o r e f or m L ik e C h au c e r h e s tu di e s th e cl a s s ic s
.

a n d c on t e m po ra r y F r e n c h an d I t a li an w r i te rs ; b u t i n s te ad o f

ad a p t i n g h is m ate r ia l to p re s e n td ay c on di ti on s h e m a k e s
-
,

p oe try a s in h is E cl og u e s for i n s tan c e m ore a rtifi ci al e v e n

, ,

th an h i s f o r e i g n m od e l s Wh e re C h au c e r l ook s a b ou t h im an d
.

d e s c r ib e s l i f e a s h e s e e s it S pe n s e r a lw ay s l ook s ba ckw ar d for

,
1 1 2 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
h is i n spi rati on ; h e liv e s d r e a m ily in th e pa s t in a re al m of ,

p u re ly i m a g i n a ry e m otion s a n d a dv e n tu re s H is fi rs t q ua li ty .

is i m a g i n a ti on n o t o b s e r v a ti on an d h e i s th e fi r s t of ou r p o e ts
, ,

to c r ea te a w or ld o f d re am s f an ci e s an d ill u s i o n s
,
H is s e c on d , .

q u ali ty is a w on d e r f u l S e n s i tiv e n e s s to b e a uty w h ic h s h ow s ,

i ts e l f n ot o n ly in h is s u bj e c tm a tte r b u ta l so in th e m an n e r of
-

h is p o e tr y . L ik e C h au c e r h e i s a n a l m o s t p e r f e c t w or k m an ;
,

b u t in r e adi n g C h au c e r w e th i n k c h i e fly of h is n atu ra l c h a r
ac t e rs o r h is id e a s w h il e i n r e adi n g S p e n s e r w e t
, h i n k of th e
b e au ty o f e xpr e s s i on Th e e xq u i s i te S p e n s e r i an s tan z a a n d
.

th e r ic h m e l ody o f S p e n s e r s v e r s e h a s m a d e h im t h e m od e l
’

o f a ll o u r m o d e rn p oe t s .

M I NO R P OE T S
T h o u gh S p e n s e r i s th e on e gre at n on d ra m atic p oe t of th e -

E li za b e th an A g e a m u l ti tu d e of m i n or p oe ts d e m a n d atte n
,

ti on of th e s tu d e n t w h o w o u ld u n d e r s tan d th e tre m e n d ou s
li te rary a c tivi ty o f th e p e r i od O n e n e e d s on ly to r e ad T/ze
.

P a r a dy s e o
f D ay n t
y D e v i s e s
( 5 1 or A Gorge ou s Ga lle ry
f
o Ga lla n t I n v e n ti on s o r an
y ot e r o f
h th e m i s c e ll a n e
ou s c oll e c ti on s to fin d h u n d re d s of t he m of of son g s , m a n y

e xq u i s i te w o r k m a n s h ip by p oe ts w h os e n am e s n o w a wak e n
,

n o re s p on s e A g l an c e is e n o u g h to a s s ur e o n e th a t ov e r a ll
.

"
E n g l an d th e s w e e t s pi r i t o f s on g h ad ar i s e n lik e th e fi rs t ,

”
c h i r pi n g of bi rd s a f te r a s tor m N e a rly tw o h u n d re d p o e ts
.

ar e r e c o r d e d i n t h e s h ort p e r i od f ro m 1 5 5 8 to 1 6 2 5 an d ,

m an y o f th e m w e re p rolifi c w r i te rs I n a w o rk l ik e th i s w e .
,

c an h ardly d o m or e t h an m e n ti on a fe w of th e b e s t k n o w n
w r i te rs a n d s p e n d a m om e n t at l e a s t wi th th e w or k s th a t
,

"
s u g e s t M ar l o w e s d e s c r ip t i on of i n fi n i te r ic h e s in a l i ttl e
’

g
”
r o om . Th e re ad e r will n ote for h i m s e l f th e i n te re s ti n g u n i on
of a c t i on a n d th ou gh t in th e s e m e n s o c h ara c te ri s tic of th e ,

E l i z ab e th an A ge ; f or m os t o f th e m w e r e e n g ag e d c h i e fly in
b u s i n e s s o r w ar or p oli tic s an d l i te ratu re w a s to th e m a pl e as
,

a n t r e c re at i on rath e r th an an a b s orbi n g p ro f e ss i on .
1 14 E N GLI SH L IT E R ATU R E
w as i m i ta te d by a h u n d r e d p oe ts T h e Ap olog i e f or P oe tr i e .

e n e ra lly c a ll ed th e D ef e n s e of P oe s i e a pp e a re d in
g ,

an s we r t o a p a m p h l e t by S t e p h e n G o s s on c a ll e d T/ze S e /zool

A b i n w h ic h t h e p oe t ry o f t h e ag e a n d its u n
of use

b ridl e d pl e as u re w e re d e n ou n c e d wi th P u r i tan th or ou gh n e s s
an d c o n vic t i on Th e Ap olog i e is on e of th e fi rs tc r i tic a l e s s ay s
.

i n E n g li s h a n d th ou g h i ts s tyl e n ow s e e m s l ab o re d an d u n n a t
u ra l th e p e rn ici o u s re s u l t of E u p h u e s an d h is s ch o ol it
— —
, ,

i s s till o n e o f th e b e s t e xp re s s i on s of th e pl a c e a n d m e an i n g
of p o e t ry i n a n
y l an g uag e A st r o /ze l a n d
p S
. te lla i s a c ol

l e c ti on of s on g s an d s on n e ts add re s se d to La dy P e n e l op e
'

D e ve re u x to w h o m S id n e y h ad on c e b e e n b e troth e d
,
Th ey .

a b o u n d i n e xq u i s i t e li n e s a n d p a s s ag e s c o n ta i n i n g m ore p oe t ic ,

f e e li n g a n d e xp re s s i on th an th e s on g s o f an y oth e r m i n o r wr i te r
of th e ag e .

Ge or ge Ch ap m an ( 1 5 59
? p e n t h i s l on g
-
I 6 3 4) . C h a p m an s ,

q u i e t l i fe am on g th e d ra m a ti s ts a n d w rote c h i e fly f or th e ,

st a ge . H is pl ay s w h ic h w e re for th e m o s t p a r t m e re ly p oe m s
,

i n di a l o g u e f e ll far b e l o w th e h i gh d ram a tic s tan d ar d o f h i s

,

ti m e an d a r e n ow a l m o s t u n re a d Hi s m o s t fa m ou s w or k is .

th e m e tr ic a l tr an s l ati on of th e I li a d ( I 6 1 1 ) an d of th e Ody s s ey
C h ap m an s H om e r th ou g h l a cki n g th e S i m plici ty a n d
’

d ig n i ty o f th e or i g i n al h as a f or c e an d ra pidi ty of m o v e m e n t
,

w h ic h m a k e s it s up e r i o r in m an y r e s p e c ts to Pop e s m or e ’

f am il i ar tra n s l ati on C h ap m a n i s re m e m b e r e d a l s o a s th e
.

fi n i sh e r o f M arl o w e s H e r o a n d L e a n d e r in w h i c h a p ar t f rom
’

, ,

th e d ra m a th e R e n a i s s an c e m ov e m e n t is s e e n a t p e r h a p s its
,

h i gh e s t p o i n t i n E n g li s h p o e try O u t o f s c ore s o f l on g p oe m s.

of t h e p e r i od H e ro a n d L e a n d e r an d th e F a e ry Qu e e n a re th e
,

o n ly t w o w h ic h are e v e n s l i g h tly k n o w n to m od e rn r e ad e r s .

M i c h a e l Dray ton ( 1 5 6 3 D ray ton is th e m os t v ol u

m i n o u s a n d to an tiq u ari a n s a tl e as t th e m o s ti n te r e s ti n g o f th e
, ,

m i n o r p o e ts H e is th e L ay am o n o f th e E li z a b e th an A e a n d
.

g ,

v as tly m ore s c h ol arly th an h is p re d e c e s s o r H is c h i e f w ork .

is P o ly oloi on a n e n or m ou s p o e m o f m a n y th ou s an d c o u pl e ts
, ,
 TH E AG E O F EL IZAB E TH 1 1 5

d e s c r ibi n g th e tow n s m o u n ta i n s an d r iv e rs of B r i ta i n wi th
, , ,

th e i n te r e s ti n g l e g e n d s c on n e c te d wi th e a c h I tis an e x tr e m e ly .

v al ua bl e w or k an d re p re s e n ts a l i f e tim e of s tu dy an d r e s e ar c h .

Tw o o th e r l on g w or k s a re th e B a r on s Wa rs an d th e H e r o i c
’

E p i s tle of E ng la n d ; a n d b e s id e s th e s e w e r e m a n y m i n o r
" ”
p oe m s On e o f th e b e s tof th e s e is th e Ba ttl e of A g i n c ou rt
.
,

a b all a d w r i t te n i n th e l iv e ly m e te r w h ic h T e n n y so n u se d wi th
" ”
s om e v a r i at i o n s in th e C h arge of th e L i g h t B r i g ad e an d ,

w h ic h s h ow s th e old E n g li sh l ov e of b ra v e d e e d s a n d of th e
h at s ti r a p e opl e s h ea rt in m e m or y of n o bl e an c e s tor s
’

son g s t .

III . THE FIRST E N G LI S H D R AMA T I S TS

Th e Or i gi n of th e Dra m a . F i rs t th e d e e d ,
th e n th e stor y ,

th e n th e pl ay ; th a t s e e m s to b e th e l d e v e l o p m e n t of
n atu ra

th e d ra m a i n i ts s i m pl e s t f or m Th e g re a t d e e d s o f a p e o pl e
.

a re t re a s u re d i n i ts li t e r atu r e a n d l,
a te r g e n e ra ti on s re p re s e n t
i n pl ay o r p a n to m i m e c e rta i n p a rts o f th e Sto ry w h i c h a pp e al
m o s t p o w e r f u lly to th e i m ag i n a ti on A m on g p r i m i tiv e rac e s
.

th e d e e d s o f th e i r g od s a n d h e roe s are o f te n re p re se n te d a t
th e y e a rly f e s tiv al s a n d a m on g c h ild re n w h os e i n s t i n c ts are
,

n o t e t bl u n t e d by a r t i fic i a l h a bi ts on e s e e s t h e st o ry t h at
y ,

w a s h e a r d a t b e d ti m e r e p e a te d n e x t d ay i n vi g o rou s a c ti o n ,

w h e n ou r b oy s tu r n s c ou ts an d o u r g i rl s p r i n c e s s e s p re ci s e ly ,

a s o u r fi rs t d ra m a t i s ts tu rn e d to th e old l e ge n d s a n d h e roe s
o f B ri t a i n for t h e i r fi rs t s tag e p ro d u c ti o n s To a c t a p ar t .

s e e m s as n a t u ra l t o h u m an i t y a s to te ll a s to ry ; an d o ri g i
n a lly t h e d ra m a i s b u t a n o ld s to ry re to ld to th e e y e a s to ry ,

p u t i n to ac ti o n by l ivi n g p e r f o r m e rs w h o f o r th e m om e n t ,
" ”
m a k e b e li e v e o r i m ag i n e t h e m s e lv e s to b e th e old h e roe s .

To ill u s tra te th e m a tte r s i m ply th e re w a s a g re a tli f e l iv e d

,

by h im w h o w as c all e d th e C h ri s t I n e vi ta bly th e li f e f o u n d
.

i ts w ay i n to li te ra tu re a n d w e h a v e th e G os p e l s A ro u n d th e
,
.

li f e a n d l i te ratu re s p ran g u p a g re at re l i g i o n I ts w ors h ip .

w a s a t fi rs t s i m pl e — th e c o m m on p ray e r th e e v e n i n g m e a l
, ,

toge t h e r th e re m e mb e re d w ord s of th e M as te r a n d th e
, ,
1 I 6 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
cl os i n g h y m n G rad u ally a ri tu al w as e s tabli s h e d w h ic h g re w
. ,

m o re e l a b o ra te a n d i m p re s s iv e as th e c e n tu r i e s w e n t by .

S c e n e s f ro m th e M a s te r s li f e b e gan to b e re p re s e n te d i n th e
’

c h u rc h e s e s p e ci a lly a t C h r i s tm a s ti m e w h e n th e s tory of
, ,

C h ri s ts bi rth w a s m ad e m o re e ff e c tiv e to th e e y e s of a
’

,
.

p e o pl e w h o c ou ld n o t re a d by a b ab e in a m an g e r s u rro u n d e d ,

by m ag i a n d s h e p h e rd s wi th a c h o i r of a n g e l s c h an ti n g th e ,

G lo r i a i n O th e r i m p re s s iv e s c e n e s f ro m th e G os p e l
f o ll o w e d ; th e n th e Old T e s tam e n t w as c all e d u p on u n til a ,

c o m pl e te cycl e o f pl ay s f ro m th e C re ati on to th e F i n a l J u d g
m e n tw as e s ta bli s h e d a n d w e h av e th e My s t
-
e r i e s a n d Mi ra cl e
,

pl ay s o f th e M iddl e A ge s O u t o f th e s e c a m e d i re c tly th e .

d ram a o f th e E li z a b e th a n A ge .

PE R I O D S I N THE D E VE L O P ME N T OF T HE D R A MA

I . Th e R e li gi ou s P e ri od G re e c e th e . In E u ro p e , as in ,

d ra m a h ad a d i s ti n c tly re li g i o u s o ri g i n Th e fi rs t c h a rac te rs
2
.

w e re d ra w n f ro m th e N e w T e s tam e n t an d th e o bj e c t o f th e ,

fi rs t pl ay s w as to m ak e th e c h u rc h s e rvic e m o re i m p re s s iv e ,

or t o e m p h as i z e m o ra l l e s s o n s by S h o wi n g th e re w a rd of th e

g o o d a n d th e p u n i s h m e n t of th e e vil d oe r I n th e l a tte r d ay s .

of t h e R o m an E m pi re th e C h u r c h f o u n d th e s tag e p os s e s s e d
by f ri g h tf u l pl ay s w h ic h d e b ase d th e m o ral s of a p e 0 p 1e
,

a l re ady f a ll e n t oo lo w R e f o rm s e e m e d i m p os s ibl e ; th e c o r
.

r u p t d r a m a w a s d riv e n f ro m th e s tag e an d pl ay s o f e v e ry ,

ki n d w e re fo r bidd e n B u t m a n ki n d l o v e s a s p e c ta cl e a n d .
,

1
Th e m os td ra m atc p a rt of th e e ar i
r tua c e n te re d a b o u tC h r s ts d ea t ly i
h a n d re s u r l i ’

i
re c to n , o n G ood F r da s a n d E a s t e r da s i yAn e u s t e a c c o u n to f t y
h s m os t m p re s s e
. xq i i i i iv
se r vi
c e i s p re s e r e d i n S t E t v
h e lwo ld s L a tn m a n u a o f c h u rc h se r c e s ,
’
. r t i
te n a b o u t l vi wi
6
9 5 T .h e L a t n a n d E n g s h ie rs on s a re ou n d i n Cli
h a m b e r sv i
’
s rl/ e d i ce z a l S t g f
a e , Vo l I I '
. .

F or br if i i i p ti 4 fl
'

yc
a e ,
nt
e re s t n
g d e sc r o n , se e G a y le y , P lay s f
o Ou r F w '
/ze r s ,
It
pp . 1 .

1’ Ho w m u c h w e a re i n de b te d to th e N or m a n l v
o e of pa ge a n tr or th e d e vl e op m e n t

of th e d ra m a i n E n g l an d is an u n a n s w e re d q ue s ti on . D u r n g th ei Mi d d l e Ag es it w as
c u st
o m ar y , in w e l mi g m
co n a o n a rc h or in l
c e e b ra t n g a i ro y lwa e d d n g, i to p rese n t
re

a ll e go r ca i l an d m yth l g i l o o ca sc e n e s, lik e th e c o m b a to f S t G e o rge

. an d th e d ra gon , fo r
i n st
a n c e , on a st
a ge c on s tru c ted
fo r th e p u r po se Th e se p agea n ts e re po p u a r a ll o e r . w l v
vl i
E uro pe a n d d e e o pe d d u r n g th e R e n a s sa n c e i n tO th e d ra m atc o r m no n as t ihe i f k w
q
Mas u e T h ou gh th e d ra m a w a s o f re g ous o r g n , w e m u s tn oto e r oo th e se se c u ar
.
li i i i v l k l
i f
pag ea n ts as a n m po rta n t ac to r i n th e d e e op m e n tof d ra m atc a rt vl i .
1 1 8 EN G L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

w h ic h i t h a d i ts e l f i n tro d u c e d a n d w h ic h a t fi rs th ad s e r v e d a
,

p u re ly re li g i o u s p u rp os e B u t by th i s ti m e th e M i ra cl e s h ad
1
.

tak e n s tro n g h o ld u p o n th e E n g li s h p e o pl e an d th e y c on ti n u e d ,

to b e i m m e n s e ly p o p u l a r u n til i n th e s i x te e n th c e n tu ry th e y
, ,

w e re re pl ac e d by th e E li z a b e th a n d ra m a .

Th e e a rly M i ra cl e pl ay s o f E n g l a n d w e re d ivid e d i n to tw o
cl as s e s : th e fi rs t g iv e n a t C h r i s tm a s i n cl u d e d all pl ay s c on
, ,

Cy 1 f
c es o ne c te d wi t h th e bi r th o f C h r i s t; th e s e c o n d a t ,

Pl ya s
E as te r i n cl u d e d th e pl ay s r e l a ti n g to h i s d e a th
,

an d t ri u m p h B y th e b e g i n n i n g o f th e f o u rte e n th c e n tu r y all
.

th e s e pl ay s w e re i n v a ri o u s l o c ali ti e s u n i ted i n s i n g l e cycl e s

, ,

b e g i n n i n g wi th th e C re ati o n a n d e n di n g wi th th e F i n al J u d g
’

m e n t Th e c o m pl e te cycl e w as p re se n te d e v e ry s p r in g b e
.
‘

g i n n i n g o n C o rp u s C h r i s ti d ay ; a n d a s th e p re se n ta ti on of s o
m a n y pl ay s m e a n t a c o n ti n u o u s ou td oo r f e s tiv a l o f a w e e k o r

m o re th i s d ay w as l oo k e d f o r w ard to a s th e h a ppi e s t of th e
,

w h o l e y e ar .

P ro b ably e v e ry i m p ortan t tow n i n E n g l a n d h ad i ts ow n

cycl e of pl ay s f or i ts o w n g u ild s to p e r f or m b u t n e arly a ll ,

h a v e b e e n l os t A t th e p re s e n t d ay o n ly f o u r cycl e s e xi s t
.

( e xc e p t i n th e m o s tf rag m e n ta ry c o n di ti on ) an d th e s e th ou g h , ,

th e y f u r n i s h a n i n te r e s ti n g c o m m e n tary o n th e ti m e s a d d ,

v e ry li ttl e to ou r li te ra tu re Th e f o u r cycl e s a re th e C h e s
.

te r a n d Y o r k pl ay s s o c a ll e d f ro m th e to w n s i n w h ic h th e y
,

w e re g iv e n ; th e Tow n e le y o r Wak e fi e ld pl ay s n a m e d fo r th e ,

To w n e le y f a m ily w h ic h f o r a l o n g ti m e o w n e d th e m a n u
,

s c r ip t; a n d t h e C o v e n try pl ay s w h ic h o n d o u b tf u l e vid e n c e ,

h a v e b e e n as s o ci a te d wi th th e G re y F ri a rs ( F ran ci s c an s ) o f
C o v e n try T h e C h e s te r cycl e h a s 2 5 pl ay s th e Wa k e fi e ld 3 0
.
, ,

th e C o v e n try 4 2 a n d th e Y o r k 4 8 , I t i s i m p os s ibl e to fi x .

e it h e r th e d a te o r th e au th ors h ip o f a n of t h e s e pl ay s ;
y
w e o n ly k n o w c e r ta i n ly th a t t h e y w e re i n g re a t f a v or f ro m
th e tw e l f th to th e S i x te e n th c e n tu r i e s Th e Y o rk pl ay s a re .

1 S ee J u s s e ra n d , A L i te r a r y H i s tory of th e E n g li s h P e op le , 1 , iii vi ,
. F o r o u r e ar li e st

p l y
a s and th e i r auth o rs se e Ca yl y
e , P la y s f
o Ou r F or e f a th e r s .
 TH E AG E O F EL IZ AB E TH 1 1 9

g e n e ra lly c on s id e re d b e s t; b u t th o s e of Wak e fi e ld
to b e th e
s h o w m ore h u m or a n d v a r i e t y a n d b e tte r w o rk m an s h ip Th e
,
.

f o r m e r cycl e e s p e ci ally s h o w s a c e r ta i n u n i ty re s u l ti n g f ro m
i ts a i m to y e p re s e n t th e w h o l e o f m a n s l i f e f r o m bi r th to
’

d e ath Th e s a m e th i n g i s n o tic e a bl e i n Cu rs or M u n d i
.

_ ,

w h ic h wi th th e Y o rk an d Wa k e fi e ld cycl e s b e l o n gs to th e
, ,

f ou r te e n th c e n tu ry .

A t fi rs t th e a c to r s a s w e ll a s th e a uth o rs o f th e M i ra cl e s
w e re th e p ri e s ts an d th e i r c h ose n a s s i s ta n ts L ate r w h e n .
,

th e to w n g u ild s too k u p th e pl ay s a n d e a c h g u ild

Th S t g
e a e

an d th e b e c a m e re s p on s ibl e for o n e o r m ore o f th e s e r i e s ,

At
c or s
th e a c to rs w e r e c a re f u lly s e l e c te d a n d tra i n e d By .

f o u r o cl o ck o n th e m o rn i n g of C orp u s C h r i s ti a ll th e pl ay e rs
’

h a d to b e i n th e i r pl a c e s i n th e m o v a bl e th e a te rs w h ic h w e re ,

s c at te re d th ro u g h o u t th e to w n i n th e s q u a re s a n d o p e n pl ac e s .

E a c h o f th e s e th e a te rs c o n s i s te d o f a tw o s tory pl a tf o r m -

s e to n w h e e l s Th e l o w e r s to ry w a s a d re s s i n g ro o m for th e
.

ac t o rs th e u pp e r s to ry w a s th e s ta g e p ro p e r a n d w a s re a c h e d
,

by a trapd oor f ro m b e l o w Wh e n th e pl ay w as o v e r th e pl at
.

f o r m w as d ragge d a w ay a n d th e n e x t pl ay i n th e cycl e to ok i ts
,

pl ac e S o in a s i n g l e s q u a re s e v e ra l pl ay s w ou ld b e p re s e n te d
.

i n ra pid s e q u e n c e to th e s am e a u d i e n c e M e an w h il e th e fi rs t
.

pl ay m ov e d o n to a n o th e r s q u a re w h e re a n oth e r a u d i e n c e
,

w a s w ai ti n g t o h e ar it .

T h ou g h th e pl ay s w e re d i s ti n c tly re li gi ou s i n c h arac te r ,

th e r e is h a rdly o n e wi th o u t i ts h u m oro u s e l e m e n t I n th e .

pl ay o f N oah for i n s tan c e N oah s s h re wi s h wi f e m ak e s f u n

, ,
’

fo r th e au di e n c e by w r a n g li n g wi th h e r h u s b a n d I n th e .

C ru c i fi xi o n pl ay H e ro d i s a p ran ki s h ki n d o f ty ran t w h o
l e a v e s th e s tag e to ra n t a m o n g th e au di e n c e ; s o th at to
"
o u th e ro d H e ro d b e c a m e a c o m m o n p rov e rb I n all th e
”
-
.

pl ay s th e d e vil i s a f a v o ri te c h arac te r an d th e b u tt of e v e ry
j ok e He al s o l e a v e s th e s tag e to pl ay p ran k s o r f ri g h te n th e
.

w on d e r i n g c h ild re n O n th e s id e of th e s tage w as o f te n s e e n
.

a h u g e d ra o n s h e ad wi t pi r e d j a w s b e lc h i n g f o r th
’

g h g a n g ,
1 20 E N GLI S H L IT E R ATU R E
fire an d k e o u t o f w h ic h p ou re d a tu m u l tu ou s troo p of
sm o ,

d e vil s wi th cl u b s a n d pi tc h f ork s a n d g ridi ron s to p u n i s h th e

wick e d c h a rac te rs a n d to d rag th e m a w ay at l as t h o wli n g ,

a n d s h r i e ki n g i n to h e ll m ou th as th e d rag o n s h e ad w as ’
-

, ,

c all e d S o th e f e ar o f h e ll w as i n g rai n e d i n to an i g n o ran t

.

p e o pl e fo r f o u r c e n tu ri e s A l te rn a ti n g wi th th e s e h o rr ors
.

w e re bi ts of ro u g h h o rs e pl ay an d d om e s tic s c e n e s o f p e ac e
-

a n d ki n dli n e s s re p re s e n t
,
i n g th e li f e of th e E n g li s h fi e ld s a n d
h om e s . Wi th th e s e w e re s on g s an d c a rol s lik e th at of th e ,

N ativi ty fo r i n s tan c e :
,

As I ro d e
ou t h
t is i gh t
e n d e re s ( l as t) n ,

O f th re e j o l l y s h e p h e rd s I s a w a s i g h t ,

An d a b o u tth e i r fo l d a s tar s h o n e b r i g h t;
T h e y s a n g tor li te r low ,

S o m e r ly ly th e s h e p h e rd s th e i r p i p e s c a n b l o w .

D own f ro m h e a v e n f ro m h e a v e n s o h i gh
, ,

O f a n ge l s t
h e re c a m e a g re a t c o m p a n y e
W i th m i rth a n d joy a n d g re a ts o le m n i ty e ;
, ,

T h e y s an g te r /i te r /ow ,

S o m e rly ly th e s h e p h e rd s th e i r p i p e s c a n b l o w .

S uch s on g s w e re tak e n h o m e by th e a u di e n c e a n d s u n g for a

s e a s on ,
as a p o p u l a r t u n e i s n o w c a u g h t f ro m t h e s tag e a n d
s un g on t h e s tre e ts an d att i m e s th e w h ol e a u di e n c e w ou ld
v e ry l ik e ly j o i n in th e c h oru s .

A f te r th e se pl ay s w e re w r i tte n a cc o rd i n g to th e g e n e ra l
out li n e o f th e B ibl e s to ri e s n o c h an g e w a s tol e ra te d th e
, ,
"
a u di e n c e i n s i s ti n g lik e c h ild re n a t P u n c h an d J u dy u p o n
, ,
”

se e i ng t h e s a m e th i n g s y e ar a f te r y e ar N o o ri g i n a li ty i n pl o t .

or t re a t m e n t w a s p o s s ibl e th e re f o re ; th e o n ly v a ri e ty w as i n
,

n e w s o n s a n d j ok e s an d in t h e p ra n k s o f th e d e vil C h ild
g ,
.

i s h a s s u c h pl ay s s e e m to u s th e y a re p art of th e re li g i o u s,

d e v e l o p m e n t o f all u n e d u c a te d p e o pl e E v e n n o w th e P e rs i an .

"
pl ay o f th e M a rty rd o m o f A li i s c e l e b ra te d y e arly an d ”
,
"
th e f am o u s P as s i o n P l ay a tru e M i racl e i s g iv e n e v e ry
,
”
,

te n y e ars a t Ob e ra m m e rg a u .
 1 22 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
s um m on i n g o f e v e r y m a n b y D e a th : a n d th e m o r a l is th a t n oth i n g c a n
ta k e a w a y t h e te r ro r o f th e i n e v i ta b l e s u m m o s b u t a n h o n e s t l if e a n d
n

th e c o m fo r ts o f re l i g i o n I n i ts d r a m a ti c u n i ty i t s u g g e s t
.
s t h e p u re
G re e k d ra m a ; th e re is n o c h a n g e o f ti m e o r s c e n e a n d th e s ta g e i s ,

n e ve r e m p t y fro m th e b e g i n n i n g to th e e n d o f th e p e r fo r m a n c e O th e r .

w e l l k n o w n Mo r a l i ti e s a re th e P ri d e o f L i fe
-
" ”
Hy c k e s c o rn e r
,
" ”
an d ,

C as te l l o f P e rs e v e r a n c e I n th e l a tte r m a n i s re p re s e n t
”
.
, e d as s h u t u p

i n a c as tl e g a rr i s o n e d b y th e v i r tu e s a n d b e s i e g e d b y th e v i c e s .

L ik e th e M i ra cl e pl ay s m os t o f th e Old M o ra li ti e s are o f
,

u n k n ow n d a t e an d o r i g i n O f th e k n o w n a u th o rs o f M o ra l
.

W Mag
"
i ti e s tw o of th e b e s t a re
,
w h o w ro te ,
" ”
a n d p ro b a bly a l s o T h e N e c ro m an c e r ; a n d S i r
”
n i fic e n c e ,
"
D avid L i n d s ay ( 1 4 9 0 th e p o e t o f th e S c o tc h R e fo r
m ati on ”w h os e re li g i o u s b u s i n e s s i t w as to m ak e ru l e rs u n
,

c om f o r ta bl e by te lli n g th e m u n pl e a s a n t tru th s i n th e f o r m
o f p oe t ry Wi th th e s e m e n a n e w e l e m e n t e n te r s i n to th e
.

M o rali ti e s T h e y s a ti ri z e o r d e n ou n c e ab u s e s o f C h u rc h a n d
.

S ta te a n d i n tro d u c e livi n g p e rs o n ag e s th i n ly d i s g u i s e d a s
,

all e g or i e s ; s o t h a t th e s tag e fi rs t b e c o m e s a p ow e r i n s h a p
i n g e v e n ts an d c o rre c ti n g a b u s e s
w.
.

Th e I n te rlu de s I t i s i m p o s s ibl e to d ra w an y a cc u rate li n e

.

o f di s t i n c ti on b e tw e e n th e M o rali ti e s a n d I n te rl u d e s I n gen .

e ra l w d m a th i n k of t h e l at t e r a s d ra m a t ic sce n e s s om e
y ,

ti m e s g iv e n by th e m s e lv e s ( u s u ally wi th m u s ic a n d s i n g i n g ) a t
b an q u e ts an d e n te r ta i n m e n ts w h e re a li ttl e f u n w as w a n te d ;
an d a g a i n s lipp e d i n t o a M i r a cl e pl ay t o e n liv e n th e a u di e n c e
af t e r a s ol e m n s c e n e T h u s o n th e m arg i n of a p ag e of o n e
.

"
of t h e o ld C h e s te r pl ay s w e re a d Th e b oy e a n d pi gg e w h e n
,
”
th e k i n ge s a re g o n e C e rta i n ly th i s w as n o p a r t of th e
.

or i g i n al S c e n e b e t w e e n H e ro d an d th e th re e ki n g s S o al s o .

th e q u a r re l b e tw e e n N o ah a n d h i s wi f e i s p ro b a bly a l a te
addi t i on to an old pl ay Th e I n te rl u d e s o r i g i n a te d u n d ou b t
.
,

e dl
y ,
i n a s e n s e of h u m o r ; a n d t o J oh n H e yw oo d ( 1 4 9 7 ?
1 5 80 a f av o r i t e re t a i n e r an d j e s t e r at t h e c o u rt o f M a ry i s ,

d ue th e c re di tfor ra i s i n g th e I n te r l u d e to th e di s ti n c td ra m a tic
f orm k n o w n a s c o m e dy .
 TH E AG E O F EL IZAB E TH 1 23

He yw ood ’
s I nt l
e r ud e s w e r e w r i tte n b e tw e e n 1 5 20 an d 1 5 40 . His
m os t fa m o u s is Th e Fo ur P a rd o n e r
P
’
s,
”
e s to f
a c on t w i tb e t e e n w a ,

a P a l m e r a P e d l ar a n d a P o t
”
, i c a r y Th e c h a ra c te rs h e re s tro n g l y s ug .

g e s t th ose o f C h au c e r l A n o th e r i n te re s ti n g I n te r l u d e i s c a l l e d
“
. Th e
Pl a y o f th e We a th e r I n th i s J u p i te r a n d th e g od s a ss e m b l e to l i s te n
.
”

t o c o m p l ai n t
s a b o u tth e w e a th e r a n d to r e fo r m a b u s e s N a tu ra ll y e v e r y .

b o d y w a n ts h is o w n ki n d o f w e a th e r T h e c l i m a x i s re ac h e d b y a b o y .

wh o an n ou n c e s t h a t a b o y s p l e a s u r e c on s i s t s in t w o th i n g s c a t ch
’
,

i n g b i rd s a n d t h ro wi n g s n ow b a l l s a n d b e g s f or th e w e at her t o b e s uc h ,

t h a th e c a n a l w a y s d o b o th J u p i te r d e c i d e s th a th e w i l l d o j u s t a s h e
.

p l e as e s ab ou tth e w e a t h e r a n d e v e r y b od y g oe s h om e s a ti s fi e d, .

A ll th e se ly pl ay s w e re w r i tte n for th e m os tp a rt i n a
e ar , ,

m i n g li n g of p ros e a n d w re tc h e d d ogge re l a n d a d d n o t h ing ,

to o u r li t e ra tu re T h e i r g re a t w o rk w as to tra i n a c tors to
.
,

k e e p aliv e th e d ram atic s pi ri t an d to p re p are th e w ay for ,

th e tr u e d ram a .

3 Th e Artistic P e r i od of th e Dr am a
. Th e a rti s tic i s th e .

fi n a l s tage i n th e d e v e l op m e n t o f th e E n g l i s h d ram a I t di f .

f e rs rad ic a lly f rom th e o th e r tw o i n th at i ts c h i e f p u r p ose

i s n o t to p o i n t a m o ral b ut to re p re s e n t h u m an li f e as i t i s .

T h e a rti s tic d ra m a m ay h a v e p u rp o s e n o l e s s th an th e M i r ,

a c l e pl ay b u t th e m o ti v e l s a lw ay s s u b ordi n a te to th e c h i e f
,

e n d of re p re s e n t i n g li f e i ts e l f .

Th e fi rs t tr u e pl ay i n E n g li s h wi th a re g u l ar pl ot divid e d , ,

i n to a c ts a n d s c e n e s i s p rob a bly th e c om e dy ,
r ,
W
Th F i te W rs
I t w a s w r i tt .
”
e n by N ic h o l as U d a ll m as ,

C m dY
° e
te r o f E ton a n d l a te r o f We s tm i n s te r s c h oo l a n d ,
M ac
,

w a s fi rs t a c t e d by h I S s c h oo lb oy s s o m e t i m e b e f o re 1 5 56 .

Th e s tory i s th a tof a c on c e i te d f op i n l o v e wi th a wid o w w h o ,

i s a l re ady e n g age d to a n o th e r m a n Th e pl ay i s an a d a p ta ti o n .

of t h e M ile s G lor i os u s a cl a s s ic c o m e dy by P l au tu s an d th e , ,

‘
E n g li s h c h a rac te rs a re m o re o r l e s s ar ti fici a l ; b u t a s f u rn i s h
i n g a m od e l of a cl e ar pl o t a n d n a tu ral di a l o g u e th e i n fl u e n c e ,

of t h i s fi rs t c o m e dy wi th i ts m i x tu re of c l a s s i c a n d E n g li s h
,

e le m e n t s c an h a rd ly b e o v e re s t
,
i m a te d .

1 In fac t,
He yw ood
“
cr i b be d ” f ro m C h a u c e r ’ s Ta les i n a n oth er I nte r ude l ca ll ed
"
Th e P a rd o n e r a n d th e F re re .
”
 1 24 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
"
Th e x t pl ay Gam m e L C
ne , Q rt
o ni s fl e e d le ( c ir i s .

a d om e s t ic c o m e dy a tru e b i t o f E n g li s h re ali s m re p re s e n t
, ,

in g th e li f e o f th e p e a s an t cl a s s .

G am m e r C u r to n i s p a tc h i n g th e l e a th e r b re e c h e s o f h e r m a n H o d g e ,
w h e n G i b , th e c a t, g e ts i n to th e m i l k p a n Wh i l e G a m m e r c h as e s th e .

c a tt h e fa m i l y n e e d l e i s l os t a v e r i tab l e c a l a m i ty i n th os e d a y s
, Th e .

w h o l e h o u s e h o l d is t rn e d u p s i d e d o w n a n d th e n e i gh b o rs a re d ragg e d
u ,

i n to th e affa i r Va r i o u s c o m i c a l s i tu a ti on s a re b ro g h tab o u tb y D i c c o n
. u ,

a t h i e v i n g v a g a b o n d w h o te ll s G a m m e r t
,
h a th e r n e i g h b o r D a m e C h a tte , ,

h a s ta k e n h e r n e e d l e a n d w h o th e n h u rr i e s to te l l D a m e C h a tt
, e th at
s h e is ac c us e d b
y G a m m e r o f s te a l i n g a f a v o r i te roo s te r N a tu ral l y .

t h e re is a t e rri b l e r o w w h e n t h e tw o i ra te o ld w o m e n m e e t an d m i s u n
d e rs tan d e a c h o t her D i c c o n a l s o d ra gs D o c tor R a t th e c u ra te i n t
. o , ,

h e q u a r re l b y te l l i n g h i m t h a t i f h e wil l b u tc r e e p i n to D a m e C h a tte s
’
t ,

c ot ta e b
g y a h i d d e n w a y h e w il l fi n d h e r u s i n g th e s to l e n n e e d l e T h e n
, .

D i c c o n s e c re t l y w a rn s D a m e C h a tte th a tG a m m e r G u r to n s m a n H od g e ’

i s c o m i n g to s t e a l h e r c h i c k e n s ; an d t h e o ld w o m an h i d e s i n t h e d ar k

p as s a g e a n d c u d g e l s t h e c u rat e s o u n d l y wi t h th e d o o r b a r A l l th e p a r ti e s .

a re fi n a ll y b ro u gh t b e f o re t h e j u s ti c e w h e n Ho d g e s u dd e n l y a n d p a i n
,

f u ll y fi n d s th e l os t n e e d l e w h i c h i s all th e w h i l e s tu c k i n h i s l e ath e r
—

b re e c h e s an d t h e s c e n e e n d s u p ro a r i o u s l y f o r b o t
h a u d i e n c e a n d a c to rs .

T h i s fi rs tw h olly E n gli s h c o m e dy i s f ull of f u n an d c oa rs e

h u m or an d i s w on d e r f u lly tru e to th e li f e i t re p re s e n ts I t
,
.

w as l on g a tt r ib u ted to J oh n S t ill a f te r w ard s bi s h op o f B ath ; ,

b u t th e au th o rs h ip i s n ow d e fi n i te ly a s s i g n e d to Willi am
S e v e so
t n n
l
O u r e arli e s t e d i ti o n of th e pl ay w as p r i n te d i n
.

" ”
1 5 7 5 ; b u t a s i m il a r pl ay c a ll e d D y c c on o f B e dl a m w as

l ic e n s e d i n 1 5 5 2 tw e lv e y e a rs b e f ore S h ak e s p e a re s bi rth
,
’

To S h o w th e s pi r i t a n d th e m e tr ic a l f or m o f th e pl ay w e
g iv e a f rag m e n tof th e b oy s d e s c r ip ti o n o f th e d u ll a rd H od g e
’

tryi n g to li gh t a fire o n th e h e a r th f ro m th e c a ts e y e s an d
’

an o t h e r f rag m e n to f th e old d ri n ki n g s o n g a t th e b e g i n n i n g o f
th e s e c o n d ac t .

A t l as ti n a d ar k c o rn e r tw o s p ar ke s h e th o u gh th e sees

Wh i c h w e re i n d e d e n o u g h te ls b u t G yb o u r c a ts tw o e y e s
, ,
’
.

P u ffe q u o d Hod g e th i n ki n g th e rb y to h a v e fy re w i t
,
h o u td oub t;
Wi th th a tG yb s h u th e r tw o e y e s a n d s o th e fy re w as o u t , .

1 S ch e lli n g, E li z a oet/za n D ram a, I , 86 .

1 26 E N GLIS H L IT E R ATU R E
e x ti n c tw i th th e d e a th o f G o rb od u c th e c ou n tr y f a l l s i n to a n arc h y wi th
, ,

re b e l s n o b l e s a n d a S c o t
, ,
ti s h i n v ad e r all fi g h ti n g for th e ri g h to f s u c c e s
s i on . T h e c u r ta i n fa l l s u p o n a s c e n e o f b l o o d s h e d a n d u tte r c o n f u s i on .

Th e i ic fi n i s h of th i s fi rs t trage dy i s m arre d by th e
a r ts t

h o r s e vid e n t p u rp os e to p e rs u a d e E li z a b e th to m a r ry I t
’
au t .

ai m s t o sh ow t h e d a n g e r to w h ic h E n g l an d i s e xp o se d by th e
u n c e rt ai n ty of s u cc e s s i on O th e rwi s e th e pl an of th e pl ay
.

f oll o w s th e cl as s ic a l ru l e of S e n e c a T h e re i s v e ry li ttl e a c ti on
.

on th e s tag e ; bl ood s h e d a n d b a ttl e a re a n n ou n c e d by a

m e s s e n ge r ; an d th e c h o r u s o f f ou r o ld m e n o f B r i t
,
ai n s u m s ,

up t h e s i tu a ti on wi th a f e w m ora l o b s e r v a ti o ns at th e e n d of
e ac h of t h e fi rs t f o u r a c ts .

Class i cal I n fl u e n c e u p on th e D ra m a T h e re viv a l o f L a ti n .

li te ratu re h ad a d e c id e d i n fl u e n c e u p on th e E n g li s h d ram a as
i t d e v e l o p e d f ro m th e M i ra cl e pl ay s I n th e fi f te e n th c e n tu ry
.

E n g li s h te a c h e rs i n o rd e r to i n c re a s e th e i n te re s t i n L a ti n
, ,

b e gan to le tth e i r b oy s ac t th e pl ay s w h ic h th e y h ad re a d as
li te ratu re p re ci s e ly as o u r c oll e g e s n o w p re s e n t G re e k o r
,

G e r m an pl ay s at th e y e arly f e s tiv al s S e n e c a w as th e f av o r .

i te L a ti n au th o r an d all h i s trag e di e s w e re tra n s l a te d i n to

,

E n g li s h b e tw e e n 1 5 5 9 a n d 1 5 8 1 T h i s w a s th e e x ac t p e ri od
.

i n w h ic h th e fi rs tE n g li s h pl ayw ri g h ts w e re s h a pi n g th e i r o w n
id e as b u t th e s e v e re s i m plici ty of th e cl as s ic al d ram a s e e m e d
a t fi r s t o n ly t o h am p e r t h e e x u b e ra n t E n g li s h s pi ri t To .

u n d e rs t an d t h i s o n e h a s o n ly to c o m p are a trag e dy o f S e n e c a
,

o r o f E u r ipid e s wi t h o n e o f S h a k e s p e a r e an d s e e h ow wid e ly ,

th e tw o m a s t e rs di ff e r i n m e th od s .

I n th e cl as s ic pl ay th e s o c a ll e d d ra m a tic u n i ti e s o f ti m e
-
,

pl ac e a n d a c ti o n w e re s tr ic tly o b s e rv e d T i m e an d pl a c e m u s t
, .

D m t
ra i a re m a i n t
c h e s a m e th e pl ay c o u ld re p re s e n ta p e r i o d
u ifi
o f o n ly a f e w h ou rs an d w h a t e v e r ac t i on w a s i n
n es
,

tro d u c e d m u s t tak e pl a c e a t th e s p o t w h e re th e pl ay b e ga n .

Th e c h a ra c te r s th e r e f o re m u s t re m a i n u n c h an g e d th rou g h
, ,

o u t; t h e re w a s n o p o s s ibili ty of th e c h ild b e c o m i n g a m an ,

or of t h e m a n s g r ow th wi th c h a n gi n g ci rc u m s tan c e s A s th e
’

.
 TH E AG E O F EL I ZAB E TH 1 27

pl ay w as wi th i n d oors all vi go rou s a c ti on w as d eé m e d ou tof

,

pl a c e o n th e s tag e an d b attl e s an d i m p o rtan t e v e n ts w e re

,

s i m ply a n n ou n c e d by a m e s s e n g e r Th e cl a s s ic d ra m a a l s o
.

d re w a s h ar p li n e b e tw e e n trag e dy an d c o m e dy all fu n b e i n g ,

r i g o r ou s ly e xcl u d e d f ro m s e r i o u s re p re s e n tat i on s .

T h e E n g l i s h d ra m a on th e o th e r h an d s tro v e to re p re s e n t
, ,

th e w h o l e s w e e p o f li f e i n a s i n g l e pl ay Th e s c e n e c h a n g e d .

r a pidly ; th e s a m e a c t or s a pp e a r e d n ow a t h o m e n ow a t ,

c ou rt n ow on th e b attl e fi e ld ; an d vi g orou s a c ti o n fi ll e d th e
,

st ag e b e f ore t h e e y e s o f th e s p e c ta tors Th e c h ild o f o n e ac t .

a pp e a r e d a s t h e m a n o f th e n e x t a n d th e i m a g i n a ti on o f th e
,

S pe ct ator w a s c all e d u p o n t o b rid g e th e g a p s f ro m pl a c e to

pl a c e a n d f ro m y e a r to y e a r S o th e d ra m a ti s th a d f re e s c op e
.

to p r e se n t all li f e i n a s i n g l e pl a c e a n d a s i n g l e h o u r M o re .

o v er s i n c e t
,
h e w o r ld i s alw ay s l a u gh i n g a n d a lw ay s c ryi n g a t
th e s a m e m o m e n t trag e dy a n d c o m e dy w e r e p re se n te d S id e by
,

S id e a s t
,
h e y a re i n l i f e i ts e l f A s H a m l e ts i n g s a f te r th e pl a y
.
,

th a ta m u se d th e c ou r t b u t s tr u ck th e ki n g wi th d e a dly f e a r :

Wh y , le tti k e n d e e r go w e e p
he str c ,

T h e h a r tu n g a l l ed p l a y ;
F o r s om e m u s tw a tc h w h i l e s o m e m u s ts l e e p :
,

S o r u n s th e w o r l d a w a y .

N a tu ra lly , wi th th e s e tw o id e al s s tru gg li n g to m as te r th e
E n g li s h d ra m a tw o s c h o ol s o f w r i te r s a rose
,
Th e U n iv e rs i ty .

Tw S h l
o c
Wi ts as m e n of l e arn i n g w e re c a ll e d ge n e rally
oo s , ,

u p h e ld t h e cl a s s ic al id e a l a n d ridic u l e d th e c r u d e
0‘ D m
ra a
,

n e s s of t h e n e w E n g li s h pl ay s S a ckvill e a n d N o r ton w e r e
.

of t h i s cl a s s a n d ,
G o rb o d u c w a s cl as s ic i n i ts c on s tru c ti o n .

"
I n th e D e f e n s e o f P oe s i e S id n e y u p h o ld s th e cl as s ic s an d
r idic u l e s th e too a m bi ti ou s s c o p e o f th e E n g li s h d r a m a .

A g a i n s t th e s e w e re th e p o p u l ar pl ayw r i g h ts L yly P e e l e , , ,

G re e n e M ar l o w e a n d m an y o th e rs w h o re c og n i z e d th e E n g
, , ,

li s h l ov e o f a c ti o n an d di s re g a rd e d th e d ra m atic u n i ti e s i n
th e i r e n d e a v or to p re s e n t li f e a s i t i s I n th e e n d th e n a tiv e
.

d ra m a p re v a il e d aid e d by th e p op u l a r tas te w h ic h h ad b e e n
,
1 28 E N G L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

trai n e d by f ou r c e n tu ri e s of M i racl e s O u r fi rs t pl ay s e s p e
.
,

c i all
y of t h e r o m an t ic t yp e w e re e x tre m e ly c r u d e a n d o f t
,
en

le d to r idic u l ou s ly e x tra v ag an t s c e n e s ; a n d h e re i s w h e re th e
cl as s ic d ra m a e x e rc i s e d an i m m e n s e i n fl u e n c e fo r g ood by i n ,

s is t i n g u p on b e au ty of f or m a n d d e fin ite n e s s of s tru c tu re a t
a t i m e w h e n th e te n d e n cy w a s to s ati s f y a tas te fo r s tag e
s pe c t a cl e s wi t h ou t re ga rd to e i th e r .

I n th e y e ar 1 5 7 4 a roy a l p e r m i t to L or d L e ic e s te r s a c to rs
’

"
a ll o w e d t hem to g i v e pl ay s a n yw h e re th ro u g h o u t ou r re al m
”
of E n g l a n d ,
an d t h i s m u s t b e re g a rd e d as th e
Th Th
e e a ert
b e g i n n i n g o f th e re g u l ar d ra m a T w o y e ars l a te r
.
‘

" ”
th e fi rs t pl ay h o u s e k n o w n as
,
Th e T h e ate r w a s b u il t fo r ,

th e s e a c to rs by J a m e s B u r b ag e i n F i n s b u ry F i e ld s j u s t n o r th ,

of L o n d o n . I t w a s i n th i s th e a te r th a t S h ak e s p e are p ro b a
bly f o u n d e m pl oy m e n t w h e n h e fi rs t c a m e to th e ci ty Th e .

s u cc e s s o f t h i s v e n tu re w a s i m m e di a te a n d th e n e x t th i r ty
,

y e ars s aw a s c o re o f th e a tric a l c o m p a n i e s a t l e as t s e v e n re g
,

u l ar t h e a te r s a n d a d oz e n o r m o re i n n y ard s p e r m an e n tly
,

fi tte d f or th e g ivi n g o f pl ay s — all e s tabli s h e d i n th e ci ty

,

an d i t s i m m e di a t e s u b u rb s T h e g ro w th s e e m s all th e m o re
.

r e m a rk abl e w h e n w e r e m e m b e r t h a t th e L o n d o n of th os e
d ay s w ou ld n o w b e c o n s id e re d a s m all ci ty h avi n g ( in 1 60 0 ) ,

o n ly a b o u t a h u n d re d t h ou s a n d i n h a bi tan ts .

A D u tc h tra v e l e r J o h a n n e s d e Wi tt w h o vi s i te d L o n d o n
, ,

i n 1 5 9 6 h as g iv e n u s th e o n ly c o n te m p o ra ry d ra wi n g w e
,

p os s e s s o f th e i n te r i o r o f o n e o f th e s e th e a te rs T h e y w e re .

b u il t o f s ton e an d w ood ro u n d o r oc tag o n al i n s h ap e an d

, ,

wi th ou t a roo f b e i n g s i m ply a n i n c l os e d c o u r ty a rd A t o n e
,
.

S id e w a s t h e s tag e a n d b e f o re i t o n th e b a re g rou n d o r p i t
, , ,

st oo d t h a t l a rge p a r t o f th e a u di e n c e w h o c o u ld a ff o r d to p ay
on ly a n ad m i s s i on fe e . T h e pl ay e r s a n d th e s e g ro u n dli n g s
w e re e xp os e d to th e w e a th e r ; th o s e th a t p a id for s e a ts w e re
i n ga ll e r i e s S h e l te re d by a n a r ro w p orc h roo f p roj e c ti n g i n
-

w ard s f ro m th e e n ci rcl i n g w all s ; w h il e th e y ou n g n o bl e s an d

g a ll a n ts w h o c am e to b e s e e n a n d w h o c o u ld a ff ord th e e x tra
,
1 30 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
H o w e v e r th at m ay b e th e s tage w a s d e e m e d u n fi t fo r ,

w o m e n an d a c tre s s e s w e re u n k n o w n i n E n gl a n d u n til a f te r
,

th e R e s to ra ti o n .

S h ak e s pe are s P re d ece ss or s i n th e D ra m a T h e E n g li s h
’
.

d ram a as it d e v e l o p e d f ro m th e Mi racl e pl ay s h as an i n te r
est i n g h i s to ry I t b e g a n wi th s c h oo l m as te rs lik e U d all w h o
.
, ,

tran s l a te d a n d a d a p te d L a ti n pl ay s for th e i r b oy s to ac t a n d ,

w h o w e re n a t u ra lly g o v e rn e d by cl a s s ic id e a l s I t w a s c on .

t i n n e d by th e c h oi r m as te rs o f S t Pa u l a n d th e R oy a l an d .

th e Q u e e n s C h a pe l w h o s e c o m p a n i e s of c h oi r b oy a c to rs
’
-

w e re f am o u s i n L on d on an d r iv a l e d th e pl aye r s of th e re gu
lar th e a te r s 1
T h e s e c h o i r m as te rs w e re o ur fi rs t s tag e m an
.

a g e rs T h e y b e g a n wi th m as q ue s a n d i n te r l u d e s an d th e d ra
.

m a tic p re s e n ta ti on o f cl as s ic m y th s m od e l e d a f te r t h e I tali a n s ;
b u t s o m e of th e m l ik e R ic h a rd E d w a rd s ( c h o i r m a s te r o f th e
,

Q ue e n s C h a p e l i n ’
s oo n a dd e d f a rc e s f ro m E n g li s h c o u n

try li f e a n d d ra m a ti z e d s o m e o f C h a u c e r s s t o ri e s F i n ally th e ’
.
,

re g u l a r pl a yw r i g h t s K d N as h L yly P e e l e G re e n e a n d Mar
y , , , , , ,

l o w e b rou gh t th e E n g li s h d ra m a to th e p o i n t w h e re S h a k e
,

s p e a re b e g a n t o e xp e r i m e n t u p o n i t .

E a c h o f th e s e pl ayw r i g h ts add e d o r e m p h a s i z e d s o m e
e sse n t i al e l e m e n t i n th e d ra m a w h ic h a pp e a re d l a te r i n th e ,

w o rk o f S h ak e s p e a re T h u s J oh n L yly ( 1 5 5 4 w h o is .

n o w k n o w n c h i e fly a s h a vi n g d e v e l o p e d t h e p e rn ici o u s li te r
ar
y styl e c all e d e u p h u i s m
2
i s o n e of t h e m os t i n fl u e n t i a l of ,

th e e a r ly d ra m a ti s ts H is c o u r t c o m e di e s a re re m a rk a bl e fo r
.

th e i r wi tty d i a l og ue a n d f or b e i n g o u r fi r s t pl ay s to a i m
1 Th e s e ch o r i m aste rs h ad y l
pe r m ts to ta
ro a i k e bo y s of good vi o ce, wh e re v f er ou n d ,

a nd tra i n th e m a s s n ge rsi a n d ac to rs Th e b o s . y w e re ta k f en ro m th e i
p are n ts
r and w e re

o ft en ha lf star v e d an d m o s t b ru ta lly t re ated . Th e a b u se o f th i s u n n atu ra

pr l ivil e ge le d
to th e fi l w i th d w l f
na
pe r m ts
ra a o a ll s u c h i .

2 S
o ca e ll d f m W
ro
,
th e h e ro o f L l
y y s tw o p ro s e
’
o rk s , E up /zu e s , t/ze A n a tom y w
of Wi t a n d E u / me s a n d Iri s E n la n d Th e s t e i s a fe c te d a n d o e r yl f v
p g
gl , i
e e a n t a b o u n d s i n od d c o n c e t s , a n d u se s h o e e s s
p n o e d se n t en ces I t i s ou n d l ly i v lv . f
in n e ar ly
a ll E li
z abe th a n p ro s e wi r te r s , a n d pa rt a a c c oun ts fo r t h e r ge n e ra te n d e n c i lly i l y
to ar ti fi i li ty S h k p
c a . ti i a es e a re sa r ze s e u ph u s m i i n th e e r of
c h a ra c t D on Ad i r an o of

L ove ’
s L b a L t b ti h i m lf ti
ou r
’
5 os ,
u s se re s o m e ly i i i
e u p h u s tc a tt m e s , e s p e c a i lly i n h is e ar ly
or Lyl m di
ia n L yly b y th
co w e es .
,
e ay, d id no ti v n e n tthe yl
st e , b u t d i d m o re th a n
an y o th t d i ff
er it o u se .
 TH E AG E O F EL IZ AB E TH 1 3 1

d e fi n i te ly a tu n i ty
i ic fi n i s h T h o m as K y d s Sp a n i s /c
a n d a r ts t .
’

Trag e dy ( c 1 5 8 5 ) fi r s t g iv e s u s th e d ra m a o r ra th e r th e
.
,

m e l o d ram a o f p as s i o n c o pi e d by M arl o w e an d S h ak e s p e a re
, , .

T h i s w as th e m os t p op u l ar of th e e a rly E li z a b e th an pl ay s ;
i t w as re vi s e d ag a i n a n d a g a i n an d B e n J on s on i s s a id to ,

h av e w ri tte n o n e v e rs i on an d to h av e ac te d th e c h i e f p a r t of
H i e ro n i m o 1
A n d R ob e r t G re e n e ( 1 5 5 8 ? I 5 9 2 ) pl ay s th e
.
—

c h i e f p a r tin th e e arly d e v e l o p m e n t o f ro m an tic c o m e dy an d ,

g iv e s u s s o m e e xc e ll e n t s c e n e s o f E n g li s h c o u n t ry li f e i n pl ay s

lik e F r i a r B a c on a n d F r i a r B u ng ay .

E v e n a b r i e f g l an c e at th e li f e a n d w or k o f th e s e fi rs t
pl ayw ri g h ts s h ow s th re e n o te w o rth y th i n g s w h ic h h a v e a
M th d f
e o s o
b e a r i n g o n S h ak e s p e a re s c a re e r : ( I ) T h e s e m e n
’

th E l y w e re u s u ally a c to r s as w e ll a s d ra m a ti s ts T h e y
'

e ar .

D m t
ra a i t
s s
k n e w th e s tag e an d th e a u di e n c e a n d i n w r i ti n g ,

th e i r pl ay s th e y re m e m b e re d n o ton ly th e a c to r s p a r tb u ta l s o
’

t h e a u di e n c e s l o v e for s tor i e s a n d b ra v e S p e c ta cl e s
’ "
Will .

”
i tac tw e ll a n d will i tpl e a se o u r au d i e n c e
,
w e re th e q u e s ti o n s ,

o f c h i e f c o n c e rn t o o u r e a r ly d ra m a t i s ts ( 2 ) T h e i r tra i n i n g .

b e ga n a s a c tors ; th e n th e y re vi s e d old pl ay s an d fi n ally b e ,

c a m e i n d e p e n d e n t w ri te rs I n th i s th e i r w o rk s h o w s a n e x a c t
.

p ara ll e l wi th th at o f S h ak e s p e a re ( 3 ) T h e y o f te n w o rk e d .

to ge th e r p ro b ably a s S h a k e s p e a re w o r k e d wi th M a rl o w e a n d
,

F l e tc h e r e i th e r i n re vi s i n g old pl ay s o r i n c re a ti n g n e w o n e s
,
.

T h e y h ad a c o m m on s to re o f m ate ri al f ro m w h ic h th e y d e r iv e d
th e i r s to ri e s a n d c h a rac te r s h e n c e th e i r f r e q u e n t r e p e ti ti o n o f
,

n am e s ; an d t h e y o f te n p ro d u c e d tw o o r m o r e pl ay s on th e
s a m e s u bj e c t M u c h o f S h ak e s p e a re s w o rk d e p e n d s as w e ’

.
,

S h a ll s e e on p r e v i ou s pl ay s ; a n d e v e n h i s H a m le t u se s t
,
he
m ate r i a l of an e ar li e r pl ay of th e s am e n am e p ro b a bly by K y d , ,

w h ic h w as w e ll k n o w n to th e L o n d o n s tag e i n 1 5 8 9 s o m e ,

tw e lv e y e ars b e f ore S h a k e s p e a re s g r e a t w o rk w as w r i tte n

’
.

A ll th e s e th i n g s a r e S i g n ifi c an t i f w e a re to u n d e rs tan d ,

th e E li z a b e th an d ra m a a n d th e m a n w h o b ro u g h t i t to
1 S ee S ch e lli n
g, I ,
21 1 .
1 32 E N GLISH L IT E R ATU R E
p e rf e c ti o n S h ak e s p e a re w as n o t s i m ply a g re at g e n i u s ; h e
.

w as a l s o a g re a tw o rk e r a n d h e d e v e l o p e d i n e x a c tly th e sa m e
,

w a y as did a ll h i s f e ll o w c ra f ts m e n A n d c o n tra ry to th e .
,

p re v al e n t o pi n i on th e E li z ab e th a n d ra m a i s n o t a Mi n e rv a
,

lik e c re a ti on s p ri n g i n g f u ll g ro w n f ro m th e h e a d o f on e m a n ;
,

i t i s ra th e r an o rd e rly th o u g h rapid d e v e l op m e n t i n w h ic h ,

m a n y m e n b ore a p a r t A ll o u r e a rly d ra m a ti s ts a re w or th y
.

of s t u dy f or t h e p a rt th e y pl ay e d i n th e d e v e l o pm e n t o f th e
d ram a b u tw e c a n h e re c on s id e r on ly o n e th e m os ttypic al of ,

all w h o s e b e s tw o r k i s o f t
,
e n ra n k e d wi th th a to f S h ak e s p e are .

C HR I S T O P H E R
MA R L O WE ( 1 5 6 4 1 5 9 3 ) —

M arl o w e i s o n e o f th e m os t s u gg e s ti v e fi g u re s of th e E n g
li s h R e n a i s s an c e a n d th e g re a te s t o f S h ak e s p e a re s p re d e
,
’

c e s s o rs T h e g l o ry of th e E l i z a b e th an d ram a d a te s f ro m h i s
.

Ta m b u r la i n e w h e re i n th e w h o l e re s tl e s s te mp e r of th e
a g e fi n d s e xp re s s i o n

N t e th a tf m d o f fo e l e m t
a ur , ra e us ur en s

Wa rri n g wi th i n ou r b re a s ts fo r re
g i m e n t,
D o th te a c h ve
u s a ll o ha
t a s p i ri n
g m i nds :
O u r s o u l s — w h os e f ac u l ti e s c a n c o m p re h e n d
T h e w o n d ro u s a r c h i t ect u re o f t h e w orl d ,

A n d m e as u re e v e r y w a n d e ri n g p l a n e ts c o urs e ’
,

S ti l l c l i m b i n g a f t
e r k n o wl e d g e i n fi n i te ,

A n d a l w a y s m o v i n g a s th e r e s tl e s s s p h e re s
Wi l l u s to w e ar o u rs e l v e s an d n e v e r re s t .

Ta n zb u r la i n e , P t . I I I vii
, , .

L if e . M arl owe w as b orn in C an te r bu ry , on ly a fe w h s b e fo re

m on t
Sh a k e s p e a re H e was th e s on of a p oor s h o e m ak e r b u tth rou gh th e
.
,

ki n d n e ss of a p atron w as e d u c a te d a tth e to w n gram m ar s c h oo l an d

th e n a t C a m b r i d ge Wh e n h e c am e to Lon d on ( c
. h is s ou l .

w a s s u rgi n g w i t h th e id e a l s of th e R e n ai s san c e w h i c h l a te r fo un d ,

e x p re ss i o n in F au st us t h e sc h o l a r l on gi n g for u n l i m i te d k n o w l e d ge
,

an d fo r p o w e r t o gras p t h e u n iv e rs e U n fortu n ate ly M arl o w e h ad

.
,

a l so t h e u n b ri d l e d p ass i on s w h i c h m ark th e e arl y or Pa gan R e n a i s ,

s a n c e a s T a i n e c a l l s it an d t
, h e c on c e i t o f a y oun g m an j u st e n te r
,

in g th e re a l m s of k n ow l e d e He b e c a m e a n a c tor an d liv e d in a
g .
1 34 E N G L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

k n o wl e d ge an d w h o tu rn s f ro m T h e o l o gy P h il o s op h y M e d i
, , ,

ci n e a n d L a w th e f o u r s c i e n c e s of th e ti m e to th e s tu dy of
, , ,

m agi c m u c h as a c h ild m i g h t tu r n f ro m j e w e l s t
,
o
F t
aus u s
ti n s e l a n d c o l o re d p a p e r I n ord e r to l e a rn m a gi c .

h e s e ll s h i m s e l f to th e d e vil on c o n di ti o n th a t h e s h a ll h av e ,

tw e n t y fo u r y e ars o f a b s o l u te p o w e r a n d k n o wl e d g e Th e pl ay
-
.

is th e s tory o f th o se tw e n ty f o u r y e a r s L ik e Ta m b u r la i n e - v
.
,

i t is l a cki n g i n d ra m a tic c o n s tru c ti on 1

b u t h as a n u n u s u a l ,

n u m b e r o f p a s s ag e s o f ra re p oe t ic b e au ty M il ton s S a ta n s u g ’
.

ts stro n g ly t h a tt h e au t h o r o f P a r a d i s e L os th a d a cc e s s t
‘

e s o
g
F a u s tu s a n d u s e d i t as h e m ay al s o h av e u se d Ta n zou r la i n e
, ,

fo r th e m ag n ific e n t p an o ra m a d i s pl ay e d by S a ta n i n P a ra d i s e
F o r i n s ta n c e m o re th a n fi f ty y e a r s b e f o re Mil to n s
’
R eg a i n e d .
,

h e ro s ay s Wh ic h w ay I tu r n is h e ll m y s e l f a m h e ll Mar
,
"
, ,
”

l o w e h ad w ri tte n °

F a ust . Ho w c om e s i tth e n th h o u a r to u to f
a tt hell ?

M ep /zi s to . Wh y h
t is is h e l l , n or a m I o u to f it .

H e l l h a th no l i m i ts ,
n or is i
c rc u m s c r ib e d
In one l f p l ac e ; fo r w h e re w e a re is h e l l
se ,

An d w h e re h e l l i s th e re m u s tw e e v e r b e .

M arl ow e s th i rd pl ay i s T/ze f e w of Ili a /ta a s tu dy o f th e

’

l u s t fo r w e a l th w h ic h c e n te rs a b o u t B a rab as a te r ri bl e O ld
, ,

m o n e y l e n d e r s tro n g ly s u gg e s tiv e o f S h yl o ck i n D i e [W
,
e r e /ca n t

of Ve n i c e Th e fi rs t p art o f th e pl a y i s w e l l c o n s tru c te d
.
,

s h o wi n g a d e c id e d a d v a n c e b u t th e l as t p a r t is a n a c c u m u ,

l a ti o n o f m e l od ra m a ti c h o r ro r s B a ra b as is c h e ck e d i n h is .

m u rd e ro u s c a re e r by f a lli n g i n to a b o ili n g c ald ro n w h ic h h e

h a d p re p a re d fo r a n o th e r a n d di e s bl a s p h e m i n g h is on ly , ,

re
g re t b e i n g th a t h e h as n o t d o n e m o re e vil i n h is li f e .

M ar l o w e s l as t pl ay i s E d w a r d I I a trag ic s tu dy o f a ki n g s
’

,
’

w e ak n e s s a n d m i s e ry I n p o i n t o f s tyl e an d d ra m a tic c o n
.

ru c ti o n i t i s by fa r th e b e s t o f M a rl o we s pl ay s a n d is a ’
st , ,

wo r th y p re d e c e s s or of S h ak e s p e a re s h i s to r ic al d ra m a ’
.

1 \Ve m u s t re m e m be r , h o wv e e r, th a t o u r p rese n t v i e rs o n of F a u stus is v y er m uch

m il e d , an d
u t at d oe s n ot
p rese r v th e e p l y
a as Ma r lw w t
o e ro e it .
 TH E AG E O F EL IZ AB E TH I 3S

M arl ow e i s th e o n ly d ram a ti s t of th e ti m e w h o i s e v e r
c o m p are d wi th S h ak e s p e are Wh e n w e re m e m b e r th at h e
l
.

M l w
ar o d d
e an
i e d a t tw e n ty n ine p ro b a bly b e f —
o re S h a,
k e s p e ar e

Sh k p
a es
h ad p r od u c e d a S i n g l e g re a t pl ay w e m u s t w on d e r
e are
,

w h at h e m i g h th av e d o n e h ad h e o u tliv e d h i s w re tc h e d y ou th
an d b e c o m e a m an H e re an d th e re h i s w o r k i s re m a rk a bl e
.

fo r i ts s pl e n d id i m ag i n a ti on fo r th e s ta te li n e s s o f i ts v e r s e
, ,

an d for i t s r a re bi t s of p o e t ic b e au ty b u tin d ra m a tic i n s ti n c t ,

i n wid e k n o wl e d g e o f h u m a n li f e i n h u m o r i n d e li n e a ti o n of , ,

w om a n s c h a ra c te r ; i n th e d e lic ate f an cy w h ic h p re se n ts an
’

A r i e l a s p e r f e c tly a s a M acb e th i n a w o r d i n a ll th a tm a k e s
, ,

a d ra m a t ic g e n i u s S h a k e s p e a re s tan d s a l o n e M a rl ow e s i m ply
,
.

p re p are d th e w ay for th e m as te r w h o w as to f o ll ow
Var i e ty o f th e E a r l y D r am a Th e th i r ty y e a r s b e tw e e n .

o u r fi rs t re g u l ar E n g li s h pl ay s a n d S h a k e s p e a re s fi rs t c o m
’

ed
y
2
wi tn e s s e d a d e v e l o p m e n to f t h e d ra m a w h ic h a s t on is h e s -

u s b ot h by i ts r a pidi ty a n d v a r i e ty We S h all b e tte r a p p r e c i .

e S h ak e s p e are s w o r k i f w e g l a n c e fo r a m o m e n t a t t
’
at he
pl ay s th a t p re c e d e d h i m an d n o te h o w h e c o v e r s th e w h o l e
,

fi e ld an d w ri te s a l m o s t e v e ry f o r m an d v ar i e ty o f th e d ra m a
k n o w n to h is age .

F i rs ti n i m p o r tan c e o r a t l e a s t i n p o p u l a r i n te re s t a re th e
, ,

n e w C h ro n icl e pl a y s f ou n d e d u p on h i s t ,
o r ic a l e v e n ts a n d c h ar

Ty p f
es o
a c t e rs T h e y s h o.w th e s t ro n
g n at i o n al S pi r i to f t h e

D m
ra a
E li z a b e th an A g e a n d th e i r p o p u l ar i ty w a s d u e
,

l arge ly to th e f a c t th at au di e n c e s c am e to th e th e ate rs
p ar tly to g rati f y th e i r a w ak e n e d n ati on al s pi ri t an d to g e t
th e i r fi rs t k n o wl e d ge o f n a ti o n a l h i s to ry S om e o f th e M oral .
»

i ti e s lik e B ayl e s K i ng f ona n

,
’
a re c r u d e C h r on icl e

pl ay s an d th e e arly R o bi n H oo d pl ay s an d th e fi rs t trag
,

e dy ,
Gor b od u c s h o w th e s am e aw a k e n e d p o p u l ar i n te r e s t i n
,

1 i v k
Th e tw o d ra m a tsts m a y h a e w or e d to ge th e r i n s u c h d o u b tu p a s a s R i c h a r d f l l y
w i lk i li
I I I , th e h e ro of h c h i s i e T m u r i n a n E n g s h d re s s , a n d Ti tu s A n d r on i c u s , w th i
i tsvi l o e n c e a n d h o rr o r y k
I n m a n s tro n g s c e n e s i n S h a e s pe a re ’ s w or s Ma r o w e s i n fl u
.
’
k l
e nce i s m an if e st
.

2 Ga m m e r G u r ton ’s N e e d le L os t, c
5 6 2 ; L ov e L a b ou r
’ ’
a p pea re d c . 1 s s . 1
591 .
I 36 E N G LIS H L IT E R ATU R E
E n g li s h h i s to ry . D u r i n g th e re i gn
po p ul ar of E li z a b e th th e
C h ro n icl e pl ay s i n c re a s e d til l w e h a v e th e re c o rd o f O v e r tw o
h u n d re d a n d tw e n ty h a l f o f w h ic h a re s till e x ta n t d e a li n g
, ,

wi th al m os te v e ry i m p o r ta n t c h a ra c te r re a l o r l e g e n d a ry i n , ,

E n g li s h h i s to ry Of S h ak e s p e a re s th i r ty —s e v e n d ra m a s te n
’

.
,

a re t ru e C h ro n icl e pl ay s o f E n g li s h ki n g s ; t h re e a re f r o m
th e l e g e n d a ry a n n a l s o f B ri ta i n ; a n d th re e m o re a re f ro m th e
h i s to ry o f o th e r n a ti o n s .

O th e r typ e s o f th e e a rly d ra m a a re l e s s cl e a rly d e fi n e d ,

b u t w e m ay s u m th e m u p u n d e r a f e w g e n e ra l h e ad s ( )
1 T h e

D o m e s tic D ra m a b e g a n wi th c ru d e h o m e s ce n e s i n tro d u c e d
i n to th e M i racl e s an d d e v e l o p e d i n a s c o re of di ff e re n t w ay s ,

f ro m th e c oa rse h u m or o f Ga m m e r C a r ton s N e e d le to th e ‘ ’

C o m e dy of M a n n e r s o f J on s o n a n d th e l a te r d ra m a ti s ts ’
.

S h a k e s p e a re s Ta m i ng of t/ze S lcr e w a n d M e r ry lVi o e s of

’

Wi n d s or b e l o n g to th i s cl a s s ( 2 ) Th e s o c a ll e d C ou rt C o m
.
-

e dy is t h e o pp os i te o f th e f o r m e r i n th a t i t re p re s e n te d a d i f
fe re n t ki n d o f li f e a n d w as i n te n d e d for a d i ffe re n t a u di e n c e .

I t w as m a rk e d by e l a b o ra te di a l og u e by j e s ts r e to rts a n d , , ,

e n dl e s s pl ay s o n w o rd s ra t h e r th a n by a c ti o n
,
I t w a s m ad e .

p o p u l a r by L y ly s s u cc e s s an d w as i m i ta te d i n S h ak e s p e a re s
’

,
’

"
fi rs to r L y lian c o m e d i e s s u c h a s L ov e s L a bou r s L os t an d
,
’ ’

th e c o m plic a te d Tw o Ge n t le m e n of Ve r on a ( 3 ) R o m an tic .

C o m e dy a n d R o m a n tic T r ag e dy s u gg e s t th e m o s ta r ti s tic a n d
fi n i s h e d typ e s of th e d ra m a w h ic h w e re e xp e ri m e n te d u p on
,

by P e e l e G re e n e a n d M a r l o w e an d w e re b rou g h t to p e rfe c
, , ,

ti on i n Tb e M e re /ra n t of Ve n i c e R om e o a n d f u li e t a n d Tb e , ,

Te m p e s t ( 4 ) I n a dd i ti o n to th e a b o v e typ e s w e re s e v e ra l
.

ot h e r s — th e C l as s ic a l P l ay s m od e l e d u p o n S e n e c a a n d fa
, ,

v o r e d by c u l t iv a te d a u di e n c e s ; th e M e l od ra m a f a v o ri te of ,

th e g rou n dli n g s w h ic h d e p e n d e d n o t o n pl o t o r c h ara c te rs

,

b u t u p on a v a ri e ty o f s tr iki n g s c e n e s a n d i n c id e n ts ; a n d th e
T rag e dy o f B l ood a lw ay s m o re o r l e s s m e l od ram atic lik e
, ,

K y d s Sp a n i s /i Trag e dy w h ic h g re w m o re bl o od a n d th u n d e ry
’
- -
,

i n M a r l o w e a n d re a c h e d a cli m a x o f h o r ro rs i n S h ak e s p e a re s
’
 1 38 E N GL ISH L IT E R ATU R E
st ill un r iv al e d i n an y l an g u age F or all th i s g re at w o rk th e
.

au t h o r app a re n tly c are s li ttl e s i n c e h e m a k e s n o a tte m p t to

,

c oll e c t o r p re se r ve h i s w ri ti n g s A th o u s a n d s c h o l a rs h av e
.

e v e r s i n c e b e e n b u s y c o ll e c t i n g id e n ti fyi n g cl a s s i f yi n g th e
, ,

w ork s w h ic h th i s m ag n i fic e n t w ork m an tos s e d as id e s o c a re

l e s s ly w h e n h e ab a n
d ou e d th e d ra m a a n d
re t i re d to h is n a tiv e
vill ag e He h as a m a r
.

v e lo u s l
y i m a g i n a ti v e
an d c r ea t iv e m i n d ; b u t
h e i n v e n ts fe w i f an y , ,

new pl ots or s tori e s .

He s i m ply tak e s an o ld
pl ay o r a n old p oe m ,

m ak e s i t o v e r q u ickly ,

a n d 10 ! t h i s old f a m ili ar
m ate ri al g l ow s wi th th e
d e e p e s t th ou gh ts an d
th e te n d e re s t f e e li n g s
th a t e n n o bl e o u r h u
m an i t y a n d e ac h n e w
W I L L I A M S HA K E S P E A R E ;
g e n e ra ti o n o f m e n fi n d s
i t m ore w on d e r f u l th an th e l as t H o w d id h e d o i t? T h a t i s
.

st ill a n u n a n s w e re d q u e s ti on a n d th e s o u r c e of o u r w o n d e r .

T h e re a re in g e n e ral tw o th e o ri e s to a cc o u n t for S h ak e
, ,

s p e are Th e ro m an tic s c h oo l o f w r i te rs h a v e alw ay s h e ld

.

"
all c a m e f r o m wi t h i n ; th at h is g e n
”
G i e n us or
th a ti n h i m
’
Tm i i gn n
i u s w as h i s s u fli c ie n t g u id e ; a n d th a t to th e o v e r
m as t e r i n g p o w e r o f h i s g e n i u s a l o n e w e o w e all h is
g re a t
w o rk s P rac tic al u n i m ag i n a ti v e m e n on th e o th e r h a n d
.
, , ,
" ”
a s s e r tt h at i n S h a k e s p e a re a ll c a m e f ro m wi t h ou t an d th a t
,

w e m u s t s tu dy h is e n vi ro n m e n t r a t h e r th a n h i s g e n i u s i f w e ,

a re t o u n d e rs t a n d h im . H e liv e d i n a pl ay l o vi n g a g e ; h e
-

st u di e d t h e c ro wd s g a v e th e m w h a tth e y w a n te d a n d s i m ply
, ,
 TH E AG E O F EL I Z AB E TH 1 39

re fl e c te d th e i r O w n th o u g h ts an d f e e li n g s I n re fl e c ti n g th e .

E n g li s h c r o wd a b o u th i m h e u n c o n s ci o u s ly r e fl e c te d a ll c ro wd s ,

w h ic h a re alik e i n a ll ag e s ; h e n c e h is c o n ti n u e d p o p u l a r i ty .

A n d i n b e i n g g u id e d by p u blic s e n ti m e n th e w a s n o ts i n g u l a r ,

b u t f o ll owe d th e pl a i n p a th th a t e v e ry g oo d d ra m a ti s t h as
a lw ay s f o ll o w e d t o s u cc e s s .

P r o b a bly th e tru th of th e m atte r i s to b e f ou n d s om e wh e re

b e tw e e n th e s e tw o e x tre m e s Of h i s g re at g e n i u s th e r e c an
.

b e n o q u e s ti on ; b u t th e re a re o th e r th i n g s to c on s id e r A s .

w e h a v e al re a dy n o t i c e d S h ak e s p e are w a s tra i n e d lik e h is

. , ,

f e ll o w w ork m e n fi r s t as a n a c to r s e c on d as a re vi s e r o f old
, ,

pl ay s a n d l a s t a s an i n d e p e n d e n td ra m a ti s t He w o rk e d wi th
,
.

ot h e r pl ayw r i g h ts a n d l e a r n e d th b i r s e c r e t L ik e th e m h e .
,

st u di e d a n d f o ll o w e d t h e p u blic ta s te a n d h i s w o r k i n d ic a te s ,

a t l e as t t h re e s ta g e s f ro m h i s fi r s t s o m e w h a t c ru d e e x p e ri
,

m e n ts to h i s fi n i s h e d m a s t e r pi e c e s S o i t w ou ld s e e m th ati n .

S h ak e s p e a r e w e h av e th e r e s u l t o f h a r d w o r k an d o f o r d e r ly
h u m an d e v e l o p m e n t q u i te as m u c h a s of tra n s c e n d e n t g e n i u s
,
.

Li fe ( 1 5 64 i n fl u e n c e s we re
Tw o w
o u t a rd p o w e rf u l i n

d e v e l o p i n g th e ge n i u s o f S h ak e sp e are — th e li ttl e v il l age o f S trat ,

fo rd c e n te r of th e m os t b e au tifu l an d rom an ti c di stri c t in ru a l

,
r

E n gl an d a n d th e gre a t c i t y of L on d on th e c e n te r o f th e w o r l d s ’
, ,

o l iti a l ac tivi ty I h l d t k w th t l m i n h is
p c n o n e e. e arn e o n o e n a u ra an

n at u ra l e n v i ron m e n t; in t h e o th e r th e so c i a l th e a rti fi c ia l m an in
, ,

th e m os tu n n at u ra l o f su rrou n di n s
g .

F ro m th e re gi ste r o f th e l i ttl e p ar i sh c h u rc h atS tratfo rd ou Avon - -

w e l e a n th a tWi l l i am S h ak e s p e are w a s b ap t
r i z e d th e re on th e tw e n ty
six t h of Ap ri l 5 64 ( o ld s ty l e )
, 1 As it w as c u s tom ary to ba p ti e
. z

c h il d re n on t h e th i rd d ay af te r b i rth th e tw e n ty —th i d o f Ap ri l ,
r

( May 3 ac c ord i n g to ou r p re se n t c a l e n d a r) is ge n e ra l l y ac c e p te d a s
,

th e p o e ts b i rt h d ay
’
.

H is fa th e r J o h n Sh ak e s p e a re w a s a f arm e r s so n f ro m th e n e i gh
, ,
’

b o i n g v i l l age o f S n itte rfie ld w h o c a m e to S tra tfo rd abou t1 5 5 1 an d

r
, ,

b e gan to p ros p e r as a trad e r in c o rn m e a t l e a th e r an d oth e r a gr i , , ,

c u l tu ra l p rod uc ts H is m o th e M ary Ard e n w as th e d au gh te r of a

. r, ,

p ro sp e rou s fa rm e r d e s c e n d e d f ro m an o ld Wa w i c k sh i re fa m ily o f
,
r
 1 40 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

m i x e d An gl o S ax on an d N orm an b l ood I n 1 5 5 9
-
i s m a rri e d c ou p l e
. h
t
"
so l d a p i e c e o f l an d an d th e d oc u m e n t is s i gn e d
,
Th e m a k e of ,
r

J o h n S h ac k s p e r Th e m a rk e of M a ry S h ac k s p e r
. a n d f ro m t h is
i t h as b e e n g e n e ra l l y i n f e rre d th a t l i k e th e vast m aj or i ty of th e i r
,

ry m e n n e it s c o u l d re ad o r w r i t Th i s
’
c oun t ,
h e r of th e p o e ts p are n t e .

w as p roba b l y t ru e of h is m o t h e r ; b u t th e e vid e n c e f ro m S ta t f ord r

d oc u m e n ts n ow i n d i c a te s th a t h is fa th e r c ou l d w ri te an d th at h e ,

a l so a u d i ted t h e to w n a c c ou n ts ; th ou gh in a tte sti n g d o c u m e n ts h e

so m e t i m e s m ad e a m ark l e avi n g h is n am e to b e fi ll e d in by th e on e
,

w h o d re w u p t h e d oc um e n t .

O f S h ake sp e a re s e d u c a ti o n w e k n ow l i ttl e e x c e p t th a t for a fe w

’
,

y e a rs h e p robab ly a tte n d e d th e e n d o w e d gram ma r S c h oo l a tS tratfo rd ,

"
w h e re h e p i c k e d u p th e sm a l l Lati n an d l e ss G re e k to w h i c h h is
l e a n e d f i e n d B e n J on son re fe rs H is re a l te a c h e rs m e an w h i l e
r r .
, ,

w e re th e m e n an d w om e n an d th e n atu ra l in fl u e n c e s w h i c h su r
ro u n d e d h im . S tra tf o rd is a c h a rm in g l i ttl e v i l l age in b e au ti f u l War
w ic k sh i re a n d n e ar a th an d w e re t
,
h e F o r e s tof Ard e n th e old ca s tl e s ,

of Wa r w i c k an d K e n i l w o r t h a n d th e o ld R om an c a m p s an d m i l i tary
,

road s t o a pp e a l p ow e rf u l l y t h e bo y s l iv e l y i m agi n a ti on E v e ry
’
,
o t .

h a se of t h e n at u ra l b e au ty of t h i s e xq u i s i t
e r e gi on i s re fl e c t e d in
p
S h ak e s p e a re s p o e ty ; j u s t a s h is c h arac te rs re fl e c t th e n obi l i t y an d
’
r

th e l i ttl e n e ss th e go ss i p vi c e s e m o ti on s p re j u d i c e s an d trad i ti o n s
, , , , ,

of t h e p e op le ab ou t h im .

I s aw a s m i th an d
st w i th h is h a m m e r , th u s ,
Th e w h i l s th i s i ro n d id on th e an v i l c oo l ,

Wi th o p e n m ou th s w a l l o wi n g a ta i l o r s n e w s ;
’

Wh o w i th h i s s h e a rs a n d m e as u re i n h is h a n d
, ,

S tan d i n g o n S l i pp e rs w h i c h h i s n i m b l e h as te
,

H a d f a l s e l y th r u s t u p o n c o n tr ar y fe e t ,

T ol d o f a m a n y th o u s a n d w ar li k e F re n c h
T h a tw e r e e m b a ttaile d a n d ra n k e d i n K e n tl .

i
S u c h p assage s su gge s t n o t on l y ge n u s b u t a l so a e e n , s m p a th e tc k y i
b
o se r v e r , w h o se e y e s se e e v e r y
s i gn i c an t e t
a l :50 w t fi
h th e n u rs e d i . i
in R om eo a n d j u li e t ,
w h ose e n d l e s s goss p an d ulgari t c an n o t u te i v y q i
h id e a ki n d h e art S h e is s i m p l y th e re fl e c ti on of so m e fo rgotte n
.

n u rs e w i t h w h o m S h ak e s pe are h ad ta l k e d b y th e w a y si d e .

N o to n ly th e go ss i p b u t a l so th e d re a m s th e un c on sci ou s p o e try ,

h e h e art o f th e c o m m on p e op l e app e a l tre m e n d ou s ly

th a t s l e e p s in t ,

1 K i ng /01 m, I V, 2.
1 42 E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
Wh e n Sh ak e s p e are w as ab ou t fou rte e n ye ars o ld h is fath e r l ost
h is l i ttl e p ro p e rt y a n d f e l l i n to d e bt an d th e b oy p robab ly l e ft ,

s c h oo l t h e fam i l y of you n ge r c h i l d re n
o h e l p su p p o rt t Wh a t oc c u .

a tion h e f o l l o w e d fo r th e n e xte i gh ty e a rs is a m a t te r of c on j e c tu re
p
.

F ro m e v id e n c e fou n d in h is p l ay s it is a l l e ge d w i th som e sh o w of
,

h o ri ty th a t h e w as a c o u n try sc h o o l m as te r an d a l a wy e r s c l e rk
’
au t ,

th e c h a rac te r o f H o l of e rn e s in L ove s L a b ou r s L os t b e i n g th e w ar
’ ’
, ,

a n d S h ak e s p e a re s k n o wl e d ge o f la w t e rm s fo r t he
’
ra n t for on e ,

ot h e r B u t if w e tak e s u c h e v id e n c e th e n S h ak e s p e a re m u st h av e
. ,

b e e n a b otan i s t b e c au se of h is kn o wl e d ge of wil d fl o w e rs ; a sa i l or
, ,

ANN E HAT HA WAY C O TT AG E

b e c au s e he k n o w s th e ro p e s a c ou rte r , i b e c ause of h is e x trao rdi n a ry
fac i l i ty in q u i p s an d c om p l i m e n ts a n d c ou rtly l an gu age ; a c l o w n ,
b e c au s e n on e o th e r is so d u l l an d fo o l s h ; a n g, i
e c au se R c h a rd ki b i
a n d H e n ry a re t ru e t o l if e ; w om an b e c a us e h e h as sou n d e d th e
a ,

d e p th s of a w om a n s f e e l i n gs a n d su re l y a R o m an b e c a u s e in Cor i
’

ola n u s a n d u li u s C e s a r h e h a s s h o w n u s t n s iri t b e t
j h e R o m a p te r
t h an h av e th e R o m an w ri te rs th e m s e l v e s H e w a s e v e ryth i n g in h is .
,

i m agi n ati on an d it is i m p oss i b l e f ro m a stu d y o f h is sc e n e s an d

,

c h a rac te rs t o fo rm a d e fin it e o p in ion as t o h is e a r l y oc c u p a tion

'

I n 1 5 8 2 Sh ak e s p e a re w a s m a rr i e d to An n e H a th a w a y th e d au gh ,

te r o f a p e a s a n tfa m i l y o f S h o tte ry w h o w a s e i gh t ye a rs o l d e r th a n
,

h e r b oy h u s ban d F ro m n u m e rou s sa rc astic re f e re n c e s to m a rri age

.

m ad e by t h e c h arac te rs in h is
p l ays a n d f rom th e fac t th at h e s oon
,
 T H E AG E O F EL IZ ABE TH 14 3

l e f th is w i fe an d fa m il y an d Lo n d on , i t is ge n e ra l l y a l l e g e d
w e n t to
th a tth e m a rr i a ge w as a y an d u n h a pp y on e b u th e re aga i n th e
h as t
e v i d e n c e i s e n ti re ly u n tru s tw orth y I n m an y Mi rac l e s as w e l l a s in .

l ate r p l ay s i t w as c us tom ary to d e p i c t th e se am y s id e of d o m e sti c

l if e for th e a m u s e m e n t of th e c ro w d ; an d S h ake s p e are m ay h ave
fol l ow e d th e p u b l i c ta ste in th i s as h e d id in oth e r th i n gs Th e re f .

o l ove an d h o m e a n d q u i e t j oys i n S h ak e s p e a r e s p l a y s a r e
’
e re n c e s t

e n o u gh i f w e take su c h e vid e n c e to e stab l i sh fi rm l y th e o p p osi te

, ,

su p p o s i t i on th at h is l ove w as a v e ry h appy o n e An d th e fac t

,
.

th a t a f te r h is e n o rm ou s su c c e ss in L on d on h e re ti re d to S t
,
ra t ,

ford to l iv e q u i e tly w i th h is w i f e an d d au gh te rs te n d s to th e sam e ,

c on c l u s i on .

Ab ou t th e y e ar 1 5 8 7 S h ak e sp e are l e f t h is fam i l y a n d we n t to
L on d on an d j o i n e d h i m s e l f to B u rb ag e s c om p an y of p l a y e rs A p e r
’
.

si st entt ra d i ti on say s th a t h e h ad i n c u rre d th e an ge r of S ir T h om as

L u c y fi rst by p oac h i n g d e e r in th a t n ob l e m an s p a rk an d th e n
’

, , ,

w h e n h a l e d b e fo re a m ag i s tra te by w ri ti n g a sc u rril ou s ba l lad abo u t

,

S ir T h o m a s w h i c h so a rou s e d th e o ld ge n tl e m an s ire th a t S h ak e
’
,

s p e a re w as o b l i ge d t h e c oun try An o ld r e c o rd says th a t 1

o fle e t .

"
th e p o e t w a s m u c h gi v e n to a ll u n l u c ki n e ss in s t e a l i n g v e n i s on

a n d ra bbi t th e u n l uc ki n e s s p rob ab ly c on s i s ti n g in ge tti n g c au gh t

”
s ,

h i m se lf a n d n o t in an y lac k of l uc k in c a tc h i n g th e rabbi ts Th e
, .

r id i c u l e h e a p e d u p on t h e L u c y fa m i l y I n H e n ry I V an d th e M e r ry
Wi ves of Wi n ds or give s som e w e i gh t to th i s trad i ti on N i c h o l as .

R ow e w h o p u b l i s h e d th e fi rst l i fe of S h ak e s p e a re
, i s th e au th o ri t y ,
2

fo r th i s sto ry b u tth e re is som e r e a son to d ou bt w h e th e r a tth e ti m e ,

w h e n S h ake sp e a re is sa id to h ave p oac h e d in th e d e e r p a rk of S ir

T h o m a s Lu c y at C h arle sc o te th e re w e re a n y d e e r o r p a rk a t th e,

p l ac e r e f e r e d to Th e su b j e c t is wo rth y o f s o m e s c an t a tte n ti on i f
r .
,

on l y t o s h ow h o w w o r t h l e ss is th e atte m p tto c o n stru c t o u to f ru m o r

th e s tory of a g e a t l i fe wh i c h f o rtun a te l y p e rh ap s h ad n o c on
r , ,

te m p o a ry bi o grap h e r
r .

Of h is l ife in L on d on f ro m 1 5 8 7 to 6 1 1 th e p e ri od of h is gre a t 1 ,

e st l i t e ra ry a c t ivi ty w e kn ow n oth in g d e fi n i te ly We c an j u d ge o n ly
, .

f ro m h is p l a y s an d f om th e se i t is e vid e n tth a t h e e n te re d i n to th e
,
r

st i rri n g l if e of E n gl an d s c ap i ta l w i th th e sa m e p e rf e c ts y m p ath y an d
’

u n d e rst an d i n g t h a tm a k e d h im a m o n g th e p l a i n p e 0 p 1e of h is n a tive
r

Warwi c ksh i re Th e fi rstau th e n ti c r e fe re n c e to h im i s in 1 5 9 wh e n

. 2 ,

By A h d 1 D vi i thrc v t th t y
e ac o n a e s, n e se e n ee n cen ur .

2 In 1 70 9, n e ar ly a centur y a ft
er th e poe t’ s d e a th .
1 44 E N G LIS H L IT E R ATU R E
G re e n e bi tte r a tta c k a p p e a re d sh o w i n g p l a i n l y th at S h ak e sp e are
’
s
1
,

h ad in fi e y e ars ass u m e d an i m p o rta n t p os i ti on a m on g p l ay w ri g h ts

v .

T h e n a pp e a re d th e a p o l ogy of th e p u b l i sh e rs of G e e n e s p am p h l e t r
’

wi th th e i r t i bu te to th e p o e ts s te rl i n g c h arac te r an d oc c as i o n a l lit
r
’

c rary r e f e re n c e s w h i c h S h o w t h a t h e w a s k n o wn a m o n g h is f e l l o w s
B e n J on son says o f h im
"
th e ge n tl e S h ake sp e a e I l ov e d
" ”
as r . :

th e m an an d d o h o n o r h is m e m o ry on th i s s i d e i d o l atry as m u c h a s , ,

H e w as i n d e e d h o n e s t a n d o f an o p e n an d f re e n a tu re
”
an y .
, To .

j ud ge f ro m on ly th re e o f h is e a rl i e s tp l a y s itwou l d s e e m re ason ab l y 2

e vi d e n t t h a t in th e fi rs t fi e ye a rs o f h is Lo n d on l i fe h e h ad ga in e d
v

ent ran c e t o t h e soc i e ty o f ge n tl e m e n an d sc h o l a rs h ad c au gh t th e i r ,

c h a rac t e ri s ti c m an n e i s m s an d e x p re ss i on s a n d so w as re ad y by
r ,

kn o wl e d ge an d o bs e rva ti on a s w e l l as b y ge n i s to w e a v e i n to h is u

d ra m a s th e w h o l e s ti r i n g l if e of th e E n g l is h p e o p l e
r Th e p l ay s .

th e m s e l v e s w i t h th e te s ti m on y o f c o n te m p o ra i e s an d h is b u s i n e s s
,
r

suc c e s s a re s t
,
ro n g e v i d e n c e a ga i n s t th e tra d i ti on th a t h is l i f e in
Lo n d o n w as wil d an d d i sso l u te l i ke th a t of th e t yp i c a l ac to r an d
,

p l a y w i g hrt o f h is t im e .

S h a k e s p e a re s fi s t w o rk m a y w e l l h a v e be e n th a t o f a g e n e ra l
’
r

h e l p e r an od d job m an a b o u t th e th e ate r ; b u th e soon b e c a m e a n

,
—
,

o r , an d
ac t th e r e c o rd s o f th e o ld L o n d o n th e a te rs sh o w th a t in th e
ne x t te n y e ars h e ga i n e d a p ro m i n e n t p l ac e th ou gh th e re is l i ttl e ,

r ea son t o be l i e ve t h a t h e w as c oun te d a m on g th e sta rs Wi th i n .

”

t w o y e a s h e w as a t w o rk on p l a y s an d h is c o u rs e h e re w as e x ac t
r ly ,

l i k e th a t o f o th e r p la y w ri gh ts o f h is ti m e H e w o rk e d w i th o th e r .

m e n a n d h e re v i s e d o ld p l a y s b e f o r e w r i ti n g h is o w n an d s o ga i n e d
, ,

i a l k n o wl e d e o f h is a rt H
a
p rac t c
’
g en r
y V I ( c 1 59 0 — 1
5 9 1 ) i s an . .

e xa m p le of t h i s ti n k e r i n g w o rk in w h i c h h o w e v e r h is n a tiv e p ow e r
, , ,

is u n m i s t a k a b ly m an i f e s t T h e t h re e p a rts o f H e n ry VI ( a n d R i c h a r d
.

I I I w h i c h b e l o n gs w i th th e m ) a re a su c c e ss i o n o f s c e n e s f ro m
,

E n gl i s h C h ro n i c l e h i s to ry s trun g tog e th e r v e ry l o o se l y ; a n d o n l y in
th e l ast is th e re a n y d e fi n i te a tte m p t a t u n i ty T h at h e soon fe l l .

u n d e r M a r l o w e s i n fl u e n c e i s e v i d e n t f ro m t h e a troc i ti e s an d b o m
’

bast of Ti tu s A n d on i c u s an d R i c h a r d I I I Th e form e r m ay h a v e
r .

b e e n w ri tte n b y bo th p l ayw ri gh ts in c o l l abo rati on o r m ay b e on e of ,

1 R ob e rt G re e n e , on e o f th e po p u a r p a l l yw igh t r s of i
th e t m e , w h o Sha e at
tac ked k
s pe a re in a pa m p h l e t ca ll ed
"
A
G r oa ts Wo rth
’
of Wi t B ou gh t wi th
a M o n o f R e pe n t illi
ance .
”
Th e p a m p h e t, a s d e l i f m it j l
ro s ea o u s y k
of S h a es pe a r e , i s a sa d p c tu re o f a ma n o f i
i
ge n u s yi
d n g o f d ss pa to n , i i i dan ti c on a n s a w i
a rn n g to ot he r p a r gh ts of t l yw i
h e t me , i
w h o se liv wes e re a p p are n tly l m
a t b os as ad as th a to f G re e n e .

2 L ove ’
L a b ou r L os t, Com e d y f Ve r on a
’
’
s 3
/
0 E r r or s , Tw o Ge n tle m e n o .
I 46 E N G LI S H I
L TE R A T URE
po p u l a r in L o n do n an d i t s ded i ca t i on t o t he E arl of So ut ham p t on
,

b r ough t ac c o r d i n g t o tr ad i t i on a s u bs ta n t i a l m o n e y g if t wh i ch m ay
, , ,

h a v e l a i d t he fo u n da t i o n fo r S h a k e s p ea r e s b u s i n ess success He ’
.

ap p ea r s to have sh r ewd ly i n v e s t e d h i s m on ey an d soo n became ,

part own e r of t he Globe a n d B l ac k fr i a r s t hea t e r s in wh i ch h i s p lays ,

we r e p r e se n t ed by h i s own com p an i es H is s u ccess an d pop u l a r i ty .

gr ew ama z i n gly Wi t h i n a decade of h i s u n n o t i ced a rr ival in L ondo n

.

he was on e of t he mos t fa mous ac t o r s and l i t e r a ry m e n in E nglan d .

Fo l lowi n g h i s expe r i men t al wo r k t he r e came a success i on of w on

d e rfu l p l ays M e r e lza 72tof Ve m ee A: You L ik e I t Tw e lfth N igh t
'

—
, , , ,

[ a li a s Ce sa r , H a m le t M a e ée l/z, Ollze llo , K i ng L e a r , A n to ny

,
and

Cle op a t
ra gr ea t traged i es of t h i s p e r i od are assoc i at ed wi t h a
. Th e .

pe r i o d of gloom an d so rr ow in t he poe t s life 3 bu t of i t s ca u se we ’

have n o k n owl edge I t m ay have bee n t h i s u n k n own so rr ow wh i ch

.

t u r n e d h i s t hough t s bac k to S tr a t fo r d an d caused a p pa r en t ly a d i s , ,

sa t i sfac t io n wi t h h i s wo r k an d p r ofess ion bu t t he latt e r i s ge n e r a lly

a ttr i b u t ed t o o the r causes A c t o r s an d p laywr igh t s we r e in h i s d ay
.

ge n e r a l ly lo ok ed u p o n w i t h susp i c i on o r con t em pt an d S hak espear e ,

e v e n in t he m ids t of s u ccess seems t o ha v e l oo k ed fo rwa r d t o t he ,

t ime when he cou l d r e t i r e t o S tr a t fo r d t o l ive t he l i fe of a fa r me r

a n d co u n try ge n t lema n H i s ow n an d h i s fa t he r s fam i l i es we r e fi r s t
.
’

r e l ease d f r om d e b t ; t he n in 1 5 9 7 h e bough t N ew P lac e t he fi n es t

, , ,

house in S tr a t fo rd and soon added a tr ac t of fa r m i n g lan d t o c o m

,

p le te h i s es ta t e H i s p r ofess i on may have p r eve n t ed h i s ac q u i r i n g

.

t he t i t l e of ge n t l e man o r he may have o n ly fo l lowed a cust om of

,
”

the t ime whe n he a p p li ed fo r an d o b ta i n ed a coat of a r ms for h i s

1

fathe r an d so i n d i r ec t ly s e c ur ed t he t i t le by i n he r i tan ce H i s h ome

, .

v i s i t s gr ew mo r e a n d mo r e fr e que n t t il l abo ut t he yea r 1 6 1 1 he l eft , ,

L o n d on an d r e t i r e d p e r m a n e n t l y to S tr a t fo r d .

Though s t il l in t he p r i m e of l i fe S hak es p e ar e soo n ab a n don e d h i s ,

d rama t i c wo r k for t he c omfo rt ab l e l i fe of a c o u n try ge n t l em a n Of .

h i s l at e r p l ays Cor i ola n us Cy m ée l n e l m e r s Ta le an d P e r i cle s

' ' ’

‘ ’
, , z , ,

show a dec ided fall i n g off fr om h i s p r e vi o u s wo r k an d i n d i c a t e ,

an o t he r p e r i od of ex p e r i m e n t a t i on ; t h i s t ime n o t t o t es t h i s ow n
p owe rs bu t t o c at ch the fic kl e h u mo r of t he p u b li c A s i s usua ll y .

t he case wi t h a t hea t e r go i n g pe 0 p 1e t hey soo n t u r n ed f r om se r i o u s

-
,

d ra m a t o se n t ime n t al o r mo r e q ues t i on a b l e s p ec ta c l es ; a n d wi t h
Fl e t ch e r who wo r k ed w i t h S hak espea r e an d succeeded h i m as t he
,

f Wi lli a m
1 S ee L e e ’ s L ife 88- 1 96
o S h a k e sp e a r e , p p . 1 .
 TH E AG E O F EL IZ A B E TH I 47

fi r s t playw r igh t of L on d on t he decl i n e of t he d r ama had a l r eady

,

begu n In 1 6 0 9 howeve r occu rr ed an eve n t wh i ch gave S hak e

.
, ,

s p e ar e h i s cha n ce fo r a fa r ewell t o t he publ i c An E n gl i sh sh i p .

d isa p p ea r ed an d a l l on bo a r d we r e give n u p fo r los t A yea r la t e r

, .

t he sa il o r s r e t u r n ed home an d t he i r a rr iv a l c r ea t ed i n t e n se exc i t e
,

me n t They h a d bee n wr ec k ed on the u n known Be r mudas an d

.
,

T R IN I T Y C H U R C H , S T R A T F O R D O N A VO N
- -

had l ived t he r e for te n mon t hs t e rr i fied by myst e r i ous no ises wh i ch

,

t h e y t h ough t c a m e f r om s p i r i t s an d dev il s F iv e d i ff e r e n t ac c ou n t s
.

of t h i s fa sc i n at i n g sh i pwr e c k we r e pub l i shed an d t he Be r m u das

,

becam e k n own as the I l e o f D i e ls S hak e spea r e t oo k t h i s s t o ry

v .
”

— wh i ch caused as m u c h p o p ul ar i n t e r es t a s t h at la t e r sh i pwr ec k
wh i ch gave us R o bi n s o n C r u s oe an d wo v e i t i n t o Th e T mp e s t
— e .

I n t he s a m e yea r ( 1 6 1 1 ) he p r obably so ld h i s i n t e r es t in t he
G l obe an d B l ac k fr ia r s t hea t e r s an d h i s d r am a t i c wo r k was e n ded
, .
I 4S E NG L I S H L I T E R A TU R E

A few plays we r e p r o bab ly lef t u n fi n i shed an d we r e t u r n ed ove r 1

t o F l e t che r a n d o t he r d r am at i s t s .

Th at S hak es p ea r e t h ou gh t l i tt l e of h i s s u ccess an d h a d n o i dea

t ha t h i s d r a m as we r e t he gr ea t e s t t h at t he wo r l d ev e r pr od u c ed
se e m s ev ide n t f r o m t he fac t t h at he made n o a tt e m p t t o co ll e c t o r
p u b lish h is w o r k s o r eve n t o sa v e h i s man u sc r i pt s wh i ch we r e c ar e
, ,

l ess ly l e f t to s tage m a n age r s of t he t h e at e r s an d so fo u n d t he i r w ay ,

u l t i ma t e ly to t he r agm an A f t e r a fe w yea r s of q u i e t li fe of wh i ch
.
,

w e ha v e l e ss r e c o r d t h a n o f hu n d r eds of s i m p l e c o u n try ge n t l eme n

of t he t i m e S hak espea r e d i ed on th e p r obabl e an n iv e r sa ry of h i s
,

b i rt h A p r il 2 3 1 6 1 6 He w as giv e n a t om b in t he cha n ce l of t he
, ,
.

p a r i sh c h u r c h n o t be c au se o f h i s p r e em i n e n c e in l i t e r a tu r e b u t
,
.
,

b e c a u s e of h i s i n t e r es t in t he a f a i r s of a c o u n try v ill age An d in t he .

s ad i r on y of fat e t he b r oad s t on e t ha t co v e r e d h i s t o m b — n ow an
,

o bj ec t o f v e n e r a t i on t o t he t ho u s a n ds t ha t yea r ly v i s i t t he l i tt l e

chu r ch — wa s i n sc r i bed as fo l l o w s
G oo d f r i e n d fo r J e s us s a k e fo rb e are
’
,

T o d i g th e d ust e n c l os e d h e ar e
B le s te b e th e m an t h at spar e s t h e s e st on e s ,

A n d c u rst b e h e t h at m o v e s m y b o n e s .

Th i swr e t ched d ogge r e l ove r t he wo r ld s gr ea t es t poe t was i n t e n ded ’

, , ,

no do u b t as a wa r n in g t o so me s t u p id se x ton l es t he shou l d em pty

, ,

t he gr ave an d giv e t he h on o r ed p l ace to some am i ab l e ge n t l e m an

who had give n m o r e t i t hes to t he p a r ish .

Work s of S h ak es p eare A tth e t i me of S ha k e speare s d eath

.
’

twenty on e plays e x i sted i n manu sc r i pt s i n the var i ous t heate rs

-
.

A few othe rs had al ready bee n pr i n ted i n q uarto form and ,

the latte r are the only publ i cat i on s th at could poss i bly h ave
me t w i th the poe t s own app roval M ore probably they were
’
.

ta k e n d own i n shorthand by som e l i ste ne r at th e play and the n

p i rated by som e publ i she r for h i s own p rofi t Th e fi rst
”
.

pr i nted collect i on of h i s plays now calle d the F i rst F ol i o ,

was made by two ac tors H em i ng and C ondell who , ,

asse rted that th ey had acc ess to the pape rs of the poe t and
had made a pe rfe c t ed i t i on i n ord e r to kee p th e memo ry of
,
"

so worthy a fr i e nd and fellow al i ve Th i s conta i n s t h i rty s i x .

”
-

L ik H 1
y VI I I d p i b l y th l t C d m
e en r , an os s e os ar e o.
I 50 E N GLI SH I
L TE R AT UR E
are the best of h i s late r plays ; but they all show a fall i ng o ff
from h i s prev i ous work and i nd i cate a sec ond pe r i od of e xp e ri ,

me ntat i on w i th the taste of a fi ckle publ i c .

To read i n succ e ss i on fou r plays tak i ng a typ i c al work ,

from eac h of the above pe r i od s i s on e of the ve ry be st ways ,

of ge tt i ng qu i ckly at t h e real l i fe and m i nd of S hake speare .

F ollow i ng i s a comple te lis tw ith th e approx i mate date s of h i s

'

works class i fi ed accord i ng to the above fou r pe r i ods

,
.

F I R S T P ER IOD , E AR L Y E XP ER IMENT . Ve n u s an d A d o n i s , R ap e of
L u c r ec e , 5 94 ;
I Ti tu s A n d r on i c u s , H e n ry VI ( th re e p a r ts ) , 59 1 0 — 1 591
L ov e
’
s L a b ou r
’
s L os t, I 5 90 ; Com e dy of E r r or s , T1 0 0 G e n tle m en
of
Ve r on a , 1 5 9 1 — 1
5 92 R ich ard I I I , 1 5 93 R ich a r d I I , K i ng / oh n , I 5 94
1 5 95 .

S ECO N D P E I O D D EVE
M E N T R om e o a n d j u li e t M i d s u m m e r
R , LOP .
,

N igh ts D r ea m I 5 9 5 fl I e rc h a n tof Ve n i c e H e n ry I V ( firs tpart ) 1 5 96 ;

’
/
, , ,

H e n ry I V ( s e c o n d p art ) M e r ry Wi v e s of Wi n d sor 1 5 9 7 ; M u c h A do
, ,

A b ou tN ot
h i ng , 5 9 8 ; A s You L i h e I t, H e n ry V, I 5 99
I .

TH I D PE I
R R OD, MA I AN
T U R T Y D G L O O M S on n e ts ( I 60 0 . Tw e lf th
h I 6 0 0 ; Ta m i n h e S h r e w , j u li u s Ca s a r , H a m le t Tr oi lu s a n d
N g i t , g t of ,
’

Cr e s s i da , 1 6 0 1 1 6 0 2 A ll s We ll Th a t E n d s I/ Ve ll, M e a s u r e f or M e a s
’
—

u re , 6 O 3 ; Oth e l lo, I 6 O 4 ; K i ng L e a r ,
I I 60 5 ; M a c b e th , I 60 6 ; A n tony
a n d Cle o a t
p ra , Ti m on At
of h e n s , 1 60 7 .

FOU RT H PER IOD L ATE , E XP ER IM ENT . Cor i ola n u s, P e r i c le s , 60 8 ; 1

Cy m b e li n e I 6 0 9 ; Wi n t Ta le , Th e
’
er
, s 1 61 0 —1 61 1 Te m p e s t, 1 6 1 1
H e n ry VI I I ( u n fi n i s h e d ) .

a c cordi n g to S ourc e I n h i sto ry lege nd and

Cla s s i fic a t i on .
, ,

story S hake speare found th e mater i al for n early all h i s d ramas ;

,

and so they are often d i v i d e d i nto th re e classe s called h i s to r ,

i cal plays l ik e R i c h a rd I I I and H e n ry V legendary or partly

,

h i stor i cal plays l i ke M a c be th K i ng L e a r and j u li u s Cd s a r ;

, , ,
‘

and fic t i onal plays l ik e R om e o a n d j u li e t and Th e M e rc h a n t

,

o f V e n ic e S hakespe are i nve nted few i f any of the plots or

.
, ,

sto ri e s upon wh i c h h i s d ramas are found ed bu t borrowed ,

them freely afte r the cu sto m of h i s age whereve r h e found

, ,

the m F or h i s l ege nda ry and h i stor i cal mate r i al he depende d

.

largely on Holi n s h e d s Ch ron i c le s of E ng la n d S c otla n d a n d ’

, ,

I r e la n d and on N orth s tran slat i on of Plu tarch s famous L i v e s

’ ’
.
,
 P r o p e rty o f th e M e tro p o li ta n M u s e u m of A rt

P OR TIA
A ft r th
e e rtr itb y
po a Jo h n E vr t
e et M i ll i a s
1 52 E N GLI SH L I TE R A TU R E

th e bes t of S hakespe are s plays i n e ac h of the th re e classe s ; ’

bu t t he orde r i nd i cates m e rely the au thor s pe rsonal op i n i on ’

of th e relat i ve m e r i ts of the plays i n each class Thu s M e r .

V e n i c e would be the fi rs t of th e comed i e s for the

f
ch a n t o

beg i nne r to read and f uj i a s Ce s a r i s an e xcellent i n trod u c

,

t i on to the h i stor i cal plays and th e t raged i e s .

CO M EDI ES .
.
lll e r c h a n t of Ve n i c e , M id s u m m N igh t s D r e a m
er
’
, As
Yo u L i h e I t, Win te r ’
s Ta le , Th e h N ig h t
Te m p e s t, Tw e lf t .

TR AG EDI ES . R om e o a nd j u li e t, M a c b e th , H a m le t, K i ng L ea r ,
Oth e llo .

H I TO I C A P A
S R L L I S
'
.
j u li u s Ce sa r , R ich ar d I I I , H e n ry I V, H e n ry V,
Cor i ola n u s , A n tony an d C le op a tr a
. .

D ou b t f u l P lay s I t i s reasonably ce rta i n t hat some of th e

.

plays ge nerally attr i buted to S ha k e speare are partly th e work

of othe r d ramat i sts Th e fi rs t of the se doubtful plays ofte n
.
,

calle d the Pre S hakespear i an G roup are Ti tu s A n d ron i c u s and

-

the fi rst part of He n ry VI S hake speare p robably wor k ed w i th .

Marlowe i n the two last parts of H e n ry VI and i n R ic h a r d I I I .

T h e th re e plays Ta m i ng of th e S h re w Ti m ou and P e r i c le s
, , ,

are only partly S h a k espeare s work bu t th e othe r au thors are ’

un k nown He n ry VI I I i s the work of F le tche r and S hake

.

speare op i n i on be i ng d i v i ded as to whe the r S h ake speare

,

helped F l etche r or whe the r i t was an u nfi n i shed work of

,

S ha k e speare wh i c h was pu t i nto F le tc he r s hand s for com

’

p le tion Tw o N oble K i n s m e n i s a play not ord i nar i ly found

.

i n ed i t i ons of S ha k espeare bu t i t i s ofte n placed among h i s ,

doubtful wor k s Th e greater part of the play i s u ndoubtedly

.

by F le tc he r E d w a r d [I I i s one of s eve ral c rud e plays pub

.

li s h e d at fi rst anonymou sly and late r att r i buted to S hakespeare

by publ i she rs who de s i red to sell the i r ware s I t conta i ns a fe w
’

passage s that strongly sugge st S ha k e speare but the e x te rnal

e v i dence i s all aga i nst h i s authorsh i p .

S h ak e s p e a re s P oe m s I t i s gene rally asse rted th at i f

’
.
,

S hake speare had wr i tte n no plays h i s poe ms alon e would ,

have gi ven h i m a com mand i ng place i n the E l i zabethan A g e .

 TH E AG E O F EL IZ A B E TH 1 53

N eve rthele ss , i n t he var i ous h i stor i e s of our l i te ratu re the re

i s appare nt a de s i re to pra i se and pass ove r all bu t the S on n e ts
as rap i dly as poss i ble ; and the reason may be s tated fran k ly .

H i s two long poe ms V e nus and A don i s and Th e R ape ,

”

of L uc rece conta i n m uch poe t i c fancy ; bu t i t mu s t be sa i d

,
”

of both that the sub j ec ts are unple asant and th at they are ,

d ragged ou t to unnece ssary le ngth i n orde r to show the play

of you th ful i mag i nat i on They we re e x tremely popular i n .

S ha k espeare s day bu t i n com par i son w i th h i s great d ramat i c

’

works the se poe ms are now of m i no r i mportance .

S hake spe are s S on n e ts one hund re d and fif ty fou r i n nu m

’
-

ber are the only d i re c t e xpre ss i on of th e poe t s own fe el i ngs

,
’

that we posse ss for h i s plays are th e most i mpe rsonal i n all

l i te ratu re T hey we re publ i shed toge the r i n I 6O 9 ; bu t i f t hey
.

had any un i ty i n S hake speare s m i nd th e i r plan and pu rpose ’

are h ard to d i scove r By some c r i t i c s th ey are regard ed as

.

me re l i te rary exe rc i se s ; by othe rs as th e e xpre ss i on of some

pe rsonal gr i e f d u r i ng the th i rd pe r i od of th e poe t s l i te rary ’

caree r S t i ll othe rs tak i ng a h i nt from the sonne t beg i nn i ng

.
,

Tw o love s I have of comfort and d e spa i r d i v i de the m all ”

, ,

i nto two classes add re ssed to a m an wh o was S hake speare s

,
’

fr i e nd and to a woman who d i sda i ned h i s love Th e reade r

,
.

may well avo i d such class i fi cat i ons and re ad a fe w sonnets ,

l i k e the twe nty n i nth fo r i nstance and le t the m speak th e i r

-
, ,

own me ssage A fe w are t ri v i al and art i fic i al enough sug

.
,

g e s ti n g the elaborate e xe rc i se s of a p i ano playe r ; bu t the

ma j or i ty are re mar k able for the i r subtle though t and e xqu i s i te
e xpre ss i on H e re and th e re i s one l i ke that beg i nn i ng
.
,

Wh to th e s e ss i o s o f sw t s il e t t h o u g h t
en n ee n

I su m m o u p r m m bra c e o f t hi gs past
n e e n n ,

wh i ch w i ll h aunt th e read e r long afte rward s l i ke th e re me m ,

brance of an old G e rman melody .

S h ak e s p e a re s P lace an d I nfl u ence
’
S ha k e speare h olds by .
,

ge ne ral acclamat i on the fore most plac e i n the wo rld s l i te ra

,
’

tu re and h i s ove rwhelm i ng gre atne ss rende rs i t d i ffi cul t to

,
r5 4 E NG L I S H I
L TE R A TU R E

c r i t i c i se o r e ve n to pra i se h i m Tw o poe ts only H om e r and .

,

D ante h ave be e n named w i th h i m

,
bu t eac h of the se wrote
w i th i n narrow l i m i ts wh i le S hake speare s ge n i us i nc luded all
,
’

the world of nature and of me n I n a word he i s the un i .

,

ve rsal poe t To study natu re i n h i s works i s l i ke e xplor i ng a

.

new and beau t i ful count ry ; to study man i n h i s works i s l i ke

go i ng i nto a great c i ty v i e w i ng th e motley c rowd as one v i ews
,

a great masque rade i n wh i ch pas t and pre se nt m i ngle f reely

and fam i l i arly as i f the de ad we re all l i v i ng aga i n A n d the
,
.

marvelous t h i ng i n th i s masque rade of all sorts and cond i

,

t i ons of m en i s that S hake speare l i fts the mask from e ve ry

,

fac e le ts u s se e the man as h e i s i n h i s own soul and shows

, ,

us i n each one some ge rm of good some soul of good ne ss ,

even i n th i ngs ev i l F or S h ake speare s tr i ke s no unce rta i n

.

note and ra i se s no doubts to add to th e bu rde n of you r own

,
.

Good always ove rcomes e v i l i n the long ru n ; and love fa i th , ,

wor k and duty are the fou r ele me nts that i n all age s m ake
,

the world r i gh t To c r i t i c i se or pra i se th e gen i us that c reates

.

the se men and wo me n i s to c r i t i c i se or pra i se hu man i ty i tself .

Of h i s i nfl ue nce i n l i te ratu re i t i s e qually d i ffi c ul t to speak .

G oe th e e xpre sse s th e common l i te rary j udgmen t whe n h e

"
says ,
I do not re me mbe r that any book o r pe rson or eve nt
i n my l i fe eve r mad e so great an i mp re ss i on upon m e as the
plays of S ha k e speare H i s i nfl ue nc e upon ou r own language
.
”

and thought i s beyond calculat i on S hake speare and the K i ng .

J ame s B i ble are the two great conse rvators of the E ngl i sh
speec h ; and one who hab i tually read s them fi nd s h i msel f
posse ssed of a style and vocabul ary that are beyond c r i t i c i sm .

E ve n those who read no S hakespeare are st i ll unconsc i ously

gu i ded by h i m for h i s though t and e xp ress i on have so pe r
,

vad ed ou r l i fe and l i terature th at i t i s i mposs i ble so long as ,

one speaks th e E ngl i sh language to e scape h i s i nfl ue nce , .

Hi s life w as ge t l d th e l m e ts
n e , an e e n

S o m i x e d i h i m t h at N atu r m i g h t sta d u p
n , e n

A d say t ll th w o r l d
n o a T h i s was a m
e , an
1 56 E NG L I S H I
L TE R AT UR E

V . SH A KE S PE AR E ’
S CO N TE M P O R A R I E S A N D
S UCCE S S OR S I N THE D R A M A
De cli n e of was i nev i table that th e d rama
th e D r am a . It
should decl i ne afte r S ha k e speare for the s i mple re ason that ,

the re was no othe r great e nough to fi ll h i s place A s i de from .

th i s othe r causes we re at wor k and the ch i ef of the se was

, ,

at th e ve ry sou rce of the E l i zabe than d ramas I t mu st be .

re membe red th at our fi rst playwr i gh ts wrote to pl ease the i r

aud i ence s ; that th e d rama rose i n E ngland be cau se of the .

de s i re of a patr i ot i c pe 0 p 1e to se e som e th i ng of th e st i rr i ng
l i fe of the t i me s refl ec ted on the stage F or the re we re no .

pape rs or magaz i ne s i n those days and pe ople came to the ,

theate rs not only to be amused bu t to be i nformed L ik e .

ch i ld re n they wante d to se e a story ac ted ; and l ik e men they

, ,

wanted to k now what i t mean t S hake speare ful fille d the i r .

d es i re H e gave t he m th e i r story and h i s ge n i u s was great

.
,

enough to show i n e ve ry play not only the i r own l i fe and

pass i ons but some t h i ng of the m ean i ng of all l i fe and of that ,

e te rnal j ust i ce wh i c h u se s the war of human pass i ons for i ts

own great end s Thu s good and ev i l m i ngle freely i n h i s
.

d ramas ; but the ev i l i s neve r attrac t i ve and the good tr i umphs ,

as i nev i tably as fate Though h i s language i s some t i m e s coarse

.
,

we are to re me mbe r th at i t was the c us tom of h i s age to speak

somewhat coarsely and that i n language as i n though t and
, ,

fe el i ng S hake speare i s far above m ost of h i s conte mporar i e s

,
.

Wi th h i s succe ssors all th i s was changed Th e aud i ence .

i tself had grad ually changed and i n place of pla i n pe 0 p 1e ,

eage r fo r a sto ry and for i nformat i on we se e a large r and ,

large r propo rt i on of those who wen t to th e play because they

W l
'
Ot h i n g else to do T hey wanted .amuse ment only and ,

s in c é t h e y had blun ted by i dle ne ss the de s i re for s i mple

and wh ole some amuseme nt they called for some th i ng more ,

sensat i onal S hake speare s succe ssors cate red to the de

.
’

p rav e d tastes of t h i s new aud i e nce T hey lac k ed not only .

 T H E AG E O F EL IZ A B E T H 1 57

S hake speare s gen i u s bu t h i s broad c har i ty h i s moral i ns i gh t

’

, ,

i nto l i fe Wi th the e xcept i on of B e n J onson they neglec ted

.
,

the s i mple fac t that man i n h i s deepe st nat ure i s a moral be i ng ,

and that only a play wh i c h sat i sfi e s th e whole nat u re of man

by s h ow i ng th e tr i ump h of the moral law can e ve r wholly
sat i sfy an aud i ence o r a people B eaumont and F letche r .
,

forge tt i ng the de ep mean i ng of l i fe strove fo r e ffec t by i n ,

c reas i ng th e se nsat i onal i sm of t he i r plays ; Web ste r reveled

'

i n t raged i e s of blood and thu nd e r ; Mass i nge r and F ord made

anothe r ste p d ownward prod uc i ng e v i l and l i c e nt i ou s scene s
,

for the i r own sake mak i ng charac t e rs and s i tuat i ons more
,

i mmoral t i ll notw i th stand i ng t he se d ramat i sts ab i l i ty th e

,
’

stage had become i ns i nce re fr i volous and bad Be n J onson s, , .

’

ode C ome L eave the L oath ed S tage i s th e j ud gme nt of a

, ,
”

large and h ones t nature grown weary of the plays and the
playe rs of the t i me We re ad w i th a se nse of rel i ef that
.

i n 1 64 2 only twe n ty s i x years afte r S h a k e speare s de ath

,
-
’

both hou se s of Parl i ame nt voted to close the theate rs as

breede rs of l i e s and i mmoral i ty .

J O NS ON ( 1 5 7 3 ? 1 6 3 7 )
BE N —

P e rsonally J onson i s th e mos t command i ng l i te ra ry fi gure

among the E l i zabe thans F or twe nty fiv e years he was th e
.
-

l i te ra ry d i c tator of L ondon th e ch i ef of all the w i ts that

,

gathe red n i ghtly at the old D ev i l Tave rn Wi th h i s great .

learn i ng h i s ab i l i ty and h i s command i ng pos i t i on as poe t

, ,

lau reate h e se t h i mself squarely aga i ns t h i s contemporar i e s

,

and th e romant i c tendency of the age F o r two t h i ngs h e .

fough t bravely ,
to re store the class i c form of the d rama ,

and to kee p the stage from i ts downward cou rse A ppare ntly
’
.

h e fa i led ; the romant i c sc hool fi xed i t s hold

than eve r ; the s t age we nt sw i ftly to an e nd
of th e early d ramat i sts N e ve rthele s s h i s i
.

gre w more powe rful t i ll a i de d largely by F re nc h i

,

re sulted i n the s o called class i c i sm of the e i ght ee n

-
1 58 E N GLISH L I TE R ATU R E

L if e .J on son was bo r n at Wes t m in s t e r abou t t he yea r 1 5 7 3 .

H i s fa t he r an educa t ed ge n t leman had h i s p r o p e rty confisca t ed

, ,

an d was h i mse lf t h r own i n t o p r i so n by Quee n M a ry ; so we i n fe r

t he fam ily w as o f so m e p r om i n e n ce Fr om h i s m o t he r he r ece ived

.

ce rta in strong cha rac t e r is t i cs an d by a s in gl e sho rt r efe r ence in

,

J o n son s wo r k s w e a r e l ed to see t he ki n d of woman she was I t i s

’
.

wh il e J on son i s t e ll i n g D r ummon d of t he occas io n when he was

t h r own i n t o p r i son because some passages in t he comedy of E a s t
,

w a r a H o gave o ff ense t o K i n g James an d he was i n dan ge r of a

’
,

ho rr ible death aft e r hav in g ,

h i s ea r s an d n o se cu t off .

He t ells u s h o w after h i s .
,

pa r don he was ban qu e t i n g

,

w i t h h is fr i ends whe n h i s ,
"
old mo t he r came in ”

an d showed a pa p e r fu l l
of lus ty s tr ong p o iso n
"
,
”

wh i ch she i n t e n ded to m i x
w i t h h i s d r i n k j us t befo r e
t h e e xecu t i o n An d t o .

show t ha t she was no

chu r l she i n t en ded fi r s t
,
”

t o d r i n k of t he po i son he r
self Th e i nc ide n t i s a l l
.

t he mo r e suggest ive f r om
B E N J O N S ON
t he fact t ha t C ha p man an d
M a r st on on e h i s fr i e n d an d
,

t he o t he r h i s e n emy we r e fi r s t cast i nto p r i son as t he a u t ho r s of

,

w a r a H o an d r ough Ben J o n son at o n ce dec l a r ed t ha t he t oo

’
E ast .

h ad had a s m a l l hand in t he wr i t i n g an d we n t t o j o i n t hem in p r i so n .

J on son s fa t he r came ou t of p r ison hav ing given u p h i s es ta t e an d

’

, ,

becam e a m i n i s t e r He d i ed j us t befo r e t he son s b i rt h and tw o

.
’
,

year s l a t e r t he m o t he r m a rr i ed a b r ic kl aye r o f L on don Th e boy .

was se n t t o a p r iv a t e sch ool an d la t e r made h i s ow n way to West

,

0 0 1 whe r e t he sub m a s t e r C a m de n s tr uc k by t he boy s

’
, , ,

h t an d l a rge ly su p p o rt ed h i m F o r a sh o rt t i me he may
.

a t t he u n iv e r s i ty i n Camb r idge ; b ut h i s s t epfa t he r

t o l ea rn in g t he b r i c k l aye r s trade He ran away f r om
’
.

wi t h t he E n gli sh a r my t o fi gh t S p an ia rds in t he Lo w
s bes t k n own explo i t the r e was t o figh t a duel be twee n
1 60 E N G LI S H I
L TE R A T UR E
a s i ngle day H e neve r ta k e s l i be rt i e s w i th h i stor i cal fac ts
.
,

as S hake speare does bu t i s accu rate to the smalle st de tai l

,
.

H i s d ramas abound i n class i cal learn i ng are carefully and ,

log i cally construc ted and comedy and tragedy are kept apart
, ,

i nstead of c rowd i ng eac h othe r as they d o i n S hake speare

and i n l i fe I n one re spec t h i s comed i e s are worthy of care
.

ful read i ng — they are i ntensely real i st i c pre sent i ng m e n

, ,

and women of the t i me e xac tly as they we re F rom a few .

of J onson s scene s we can u nde rstand

’
be tte r than from all
th e plays of S hake speare — how me n tal k ed and ac ted du r i ng
the A g e of E l i zabe th .

J onson s fi rs t comedy E v e ry M a n i n H is H u m ou r i s a key

’

, ,
"
to all h i s d ramas Th e wo rd h u mou r i n h i s age s tood for
.

E v ry M
e ani som e charac te r i st i c wh i m or qual i ty of soc i e ty
a .
.

J onson g i ves to e ac h of h i s charac te rs some prom

i n e n t h u mor e xagge rate s i t as the cartoon i st e nlarge s t he
, ,

most characte r i st i c feature of a fac e and so hold s i t before ou r ,

atte nt i on that all othe r qual i t i e s are lost s i ght of ; wh i ch i s

the me thod that D i c k ens used late r i n many of h i s novels .

E v e ry M a n i n H i s H u m ou r was the fi rst of th ree sat i re s .

I ts spec i al a i m was to r i d i c ule the h umors of the c i ty Th e .

second Cy n th i a s R e v e ls sat i r i zes the h umors of th e cou rt ;

,
’

wh i le the th i rd Th e P oe ta s te r the resul t of a quarre l w i th

, ,

h i s contemporar i e s was leve led at th e false standard s of the

,

poe ts of th e age .

Th e th re e be st known of J onson s com ed i e s are Volp on e

’

or t h e F ox Th e A lc h e m i s t and E p i c e n e or th e S ile n t Wo m a n
, , ,
.

Volp on e i s a k e en and me rc i le ss analys i s of a man gove rned

by an ove rwh el m i ng love of mon ey for i ts own sa k e T h e .

fi rst word s i n the fi rst sce ne are a key to the wh ole comedy '

Voéb on e )
G o o d m or n i g t th day ;
n o e and n e xt m y go l d !
,

O p e n th e s h r i e th at I m y
n a se e m y sa i n t .

( M os c a w ith dra w s a ain

cu rt an d d i s c ov e r s p i les of
g old , p la te j e w e ls , ,
et
c .
)
H a il th e w or l d s s o u l
’
, and m i ne !
 TH E AG E O F EL IZ A B E T H 1 61

V olpone s me thod of i nc reas i ng h i s wealth i s to pl ay upon the

’

avar i c e of me n H e p re te nds to be at the po i nt of d eat h and

.
,

h i s su i tors who k now h i s love of ga i n and that he has no

,
”

he i rs e ndeavor hypoc r i t i cally to swe e te n h i s las t mome nts

,

by g i v i ng h i m r i c h pre se nts so that h e w i ll le ave the m all h i s ,

wealth Th e i ntr i gue s of t he se su i tors fu rn i sh th e story of

.

the play and show to what i nfamous depths avar i c e w i ll lead

,

a man .

Th e A lc h e m is t i s a s tudy of quacke ry on one s i d e and of

gull i b i l i ty on the othe r founded o n the med i aeval i d ea of th e ,

ph i losophe r s stone and appl i e s as well to the pate nt med i

1 ’

c i ne s and ge t r i c h qu i ck sc he me s of our day as to the p e c u l

- -

i ar form s of quacke ry w i th wh i c h J onson was more fam i l i ar .

I n plot and art i st i c construc t i on Th e A lc h e m i s t i s an al mos t

pe rfec t spec i me n of th e be st E ngl i sh d rama I t has some .

re markably good passages and i s the most readable of J on ,

son s plays’
.

E p i c e n e or th e S ile n tWom a n i s a prose comedy e xceed i ngly

, ,

well const ruc ted full of l i fe abound i ng i n fu n and une xpec ted , ,

s i tuat i ons H e re i s a br i ef ou tl i ne from wh i c h the re ade r may

.

se e of wh at mate r i als J onso n mad e up h i s comed i e s .

Th hi e f c h ara c t e r i s M o r o s e a r i c h old c o dg e r w hos e h u m o r i s a

e c ,

horr o r of o i s He l iv e s i a str e t s o arr o w t h at i t w ill ad m i t o

n e . n e n n

Th S i l
e t c arr i ag e s ; h e pads th e d o rs ; p l ugs th e k e y h o l e ; p uts m a t
en o

Wmo an tr ss e s o th e sta i rs H d i s m i ss e s a s e r v a t w h o w e ars

e n . e n

squ a k y b oots ; m a k e s a ll th r st g o ab o ut i t h i c k st o c k i gs ;
e d e e n n an

t h e y m us t a s w e r h i m b y s i g s s i c h e c a o t b ar to h ar a yb o d y
n n , n e nn e e n

b u t h i m s e l f ta l k H e d i s i he r i ts hi s p oo r p h e w E uge i
. d to m a k
n ne n e , an , e

s u r th at th e l att e r w il l o tg t y m o e y o to f h i m r e s o lv e s to m arry
e n e an n u , .

Hi c o fi da t i t hi s d e li c at m att r i s C tb e a d th e barb e r w h o u li k e
s n n n e e u r , ,
n

h i s k i d e v e r sp a k s u l e ss sp o k e to d d s o t e v e k i c k hi s
n , n e n n ,
an oe n n n

s c i ss ors as h e w or k s C tb a d ( w h o i s s e c r e t ly i n l agu e w i t h th
. u e r e e

ne phe w ll s h i of E p i c a rar s il t w om a a d M o ro s e i s
) t m e e e o
oe n e , , n n ,
n s

d e li g h te d w i t h h e s il e c t h at h e r e s o l v e s to m arry h e o th e s p ot
r n e r n .

C tb e d pr o d u c e s a pars o w i t h a b ad c o l d w h o
u ar sp e a k o l y i a n , c an n n

w h i sp e r t m arry t h m
, o d w h e th pars o c o ug h s a f t e r th e c e r e m o y
e an n e n n

1 A i m i l t ry f q u k y i f d i C h r Th C
s ar s o o acY m er T l s ou n n au c e ,
e an on s
’
eo an s
’
a e .
”
 E N G LIS H I
L T E R AT UR E
M r s d
o o e a n ds ba c k fiv e s hil li n gs o f th e fe e T o sa v e i t th e p ars on
em .

c oug h s m o r e a n d i s h urr i e d l y bu n d l e d o u t o f t
,
h e h o us e T h e s il e n t .

w o m a n fi n ds h e r v o i c e i m m e d i at e l y a f t e r th e m arr i ag e b e g i n s to ta l k ,

l o ud l y an d to m a k e r e f o r m s i n th e h o us e h o l d d r ivi n g M o ros e to d i stra e ,

t i o n A n oi sy d i n n e r party f r o m a n e i g h b or i n g h ous e w i t h d ru m s a n d
.
,

tru m p e ts an d a q u arr e li n g m an a n d w if e i s s k ill f u ll y gu i d e d i n at t h i s ,

m om e n t t o c e l e brate t h e w e dd i n g M o r o se fl e e s for h i s li f e a n d i s
.
,

f o u n d p e r c h e d li k e a m o n k e y o n a c r o ssb e a m i n th e att i c w i t h a ll h is ,

n i g h t c aps t i e d o v e r h i s e ars H e s e e k s a d iv o r c e but i s d r iv e n f ra n ti c

.
,

by th e l o u d argu m e n ts o f a l awye r an d a d ivi n e w h o a re n o o t h e r th a n ,

C ut b e a rd a n d a s e a c ap ta i n d i sgu i s e d W h e n M or os e i s past a ll h o p e .

th e n e p h e w off e rs to r e l e as e h i m f r o m h i s w i f e a n d h e r n o i s y f r i e n ds if
h e w ill a ll o w h i m fiv e h u n d r e d p o u n ds a ye ar M o r o s e offe rs h im a n y .

t h i n g e v e ryt hi n g to e s c ap e h i s t or m e n t a n d s i g n s a d e e d to t h at e ff e c t
, , , .

T h e n c o m e s th e surpr i s e o f t h e p l ay w h e n E u g e n i e w h i ps th e w i g f r om
E p i c oe n e a n d s h o ws a b oy i n d i sgui s e .

I t w i ll be see n that the S i le n t Wom a n w i th i ts rap i d ,

ac t i on and i ts u ne xpec ted s i tuat i ons offe rs an e xcelle nt ,

opportun i ty for the ac tors ; bu t the r ead i ng of the play as ,

of most of J onson s comed i e s i s marred by low i ntr i gue s

’

show i ng a sad state of morals among the uppe r classe s .

B e s i de s the se and many othe r le ss known comed i es J onson

, ,

wrote two great t raged i e s S ej a n u s 1 60 3 ) and Ca tili n e 1 6 1

,

upon seve re class i cal l i nes A fte r ceas i ng h i s work for the .

stage J onson wrote many masques i n honor of J ame s I and

,

of Q ue en A nne to be playe d am i d elaborate sce ne ry by the

,
"
gentle men of the cou rt Th e be st of th e se are Th e S atyr
.
,
”

" ” " " ” ”

Th e P e nates Masque of Blackne ss
,
Masque of Beau ty , ,
" "
H ue and C ry afte r C up i d and Th e Masque of Q ue ens ,
”
.
”

I n all h i s plays J onson showed a strong lyr i c g i ft and som e ,

of h i s l i ttle poe ms and songs l i ke Th e T r i umph of C h ar i s ,

"
,
”

"
D r i nk to Me O nly w i th Th i ne E ye s and To the Me m ” “
,

ory of my Beloved Moth e r are now be tte r k nown than h i s ,

”

great d ramat i c wo rks A s i ngle volum e of prose called Ti m

.
,

b e r or D i s c ov e r i e s m a d e up on M e n a n d M a tte r i s an i nte r
, ,

est i ng collec t i on of S ho rt e ssays wh i ch are more l i ke Bacon s ’

than an y othe r work of the age .

1 64 E N GLI S H I
L TE R AT UR E
H i s two be st known plays are Th e Wh i te D e v i l ( pub 1 6 1 2 ) .

and Th e D u c h e s s of M a l/Z ( pub I 6 2 3 ) Th e lat te r sp i te of . .

,

i ts horrors ranks h i m as one of th e greate st maste rs of

,

E ngl i sh tragedy I t must be reme mbe red that he sough t i n

.

th i s play to reproduce the I tal i an l i fe of th e s i xtee nth

ce ntu ry and fo r th i s n o i mag i nary horrors are needed Th e
,
.

h i story of any I tal i an cou rt or c i ty i n th i s pe ri od furn i she s

more v i ce and v i ole nc e and d i shonor than eve n th e gloomy
i mag i nat i on of We bste r could conce i ve A ll t he s o called .
-

blood traged i es of the E l i zabethan pe r i od from Thomas K y d s ,

’

Sp a n i s h Tr ag e dy down howeve r much they m ay cond emn the ,

brutal taste of the E ngl i sh aud i ence s are s t i ll only so many ,

search l i gh ts th rown u pon a h i story of horr i ble darkne ss .

Th om a s Mi dd l e t on ( 1 5 7 0 I 627) M i d d l e to n i s b e s t —
.

known by two great plays Th e Ch a ng e li ng and Wom e n B e

'

1
,

w a re Wom e n I n poe try and d i c t i on they are al most worthy

.

at t i mes to ran k w i t h S ha k e speare s plays ; oth e rw i se i n ’

th e i r sen sat i onal i sm and u nnatu ral ne ss th ey d o v i olence to

the moral sense and are re puls i ve to the mode rn reade r .

Tw o earl i e r plays A Tr i c h t o ca t ch th e Old On e h i s best

, ,

comedy and A F a i r Qu a r re l h i s earl i e st tragedy are le ss

, , ,

matu re i n though t and e xpre ss i on but more readable because , ,

they se e m to e xpre ss M i ddle ton s own i de a of th e d rama ’

rathe r than that of the corrupt cou rt and playwri gh ts of h i s

late r age .

Th om as He y w ood ( 1 5 8 o ? H eywood s l i fe of ’

wh i ch we k now l i t tle i n de ta i l cove rs the whole pe r i od of ,

th e E l i zab e than d rama To th e glory of th at d rama he con .

tr i buted accord i ng to h i s own s tate ment the greate r part at

, , ,

least of nearly two hund red and twe nty plays I t was an
, .

enormous amou nt of work ; but h e se ems to have bee n an i

mated by the mod e rn l i te rary sp i r i t of follow i ng the be st
mar k e t and str i ki ng wh i le th e fi nanc i al i ron i s hot N aturally .

1 In t hi s and in A F air Qu a r r e l M idd l eton co ll a b o ra te d wi th \Vi lli am Ro wl y e ,

of

wh om l i ttl
e is k n ow n e x ce
p tt h a th e w a s a n ac tor f ro m c . 1 60 7 -
1 62 7 .
 TH E AG E O F EL IZ A B E T H 1 65

good work was i mposs i ble eve n to gen i u s u nde r such c i r

, ,

c um st a n c e s and few of h i s plays are now k nown

,
T h e t wo .

bes t i f th e reade r would obta i n h i s own i d e a of H eywood s

,
’

undoubte d ab i l i ty are A Wom a n b i lle d w i th K i n d n e s s a

, ,

pathe t i c story of dome st i c l i fe and Th e F a i r M a i d of th e ,

lVe s t a melod rama w i t h plenty of fi ght i ng of the popular k i nd

,
.

Th om as D e k k e r ( 1 5 7 0 D ek k e r i s i n pl eas i ng contrast
w i th mos t of the d ramat i sts of the t i me A ll we k now of h i m .

mus t be i nfe rred fro m h i s works wh i c h S how a happy and ,

s unny natu re pleasant and good to me e t Th e read e r w i ll

,
.

fi nd the best expr e ss i on of D e k k e r s pe rsonal i ty and e rrat i c ’

gen i u s i n Th e S h oe m a h e rs Holi d ay a humorous s tudy of ’

pla i n work i ng people and Old F or tu n a tu s a fa i ry d rama of

, ,

the w i sh i ng h at and n o e nd of money Whe the r i nte nd ed .

for ch i ld re n or not i t h ad th e e ffec t of c harm i ng th e elde rs

,

far more than th e young people and th e play became i m ,

m e n s e ly popular .

Mas s in ger F ord S h i r le y

, Th ese thre e m e n mark th e e nd
, .

of t he E l i zabe than d rama The i r work done large ly wh i l e

.
,

th e struggl e was o n be twe e n th e ac tors and th e c orrupt

court on one s i de and the P ur i tans on th e othe r sh ows a
, , ,

del i be rate tu rn i ng away not only from P u r i tan standard s

bu t from the h i gh i deals of the i r own art to pande r to the
corrupt taste of the uppe r classes
-
__ .

P h i l i p Mass i nge r ( 1 5 8 4 1 6 4 0 ) was a d ramat i c poe t of

—

great natural ab i l i ty ; bu t h i s plots and s i tuat i ons are usually

so st ra i ned and art i fi c i al that the mode rn reade r fi nds no
i nte re s t i n the m I n h i s be st come dy A N e w Way to P ay
.
,

Old D e b ts he ach i eved great popular i ty and gave u s one

,

fi gu re S ir G i le s O ve rreach wh i ch i s one of th e typ i cal

, ,

charac te rs of the E ngl i sh stage H i s be st plays are Th e .

G r e a t D u h e of F lor e n c e Th e Vi rg i n Ma r t
, y r and Th e M a id .
,

of Hon ou r .

J oh n F ord ( 1 5 8 6 — and J ame s S h i rley ( 1 5 9 6 1 666 )

1 6 4 2 P)
have left u s l i ttl e of pe rmane nt l i te rary val ue and th e i r wor k s ,
I 66 E N GL IS H I
L T E R AT UR E
are read only by th ose who w i sh to unde rstand th e whole
r i se and fall of the d rama A n occas i onal sce ne i n F ord s .
’

plays i s as strong as anyth i ng that the E l i zabe than A ge pro

d u c e d ; but as a whole th e plays are unnatu ral and t i re some .

P robably h i s be st play i s Th e B r oh e n H e a r t S h i rley

was g i ve n to i m i tat i on of h i s prede ce sso rs and h i s ve ry i m i ta ,

t i on i s charac te r i st i c of an age wh i c h had lost i ts i nsp i rat i on .

A s i ngle play Hy d e P a r h w i th i ts fr i volou s real i st i c d i alogue

, , , ,

i s some t i me s read for i ts refl ect i on of the fash i onable goss i py

talk of the day L ong before S h i rley s d eath the ac tors sa i d
.
’

F arewell O th ello s occupat i on s gone Parl i ame nt voted

”
’ ’
.

to close th e theate rs the reby sav i ng the d rama from a more ,

i nglor i ous d eath by d i ss i pat i on 1

.

VI . T HE P R O S E WR I TE R S
F R A N C I S BA C O N ( 1 5 6 1 —
1 6 26)

I n Bacon we se e one of those comple x and cont rad i c to ry

natu re s wh i ch are the d espa i r of the b i ographe r I f the .

wr i te r be an ad m i re r of Bacon he fi nd s too muc h that he ,

m ust e xc u se or pass ove r i n s i le nce ; and i f he ta k e s h i s

s t and on th e law to cond e mn th e avar i ce and d i shone sty of
h i s sub j ec t he fi nds e nough moral cou rage and nob i l i ty to
,

ma k e h i m que st i on th e j ust i c e of h i s own j udgme nt O n the .

one hand i s rugged Be n J onson s tr i bute to h i s powe r and ’

"
ab i l i ty and on the othe r H allam s summary that h e was a
,
’

man who be i ng i ntrusted w i t h th e h i gh e st g i fts of H eave n

, ,

hab i tually abu sed the m for the poore st pu rpose s of earth
h i red t he m ou t for gu i ne as place s and t i tles i n th e se rv i ce , ,

of i n j ust i ce cove tou sness and oppre ss i on

, ,
.
”

L ay i ng as i d e the op i n i ons of oth e rs and rely i ng only upon ,

the fac ts of Bacon s l i fe we fi nd on th e one s i de the pol i t i c i an

’

, ,

cold calculat i ng sel fi sh and on the othe r the l i te rary and

, , ,

1 Th d will fi d wh l m ri ti is m f th w i t
e rea er n d l ti f m th ir
o e so e c c o e se r e rs , a n se e c on s ro e

w ks i Ch rl s L m b s Sp m
or ,
n a e
f E g li h D m ti P t
a
’
x ll tb k wh i h
ea en s o n s ra a c oe s , a n e ce en oo ,
c

h l p t b tt k wl d g d pp i ti f th l r E l iz b th dr m ti ts
e s us o a e er no e e an a re c a on o e e s se a e an a a s .
1 68 E N GLIS H I
L TE R A T UR E
wh i ch was t he deduc t ive me t hod t ha t h ad bee n in use fo r ce n tu r i es .

I n h i s fam ous p l e a fo r p r ogr e ss Bac on d e m an ded t h r e e t h i n gs : t he

fr ee i n ves t iga t i on o f n atu r e t he d i sc ove ry of fac t s i n s t e ad of t heo r i es
, ,

an d t he ve r i fica t i o n of r esu l t s by e x p e r i me n t r a t he r t ha n by a r gu m e n t .

I n ou r day t he s e a r e t he A B C o f sc i e n ce bu t in Baco n s t i me t hey

’

, , ,

see m ed r e v o l u t i o n a ry .

A s a lawye r he be c am e i m m ed i a t e ly successfu l ; h i s kn owledge

a n d p owe r of p l ead i n g beca m e w i d e l y k n own an d i t was a l m os t a t ,

t he b e gi n n i n g of h i s ca r ee r t ha t J on son wr o t e Th e fea r o f eve ry on e ,

t hat hea r d h im s p e a k was t ha t he shou l d m a k e an e n d Th e p u b .

”

lic a tion of h i s E s s ay s added gr e at ly t o h i s fame bu t Ba c on was n o t

c o n t en t H i s head was bu z z in g w i t h h u ge schemes t he p ac ific a tion
.
,

of u n ha p py I r e l an d t he s im p l i fica t i on of E n glish l aw t he r efo r m of

, ,

t he ch u r ch t he s tudy of n a tu r e t he es t ab l i shme n t of a n e w p h iloso

, ,

p hy M ean wh i le sad t o s ay he p l ayed t he gam e of p ol i t i cs fo r h i s

.
, ,

p e r son a l ad van tage He d e vo t ed h i mself t o E ssex t he yo u n g an d

.
,

dan ge r o u s fa v o r i t e of t he qu ee n w on h i s f r i e n dsh i p and t he n used

, ,

h i m skill f u lly to be tt e r h is o w n p os i t i o n Wh e n t he ea r l was tr i ed .

fo r tr e aso n i t w as p a rt ly a t l eas t t h r o u gh Bacon s e ffo rt s t ha t he was

, ,
’

c on vi c t ed an d beheaded ; an d t hough Bac on cla i m s t o have be e n

ac tu at ed by a h igh se n se o f j u s t i ce we a r e n ot con vi n c e d t ha t he,

u n d e r st ood e i t he r j u st i c e o r fr i e n dsh i p in a p p ea r i n g as q u ee n s ’

c ou n s e l aga i n s t the m an w h o h a d befr ie n d e d h im H i s co l d .

b l ooded n e ss an d lac k of m o ra l se n s i t iv e n e ss a p p ea r e v en in h is
ess ays on L o v e an d Fr i e n d s h i p I n deed we c an u n de r s ta n d
.
”
,

h i s l ife on ly u p on t he t h e o ry t ha t h i s i n t e l le c tu a l i ty left h i m co l d an d
dead to t he h ighe r se n t ime n t s o f ou r h u m a n i ty .

D u r i n g E li z abe t h s r e i gn Bac o n had so u gh t r e p e at ed ly for h igh

’

o ffi c e b u t had bee n b l o c k ed by Bu r le igh a n d p e r ha p s a l so by t he

,

qu ee n s o wn sh r ewd n e s s in j udgi n g m e n Wi t h t he ad v e n t of
’
.

J a m es I ( 1 6 0 3 ) Bac on d e vo t e d h i m se l f t o t he n e w r u l e r an d r os e
r a p id ly in fa v o r He wa s k n igh t ed an d soon aft e rwa rds a tt a i n e d
.
, -

an o t he r obj e c t o f h i s am b i t io n i n m arry i n g a r i ch wi fe Th e .

a p p ea ran ce of h i s gr e a t wo r k t he A d v a c e m e n t of L e a n i ng in
,
n r ,

1 60 5 was l arge l y t he r es u l t of t he me n t al s t i m ulus p r od u c e d by h i s

,

chan ge in fo rtu n e I n 1 6 1 3 he was made a tto r n e y ge n e r a l an d

.
-
,

speed ily m ade e n e m i e s by u s i n g t he o ffi c e t o i n c r e a se h i s p e rson al

e n ds H e j ust i fi e d h imse l f in h i s c ou rs e by h i s devo t i on t o t he
.

ki n g s c a use an d by t he be l i ef t h at t he h ighe r h i s pos i t i on an d t he

’

m o r e am p l e h i s mean s t h e mo r e he could do fo r sc i e n ce I t was .

 TH E AGE O F E L IZ A B E T H 1 69

i n t h i s yea r t h a t Bacon wr o t e h i s se r i es of S ta te P ap e r s w h i ch sho w ,

a ma r ve l ous gr as p of t he p ol i t i cal t e n de n c i es of h i s age Had h i s .

ad vi ce b e e n fol l owed i t wou l d have ce rt a i n ly ave rt ed t he s tru ggl e

,

be twee n ki n g a n d p a r li ame n t t ha t followed s p eed i ly I n 1 6 1 7 he .

was appo i n t ed to h i s fat he r s o ffice L o r d K eepe r of t he S e al an d

’
, ,

t he nex t yea r t o t he h igh o ffice of L o r d C ha n ce l lo r Wi t h t h i s .

o fli c e he r ece i ved t he t i t l e of Ba r o n Ve r ulam an d la t e r of V i scou n t ,

S t A l ban wh i ch he a ffi x ed w i t h s o me van i ty t o h i s l i t e r a ry wo r k
.
, .

Tw o yea r s la t e r a p p ea r ed h i s gr ea t es two r k the N ov u m Org a n u m , ,

ca ll ed aft e r Ar i s t o t l e s fa m ous Org a n on ’

.

Bacon d id n ot lo n g e n j oy h i s pol i t ical hon o r s Th e s t o r m wh i ch .

had bee n lo n g ga t he r i n g aga ins t J ames s gove r nme n t b r o k e s u dde n ly ’

upon B a co n s head Whe n Pa r liame n t assemb l ed in 1 6 2 1 i t ve n t ed

’
.

i t s d is tru s t of J am es an d h i s favo r i t e Villi e r s by s tr iki n g u n ex p ec t edly

a t t he i r ch i ef adv ise r Bacon was s t e rn ly accused of accep t ing b r ibes
.
,

an d t he ev i d e n ce w a s so gr e a t t ha t he co n fessed t ha t t he r e was much

p ol i t i cal co rr u p t io n ab r oa d i n t he lan d tha t he was pe r son ally gu i l ty ,

of so m e of i t an d h e t h r ew h i mse l f u p on the me r cy of h i s j u dges

, .

Pa r l i a m e n t a t t hat t i me was in no mo od fo r m e r cy Bac o n was de .

riv e d of h i s o flfic e an d was se n t e n ced t o p ay t he eno r mou s fin e of

p
p o u n ds to be i mp r i son ed d u r i n g the ki n g s pleasu r e an d
,
’
,

t he r eaf t e r t o be ban i shed fo r eve r f r om Pa r li ame n t an d cou rt Tho u gh .

t he i m p r i son m e n t las t ed o n ly a few days an d t he fin e was la rge l y re

te d Bac on s ho p es an d sche m es for po li t i cal ho n o r s we r e e n ded
’
m it ,

and i t i s a t t h i s po in t of a p p a lli n g adv e r s i t y tha t t he nob il i ty in t he

man s n atu r e asse rt s i t self s tr ongly I f the r e ade r be i n t e r es t ed t o
’
.

a p p ly a gr e at man s ph il os o phy to h i s o w n l i fe he w i ll fin d the essay

’
, ,

Of G r eat P l ac e m os t i n t e r es t i n g in t h i s co n n e c t i on
" ”
.
,

Bacon n ow w i t hd r ew p e rman e n t ly fr om pub li c l i fe a n d de v o t ed ,

h i s spl e n d i d ab ili ty t o li t e r a ry a n d sc i e n t i fic wo r k He co m p le t ed .

t he E ss ay s expe r i m e n t e d la rgely wr o t e h i s t o ry sc i e n t i fic a rt i c l es
, , , ,

a n d o n e sc i en t i fic n ov e l a n d m ade add i t i o n s t o h i s l n s t
, a ura t io
M ag n a t he gr ea t ph i loso p h ic a l wo r k wh i ch was n eve r fin i shed In
,
.

t he s p r i n g of 1 6 2 6 w h i le d r i v i n g in a sn ows t o r m i t occ u rr ed t o h i m
, ,

t ha t sn ow m igh t be used as a p r ese rv at ive i n s t e a d of sa l t Tr ue t o .

h i s ow n me t hod of a rr ivi n g a t tr u t h he s t op p ed a t t he fi r s t ho u se , ,

b ough t a fowl an d p r oce e ded t o t es t h i s t heo ry Th e ex p e r i me n t

, .

ch il led h im an d he d i ed s oon aft e r fr om t he e ffec t s of h i s ex

,

p o su re . A s M acaulay w r o t e t he g r eat apos, t l

"
e of expe r i men t al
ph i losophy wa s des t in ed t o be i t s ma rtyr ”
.
 1 70 E NG L I S H I
L T E R AT UR E
Work s of B ac on Bacon s ph i losoph i c wor k s Th e A d v a n c e
.
’

m e n t of L e a r n i ng and the N ov u m Org a n u m w i ll be best u m ,

d e rs to o d i n connec t i on w i th the I n s ta u ra ti o M ag n a or Th e ,

G re a t I n s ti tu ti on of Tr u e P h i los op hy of wh i ch they we re ,

parts Th e I n s ta u r a ti o was neve r comple ted but the ve ry

.
,

i de a of the wo rk was m ag n ific e n t — to swee p away the i n ,

volve d p h i losophy of th e schoolme n and the educat i onal

system s of the un i ve rs i t i e s and to subst i tu te a s i ngle great ,

wo r k wh i ch should be a comple te ed ucat i on a r i ch storehou se ,

for th e glory of t h e C reator and for th e rel i ef of man s estate ’

.
”

Th e ob j ec t of th i s e ducat i on was to br i ng p r act i cal re sults to

all the people i nstead of a l i ttle sel fi sh c ulture and muc h u se
,

le ss spec ulat i on wh i c h h e conce i ve d we re the only prod uc ts

, , ,

of th e un i ve rs i t i e s .

Th e I n stau r atio Magn a Th i s was the mos t amb i t i ous .

,

though i t i s not the be st known of Bacon s works F or th e ,

’
.

i ns i ght i t g i ve s u s i n to the author s m i nd we note he re a ’

br i ef outl i ne of h i s sub j ec t I t was d i v i ded i nto s i x parts .

,

as follows
1 P
. t i ti e
ar S i ti r m
on T hi s was to b e a c l ass i fi c at i o
s c en a u . d n an

su m m ary o f a ll h u m a k o w l dg Ph il o s o p h y a d a l l sp e c u l at i o m ust
n n e e . n n

b e ast o t d th e atura l s c i
c u an c e s e stab li s h e d as t
n h e bas i s o f a ll e d
en u

c at i o nT h e o l y p art c o m p l e t d was Th e A d
. n m tf Le e i g v a n ce en o a rn n ,

w hi h s e r v d as
c i tr od u c t i
e an n on .

n e w i stru m e t t h at i s th e u e o f ”
2 N
. m O g
ov u m o t he r anu , r n n , ,
s

r e as a d x p r i m t i st ad o f th o ld Ar i st ot l i a l og i c To fi d
on n e e en n e e e n . n

trut h o m u st d o tw o th i gs : ( ) g tr i d o f all pr e j ud i c e s or i d o l s as
ne n a e ,

B a c o c a ll e d th e m T h e s i d o l s
n e fo u r :
. i d o l s o f th e tr i b e t h at i s
e ar ,
”
,

pr j ud i c e s d e to c om m o m e t h ds o f t h u g h t a m g a l l ra c e s ; i d l s
e u n o o on
"
o

f th e c a v e o d e th at i s p rs o a l p e c u li ar i t i e d p r e j ud i c e s ; i d o l s
”
o r n, , e n s an

o f th e m ar k e t p l a c e d e to e rr o rs o f l a gu ag e ; a d
,
”
u id l s of t he n n
"
o

t h at r w hi h e th e u r li ab l e trad i ti s of m e
e e ,
”
c ar n
( b) A f t r d i s
e on n . e

c ard i g t h e ab ov e i d l s w m u st i t rro gate ature ; m ust c oll c t

“ ”
n o e n e n e

f a c ts by m e a s o f u m e r u s x p r i m ts arra g t h m i o rd r a d
n n o e e en ,
n e e n e , n

t h e d e t r m i th l aw t h at u d r li s t h m
n e ne e n e e e .

I t w ill b e s e at a gl a c e t h at th e ab o v e i s th e m st i m p o rta t o f
en n o n

B a c s w r k s Th e O g
on
’
o . m was t o b i s v ra l b o ok s
r an u l y tw o o f e n e e , on

w hi c h h m p le t d
e co d t h s e h wr otee , d r e wr o te tw e lv e ti m e s u t il
an e e an n

t h y sat i sfi d h i m
e e .
1 72 E N G L I S H L I TE R A TU R E

i n L at i n wr i tte n mostly by pa i d helpe rs from short E ngl i sh

,

abstrac ts H e regarded L at i n as the only language worthy of

.

a great wor k b u t the world negl ec ted h i s L at i n to se i ze upon

h i s E ngl i sh marvelou s E ngl i sh te rse p i thy packed w i th
, , , ,

though t i n an age that u se d e ndle ss c i rc u mlocu t i on s Th e

,
'

fi rs t te n e ssays publ i shed i n 1 5 9 7 we re b r i ef noteb ook

, ,

j ott i ngs of Bac on s obse rvat i on s T he i r succ ess aston i she d

‘ ’

the autho r bu t not t i ll fi ftee n years l ate r we re th ey repub

,

li s h e d and e nlarged Th e i r c harm grew upon Bacon h i msel f

.
,

and d ur i ng h i s re t i re me nt h e gave more th ough t t o the won

d e rf u l language wh i ch he had at fi rs t de sp ised as m uc h as
A r i stotle s ph i losophy I n 1 6 1 2 appeared a se cond ed i t i on
’
.

conta i n i ng th i rty e i gh t e ssays and i n 1 6 2 5 the year be fore

-
, ,

h i s d eath h e republ i shed the E s s ay s i n the i r p resent form

, ,

pol i sh i ng and enlarg i ng th e or i g i nal te n to fifty e i ght c ove r -

,

i ng a w i de var i e ty of sub j ec ts sugge sted by th e l i fe of me n

around h i m .

C once rn i ng th e be st of the se e ssays the re are as many

op i n i ons as th e re are read e rs and wh at one ge ts ou t of the m ,

d epend s largely u po n h i s own though t and i ntell i genc e I n .

th i s respec t they are l i k e th at N atu re to wh i c h Bacon d i re cte d

me n s though ts Th e whole volu me m ay be read th rough i n
’
.

an even i ng ; bu t afte r one has read th em a dozen t i me s h e

s t i ll fi nd s as m any plac e s to pause and reflec t as at the fi rs t
read i ng I f one must c hoose out of suc h a store house we
.
,
" " " "
would sugge s t S tud i e s Goodnes s R i c hes , A the i sm
”
,
"
,
”
,
"

" "
U n i ty i n R el i g i on A d ve rs i ty F r i end sh i p and G reat
” " " "
, , ,

Place as an i ntroduc t i on to Bacon s worldly w i se ph i losophy ’

-
.

Mi s c e lla n e ou s Work s O the r works of Bacon are i nte re s t

.

i ng as a revelat i on of th e E l i zabe than m i nd rath e r than ,

because of any l i te rary value Th e N e w A tla n ti s i s a k i nd of .

sci e nt i fi c nove l d e sc r i b i ng anothe r U top i a as see n by Bacon .

Th e i nhab i tants of A tlant i s have ban i shed Ph i losophy and

appl i ed Bacon s m e th od of i nve st i gat i ng N atu re us i ng
’

the re sults to be tte r the i r own cond i t ion T hey have a .

 TH E AG E O F EL IZ A B E TH r7 3

wond e rful c i v i l i zat i on i n wh i c h many of our late r d is c ov

,

e rie s
— acade m i e s of the sc i ences obse rvator i e s balloons , , ,

submar i ne s the mod i fi cat i on of spec i e s and seve ral othe rs

, ,

we re fore shadowed w i th a s trange m i x ture of cold reason and

poe t i c i ntu i t i on D e S ap i e n tia Ve te r um i s a fa nc i ful atte mpt
.

to show th e d e e p mean i n g unde rly i n g anc i e n t myth s a ,

—

mean i ng wh i c h would have aston i sh ed the myth make rs the m

selve s Th e H is tory of H e n ry VI I i s a c al m d i spass i onate
.
, ,

and re markably acc u rate h i story wh i c h make s u s regre t tha t ,

Bac on d i d not d o m ore h i sto ri cal work B es i d e s t he se are .

me tr i cal ve rs i ons of c e rta i n Psal ms — wh i c h are valuable i n ,

v i e w of the controve rsy anen t S hakespeare s plays for show ’

i ng Bacon s utte r i nab i l i ty to wr i te poe t ry — and a large

’

numbe r of le tte rs and s tate pape rs show i ng th e range and

powe r of h i s i ntellec t .

B acon s P l ace an d Work A l though Bacon was for the

’
.

greate r part of h i s l i fe a busy man of affa i rs one cannot ,

read h i s work w i thout becom i ng consc i ous of two th i ngs ,

a pe re nn i al fre shne ss wh i ch th e world i ns i st s u pon i n all

,

l i te ratu re that i s to e ndu re and an i ntelle c tual powe r wh i ch

,

m arks h i m as one of th e great m i nds of th e world .

O f late the ge ne ral te nde ncy i s to g i v e le ss and les s

prom i n e nce to h i s work i n sc i e nce and ph i losophy ; bu t
c r i t i c i sm of h i s I n s ta u ra ti o i n V i ew of h i s lofty a i m i s of
, ,
"
small conse que nce I t i s true that h i s sc i e nce
. to day "
-

see m s woefully i nade quate ; t ru e also that though h e sough t ,

to d i scove r t ruth b e though t pe rhaps to m onopol i ze i t and

, ,

so looked w i th the sam e susp i c i on upon C ope rn i cu s as upon

the ph i losophe rs Th e prac t i cal man who d e sp i se s ph i losophy
.

has s i mply m i sunde rstood the th i ng h e de sp i se s I n be i ng .

p rac t i cal and expe r i me ntal i n a romant i c age he was not

u n i que as i s ofte n alleged bu t only expre sse d th e te nd e ncy
, ,

of the E ngl i sh m i nd i n al l ages T h re e c e ntu r i e s e arl i e r th e

.

monk R oge r Bacon d i d more pract i cal e xpe r i me nt i ng than

"
the E l i z a be th an sage ; and the latte r s famous i d ols are ’ "
I 74 E N GLI SH I
L TE R A T UR E
"
strongly sugge st i ve of the forme r s F our S ou rce s of H uman ’

I gnoranc e A lthough Bacon d i d not ma k e any of the s c ie n

”
.

ti fic d i scove r i e s at wh i c h h e a i med ye t the whole sp i r i t of ,

h i s work e spec i ally of the Org a n u m has st rongly i nflue nced

, ,

s c i ence i n the d i rect i on of accurate obse rvat i on and of care

fully test i ng eve ry theory by pract i c al expe r i me n t H e that .

regarde th the cloud s shall no t s o w sa i d a w i se wr i te r of old ,

"

and Bacon turned me n s though ts from the h eavens above ’

w i th wh i c h they had bee n too busy to t he earth beneath , ,

wh i ch they had too much neglec ted I n an age whe n me n .

we re busy w i th romanc e and ph i losophy h e i ns i s ted that th e ,

fi rst ob j ec t of educat i on i s to make a man fam i l i ar w i th h i s

natu ral e nv i ronment ; from books h e tu rned to men from ,

theory to fac t from ph i losophy to natu re ,

and that i s per ,
—

haps h i s greate st contr i but i on to l i fe and l i te rature L i k e

'

Moses u pon Pi sgah h e stood h i gh e nough above h i s fellows

,

to look ou t ove r a prom i sed land wh i c h h i s people would ,

i nhe r i t bu t i nto wh i c h h e h i mself m i gh t ne ve r e nte r

,
.

R i ch ar d Hook er ( 1 5 5 4 ? I 6 0 0 ) I n strong contras t w i th —

.

Bacon i s R i c hard H oo k e r one of th e gre ate st prose wr i te rs ,

of the E l i zabe than A g e O n e mu st read th e story of h i s l i fe .

,

an obscure and lowly l i fe an i mated by a great sp i r i t as told ,

by I zaa k Wal ton to app rec i ate th e full forc e of th i s con trast
,
.

Bacon too k all k nowledge for h i s p rov i nc e bu t maste red no ,

s i ngle part of i t H oo k e r ta k i ng a s i ngle the me the law and

.
, ,

prac t i ce of the E ngl i sh C h urch so handled i t that no scholar ,

eve n of the pre se nt day would d ream of supe rsed i ng i t or of

bu i ld i ng upon any othe r foundat i on than that wh i ch H oo k e r
la i d down H i s one great work i s Th e L a w s of E c c le s i a s tic a l
.

P oli t y
l
,
a theolog i cal and argume ntat i ve book ; bu t e nt i rely ,

apart from i ts sub j ec t i t w i ll be read whe reve r me n d es i re

,

to hear the powe r and statel i ness of t he E ngl i sh language .

H e re i s a s i ngle se nte nce re markable not only for i ts pe rfec t ,

1 T h fi tfi
e b k w r pub l i h d
rs ve oo s
5 94 5 9 7 d e e H k wr t th m Th
s e 1 -
1 ,
an a re a s oo er o e e . e

l t th b ks p u b l i h d ft h is d th
as ree oo , f d u b tfu l u th
s e a erh i p b t th y ea ,
a re o o a o rs ,
u e a re

th u gh tt h v b
o o a m pl t d f
e m H k ree n c o t e e ro oo e
’
s n o e s.
r7 6 E NG L I S H L I T E R A TU R E

of the Macedon i an E mp i re I t i s i nte re st i ng ch i e fly for i ts

.

style wh i ch i s s i mple and d i gn i fied and for the fl ash e s of

, ,

w i t and poe try that brea k i nto th e fantast i c comb i nat i on of

m i racle s trad i t i ons h earsay and state records wh i ch he call ed
, , ,

h i story I n the conclus i on i s the famous apostrophe to D eath

.
,

wh i ch sugges ts what R ale i gh m i gh t h ave done had he l i ved

le ss strenuously and wr i tte n more care fully .

Ol q u t j u st a d m i g h ty D at h ! w h m o e c o u l d ad vi s e t h o u h ast
e o en , ,
n e o n n

p rsuad e d ; w h at o h at h dar d t h o u h ast d o e ;

e n ne ed w h m a ll th n an o e

w o r l d h at h fl atte r e d t h o u o l y h as t c ast t f th w r l d d d sp i s d
n ou o e o an e e

t h o u h ast d raw tog e t h r a ll th e star str t c h d gr at e ss ll th e pr i d

n e -
e e e n ,
a e ,

c ru l ty
e d a m b i ti
,
an of m a d c o v e r d i t a ll v e r w i t h t h e s e tw o
on n , an e o

n arr o w w o rds , H i c j a c e t/

J oh n F ox e ( 1 5 1 6 F oxe w i ll be re membe red al ways

for h i s famous B ooh of M a r ty rs a book that ou r elde rs gave to ,
’

u s on S undays whe n we we re young th i n k i ng i t good d i sc i pl i ne ,

for u s to affl i c t our soul s whe n we wanted to be roam i ng the

sunl i t fi elds or wh e n i n ou r enforced i dlene ss we would i f ou r
, ,

own taste i n the m atte r had bee n consulted h ave mad e good ,

sh i ft to be qu i e t and happy w i th R ob i n s on Cr u s oe S o we .

have a gloomy me mory of F oxe and some th i ng of a gr i e vance , ,

wh i ch prevent a j ust apprec i at i on of h i s worth .

F oxe had bee n d r i ve n ou t of E ngland by th e M ar i an pe r

se c ut io n s and i n a wande r i ng but d i l i ge nt l i fe on the C ont i ne nt
,

he conce i ved the i d ea of wr i t i ng a h i story of th e pe rse c ut i ons

of th e c hu rc h from th e earl i e s t days to h i s own Th e part .

relat i ng to E ngland and S cotland was publ i shed i n L at i n , ,

i n 1 5 5 9 u nde r a t i tle as sonorous and i mpress i ve as th e

,

R oman o fli c e for the dead R e r u m i n E c c le s i a Ge s ta r u m

,
-

M ax i m a r u m q u e p e r E u ro a m
p P e r s e c u ti on u m Coin m e n t
a rii . On
h i s re tu rn to E ngland F ox e translated th i s work call i ng i t the ,

Ac ts and M on u m e n ts
bu t i t soon became known as the B ooh
of Ill a r t
y rs and so i t w i ll always be called F oxe s own
, .
’

b i tte r e xpe ri e nce causes h i m to w ri te w i th more heat and

i nd i gnat i on than h i s sa i ntly the me would warrant and the ,
 TH E AG E O F EL IZ A B E T H 1 77
"
h oly tone some t i me s spo i ls a n arrat i ve t hat would be i m
’ 7

pre ss i ve i n i ts bare s i mpl i c i ty N e ve rthele ss th e book has

.

made for i tself a sec ure place i n ou r l i te ratu re I t i s s tronge st .

i n i ts reco rd of h umbl e me n l i k e R owland T aylor and T homas

,

H awke s whose subl i me h e ro i s m bu t for th i s narrat i ve would

, , ,

have bee n lost am i d the gre at name s and the great e ve nts t hat
fill the E l i zabe than A g e .

Cam d e n an d K n ox . Tw o h i stor i ans W i ll i am C amde n and

,

J ohn K nox s tand ou t p rom i ne ntly among th e nume rous

,

h i s tor i cal wr i te rs of t he age C amd e n s B r i ta n n i a ( 1 5 8 6 ) i s

.
’

a monume n t al wor k wh i c h mar k s the beg i nn i ng of true

,

ant i quar i an re searc h i n the field of h i s tory ; and h i s A n n a ls

of Q u e e n E li z a b e t
h i s wo rthy of a far h i ghe r plac e than has
thus far be e n g i ve n i t J ohn K nox the reforme r i n h i s
.
, ,

H i s tory of th e R ef or m a ti on i n S c otla n d has some ve ry v i v i d

,

portra i t s of h i s helpe rs and e ne m i e s Th e pe rsonal and .

aggre ss i ve ele me nts e nte r too st rongly for a wor k of h i story ;

but the autob i ograph i cal parts show rare l i te rary powe r .

H i s accou n t of h i s famou s i nte rv i e w w i th Mary Q uee n of

S cots i s clear c u t as a cameo and shows t h e m an s e x
’
-
,

traord i n a ry powe r be tte r than a whole volu me of b i ography .

S uc h sce ne s ma k e one w i sh that more of h i s t i me had bee n

g i ve n to l i te rary work rath e r than to th e d i spute s and t rouble s
,

of h i s own S co tc h k i r k .

Hak lu y t an d P u rch as .Tw o ed i tors of th i s age have made

for them selve s an e nv i able pl ace i n ou r l i te rature T hey are .

R i c hard H a k luyt ( 1 5 5 2 1 6 1 6 ) and S am uel P urchas ( 1 5 7 5

H a k luyt was a cle rgyman who i n th e m i d s t of h i s

l i ttle par i sh se t h i m self to ach i eve two gre at patr i ot i c e nd s ,

to promote th e wealth and comme rce of h i s cou nt ry and to ,

p re se rve the me mory of all h i s cou ntryme n who add ed to th e

gl o ry of t h e re al m by t h e i r t rav el s and e x p lo rat i on s T o .

fu rth e r th e fi rst ob j ec t h e conce rned h i mse lf de e ply w i th

th e comme rc i al i nte re sts of the E ast I nd i a C ompany w i th ,

R ale i gh s colon i z i ng plans i n V i rg i n i a and w i th a t ran slat i o n

’

,
 I 78 E NG L I S H L I TE R ATU R E

of D e S oto s travel s i n A me r i ca To furthe r the second he

’
.

mad e h i mself fam i l i ar w i th book s of voyage s i n all fore i gn

language s and w i t h the br i e f reports of explorat i ons of h i s
own countryme n H i s P r i n c ip a l N a v iga tion s Voy ag e s a n d
.
, ,

D i s c ov e r i e s of th e E ng li s h N a ti on i n th ree volumes appeared , ,

fi rst i n 1 5 8 9 and a second ed i t i on followed i n 1 5 9 8 —4 6 0 0

,
.

Th e fi rs t volume tells of voyage s to the north ; th e second to

I nd i a and the E ast ; th e th i rd wh i c h i s as large as the othe r ,

two to th e N e w World Wi th th e e xcept i on of th e ve ry fi rst

,
.

voyage that of K i ng A rthu r to I celand i n 5 1 7 wh i ch i s

, ,

founded on a myth al l the voyage s are auth e nt i c accounts,

of the e xplore rs the msel ve s and are i mme nsely i nte re st i ng ,

read i ng eve n at th e pre se nt d ay N o othe r book of travel s .

has so well e xpre ssed the sp i r i t and e ne r gy of the E ngl i sh

race or be tte r d e se rve s a place i n ou r l i te rature
,
.

S amuel P urchas who was al so a cle rgyman cont i nued the

, ,

wor k of H a k luyt us i ng many of the latte r s unpu bl i shed

,
’

manusc r i pts and condens i ng the reco rd s of nu me rous oth e r

voyage s H i s fi rst famou s boo k P u rc h a s Hi s P i lg r i m ag e ap
.
, , ,

p e a red in 1 6 1 3 and was followed by H a h luy tu s P os th u m us

, ,

or P u rc h a s H i s P i lg r i m e s i n 1 6 2 5 Th e ve ry name i ncl i ne s
,
.

one to ope n the book w i th pleasure and when one follows ,

h i s i ncl i nat i on wh i c h i s afte r all one of the best gu i de s i n

—
, ,

l i te rature — h e i s rarely d i sappo i nted T hough i t falls far .

below th e standard of H akluyt both i n accuracy and l i te rary ,

fin i sh the re i s st i ll plenty to mak e one glad that th e book was

,

wr i tte n and that h e can now c omfortably follow P urchas on

h i s p i lgr i mage .

Th om a s North A mong th e translators of the E l i zabe than

.

A ge S i r T homas N orth ( 1 5 3 5 i s mos t de se rv i ng of

not i c e because of h i s ve rs i on of P lu ta rc h s L i v e s ( 1 5 7 9 ) from ’

wh i c h S ha k e speare took th e c harac te rs and many of th e i nc i

de nt s for th ree great R oman plays Th us i n N orth we read .

C aesar a l s h ad C ass i us i
o gr at j a l o u sy d su sp c t d h i m m u c h :
n e e an e e

w h r up o h sa i d
e e n e a t i m e to h i s f r i ds
on W h at w ill C ass i us d o en :
“
,
1 80 E NG L I S H L TE R A TU R E I
E d m u d S p s r w h o s S h p h d C l d ( 1 5 7 9 ) m ark e d th e app e ara c e
n en e ,
e e er
’
s a en ar n

of t h fi rst ati a l p t si c e C h au e r s d a th i 1 4 0 0 H is m st fa m us
e n on oe n c
’
e n . o o

w rk is Th F y Q
o A ss iat d wit h S p s r e th e m i o r po ts
e aer ue e n . oc e en e ar n e ,

T h m as S ac k v i ll
o M i c h a l D ayt G e rg C h ap m a a d P h i l ip S id y
e, e r on, o e n, n ne .

C h ap m a is t e d f h is m p l tio f M ar l o we s p e m H d L
’
n no or d co e n o o , er o a n ea n er,

an d f h is tra s l ati
or f H m r s [ h d a d Ody n y S id e y b sid s h i
on o o e
’
a n sse . n , e e s

p e t ry wro t h is pr s r m a
o , eA d d Th D f f P i
o e f o nce r ca ia, an e e e n se o oe s e , on e o

our e arl i st ri tic a l ssays e c e .

( )
2 T h R is e f th e D ra m a i
e E g l a d ; th e M irac l e p l ays
o M o ra l it i s d n n n , e , an

I t rl ud e s ;
n e first p l ay R a l p h R yst e r D ys te ; th fi rst tru E gl is h
our , o o r
”
e e n

co m e dy G am m e r G t ,
N dl d th e first trag dy G rb o du c
u r on s th e
’

ee e ,
”
an e ,
o

c o fli t b e t
n w e C l assi c a d ati v id a l s i th E gl is h dra m a
c e n n n e e n e n .

( 3 ) S h ak sp are s P r d ss rs Ly l y K yd Nas h P gele Gy e M ar l w e

e e
’
e ece o , ,
‘
, , , n , o

th typ s o f dra m a wit h w h i c h t h y e xp e ri m e t d th e M ar l w e s q u e

‘ ‘

e e e e n e — o on
, ,

m an typ trage dy f passi

e, or th p pu l ar C h r i l e p l ays th D m s ti c
o on , e o on c , e o e

dra m a th C urt r L yli c m dy R m a ti c c m dy d trag dy C l ass i a l

, e o o an o e , o n o e an e , c

p l ays d th e M l dram a M arl w e i th e gr at st f S h ak e sp e ar s pr d e

, an e o . o s e e o e
’
e

H is f o ur p l ays a re T am burl a i n e F austus Th e J w of M a l ta ” ”

”
c e s s o rs .
, , e ,

E dward I I
”
a d
n .

( 4 ) S h a k sp are h is l if w r k a d i flu e c e
e e , e, o ,
n n n .

S h ak sp ar e s S u c ss rs B e n J s B au m t a d Fl t h e r W b
’
e e ce o , on on , e on n e c , e

st r M idd l t H yw o d D e kk e r ; a d th e rapid d l i
e , e on , e f th dra m a B e o , n ec ne o e . n

J s i th e gr at e st f t h is gr up H is C h i e f c m e di s a
on on s e E v ry M ano o . o e re e

H i H u m ur Th e S i l t W ma Th e A l h e m i st ; h i hi f
” “ ” ”
in s o an d ,
en o n, c s C e

tr ge di s S ja us a d C ati l i e
a e , e n n n .
”

( 6) T h P r s Writ rs e f w h m Bac n i s th e m o st n o tab l e

o e H is c h i e f
e , o o o .

p h il s p h ic a l w o rk is th I t ti h I g ( i m p l e t e ) w h i c h in c l ud e s
o o e n s a u ra o a na nco ,

Th e A dv a e m n t f L e ar i g N v u m O rga u m ; but h is ” " ”

nc a d t h e o n n n e o n e

k w t l it rary r e ad rs by h is fam us E y M i r pr s w ri t e rs e
no n o e e o s sa s . no o e ar

R i c h ard H k e r J h F x th e h is t ri a s C a m d
oo , d K o x th e dit rs
n o e, o n en an no , e o

H ak l uyt d P ur h as w h an gav e us th e st i rri g re c o rds of xp l rati

c , d o n e o on , an

T h m as N o rt h th e tr s l at r f P l utar c h s L i
o , an o o
’
v es .

l e c t i on s for R ead i g Sp
Se F a ry Q u s l t i s i S ta dard n . en se r . e een, e ec on n n

E gl is h C l assi s ; Bk i R i v rsid L it ratur S ri s t ; S h p h rd s C l

’
n c . 1 , n e e e e e e , e c . e e a

endar i C ass ll s N at i a l L ibr ry ; S l t d P m s i C a t rbury P ts

,
n e
’
on a e ec e oe , n n e oe

S ri s ; M i
e e r P m s i T m p l C l ssi s ; S l ti s i Ma l y s E gli s h
no oe , n e e a c e ec on n n
’
n

P try W rd s E gl is h P ts
oe , or a
’
n oe .

Mi P t D rayt S a k vi ll S id y C h ap m a S l t i s i M a l y
n or oe s . on , c e , ne , n, e ec on n n

or W ard ; E l izab t h s gs i S h ll i g s E l izab t h a L y i s e d i P al an on , n c e n

’
e n r c , an n

g a v s G l d T r as ury ; C h ap m a s H m r i T m p l C l ass i s
r e
’
o en e n
’
o e , n e e c .

Th E ly D e m P l ay f N a h s Fl d i M a l y s S p im s f th
ar ra a . o o
’
oo , n n
’
ec en o e

P S h a k sp e r a
re - Dr m a i P ll ard s E gl is h M i ra l Pl ays M r l iti s
e n a , or n o
’
n c e , o a e

d I t r l ud s i B ll s L ttr s S ri s ; L T S m it h s T h Y rk
’
an n e e , or n e e e e e e , se c . 2 . . e o

M ira l P l ys c e a .

Ly ly E dy m i i H l t s E gl is h R adi gs
’
. n on , n o n e n .
 TH E AG E O F EL IZ A B E T H 1 81

M a r low e
. p l D ra at ists
. F austus
M e rm a id S e ri e s M r l y s , i n Te m e m , or ,
or o e
’

U i v rsa l L ibrary o L a m b s S p e c i m s f E g l is h D ra m ati c P ts ; S l

n e , r
’
en o n oe e ec

t i s i M a l y s E g l is h P e try
on n Ward s E g l is h P ts ; E dward I I i
n
’
n o , or
’
n oe , n

Te m p l D ra m atists d i H l t s E g l is h R e adi gs
’
e , an n o n n .

Sh h p o M e rc h a t f V i Ju l ius C ae sar M a b t h tc i S ta dard

es ea r e . n o en c e, , c e , e .
, n n

E g l is h C l ass ic s ( e dit d wit h

n t s wi th sp c ia l r e f r ce t ll g tra c e e ,
no e ,
e e en o co e e -e n n

r q u ir m ts ) G d dit i s o f s i g l e p l ays a e u m e r us a d c h ap H d
e e en . oo e on n r n o n e . u

s s d R lf e s a d th e A rd e S h a k sp e ar
on
’
an o e sug g e st d as satis f a c t ry
’
n n e e ar e o .

Th S o e ts e di t d by B e c h in g i A t h ae u m P r ss S e ri e s
nne ,
e e ,
n en e .

B j en Th A l c h e m ist i C a t rbury P e ts S ri s
o n s on . M o rl y s U i
e , n n e o e e , or e
’
n

v e rsa l L ibrary ; S l e c t i s i M a l y s E gl is h P try Ward s E g l is h P ts e on n n

’
n oe , or
’
n oe ,

C a t e rbury P e ts S e ri s ; S l e c t i s f m J s s M as q u s i E ’ ’
or n o e e on ro on on e , n van s s

E g l is h M as q u s ; T i m b e r e dit d by S h e ll i g i A t h
n e ae u m P r e ss S r i es , e c n , n en e .

B E ssays s c h
a c on l e d iti ( G i
. d C m pa y) N rt h rup s e diti o , i oo on n n an o n o
’
n , n

R iv e rs i d L it e ratur e S e r i e s ( v ar i us
e t h r i xp s i v e d iti s i th e P i tt o o e ne en e on , n

P r ss G l d e Tr asury S e rie s e tc ) A d v a c e m e t o f L e ar i g Bk 1 dit d

e , o n e , . n n n n , .
, e e

by C o ok ( G i d C m pa y ) C o m par e s e l c ti o s f r o m Ba c o
nn an Ho k e r o n . e n n , o ,

Lyl y d S id e y i M a l y s E g l is h P r s
’
, an n , n n n o e .

B i b l i ogra p h y 1 M tg m ry pp 8 3 8 ; C h y y . His tory . Te x tb ooh , -

on o e , . 20 —2 e ne ,

pp 3 3 0 4 1 0 ; G r e
. h 7 ; Trai ll M a au l ay F r ud
— e n , c .
, c , o e .

Sp i l w h C r ig h t s Th A g f E l izab t h ; H a ll s S i ty i th ’ ’
ec a or s . e on e e o e oc e n e

E l izab t h a Ag ; Wi t r s S h ak sp ar s E gl a d ; G Th E g l a d
’
db y ’ ’
e n e n e e e e n n oa s e n n

f S h a k sp ar ; L s S trat f rd A v ; Harris s E l izab t h a E gl a d ’ ’

o e e e ee o on on on e n n n .

S ai tsbury s H ist ry f E l izab th a L it ra tur ; W h ipp l s

’
L it t e
’
e ra ur . n o o e n e e e

L i t ratur f E l i zab th ; S L s G r at E g l is h m
°

f th Ag f th Si
’
e e o e e o e . ee e n en o e x ~

tee n th C tury ; S h ll i g s E l izab th a L y i s i A t h

en u m P r ss S ri s ;
c e n
’
e n r c , n e n ae e e e

V r e L no ns E up h ri ee
’
o on .

T xts C a m bri dg Gl b d A ldi d iti s ; N l s S l t d ’

Sp en ser . e , e, o e, an ne e on oe e ec e

P m s f S p s r i C a t rbury P ts ; M i r P m s i T m p l C l assi s ;
oe o en e , n n e oe no oe , n e e c

A rb r s S p s r A t h l gy ; C h ur h s L if f S p s r i E gl is h M
e
’
en e nf o o c
’
e o en e , n n en o

L tt rs S ri s ; L w ll s E ssay i A m g M y B ks i L it rary E ssays

’
e e e e o e , n on oo , or n e ,

vo l 4 ; H li tt C h au r
. d Sp s r i
az L tur s th
’
s E g l is h P ts ; ce an en e , n ec e on e n oe

D wd s E ssay i Tra s ripts d S tudi s

o en
’
, n n c an e .

Th D T xts M a l y s S p i m s f th P S h k p D ra m a ’
m e ra a . e , n ec en o e re -
a es e re a n ,

2 v l s i A th m m P r ss S r i s ; P ll ard s E gl is h M ira l P l ays M ra l i

o .
, n en u e e e o
’
n c e ,
o

ti s d I t r l ud s ; th T m pl D ra m at is ts ; M l y s U i v rsa l L ibrary ; ’
e an n e e e e e or e n e

A rb r s E gl is h R pri ts ; M r m aid S ri s t ; T h ay r s Th B st E l iza

e
’
n e n e e e , e c . e
’
e e

b th a Pl ays
e n .

C ay l y s P l ays f O e F r fath rs ( M ira l s M ra l iti s t ) B t Th

’
o ur o e e c e , o e , e c . a es s
’
e

E g l is h R l igi us D ra m a ; S h ll i g s Th E gl is h C h r i l P l ay ; L w ll s ’ ’
n e o c e n e n on c e o e

O ld E gl is h D ra m at ists B as s S h ak sp ar d h is P r d ss rs ; S y m d ’ ’
n o e e e an e ece o on s s

S h ak sp ar s P r d ss rs i th E g l is h D ram a ; S h ll i g s E l izab t h a
’ ’
e e e e ece o n e n c e n e n

D ram a ; L a m b s S p i m s f E gl is h D ra m a ti P ts ; I tr du ti t ’
ec en o n c oe n o c on o

F 1ti tl d pub l i h
or f fr w rk
e s an G r l B b l i g p hy tth d s e rs o re e e n c e o s se e ene a i o ra a e en

o f th i b k s oo .
1 82 E N GLISH I
L TE R AT URE
H uds o n s S h ak sp ar His L i fe A rt a d C h ara c t e rs ; \V d s H i st o ry o f E g
’
e e e , , n ar
’
n

l is h D ra m ati c L it e ratur ; D e k k Th G u ll s H o m b oo k i K i g s C l assic s e er s

’
e
’
,
n n
’
.

Wo rk s d it d by Bu ll e n ; c h ie f p l ys in T m p l e D a m atists
‘

hl l w ar o e .
, e e a e r ,

M rm aid S e ri s f E gl is h D ra m atists M o r l y s U i v e rsal L ibr ry tc ;

e e o n , e
’
n a , e .

L w ll s O ld E g l is h D ra m at ists ; S ym d s i tr o du ti in M e rm ai d S e ri e s
’ ’
o e n on s n c on ,

D wd e s E ssay i Tra sc ripts a d S tudi s

o n
’
, n n n e .

Sh h p a G o d t e xts a e u m e r us F m
es ea r e .V a ri ru m e diti i at
o r n o . u e ss s
’
o on s

pr s e t m st us e f u l f r ad v a c e d w rk H uds s re v is d e diti
e n o ac h p l ayo n o . on
’
e on ,
e

i a si gl e v o l u m e wit h
n n t s d i tr du c ti s wi ll w h e m pl t
,
be o e no e an n o on , , n co e e, n

f th e v e ry b st f stud ts e ’
o e or en us .

R a l ig h s S h ak sp e ar e i E gl is h M f L e tt e rs S e ri e s ; L e s L if e o f
’ ’
e e , n n en o e

S h ak e sp ar ; H uds s S h ak e sp are h is Lif e A rt an d C h ara te rs ; Ha ll iw e ll

e e on
’
e : , , c

O ut l i e s f th e L if f S h ak sp e ar ; F le y C h r o i l e H ist ry o f
’
P h illip p
’
s s n o e o e e a s n c o

d W rk f S h ak sp e ar ; D wd s S h ak sp e are a C iti a l S tudy ’

th L if
e e an o o e e o en e , r c

o f h is M i d d A rt ; S h ak sp ar e P r im r ( sa m e au th r) ; Ba k r s Th De
’
n an e e e o e e

t f S h ak e sp ar e as a D ra m atist ; Lo u sbury s S h ak sp e are as a

’
v e lO p m en o e n e

D ram ati c A rtist Th e Te xt f S h ak sp e ar ( sam e aut h r) W e d ll s Wi ll iam o e e o n e

’

S h ak sp ar ; Brad l y s S h k e p ri n T rag e dy ; H li tts S h ak sp ar a d

’ ’
e e e e a s e a az e e e n

M i l to i L c tur s th E gl is h P ts ; E m rs s E ssay S h ak sp e ar e o
n , n e e on e n oe e on
’
, e r

th P e t ; Lo w ll s E ssay i A m g M y B k s ; L am b s Ta l e s f ro m S h ak e
e o e
’

, n on oo
’

sp e are ; M rs Jam s s S h ak sp ar s F m a l C h arac t e rs ( a ll e d a l s C h ar

. e on
’
e e e
’
e e c o

o f \V m e ) ; R lf s S h a k sp e ar th e B y ; B ran d e s W i lli a m
’ ’
a ct e i t i r s cs o n o e e e o s

S h ak e sp ar ; M u l t s S h ak e sp e are as a D ra m ati c A rtist ; M abi s W i ll ia m ’ ’

e e o on e

S h a k sp ar P t D ra m atist a d Ma ; Th e S h ak sp e are A p oc ryp h a dit e d

e e e, oe , , n n e , e

by C F T Br k e ; S h ak e sp e are s H l i s h d e d it e d by S t o ; S h ak e sp ar
. . . oo
’
o n e , ne e e

L xi c oe by S h m i dt ; C n c o rdan c e by Bartl tt ; G ra m m ar by A bb o tt o
n, c o , e , , r

by F ra z n .

Te xts i n M e rm aid S e ri e s T m p l e D ra m atists M o r l y s U i

’
B j en on s on .
, e , e n

v rsal L ibrary e t ; M as q u s d E t rtai m ts f B J s

e , c . dit e d by e an n e n en o en on on , e

M rl y i C arisbr k L ibrary ; Ti m b r dit d by S c h e ll i g i A t h ae u m

o e ,
n oo e e , e e n , n en

P r ss S e ri s
e e .

B m t F l th
ea u t P l ays i M e rm aid S ri s Te m p l D ram atists e tc
on , e c er , e c . n e e , e , .

S h ll i g s E l izab e t h a n D ra m a ; L o w ll s O ld E g l i s h D ra m at i sts ; L a m b s
’ ’ ’
c e n e n

S p c i m e s f E gl is h D ra m at ic P o e ts ; F le y s B i o grap h i c a l C h ro ic l e f th e
’
e n o n a n o

E gl is h D ra m a ; S w i bur s E ssays i E ssays i P r s d P o e try a n d i

’
n n ne ,
n n o e an , n

E ssays a d S tud i s n e .

B T xts E ssays i E v e ry m a s L ibrary e tc ; A d v a c m e t o f Le ar

a c on . e , n n
’
, . n e n n

i g i C l ar d o n P r ss S i e s L ibrary o f E g l is h C l assi c s e tc ; C h ur h s
’
n n en e er , n , . c

L if e f Ba o o i n E g l is h M e f L e tt rs S ri s ; N i c h l s Ba c
c n , s L if en n o e e e o
’
on
’

a d P h i l s p h y ; F ra c is Bac
n o t a s l at d f r m th e G e rm a
o of K F is h e rn on , r n e o n . c

( x c e ll e t but rar ) ; M a au l ay s E ssay Bac o ’

e n , e c on n .

III / P lV i t S id e y s A rc ad ia dit e d by S m rs ; D e f e s e f P o e sy
’
n or r os e r er s . n e o e n o ,
,

e dit e d by C o o k i A th e m m P re ss S e ri s ; A rb r s R e pri ts t ; S l c t i s
, n n u e e
’
n , e c . e e on

f ro m S id y s pr s e d p o e try i th e E l izab e t h a L ib ary ; S ym d s s L if e o f

ne
’
o an n n r on
’

S id e y in E g l is h Me o f L e tt e rs ; B o u e s L if e f S id
n , n y i H r e s f th e n rn
’
o ne , n e o o

N ati on s ; La m b s E ssay o S i d e y s S ts i E ssays of E lia

’
n n
’
onn e , n .
 I 84 E NG L I S H L I T E R ATU R E

W h e re did p l ots ? Wh at
h e fin d h is h is r m a t ic p l ays ? h is c h r ic l e o a re o n on r

h ist ric a l p l ays ? Wh at i s th d iff e re c b e tw

o a trag dy a d a c o m e dy ? e n e een e n

N a m e s m o f S h ak sp are s b st trag d ie s c m di e s a d h ist ri a l p l ays

o e e e
’
e e , o e ,
n o c .

W h i c h p l ay f S h ak sp e ar s s e m s t y t gi v th b st p ic ture f h u m a
o e e
’
e o ou o e e e o n

l if Wh y is h e a ll d th m yriad m i d e d S h ak sp are ? F w h at r as s is
e ? c
c e e -
n e e or e on

h e sid r d th gr at st f writ rs ? C yo xp l ai w h y S h ak sp are s

c on e e e e e o e an u e n e e
’

p l ays sti ll ac t d w h i l t h r p l ays f h is age

a re e ,
rar l y s e e ? I f y h a v e
e o e o a re e n ou

s y o f S h ak sp e ar s p l ays th stage h w d t h y c om par i i t r st

’
e e n an e e on e , o o e e n n e e

wit h a m d p l ay ? o e rn

9 W h.at B J o s s h i e
a ref p l ays ? enI w h at i m p o rta t r sp e c ts did
n on
’
c n n e

t h y di ff r fr m th s f S h ak sp ar ? T ll th st ry f Th e A l c h m ist
e e o o e o e e e e e o o e
”

or Th e S i l e t Wo m a N am t h r c t m p rari e s d su ss rs f
n n .
”
e o e on e o an cce o o

S h ak sp ar e eG iv s o m r as s f th pr em i e c e o f th E l i zab e t h a
e . e e e on or e e n n e n

dra m a Wh at aus s l d t i t d l i e ?
'

. c e e o s ec n

10 T ll b i fly th st ry o f Ba c
. e r e s l i fe W h at is h is c h i f l it rary w rk ?
e o on
’
. e e o

h is c h i f duc ati a l w rk Wh y i h all d a p i

e e on r f m o d r sc i c e ?
o ? s e c e on e e o e n en

C an o e xp l ai w h atu is m a t by th n i du c ti v e m e t h d f l e ar i g ? W h at
e n e n o o n n
y
subj c ts e c s id e r d i Bac o s E y ? Wh at is th
a re on e tra l i d a f th
n n
’
s sa s e cen e o e

e ssay y l ik b e st Wh at a e th l it rary q ua l iti s f t h e s ssays D o

ou e ? r e e e o e e ?

t h e y app a l t th e i t ll e c t o th m ti s ? Wh at i m a t by th w rd
e o n e r e e o on s e n e o

e ssay ” d h o w d e s Ba c o i ll ustrat th
, an d fi i ti
o M ak e a c o m paris n e e e n on ? on

b e twe Ba s ssays d t h s f s m e m o re r c t writ r su h as A ddi

en c on
’
e an o e o o e en e , c

s o n,L a m b C ar l y l e E m rs o , o S t v so h a v i g i m i d th subje c ts
, e n , r e en n , n n n e ,

sty l e d i t e r e st f b t h ssayis ts
, an n o o e .

1 1 Wh . th mi r pr s e wr it e rs o f th E l izab e t h a A g ? Wh at did
o a re e no o e n e

t h y writ e ? C m m t up
e
y w r ko f th e irs
en w h i h y h a v e r e ad
on W h at an o o c ou .

is th e l it ra ry v a l u f N rt h s P l utar h ? W h at is th h i f d f c t i E l iza
e e o o
’
c e C e e e n

b t h a pr s e as a w h l
e n o W h at i m e a t by up h uis m ? E xp l ai w h y E l i za
o e ? s n e n

b e t h a p e try is sup ri r t th pr s
n o e o o e o e .

C HR O NOLOGY
L a s t H a l/ f
o h e S i x te e n th
t an d F i r s t [I a/
f of he S
t ev e n t
een h C e n tu r i e s
t

H I STO R Y L I T E R AT U R E
1
5 58 . E l izab t h e
(d . 1 60 3 ) 1
5 59 . J h o n K xi no n E di burghn

1
5 62 (
P
) a. r G t
G mme N e dl u r on s
’
e e .

G rb du c o o

1 5 64 . B irt h f S h ak sp ar o e e e

1 57 1 . Ris f E gl is h P uri ta s
e o n n 1 5 76 . F irst Th e at r e

D rak s V yag ar u d S p e s r s S h p h rd s C a l dar

’
th e
’ ’
1 577 e o e o
. n 1
5 79 . n e e e en .

\V r l d L yly E up h u s N r th s P l u
’ ’
o s e . o

tar h c .
 T H E AG E O F E L IZ A B E T H 1 85

C H R 0 N O LOG Y ( c o n tin u e d )

H I STORY L I T E R AT U R E
1
5 87 . S h ak sp ar i L d
e e e n on on . M ar
l w s Ta m burl ai
o e
’
ne

1 5 88 . D f at
e e of th e A rm ada
I
5 90 . S p s r s F a ry Q u
en e
’
S id e een .

ne y s A r c ad a
’
i

1 5 9 5 S h ak sp ar s E arl y P l ays ’
—
1
5 9 0 . e e e

1 62
5 Ba s E ssays ’
1
5 97 c on
-
.

5 98 C h ap m a s H m e r
’
1 — 1 6 4
1 . n o

1 5 98 . B en J s s E v ry M i H i
on on
’
e an n s

Hu m ur o

6oo 1 60 7 S h ak sp ar e s Trag di e s
’
I -
. e e e

1 60 3 . Jam s I e (d . 1 62 5 )
1 60 4 . D iv i R igh t f K i gs p
ne o n ro 1 60 5 . Ba c on
’
s A d va nc e m en t of Le ar n

l a im d
C e ing
1 60 7 . S t tl m
e et at Ja m st w V ir
en e o n , 1 60 8 . Bir th of M il t on

gi ia
n

1 61 1 . Tr a s l ati ( K i g Ja m s V
n on n e er

si ) f Bib l
on o e

61 4 R a l ig h s H ist ry
’
1 . e o

1 61 6 . D at h f S h ak e sp are
e o e

1 6 20 . P i l gri m Fa th rs at P l y m u th
e o 1 6 20 — 1 64 2 S h ak sp ar s su c c ss rs
. e e e
’
e o .

E d f dra m a
n o

1 6 20 . Ba c o s N v u m O rga u m
n
’
o n

1 62 2 . F irst re gu l ar n e wspap r Th e , e

W e k l y N ws
e e

1 62 5 . C h arl s I e 1 62 6 . D at h f Bac
e o on
 C H A PT E R V I I

THE P U R I TA N AGE

1 . HI S TOR I C A L S UMMARY
r
Th e P u i tan Mov e m e n t I n i t s b r oades t se n se t he Pu r i tan m o v e
.

m e n t may be r ega r d e d as a sec on d a n d g r e at e r R e n a i ssan ce a ,

r eb i rt h o f t he mo r al n a t u r e of m an fol l owi ng th e in te lle c tu al a w a k '

e n in g o f E u r o p e in t he fif t e e n t h an d s i x t e e n t h ce n t u r i es I n I t aly .
,

whose i n fl ue n ce had bee n u p pe r m ost in E l i z abe t h a n l i t e r a tu r e t he ,

R e n a i ssan ce had bee n esse n t i a lly p aga n a n d se n suous I t h a d ha r d ly .

t ouched t he m o ral n at u r e of m an an d i t b r o u gh t l i tt l e r el i ef f r o m t he
,

des p o t i sm of ru le r s On e c an h a r d ly
. t he ho rr i b l e r ec o rds of t he
- c .‘

M ed i c i o r t he Bo rglas or fh g po li t ica l obse r v a t i on s of Ma ch i ave lli

‘
, ,

wi t hou tm a ryefi gg degr ada t i on o f a c u l

tu re d n a t i on I n t he No rt h es p ec i a ll y a m o n g t he Ge r man a n d E n g
.
,

li sh p eo p les t he R e n a i ssa n c e was acco m pa n i ed by a mo r al awak e n i n g

, ,

a n d i t i s pr ec i s e l y t h at awa k e n i n g in E n gla n d
"
t h at gr e at es t mo ral
,

an d p o l i t i c a l r e fo r m w h i ch eve r swep t ove r a n a t i o n in t he sh o r t s p ac e

of half a c e n tury w h ich i s m e a n t by t he Pu r i t an mo v e m e n t We

,
”
.

shal l u n d e r s ta n d i t b e tt e r if w e r e m e m be r t ha t i t had two ch i ef

o bj ec t s : t h e fi r s t was pe r so n a l r igh t eo us n e s s ; t he se co n d wa s c i v i l
an d r el ig i ous l i be rty I n o t he r wo r ds i t a i m ed to m ak e m e n ho n es t
.
,

an d t o ma k e t hem f r ee .

S uch a m o v eme n t sho u l d be clea r ed of all t he m i sco n cep t i o n s

wh i ch hav e c l u n g to i t s i n c e t he R est o r a t i on wh e n t he ve ry na m e
,

Wr n go
of Pu r i t an was m ade r i d i c u l o u s by t he j ee r s of t he gay
Id a f
e s o cou rt i e r s of C ha r les I I Th ough t he sp i r i t of t he m o v e
.

th P ri ta
m e n t wa s p r ofo u n d l y r el i gi o us t he P u r i t an s we r e no t a
e u ns
,

r e l igi o u s sec t ; n e i t h e r was th e Pu r i ta n a n a rr ow m i n ded an d gl oo m y -

d ogm a t is t as he i s s t il l p i c tu r ed e v e n in t he h i s t o r i es Pym an d
, .

Ham pde n a n d E l i o t an d M il t on we r e P u r i tan s ; an d in t he l on g

s tru ggl e fo r human l i be rty t he r e a r e few n ames m o r e ho n o r ed by
f r e e m e n e ve rywhe r e C r o m we l l an d Th o m a s Hoo k e r we r e P ur i t an s ;
.

ye t C r o m we l l s t ood l ik e a r oc k fo r r e ligi o u s t o l e ra n c e ; an d Thomas

H oo k e r in C on n ec t i c u t gave t o t he wo r l d t he fi r s t wr i tt e n con s t i t u t io n
, , ,

1 86
1 88 E N GLI SH I
L TE R A T UR E
ha n d in han d ; b ut m o r e of t e n t hey we r e in o pe n s tr ife an d a fi n al ,

s tru ggl e fo r s u pr emac y was i n evi tab l e Th e c r i s i s c a m e whe n J a m es I .

,

who had r e c e ived t he r igh t of r oya l ty fr om an ac t of Par l i amen t ,

began by t he a ss u m p t ion of d ivi n e r igh t to i gn o r e t he Pa r liame n t

,
"
,
”

wh i ch had c r ea t ed h im O f t he c iv il war w h i c h fo l l o w ed in t he r e ign

.

o f C ha r l e s I an d of t he tr i u m p h o f E n gl i sh f r eed o m
,
i t is un n e c e s ,

sa ry to wr i t e he r e Th e b l as p hemy o f a m a n s d ivi n e r igh t t o ru l e

.
’

h i s fe ll ow m e n wa s e n ded M ode r n E n gl a n d bega n wi t h t he cha rge

-
.

o f C r o m w e l l s b r iga de o f P u r i t a n s at N a s e by
'
.

R e ligi o u sl y t he age w as o n e o f eve n gr ea t e r fe r m e n t t han t ha t

wh i ch m a r k ed t he b e gi n n i n g of t he R efo r ma t i on A gr ea t ide a l t he .
,

R l igi u
e o s ideal of a n at i on a l ch u r c h was p o u n d i n g to p i e c es l ik e , ,

Id lea s a sh i p in t he b r e a k e rs an d in t he c on f u s i on o f s u ch an
,

h o u r t he ac t ion o f t he v a r i ous sec t s was l ik e t ha t of fr an t i c p asse n ge rs ,

each str ivi n g t o sa v e h i s p ossess i on s f r om th e wr ec k Th e C a t ho l i c .

c h u r ch as i t s n a m e i m p l i es has a l w ays h e l d tr ue t
, , o t he i dea l o f a
.

u n i t ed ch u r c h a ch u r c h wh i ch l ik e th e gr ea t R o m an go v e r n me n t
, ,

of t h e ea r ly ce n tu r i e s a n b r i n g t he s p l e n d o r a n d a u t h o r i ty o f R o me
,
c

t o bea r u p o n t he hu m b l e s t v ill a ge ch u r c h t o t he fa rthes t e n ds of t he

e art h Fo r a t i m e t ha t m igh ty i d e a l da z z l ed t he G e r m an an d E n gl ish
.

r efo r m e r s b u t t he poss i b il i ty o f a un i t ed Pr o t e s t a n t chu r ch pe r i shed

wi t h E l i z abe t h The n i n s t ead o f t he wo r ld wide chu r ch wh i ch was
: ,
-

t he i deal of C a t h o l i c i sm came t he i de a l of a p u r e l y na t i o n a l P r o t es
,

tan tis m Th i s was t he i deal o f L a ud an d t he r e a c t i o n a ry b i s ho p s no

.
,

l e s s t han of th e sc ho l ar ly R i ch ar d Hoo k e r of t he r ugged Sco t ch ,

C ove n a n t e r s a n d of t he P u r i ta n s of M assachuse tt s Bay I t i s ih

, .

t e n se ly i n t e r e st i n g t o n o t e t ha t C ha r l es ca ll ed I r i sh r ebe l s an d Sc o t ch
H igh l an de r s to h i s a id by p r o m i s i n g t o r es t o r e t he i r na t i on a l r el i
gion s ; a n d t ha t t he E n gl i sh P u r i t a n s tu r n i n g t o S c o t l a n d fo r h e l p
, ,

e n t e r e d i n to t h e s o l em n C ove n a n t o f 1 6 4 3 es tab l i sh i ng a n a t i on al ,

P r e s by t e r i a n i s m wh ose o bj ec t was
,

To b r i n g th e c h ur c h e s o f G o d i n th e t h r e e k i n gd om s to u n i fo r m i ty i n r e li
g i o n a n d g o v e r n m e n t to pr e s e r v e th e r i g h ts o f P a r li a m e n t a n d th e li b e rt i e s
,

of t h e K i n gd o m t h at w e a n d o u r p o st e r i ty m a y as bre t h r e n liv e i n
f a i t h a n d l ov e an d th e L o rd m ay d e li g h t to liv e i n th e m i dst o f us
, .

In t h is fa m o u s C o v e n an t w e s e e t he n a t i on al t he ecc l es i a st i cal an d , ,

t he p e r so n a l d r ea m of P ur i tan i sm s i de by s ide in a ll t he i r gran deu r

, ,

and s im p l i c i ty .
 TH E P U R I TA N AG E 1 89

Yea r s p assed yea r s of b i tt e r s truggle an d hea rt ach e befo r e t he

, ,

i mposs i b ili ty of u n i t i n g t he va r i o u s Pr o t es tan t sec t s was ge n e r a lly

r ec ogn i zed Th e i deal of a n at i o n a l ch ur ch d i ed ha r d an d t o i t s
.
,

dea t h i s due a l l t he r el igio u s u n r e s t of t he pe r i od On ly as we .

r e m e m be r t he n a t i on al idea l an d t he s tru ggle wh i ch i t ca u sed c an

, ,

we u n de r s ta n d t he ama z i n g l i fe a n d wo r k of B u n yan o r a p pr ec i a t e
,

t he he r o i c sp i r i t of t he A me r i can c olon i s t s who lef t ho m e fo r a wi lde r

n ess in o r de r t o g ive t he n e w i dea l of a f r ee chu r ch i n a f r ee s t a t e

i t s p r act i ca l de m ons tr a t i on .

L i ter ary Ch a r ac ter i s t i c s l i t erature al so th e Pur i tan A g e

. In
was on e of con fus i on du e t o th e b reak i n g u p of old i deals
, .

M ed i ae val standard s of C h i val ry th e i mposs i ble loves an d

,

roman ce s of wh i ch S pen se r furn i sh ed t h e types p er i sh ed n o

‘
,

le ss s ur e ly th an t h e i d eal of a n at i on al ch urch and i n t h e

absen ce of any fi xed standard o f l i t erary cr i t i c i sm th ere was
"
noth i ng to preven t th e exagge rat i on of th e m etaphys i cal "

poet s wh o are t h e l i t erary parall els t o rel i g i ous sect s l i ke

,

th e A nabapt i st s Poe try t ook n e w an d startl i ng form s i n

.

D onn e and H erbert and prose becam e a s somber as Burton s

’

A n a tomy of M e la n c h oly Th e sp i r i tual gloom wh i c h soon er

.

or lat er fast en s upon all th e wr i t ers of th i s age an d wh i ch ,

i s un j ustly at tr i buted to Pur i tan i nfl uen ce i s d ue to t h e ,

break i ng up of accepted standards i n gove rn m ent an d rel ig i on .

N o pe 0 p 1e from t h e G reeks to t h ose of our own day have

, ,

suffered t h e l oss of old i d eals w i th out cau s i ng i ts wr i t ers to cry ,

That i s the un co n sc i ous

”
I chabod ! th e glory has d eparte d .

tenden cy of l i t erary m en i n al l t i m es wh o look backward for ,

the i r gold en age ; and i t n eed not concern th e student of

l i terat ure wh o eve n i n th e break up of C h er i sh ed i n st i t ut i on s
, ,
-
,

look s for som e foregl eam s of a bette r l i gh t wh i ch i s t o break

upon th e world T h i s s o cal led gloomy age produced some
.
-

m i nor poem s of exq u i s i t e workm ansh i p and on e great m aster ,

of verse wh ose work woul d glori fy any ag e or peopl e — J oh n ,

M i lton i n wh om t h e i ndom i table Pur i tan sp i r i t find s i t s n obl est

,

e xpress i on .
1 90 E NG L I S H I
L T E R AT UR E
Th ere are thre e ma i n ch aracter i st i cs i n wh i ch P ur i tan
l i te rat ure d i ffers from that of t h e pre ced i ng age : ( 1 ) E l iza
b e th a n l i t erat ur e w i t h all i t s d i v er s i ty h ad a
, ,
P fimu d an

E li zab t h e marked un i ty 1 n s p m t result i ng from th e patr i ot

an ,

L it rat r
e
i sm of al l classe s and t h e i r d evot i on to a queen
u e

wh o w i th all he r fault s sought fi rst th e n at i on s welfare

, ,
’

U nde r the S t uart s all th i s was ch anged Th e k i ngs were th e .

open enem i e s of th e people ; th e country was d i v i d ed by

the struggl e for pol i t i cal and rel i g i ou s l i berty ; an d th e l i tera
t ure was as d i v i d ed i n sp i r i t as were t h e struggl i ng part i es .

2 ) E l i zabethan l i te rat ure i s gene rally i n sp i r i ng ; i t th robs

(
w i th youth and hope and v i tal i ty That wh i ch follows speak s .

of age and sadne ss even i t s br i gh t est h ours are followed by

gloom an d by t he pe ss i m i sm i n separabl e from th e pass i ng of
,

old standard s ( 3 ) E liza b e th an lite ratu re i s in te n se ly romant i c ;

.

th e rom an c e spr i ngs from th e h eart of yout h and bel i eve s all ,

t h i ngs eve n th e i m poss i ble Th e g reat schoolman s c re d o

, .
’

I bel i eve b ecause i t i s i mposs i bl e i s a better expre ss i on

" ”
,

o f E l i zabethan l i terat ure than of med i aeval th eology I n th e .

l i terat ure of t h e Pur i tan per i od on e loo k s i n va i n for romant i c

ardor E ven i n the lyr i cs and love poem s a cr i t i cal in te lle c
.
,

t ual sp i r i t ta k e s i ts place an d what ever romanc e assert s i t self

,

i s i n form rat he r than i n fe el i ng a fan tast i c and art i fic i al ,

a d orn m e n t o f speech rath e r than th e natural utt erance of a

'

h eart i n wh i ch sent i m en t i s so st rong and true that poetry i s

i ts only expre ss i on .

11 . I
L TE R AT U R E OF T HE P U R I TA N PE R I OD
Th e Tr ans i t i on P oets Wh e n on e att empt s to class i fy th e
.

l i te rat ure of th e fi rst half of th e seven teenth cent ury from ,

th e d eat h of E l i zabeth ( 1 60 3 ) t o th e R e storat i on ( 1 660 h e

real i zes the i mposs i b i l i t y o f group i ng poet s by any accu rat e
standard Th e class i ficat i on s att empted he re have smal l
.

dependence upon dat es or sovere i gn s and are suggest i ve ,

rather than accu rate Thus S ha k espeare and Bacon wrot e

.
1 9 2 E N GLISH I
L T E R AT UR E
enough poe t i c mate r ial w i thout th e i nvent i on of allegor i es
,

and i mposs i bl e he ro i n es D an i el s poetry wh i ch was forgot

.
’

ten soon aft er h i s death has rece i ved probably more h omage
,

than i t deserve s i n th e pra i se s of Wordswort h S outh ey L am b , , ,

"
and C ol er i dge Th e latter says : R ead D an i el th e ad m ir
.
,

abl e D an i el Th e style an d lan guage are j ust such as any

.

pure and manly wr i ter of th e present day would use I t seem s .

qu i te modern i n compar i son w i th th e styl e of S hak espea re .

”

Th e S on g Wri te r s I n strong contrast w i th th e above are

.

two d i st i n ct groups th e S ong Wr i ters an d th e S pen ser i an

,

poet s Th e close of t h e re i gn of E l i zabeth was marked by

.
-

an outburst of E ngl i sh songs as remarkable i n i t s sudd en,

development as th e r i se of th e drama Tw o cau se s cont r i but ed .

to th i s re sult t h e i n creas i n g i nfl uen ce of F rench i n stea d of

,

I tal ian verse and th e rap i d development of m us i c as an art

,

at the close of t h e s i xt eent h cent ury Th e two son g wr i t ers .

and best worth study i ng are Th omas C am p i on ( 1 5 6 7 P 1 6 1 9 )

N i cholas Breton ( 1 5 4 5 I 6 26 P
) L i ke all t h e lyr i c poet s of
—
.

th e age t hey are a cur i ous m i xture of th e E l i zabethan and

,

th e Pur i tan standard s Th ey s i ng of sacred and profan e love

.

w i th th e same ze st and a careless love son g i s often found on

,

th e sam e page w i th a pl ea for d i v i n e grace .

Th e S p enser i an P oets O f t h e S pen se r i an poet s G i le s

.

F l et ch er and Wi th er are be st worth study i ng G i le s F l etche r .

1 5 8 8 — 1 6 2 3 ) has at t i m es a strong suggest i on of M i lton

(
( wh o was al so a followe r of S pe nser i n h i s early years ) i n th e
noble s i mpl i c i ty and m aj esty of h i s l i n es H i s be st known work .
,

C hr i st s V i ctory an d T r i um ph wa s th e greate st rel i

’

g i ons poem that had appeared i n E n gland s i nce P i ers Plow

”
man and i s n ot an un worthy pred ecessor of P a ra d is e L os t
, .

T h e l i fe of G eorge W i ther ( 1 5 8 8 1 6 6 7 ) covers th e wh ol e —

per i od of E ngl i sh h i story from E l i zabeth to the R estorat i on ,

and th e enorm ous volum e of h i s work covers every ph ase of

th e l i terat ure of two great ages H i s l i fe was a va ri ed on e ;
.

n ow as a R oyal i st l ea der aga i nst t he C ovenanters and aga i n ,

 TH E P U R I TA N AG E 1 93

announc i ng h i s Pur i tan conv i ct i on s a n d su ff e r i ng i n pr i son for ,

h i s fa i t h A t h i s best Wi th er i s a lyr i c poe t of great or i g i

.

n alit y r i
, s i ng at t i m es to pos i t i ve gen i u s ; but th e bulk of h i s
poet ry i s i ntolerably dull S tud ent s of t h i s per i od fin d h i m .

i nt erest i ng as an ep i tom e of t h e whole age i n wh i ch h e l i ved

but the averag e reader i s more i ncl i n ed t o n ot e w i th i n terest
th at h e publ i sh ed i n 1 6 2 3 Hy m n s a n d S ong s of th e Ch u rc h ,

th e fi rst hymn book t hat eve r appeared i n th e E ngl i sh language .

Th e Me t ap h y s i c al P oet s Th i s na m e — wh i ch was g i ven .

by D r J ohn son i n der i s i on b e cau se of t h e fantast i c form of

.
,

D on n e s poet ry — i s often appl i ed to all m i n or poet s of th e

’

Pur i tan A g e We use t h e t erm h ere i n a n arrowe r sen se

.
,

exclud i ng th e followers of D an i el and t hat later group known

as t h e C aval i e r poets I t i n cludes D on n e H erbert Waller .
, , ,

D enham C owley Vaughan D avenant M arvell and C rashaw

, , , , , .

Th e advan ce d stud en t fi nds th em al l worth y of study n ot ,

on ly for th e i r occas i onal excellen t poet ry but be cause of t h e i r ,

i nfl uence on late r l i terature Thus R i chard C rash aw ( 1 6 1 3 .

t h e C ath ol i c myst i c i s i nt erest i ng becaus e h i s troubl ed ,

l i fe i s s i ngularly l i k e D on ne s and h i s poet ry i s at t i me s l i ke ’

H erb ert s s e t on fir e A braham C owl ey ( 1 6 1 8

’
1
. who
blossom ed you n g an d who at twenty fiv e was procla i m e d th e ,
-
,

greatest poet i n E ngland i s now scarcely known eve n by ,

nam e b ut h i s P i ndar i c O de s
,
" 2
set an example wh i ch in ”

fl u e n c e d E ngl i sh poetry through out th e e i ght eenth cen tury .

H enry V aughan ( 1 6 2 2 — 1 6 9 5 ) i s worthy of study becaus e h e

i s i n som e respect s th e forerunn er of Word sworth ; an d 3

A ndrew Marvell ( 1 6 2 1 be cau se of h i s loyal fr i end sh i p

w i t h M i l ton and becau s e h i s poetry sh ows th e confl i ct between
,

th e two sch ool s of S pen ser an d D onn e E dm un d Walle r .

( 1 60 6 1 687
—
) stands bet ween th e P ur i tan A g e an d t h e R es
"
toration H e was th e fi rst to use cons i stently th e closed
.

1 See ,f i tor th Hy m t S t Th r
n s an c e , e d Th F l m i g H
n o t . e e sa
”
an e a n e ar .
”

2 S
o ca ll d fr m P i d th g t tl y i p t f G
e o n ar, e re a e s r c oe o re e c e .

i t C hi l d h d C r p ti Th B i d
” ” ” ”
3 See , f or Th R t t
n s an c e , oo ,
Th e e re a ,
o ru on , e r ,
e

Hi d den Fl w f o V ugh m y ti i t p r t ti f h i ldh d d tu

e r,
”
or a an s
’
s c n er e a on o c oo an na re .
 1 94 E NG L I S H I
L TE R A T UR E
couplet wh i ch dom i nated our poet ry for th e n ext century .

By t h i s and espec i ally by h i s i nfl uen ce ove r D ryd en the

, ,

greate st fi gure of t h e R e storat i on h e occup i e s a larger place ,

i n our l i terature t han a read i ng of h i s rath er t i resome poetry

would seem t o warrant .

O f all th ese poet s e ach of whom has h i s spec i al cla i m we

, ,

can con s i der here only D on n e an d H erbe rt who i n d i ffe r ,

ent ways are t h e types of revolt aga i nst earl i e r form s and -

standards of poet ry I n feel i ng an d i magery both are poet s

.

of a h i gh order but i n style and express i on th ey are th e

,

leaders of th e fantast i c school whos e i nfl uenc e largely dom i

n ate d poet ry d ur i n g th e half c en t ury of th e Pur i tan per i od .

J O HN D ON NE ( 1 573 1
)
Li f e . b r i efes t o u t l i n e of D on n e s l i fe shows i t s in t e n se h u m an
Th e
’

i n t e r es t He was b o rn in L on do n t he son of a r i c h i r on me r chan t

.
, ,

a t t he t i m e whe n t he me r chan t s of E n gl a n d we r e c r e a t i n g a new an d

hi ki n d of p r i n ces On h is fa t he r s s ide he came f r om an o ld
.
’

fa m i ly an d o n h i s m o t he r s s ide f r o m t he Heywoods an d S ir
,
’

Th o mas M o r e s fam il y B o t h fam il i es we r e C a t ho l i c a n d in h i s ea r ly

’
.
,

l ife pe r secu t i on was b r ough t nea r ; fo r h is b r o t he r d i e d i n p r ison fo r

h ar bo r i n g a p rosc r ibed p r i es t an d h i s o wn ed u ca t io n cou l d no t be
,

c on t i n ued in Oxfo r d an d C a m b r idge beca u se of h i s r e l igi on S u ch .

an e x p e r i e n ce ge n e r a lly se t s a ma n s r e lig i ous s ta n da r ds for li fe ; bu t

’

p r ese n t ly D on n e as he stud i e d l aw a t L i n c o l n s I n n w as i n v e s t igat in g

,
’

t he p h ilOS Op h ic gr o u n ds of a l l fa i t h G ra d u ally he lef t t he chu r ch in

.

wh ic h he was b o r n r e n ou n c ed a ll de n om i n a t i on s an d ca ll e d h i m se l f
, ,

s i m p l y C h r i s t ia n M ea n wh il e he wr o t e p o e try an d sha r e d h i s wea l t h

.

w i t h n eedy C a t ho li c re l at ives H e j o i n ed t he exped i t i o n of E ssex

.

fo r C ad iz in 1 5 9 6 an d for t he Ai g r es in 1 5 9 7 an d o n sea a n d in
, ,

c a m p fo u n d t i me t o w r i t e i "
p o e try T w o of h s bes.t poems T h e ,

St o r m
”
an d Th e C al m be l on g to t h i s p e r i od N e x t he tr ave l ed
,
”
.

in E u r o p e fo r t h r ee ye ar s b u t o ccu p i e d h i m se lf w i t h s tu dy an d
,

po e try R e tu r n i n g h ome h e b e ca m e sec r e ta ry t o L o r d E ge rt o n

.
, ,

fe l l in lo v e wi t h t he la tt e r s yo u n g n i ece A n n e M o r e an d ma rr i ed
’

, ,

he r fo r wh i ch c au se D o n n e wa s cast i n t o p r i son S tr an gely e n ough .

h i s p oe t i ca l wo r k a t t h i s t i m e i s n o ta son g of yo u th fu l r o m an ce bu t ,
1 96 E NG L I S H L I TE R A TU R E

D onn e thre w style and all l i terary standards t o t h e w i nds ;

an d prec i sely for th i s reason h e i s forgotten t hough h i s great ,

i nt ell ect and h i s gen i us had marked h i m as on e of th ose wh o

should do th i ngs worthy to be remembe red "
Wh i l e th e .
”

tenden cy of l i te ratur e i s t o exalt styl e at th e expen se of

th ought th e world has many me n an d wom en who exalt
,

feel i ng and th ought above express i on ; an d to th ese D on ne

i s good read i ng Brown i ng i s of th e sam e sch ool and com
.
,

pel s attent i on Wh i l e D onn e played havoc w i t h E l i zabethan

.

styl e h e n everth el ess i nfl uen ced our l i terature i n th e way of

,

boldn e ss an d ori g inal i ty an d th e pre sent t e ndency i s to g i ve

h i m a l arger place n earer to t he fe w great poet s t han h e h as
, ,

"
occup i ed s i nce Ben J on son d eclared th at h e was th e fi rst poet
"
of th e world i n some t h i ngs but l i kely to per i sh for not be i ng
,
”

F or to mu ch of h i s poetry we m ust apply h i s

”
understood .

own sat i r i c verse s on anoth er s c rud i t i e s ’

I fi i te w o r k ! w h i h d th f ar xt d
n n c o so e en

T h at c stud y i t to a y d
none an n en .

G E OR G E H E R B E R T ( 1 5 9 3 1 6 3 3 ) —

O day most calm m ost br i ght

”
sang G eorge H erbert and
, , ,

we may safely ta k e that s i ngl e l i n e as express i ve of th e whol e

sp i r i t of h i s wr i t i ngs P rofessor Palmer whose scholarly ed i
.
,

t i on of t h i s poet s wor k s i s a m odel for cr i t i cs and ed i tors

’

calls H erbert th e fi rst i n E ngl i sh poetry who spoke face to

face w i th G od That may be true ; but i t i s i nt erest i ng to
.

note that n ot a poet of th e fi rst half of th e seventeenth cen

t ury not even t h e gay est of t he C aval i e rs but has wr i tt en
, ,

som e n obl e verse of prayer or asp i rat i on wh i c h expresse s th e ,

underly i n g P ur i t an sp i r i t of h i s age H erbert i s t h e great est .

,

th e m ost con s i st en t of th em all I n all th e oth ers th e Pur i tan .

st ruggle s aga i n st t h e C aval i er or th e C aval i er breaks loose ,

from t h e rest ra i n i ng Pu ri tan ; but i n H erbe rt t h e struggle i s

past and peace has come T hat h is l i fe was n ot all calm .
,

that the P ur i tan i n h i m had struggled de sperately before i t

 T H E P U R I TA N AG E 1 97

subdued t h e pr i de an d i dlen ess of t h e C aval i er , i s ev i den t to

one who read s be t w een h i s l i n es
I stru c k b o ard an d c ry d N o m o re !
th e
’
,

I w ill ab r o ad .

W h at ? S h a ll I e v e r s i g h a n d p i n e ?
M y li n e s an d l i fe are f r e e f r e e as th e ro ad , ,

L oo s e as th e w i n d .

T he re speaks t h e C aval i er of t h e un i vers i ty and th e court an d .

as on e read s to t h e e nd of t h e l i ttle poem wh i ch h e calls by ,

"
th e sugge st i v e nam e of Th e C ollar h e may know that h e
'
,
”

i s read i ng c on d e n s e d b iog rap h y .

Those wh o seek for faults for stra i ned i magery and fant ast i c ,

verse form s i n H erbert s poet ry w i ll fi nd the m i n abundance ’

but i t w i ll bett e r repay th e reader to look for th e deep though t

an d fin e feel i n g that are h i dden i n t h e se wonderful rel i g i ous
lyr i cs eve n i n t hose that appear m ost art i fi c i al Th e fact that
, .

H erb ert s reputat i on was great er at t i m es than M i lton s and

’

, ,
’

that h i s poem s wh en publ i sh ed aft er h i s deat h had a large sal e

and i nfl uen ce shows certa i nly t hat h e appealed to th e m en of
,

h i s age an d h i s poem s w i ll probably b e read an d apprec i at ed ,

i f only by th e few j ust so long as m e n are stro n g enough to

,

understan d th e Pur i tan s sp i r i tual conv i ct i on s ’

.

Li f e H erbe rt s l ife i s so q u i e t and u n eve n t fu l t ha t t o r ela t e a few

.
’

b i ogr aph i cal fac t s c an be of l i tt l e advan tage On ly as on e r ead s t he .

whole s t o ry by I z aa k Wa l t on c an he sha r e t he ge n t l e sp i r i t of H e r
be rt s p oe try H e wa s bo r n a t M on tgome ry C ast l e Wales 1 5 9 3 of
’
.
,
l
, ,

a n oble We l s h fa m ily H i s u n ive r s i ty co u r se was b r il lian t an d aft e r

.
,

gradua t ion he w a i t ed l on g yea r s in t he va i n hope of p r efe r me n t a t

c ou r t All h i s l i fe he had t o ba tt l e aga i n s t d i sease an d t h i s i s un
.
,

d oub t edly t he cause of t he lon g del ay befo r e each new ste p in h i s

cou r se N o tt i ll he was t h i rty seve n was h e o r da i n ed an d p l aced ove r
.
-

t he l i tt le ch u r ch of Beme rto n H o w he l ived he r e a m o n g pla i n .

pe o p l e in t h i s ha p py co r n e r of t he L o rd s field hop i n g a ll t h i n gs
,
’
,

an d bless i n g a ll p e o p l e as ki n g h i s o w n way t
, o S i on an d show i n g o t he r s

1 Th i m
e re d bt
s sot wh th
e ou h was b t th C tl
o e t B l k H ll
er e as orn a e as e , or a ac a .

R ece n t pi i o i l i t th l tt i w
n on nc nes o e a er V e .
I 98 E N GLI SH I
L T E R AT UR E
t he way sh ould be r ead in Wa l to n I t i s a b r i ef l i fe less t han t h r ee
,
”
.
,

yea r s of wo r k befo r e be i n g c u t o ff by con sum p t i on bu t r e m ar k able ,

fo r t he s i n gl e g r ea t p u r p ose an d t he gl o r ious s p i r i tual s tr e n gt h t ha t

sh in e t h r o u gh p hys i cal weak n e ss J us t befo r e h i s dea t h he gave some .

m an u sc r i p t s t
o a f r i end a n d h i s message i s wo rt hy of J oh n Bu n yan
,

D e liv e r t h i s li ttl e b oo k to m y d e ar b roth e r F e rrar d t e l l h i m h e , an

s h a l l fi d i i t a p i c tu r e of th e m a y sp i r i tu a l c o fl i c ts t h at h a v e p ass d
n n n n e

be tw i xt G d a d m y s o u l b f re I c u l d s ub j c t m i to th e w ill o f J e su s
o n e o o e ne

m y m ast r i e w h os e s e r vi c e I h a v e ow f o u d p e r fe c t f r e d o m D e s i re
, n n n e .

h i m t r e ad i t ;
o d the if h can t h i k i t m ay tur to th e ad v a tage o f
n, e an n n n

an
y d j c te d p oo r s o u l l ti t b e m ad e p ub li c ; i f o t le th i m bur i t fo
e e , e n , n , r

I d i t e l e ss t h a th e l e ast o f G od s m e r c i s
an ar n
’
e .

He rb ert s P oe m s ’
H erbert s ch i ef work Th e Te mp le con
.
’

, ,

s i sts of over on e h un dred and fifty short poem s sugge st ed by

t h e C hurch h e r h ol i days an d ce remon i als an d th e exper i ence s
, ,

of th e C hr i st i an l i fe Th e first poem Th e C h urch Porch i s

.
”
, ,

th e lo n gest and t h ough pol i sh ed w i t h a care t hat fore s h ad

,

ows th e C lass i c school t h e least poe t i cal I t i s a wond erful , .

collect i on of condensed serm on s w i se precept s and moral , ,

"
lesson s sugge st i ng C haucer s G ood C oun sel Pope s E s
,
" ’

,
” ’

say o u Man an d Polon i us s adv i ce to L aert e s i n Ha m le t

,
” ’

, ,

only i t i s more packed w i t h t hough t than any of t he se Of .

t ruth speak i ng h e says

-

D ar t b e tru N ot hi g c e o d a li ; e . n an n e e e

A f au l t w hi c h e e ds i t m o st gro ws tw o t h r e b y n e .

and of cal mness i n argume n t :

C al m ss i s gr e at ad v a tag : h t h at l e ts
ne n e e

A o t h e r c h a f m y war m h i m at h i s fi
n e a re .

A mong the rema i n i ng poe ms of Th e Te mp le one of the

most sugge st i ve i s T h e P i lgr i mage H e re i n s i x short stan .
”

zas e ve ry l i ne close pac k ed w i th thought we have the whol e

,
-

of Bunyan s P i lg ri m s P r og r e s s T h e poe m was w ri tte n prob

’ ’
.

ably before Bunyan was born but re me mbe r i ng th e w i de ,

i nfl ue nce of H e rbe rt s poe t ry i t i s an i nte re st i ng quest i on’

whethe r B unyan rece i ved th e i dea of h i s i mmortal work from

20 0 E N G L I S H L I TE R A TU R E

Th e Cav ali e r P oe ts I n th e l i te ratu re of any age the re are

.

ge ne rally found two d i s t i nc t te ndenc i e s Th e fi rs t e xpresse s .

the dom i nant sp i r i t of the t i mes ; the second a sec re t o r an ,

open rebell i on S o i n th i s age s i de by s i d e w i th the se r i ou s

.
,

and rat i onal Pu r i tan l i v es th e gallant and t r i v i al C aval i e r

, .

Th e P ur i tan fi nd s e xpre ss i on i n the be st poe t ry of the per i od ,

fro m D onne to M i lton and i n the p rose of Baxte r and Bunyan

,

the C aval i e r i n a small group of poets H e rr i ck L ovelac e , , ,

S uckl i ng and C are w — who wr i te songs ge ne rally i n l i gh te r

, ,

ve i n gay tr i v i al ofte n l i ce nt i ous bu t who cannot al toge the r

, , , ,

e scape the tremendous se r i ou sne ss of P ur i tan i sm .

Th om as Car e w ( 1 5 9 8 1 63 9 P ) C are w m ay b e called the

—
.

i nve ntor of C aval i e r love poe try and to h i m more than to any , ,

oth er i s due the pec ul i ar comb i nat i on of th e se nsual and th e

,

rel i g i ou s wh i c h marke d m ost of the m i nor poe ts of th e seve n

te e n t h ce ntury H i s poe try i s the S pen se ri an pastoral str i pped
.

of i ts re fine men t of fe el i ng and made d i rec t coarse v i gorou s , ,

.

H i s poe ms publ i sh e d i n 1 6 4 0 are gene rally l i ke h i s l i fe

, , , ,

tr i v i al or se nsual ; but he re and the re i s found one l i ke th e ,

follow i ng wh i c h i nd i cates that w i t h th e M e taphys i cal and

,

C aval i e r poe t s a ne w and st i mulat i ng forc e had e nte red

E ngl i sh li te ratu re
As k m e o m ore w h e r e J o v b stows
n e e ,

W h e J u i s p ast th e f ad i g r o s e
n ne , n ,

F o i y ur b auty s o r i e t d p
’
r n o e n ee

T h e s e fl o w e rs as i t h e i r c au s e s s l e p
, n , e .

As k m e m o r w h e r t h s e stars li g h t
no e e o

T h at d o w wards f a l l i d ad f i g h t
n n e o n ,

F o i yo u r e y e s t h e y s i t
r n d the r , an e

Fi x ed b e c o m as i t h e i r sp h r
e n e e .

As k m e o m or e if e ast o w e st
n r

Th p h i x b u il d s h e sp i c y e st
e oe n r n ,

F o u t o y o at l ast h e fl i e s
r n u s ,

A d i y u r f ragra t b o s o m d i s
n n o n e .

R ob e rt He r ri c k
( H1e rr i
591 ck i s th e t rue C aval i e r ,

gay dev i l may care i n d i spos i t i on but by some freak of fate

,
- -
,
 TH E P U R I TA N AG E 20 I

a cle rgyman of D ean P r i or i n S ou th D evon a county mad e , ,

famou s by h i m and Blackmore H e re i n a coun try par i sh he .

, ,

l i ved d i sconte ntedly long i ng for th e j oys of L ond on and the

,

Me rma i d Tave rn h i s bac helor e stabl i sh me n t cons i st i ng of an

,

old h ouseke epe r a cat a dog a goose a tame lamb one h e n

, , , , , ,

fo r wh i c h h e thanked G od i n poe t ry because she la i d an egg

eve ry day ,
— and a pe t p i g that d rank bee r w i th H e rr i ck ou t
of a tan k ard Wi th ad m i rable good nature H e rr i ck mad e th e
.
,

be st of th e se unconge n i al su rrou nd i ngs He watched w i th .

sympathy th e count ry l i fe abou t h i m and caugh t i ts sp i r i t i n

many lyr i c s a few of wh i ch l i ke C or i nna s M ay i ng
, ,
Gathe r ’

,
”

"
ye rosebud s wh i le ye may and To D affod i ls are among the
,
”
,
”

be st known i n ou r language H i s poe ms cove r a w i d e range .

,

from tr i v i al love songs pagan i n sp i r i t to hymns of d ee p

, ,

rel i g i ou s feel i ng O nly th e be st of h i s poe ms should be read ;

.

and th e se are re ma rkable for the i r e x qu i s i te se nt i me nt and

the i r grace ful m elod i ous exp res s i on Th e re st s i nc e th ey
,
.
,

refl ec t some th i ng of th e coarsen ess of h i s aud i enc e may b e ,

passed over i n s i l ence .

L at e i n l i fe H e rr i ck publ i sh ed h i s one book H e sp e r i d e s ,

a n d N ob le N u m be rs Th e latte r half conta i ns h i s

rel i g i ou s poe ms and one has only to read the re th e re mark
,

able L i tany to se e how th e rel i g i ous te rror that find s

e xpre ss i on i n B unyan s Gra c e A b ou n d i ng could maste r e ve n
’

th e mos t carele ss of C aval i e r s i nge rs .

S u c k li n g an d L ov e lac e S i r J oh n S uc k l i ng ( 1 6 0 9 1 64 2 ) was
.
—

one of th e most br i ll i ant w i ts of th e court of C h arl e s I who wrot e ,

poetry as he e xe rc i sed a horse o r fough t a duel becau se i t was ,

cons i d e red a ge ntle man s accompl i shm ent i n th ose days H i s

’
.

poe ms struc k from h i s w i ld l i fe l i ke sparks fro m h i s rap i e r

, ,
”

"
are u tte rly tr i v i al and eve n i n h i s be st known Ballad U pon a
, ,

Wedd i ng rarely r i se above me re d ogge rel I t i s only th e ro

,
”
.

manc e of h i s l i fe — h i s r i ch br i ll i ant carel ess you th and h i s

, , ,

pove rty and su i c i d e i n Par i s wh i the r h e fl ed because of h i s devo

,

t i on to the S tuarts that ke eps h i s name al i ve i n ou r l i te rature .

20 2 E NG L I S H L I T E R ATU R E

I n h i s l i fe and poe try S i r R i chard L ovelace ( 1 6 1 8 1 6 5 8 ) —

o ffe rs a re mar k able parallel to S uc k l i ng and the two are Ofte n ,

classed toge the r as pe rfec t repre se ntat i ve s of the followe rs of

K i ng C h arle s L ovel ac e s L u c a s ta a vol ume of love lyr i c s i s
’

.
, ,

gene r ally on a h i gh e r plane than S uckl i ng s work ; and a fe w ’

" "
of th e poem s l ik e To L u c as ta and To A l thea from P r i son ,
”
, ,
”

de se rve th e secu re place they h ave won I n the latte r occ u r .

th e oft quoted l i ne s
-

S t o e w a ll s d o o ta pr i s o m a k e
n n n ,

N o i r o bars a c ag ;
r n e

M i ds i o c t d q u i e t ta k e
n nn en an

T h at fo h e r m i tagr an e .

I f I h a v e f re d o m i m y l o v e n e ,

A d i m y s o u l a m f re e
n n ,

A g l s al o t h at s o ar ab o v e
n e ne

E j oy su c h li b e rty
n .

J O H N M I L T O N ( 1 60 8 1 6 7 4 ) -

T h y s o u l was li k e a star d d w l t apart ; an e

Th o u h adst a v oi c e w h o s s o u d was li k e th e n e se a

P u r e as th e a k d h a v e s m a j st i c f r e ;
n e e n ,
e ,
e

S o d i dst t h o u tra v l o li f s c o m m o w ay
’
e n e n

I c h e e r f u l g o d l i e ss :
n d y tt h y h art
n an e e

T h l o w li e st d ut i e s o h rs e lf d i d l ay
e n e

( F r o m Wo rdsw o rt h s S t o M il t o
’
on n e n n

S hake speare and M i lton are th e two fi gures that towe r

c onsp i cuously above the goodly fellowsh i p of me n who have
mad e our l i te rature famou s E ach i s repr e sentat i ve of the .

age that prod uced h i m and toge the r they form a sugge st i ve
,

com me ntary upon the two force s th at rul e our h uman i ty ,

the force of i mpulse and th e force of a fi xed pu rpose S hake .

speare i s the poe t of i mpulse of th e love s hate s fears je al , , , ,

o u s ie s and amb i t i ons that swaye d the me n of h i s age

,
M i lton .

i s the poe t of stead fast w i ll and pu rpose who move s l i ke a ,

god am i d the fe ars and hopes and chang i ng i mpulse s of the

world regard i ng the m as tr i v i al and mome ntary th i ngs that
,

can neve r swe rve a great soul from i ts cou rse .

20 4 E N GLIS H I
L TE R AT UR E
Li f e of Milton M i l t on i s l ik e an i d e al in t he sou l l ik e a lofty
.
,

m ou n t a i n on t he ho r i z o n We n eve r attai n th e i de a l we n eve r c li mb

.

t he mou n t a i n bu t li fe would be i n e x p r ess i b ly p oo r e r we r e e i the r t o

be tak e n away .

Fr o m ch i ldhoo d M il t on s pa r e n t s se t h im apa rt fo r t he a tt a i n m e n t
’

o f n oble e n ds an d so l ef t n o t h i n g t o chan ce in t he m att e r of tra i n

,

in g . H i s fa t he r J o h n M il t o n i s sa id to have t u r n ed P u r i ta n wh il e
, ,

a st ude n t a t O x fo rd an d t o have bee n d i s in he r i t ed by h i s fa m i ly ;

whe r eu p on he se tt l ed in
L o n don a n d p r os p e r ed
gr ea t ly as a sc r ive n e r ,

t ha t i s a ki n d of no ta ry,. .

I n cha r ac t e r t he e l de r
M il ton was a r a r e c o m
b i n a t i on of scho l a r an d
bus in ess m an a r ad i cal ,

Pu r i t an in p ol i t i cs an d
r el igi on ye t a m us i c i an , ,

wh ose hymn t u n es a r e
st il l su n g and a love r of ,

a rt an d l i t e ra tu r e Th e .

p oe t s mo t he r was a ’

woma n of r e fin e m e n t
an d so c i al gr ace w i t h a ,

dee p i n t e r es t in r e l igi on
an d i n l oc al cha r i t i e s .

S o t he boy g r ew up in a
O H N M I L TON
J
home wh ich co m b i n ed
t he cu l t u r e o f t he R ena i ssance wi t h t he p i e ty an d m o r al s tr e n gt h of
ea r ly P u r i ta n i sm He begi n s t he r efo r e as the he i r of one gr e at age
.
, ,

a n d t he p r o ph e t of ano t he r .

A p pa r e n t ly t he e l de r M il t on sha r ed B a co n s d i s lik e fo r t he ed u ca
’

tion al m e t hods of t he t i m e a n d so t o o k cha rge o f h i s so n s tra i n i n g

’
,

e n cou ragi n g h i s n a tu ral t as t es t e a ch i n g h i m m u s i c and see ki n g o u t

, ,

a tut o r who hel p ed t he b oy t o what he sought mos t eage r ly n o tt he ,

gram m a r and m e c han i s m of G r ee k an d L at i n bu t r a t he r t he s t o r i es ,

t he idea l s t he p oe try t ha t h i de in t he i r i n c o m p a r able l i t e r a t u r es At

, .

twe l ve yea r s we fin d t he b oy a l r eady a sch olar in s p i r i t u n able to ,

r es t t ill aft e r m i d n igh t becau s e of t he j oy w i t h wh i ch h i s s tudy

wa s r ewa rded From boyho od two gr e a t p r inc i p l es see m t o gove r n
.
 TH E P U R I TA N AG E 20 5

M il t on s ca r ee r
’
t he love of beau ty of m u s i c a rt l i t e ra t u r e
: on e , , , , ,

an d i n deed of e v e ry fo r m of hu m a n c u l tu r e ; t he o t he r a s t eadfas t ,

devo t io n t o du ty as t he h ighes t obj ec t in human l ife .

A b r i ef co u r se a t t he fa m o u s S t Pau l s school in L on don was t he .

’

p r e l u de to M il t o n s e n tr an ce t o C h r i s t s C o l l ege C amb r idge H e r e

’ ’

, .

aga in he fo ll owed h i s na tu r al be n t an d l ik e Bacon fou n d h imse l f , ,

o f t e n in o p pos i t i o n to t he au t ho r i t i es A s ide f r om some L a t in poe m s .

,

t he m os t n o t ewo rt hy son g of t h i s pe r i o d of M il ton s l ife i s h i s s p l e n ’

d id ode On t he M o rn i n g of C h r i s t s Nat iv i ty wh ic h was begu n

,
” ’
,

on C h r i s t m as day 1 6 2 9 ,
M il t o n wh i le deep i n t he c l ass i cs had ye t
.
, ,

a gr ea t e r l o v e for h i s n a t ive l i t e r a tu r e S p e n se r wa s for yea r s h i s .

m as t e r ; in h i s ve r se w e fin d e ve ry e v i de n ce of h i s lov i n g s tu dy of
"

S ha k es p ea r e an d h i s l as t gr e at poe m s sh ow c l ea r l y h ow h e had bee n

,

i n fl u e n ced by F l e t che r s Ch r i s t s Vi c tory a n d Tr i u mp h B u t i t i s

’ ’
.

s ign i fican t t h at t h i s fi r s t od e r i ses h ighe r t han an y t h i n g of t he ki nd

p r od u ced in t he fam ou s Age of E l i z abe t h ~ .

Wh i le a t C a m b r i dge i t was t he des i r e of h i s pa r e n t s t ha t M i l t on

should t a k e o r de r s in t he C h u r ch of E n gl an d ; b ut t he i n t e n se l o v e
of me n t al l i be rty wh i ch s ta m p ed t he P u r i t an was t oo str o n g w i t h i n
h im an d he r efused t o con s ide r t he oa t h of se r v i tude as he ca l led
,
”
,

i t wh i ch wou l d ma r k h i s o r d i n a t ion Th r ough ou t h i s l i fe M i l t on

, .
,

t h ough p r ofo u nd ly r el igi o u s he l d a l oof fr om t he s tr i fe of s e c ts I n

, .

be li ef he bel on ged t o t he ex tr e me Pu r i ta n s called S e p a r a t i st s I n

, , ,

de p e n de n t s C on gr egat i on a l is t s of wh i c h ou r P il gr i m Fa t h e r s a r e
, ,

t he grea t exa m p l es ; but he r efused t o be b ou n d by an y c r eed or

chu r ch d isc i p l in e
As e v e r in m y gre at T as k M ast r s
-
e
’
e
ye .

In t h i s las t l i n e o f on e of h i s s on n e t s i s fo u nd M il t on s r e j ec t i on of 1 ’

eve ry fo r m of o u twar d r e ligious au t ho r i ty i n face of t he s u p r e m e

P ur i ta n p r i n c i p le t he l i be rty of t he i n d i v i dual soul befo r e G od
, .

A long pe r i od of r e t i r eme n t fol l owed M il ton s wi t hd r a wal fr om t he ’

u n ive rs i ty in 1 63 2 At h i s fa t he r s c ou n try home in Ho rt on he gave

.
’

h i mself u p fo r s i x yea r s to sol i ta ry r ead i n g an d s t udy roa m i n g ove r ,

t he w i de fields of G r ee k L a t i n Heb r ew S pan i sh Fr e n ch I t a li an

, , , , , ,

an d E n gl i sh l i t e r a tu r es an d s t udy i n g ha r d a t ma t hema t i c s
,
sc i ence , ,

t heology an d mus i c,
a c u r ious c omb i n a t i on To h i s love of mus i c
,
.

we owe t he me l ody of a l l h i s p o e try an d we n o t e i t in the r hy t hm ,

a n d b a l an c e wh i c h mak e eve n h i s m igh ty p r o se ar g u men t s ha r mon i ous .

1 O h i be i gn i v d t th Ag f Tw ty th e
s n a rr e o e e o en e
re .
”
20 6 E N G L I S H L I TE R ATU R E

"
Lyc i das ,
" ”
In
”
e n se r oso
L Alle gr o ,
’
Ar cades ”
C omus
Il P ,
”
, ,

a n d a few S on n e t s we have th e p oe t i c r e su l t s o f t h i s r e t i r eme n t a t

”
,

H o rton few i n deed bu t t he mos t pe r fec t of t h e i r k i n d t ha t o u r

,
—
, ,

l i t e ra tu r e has r eco r ded .

Ou t of so li tu de w he r e h i s t a l e n t was pe r fec t ed M i l t on e n t e r ed
, ,

t he busy wo r l d whe r e h i s cha ra c t e r was t o be p r o v ed to t he u t mos t .

Fr o m Ho rton h e tra ve l e d ab r oad t h r o u gh Fran ce S wi tz e r lan d an d , , ,

I ta ly eve rywhe r e r e ce iv ed w i t h adm i ra t i on fo r h i s l ea r n i n g an d cou r

,

t e sy w i n n i n g t he f r i e n dsh i p of t he ex il ed D u t c h sch o l a r G r o t ius in

, ,

Pa r i s an d of Ga l il eo in h i s s a d i mp r i so n m e n t i n F l o r e nc e He 1
.
,

was on h i s way t o G r eece wh e n n e w s r e a c hed h im of t he b r ea k b e

twee n ki n g an d p a r l i a me n t Wi t h t he p ra c t i ca l i n s igh t wh i ch n e v e r
.

dese rt ed h i m M il t on saw cl e a r ly t he m ean i n g of t he n ews H i s cor d ial .

r ece p t i on i n I t a ly so cha ry of p ra i se t o an y t h i n g n o t I ta l ian had re

, ,

awa k e n e d i n M il t on t he o l d d e s i r e t o w r i t e an e p i c wh ic h E n gl an d
wo u l d no t willi n gly l e t d ie ; b u t a t t h o u gh t of the co n fli c t fo r
" ”

hum a n f r eedom a l l h i s d r eam s we r e fl u ng t o t he w in ds He ga v e u p .

h i s trave l s an d l i t e ra ry amb i t i on s an d h u rr i ed t o E n glan d F or I .

t hough t i t base he says t o b e tra v el i n g a t my ease fo r i n t e l lec tual

,
”
,
"

c u l tu r e wh i le my fe ll ow c ou n tryme n a t ho m e we r e figh t i n g fo r l i be r t y ”
-
.

The n for n ea r l y tw e n ty y e ar s t he poe t of gr e a t ach i eveme n t an d

s t i l l gr eat e r p r om i se d i sa p p ea r s We hear n o mo r e songs b u t only .
,

t he p r ose de n un c ia t i on s an d a r gume n t s wh i ch a r e as r ema r k able as

h i s poe t ry In all ou r l i t e r a tu r e t he r e i s no t h i n g mo r e wo rthy of t he
.

P u r i tan s p i r i t t ha n t h i s lay i n g a s i de of p e r son al amb i t i on s in o r de r to

j o i n in t he stru ggl e fo r hu m an l i be rty I n h i s b e st k n own son n e t On .
,

H i s B li n d n ess wh i ch r e fl e c t s h i s gr i ef n o t a t da r k n ess bu t a t h i s
,
”
, ,

aban doned d r eams we ca t ch t he s u b li me s p i r i t of t h i s r e n u n c ia t i on

, .

M i l ton s oppo rt un i ty to se r ve came in t he c r i s i s of 1 6 4 9 Th e

’
.

king had been sen t t o t he sc a ff old pay i n g t he pe n a l ty of h i s ow n ,

tr e ache ry an d E n gland sat sh i v e r i ng a t i t s ow n deed l ik e a c h i ld o r

, ,

a R uss ian p eas a n t who in sudde n pass ion r es is t s u n be ara b l e b ru tal i ty

and t he n i s afra i d of t he c onse quences Tw o wee k s of an x i e ty of .
,

t e rr o r an d s il e n ce fol l o w ed ; t h e n a p pea r ed M il t on s Te n u r e of K i ng s ’

a n d M a is t a t
g es To E n gl and i t was l ik e t he co m i n g o f a s tr on g
r .

m an n o to n l y t
, o p r o t ec t t he c h i ld b u t t o j u s t i fy h i s b l ow fo r li be rty ,
.

K i n gs n o l e ss t ha n p e o p l e a r e s u bj ec t t o t he e t e r n a l p r i n c i p l e of la w ;

1 “ It is re m a r a b e ,k l ”
s ysa L a m a rt n e ,i h ow o ft
en i n th e l ib r a ri e s of It li
a an p ri n ce s

an d i n th e r
c o re s po n d e n c e o f g e at t r
a lia n I w it r
r e s of h
t i s pe ri od y o u fin d m e n to n e d th e i
na m e a n d fa m e of t h is y ou n
g E ng i s man l h .
”
20 8 E N G LIS H I
L TE R A T UR E
C r omwel l s I rons i des had ove rwhe l med t he ki n g s fo ll owe r s A ft e r
’ ’
of .

t he exec u t ion of t he ki n g a p pe ar ed a n o t her famo u s a ttac k u p on t he

Pu r i ta n s D ef e n s i o R eg ia p o Ca r lo I i ns t iga t ed by C ha r l e s I I w h o
,
r , ,

was t he n l iv in g in ex il e I t was w r i tt en in L a t i n by Sa lm asius a

.
,

D ut ch p rofe so r a t L eyde n an d was ha il ed by t he R oya l i s t s as an in

g ,

v i n c i b l e a rgume n t By o rde r of t he C o u n c il of S t a t e M i l ton p r e p ar ed

.

a r e p ly H is eyes igh t h ad sad ly fa i led an d he was wa r n ed t ha t an y

.
,

fu rt he r s tra i n wo u ld be d i sas tr ous H i s r ep ly was char ac t e r i s t i c o f

.

t he m an an d t he P u r i tan A s he had o n ce sac r i ficed h i s poe try so he

.
,

was n ow r e ady he sa id t o sac r i fice h is eyes a l so on t he a l ta r of E n g

, ,

l ish l i be rty H is magn i fice n t D efe n s io p r o P op u lo A ng li c a n o i s on e

.

of t he m os t mas t e r ly co n tr ove r si al wo r k s in l i t e r a t u r e Th e powe r of .

t he p r e s s was al r eady s tr on gly fel t in E n glan d an d t he n e w C om ,

m on w e alt h owed i t s s ta n d i n g p a rt ly t o M il t o n s p r o se an d p a rt ly t o
’
,

C r o m we l l s pol i cy Th e D f e n s i o was t he l as t wo r k t ha t M il t o n saw

’
. e .

B li n d n ess fe l l u p on h i m e r e i t was fi n i shed an d f r o m 1 6 5 2 un t i l h i s ,

dea t h he labo r ed i n t o t a l da r k n e ss .
‘

Th e las t p a rt of M il t on s l i fe i s a p i c tu r e of sol i ta ry gr a n deu r u n

’

e q ualed in l i t e r a ry h i s t o ry Wi t h t he R es t o r a t i o n a ll h i s l abo r s an d
.

sac r i fices fo r human i ty we r e appa r e n t ly was t ed Fr om h i s r e t i r eme n t .

he cou l d hea r t he be ll s an d t he shou t s t ha t welcomed bac k a v i c i o u s

mon a r ch whose fi r s t ac t was t o se t h is foo t upon h i s p e o p l e s n ec k
,
’
.

M il to n was i m m ed i a t e ly ma r k ed fo r pe r sec u t i on ; he r ema i n ed for

m o n t hs in h i d i n g ; he was r e d u ced t o p ove rty a n d h i s b o o k s we r e ,

b u r n ed by t he p ub l i c ha n gman H i s da u gh t e r s u p on whom he
.
,

de p ended in h i s b l i n d n ess r ebe ll ed a t t he t as k of r ead ing t o h i m

,

an d r eco r d i n g h i s t hough t s I n t he m i ds t o f a ll t hese so rr ows we

.

un de r s ta n d i n S a m s on
, t he c ry of t he bl i n d cha m p i on of Is r ael :
,

N ow b l i n d d i s h e art e n e d s h a m e d d i s h on o r e d qu e ll e d
, , , , ,

T o w h at c a n I b e us e f u l ? w h e r e i n s e r v e
M y n ati o n a n d th e w o r k fro m H e a v e n i m p o s e d ?
,

B ut to s i t i d l e o n th e h o u se h o l d h e art h ,

A bu rd e n ou s d r o n e ; to vi s i ta n ts a gaz e ,

O r p i t i e d obj e c t .

M il t on s an swe r i s wo rt hy of h i s own gr ea t l i fe Wi t hou t e n vy o r

’
.

b i tt e rn e ss he goes bac k t o t he ea r ly d r eam of an i mmo rt al poe m an d

beg in s wi t h supe r b con sc i ous n ess of p owe r t o d ic ta t e h i s gr ea t e p i c .

P a r a d i s e L os t was fi n i shed in 1 6 6 5 aft e r s ev e n yea r s labo r in ,

’

da r kness Wi t h gr ea t d i ffi c u l ty he fo u n d a pub l ishe r an d fo r t he

.
,
 T H E P U R I TA N AGE 20 9

gr ea t wo r k now the mos t hon o r ed p oem in ou r l i t e r a t u r e he r ece iv ed

, ,

l ess t han ce rt a i n ve r se mak e r s of ou r day r ece ive fo r a l i tt l e son g in

o n e of ou r po p u l a r m agaz i nes I ts success was i m med ia t e t ho u gh .
, ,

l ik e a l l h i s wo r k i t m e t w i t h venomo u s c r i t i c i s m D ryde n su m med

, .

up t he i m p r ess i on made on t hough t fu l m i n ds of h i s t ime whe n he

sa id Th is m an cu t s us a ll ou t an d t he an c i e n t s t oo The r eaft e r a
,
"
, .
”

b i t of su n sh i n e came i n t o h i s da r k ened hom e fo r t he wo r k s t am p ed ,

h i m as on e of t he wo r ld s gr ea t w r i t e r s an d f r om E n glan d an d t he C on
’

tin e n t p i lgr i ms ca m e in i n c r eas i n g numbe r s t o s p ea k t he i r gr a t i t ude .

T h e n ex t yea r M il t on began h i s P a r a dis e R eg a i n e d I n 1 6 7 1 a p .

p e a re d h i s las t i mpo rt a n t wo r k S a m s on Ag on i s te s t he most po w e r ful , ,

d ramat i c poem on t he G r ee k m odel wh i ch ou r l an gu age p ossesses .

T h e p i c t u r e of Is r ael s m igh ty cham p i on b l i n d a l o n e a ffl i c t ed by

’

, , ,

t ho u gh t l ess enem i es b u t p r ese rv i n g a nob l e i deal t o t he end i s a

.

fi tt i n g close t o t he l ife wo r k of t he poe t h i m self Fo r yea r s he was .

s il e n t d r eam in g who sha l l say wha t d r eams in h i s da r k n ess and say

, ,

in g chee r f u lly t o h i s f r i e n ds S t ill gu i des t he heave n l y v i s i o n He ”

, .

d i ed p eacefu l ly in 1 6 7 4 t he mos t subl i me an d t he mos t lon ely figu r e ,

in ou r l i t e r a t u r e .

Mil t on ’
s h i s e arly work M i lton appears
E arly P oet ry .
l
In
as th e i nhe r i tor of all t hat was be s t i n E l i zabe than l i te ratu re ,

and h i s fi rst work the od e O n the M orn i ng of C hr i st s N a ,

’

tiv i ty approache s t he h i gh wate r mark of lyr i c poe try i n

,
”
-

E ngland I n t he ne xt S ix years from 1 6 3 1 to 1 6 3 7 h e wrot e

.
, ,

bu t l i ttle scarc ely more than two thousand l i ne s bu t th e se

, ,

are among the most e x qu i s i te and th e most pe rfec tly fi n i shed

i n ou r language .

"
I l P en se roso are tw i n poe ms conta i n
” ”
L A lle g ro and
’

i ng many l i ne s and sh ort de sc r i p t i ve p assage s wh i c h l i nge r i n

the m i nd l i ke s tra i ns of mus i c and wh i ch are known ,
L All g
’
e ro
and loved whe reve r E ngl i sh i s spoke n L A lle g ro .
’ ”

( th e j oyou s or happy man ) i s l i ke an exc u rs i on i nto the E ng

l i sh fi e ld s at su nr i se Th e a i r i s swee t ; b i rd s are s i ng i ng ; a .

1I M ilt s w k w
n
p l i l y th p g ssi v i flu
on
’
or f th P u i t Ag
e se e Th ua n e ro re e n e nce o e r an e . s

h is H t p m or on j y u oe l m tE l iz b th i h t ; h i p i t m i l i
s a re o o s, a os a e an n c arac e r s rose s s e rn ,

t t
an , yi l d i g l ik th P u i t i h i st ggl f l i b ty ; h i l t p try f ll wi g
un e n , e e r an n s ru e or er s a er oe ,
o o n

the a pp tf l ua re n f P uri t is m i th
ai R t
re ti
o h t f d s y tp
an n e e s ora on , as a no e o sa n e s, e ro

l i m th
c a s tr l p ri i p l f l i b ty d j sti f wh i h h h d li v d
e e e na nc es o er an u ce or c e a e .
2 I0 E N GLISH I
L T E R A TU R E

mult i tud e of s i ghts sounds fragrance s fill all the sense s ; and
, , ,

to th i s appeal of nature the soul of man re sponds by be i ng

happy see i ng i n eve ry fl owe r and hear i ng i n eve ry harmony
,
"
some e xqu i s i te symbol of h uman l i fe 1 1 P ense roso take s .
”

u s ove r th e same ground at tw i l i gh t and at moon ri se Th e .

a i r i s st i ll fre sh and fragrant ; the symbol i sm i s i f poss i ble , ,

more tend e rly beau t i ful than before ; bu t th e gay m ood i s

gone th ough i ts me mory l i nge rs i n the afte rglow of th e sun
,

se t A qu i e t though tfulness ta k e s the place of the pure j oyous

.
,

sensat i on of th e mo rn i ng a though tfulne ss wh i c h i s not sad

, ,

though l ik e all qu i e t mood s i t i s ak i n to sadne ss and wh i ch ,

sound s th e d eeps of hu man e mot i on i n the p re se nc e of natu re .

To quote scat te red l i ne s of e i the r poe m i s t o do i n j u st i c e to

both T hey should be read i n th e i r e nt i re ty the same d ay one
.
,

at morn i ng the othe r at e ve nt i de i f one i s to apprec i ate the i r

, ,

beauty and sugge st i ve ne ss .

"
Th e Masque of C omu s i s i n many re spec ts the mos t ”

pe rfec t of M i l ton s poe m s I t was wr i tte n i n 1 6 3 4 to be pe r

’
.

formed a t L udlow C astle before the earl of B r i dge

Corn u s
wate r and h i s fri end s The re i s a trad i t i on that th e .

earl s th ree ch i ld re n had be e n lost i n th e woods and whe th e r

’

, ,

t rue or no t M i lton take s th e s i mpl e them e of a pe rson lost

, ,

calls i n an A tte ndan t S p i r i t to protec t the wande re r and out ,

of th i s w i th i ts natu ral ac t i on and melod i ous songs m ake s

, ,

the mos t e xqu i s i te pastoral d rama that we possess I n form .

i t i s a masque l i ke those gorgeous p rod uc ts of the E l i za b e than

,

age of wh i c h B e n J onson was the maste r E ngl and h ad bor

’
.
~

rowed th e i dea of the masque from I taly and had used i t as

the ch i ef e nte rta i nment at al l fe st i vals u nt i l i t had become ,

to th e noble s of E ngland wh at the m i racl e play h ad bee n to

the common pe 0 p 1e of a p rev i ous gene rat i on M i lton w i th .
,

h i s strong P u ri tan sp i r i t could not be conte nt w i th the m e re

,
"
e nte rta i nment of an i dle hou r C omu s has the gorgeou s .
"

scen i c e ffects th e mu s i c and danc i ng of oth e r masques ; bu t

,

i ts moral purpose and i ts i d e al teach i ngs are u nm i stakable .

2 12 E N GLI SH L I TE R A TU R E

Be s i de s these well known poem s M i lton wrote i n th i s early

-
,
"
pe r i od a fragmentary masque called A rcade s ; seve ral L at i n "

poe ms wh i c h l i ke h i s E ngl i sh are e xqu i s i tely fin

, ,
S t
on n e s "
i s h e d ; and h i s famou s wh i ch brough t "
S onne ts ,

th i s I tal i an form of ve rse ne arly to the po i nt of pe rfec t i on .

I n the m he seldom wrote of love the usual sub j ec t w i th h i s ,

pred ecessors bu t of patr i ot i sm d uty mus i c and sub j ect s of

, , , ,

pol i t i cal i nte rest sugge sted by the s t ruggl e i nto wh i ch E n g

land was d r i ft i ng A mong these sonne ts each read e r must
.

fi nd h i s own favor i te s T hose bes t known and mos t fre que ntly .

quoted are O n H i s D ec ease d Wi fe To the N i ght i ngale ,

” "
,
”

"
O n R each i ng the A g e of Twe nty th ree Th e Massac re i n
”
-
,
"
Pi ed mont and t he two O n H i s Bl i nd ne ss
” ”
.
,

Mil t on s P r os e O f M i lton s p rose works the re are many

’ ’
.

d i ve rgent op i n i ons rangi ng from Macaulay s unbounded pra i se

,
’

to the conde mnat i on of some of our mode rn c r i t i cs F rom a .

l i te rary v i e w po i nt M i l ton s prose would be stronge r i f less ’

v i olent and a mode rn wr i te r would h ard ly be e xcused for

,

us i ng h i s language or h i s me thod s ; bu t we mu s t re me mbe r

the t i me s and th e me thod s of h i s oppone nts I n h i s fi e ry zeal .

aga i nst i n j u st i ce the p oe t i s sudd enly d om i nated by the sol

d i e r s sp i r i t H e fi rs t m uste rs h i s facts i n b a t tal i ons and
’
.
,

c harge s upon the e nemy to c rush and ove rpowe r w i thout

me rcy F or M i lton hate s i n j u st i c e and because i t i s an
.
,

e ne my of hi s people h e cannot and w i ll not spare i t When ,

.

the v i c tory i s won h e e xul ts i n a p aean of v i c tory as soul

,

st i rri ng as t he S ong of D e borah H e i s the poe t aga i n sp i te .

,

of h i mself and h i s m i nd fills w i th magn i fice nt i mage s E ve n

, .

w i th a sub j ec t so dull so barre n of th e bare poss i b i l i t i e s of

,
"
poetry as h i s A n i madve rs i ons upon th e R emonstrants D e
,
’

fe nse h e b reaks ou t i nto an i nvocat i o n Oh Thou that

,
”
,
"
,

s i ttest i n l i gh t and glory unapproac hable parent of angels and ,

men wh i c h i s l i ke a chapte r from th e A poc alypse I n such

,
”
.

passage s M i lton s p rose i s as T ai ne sugge sts an ou tpou ri ng

’

, ,

of splendors wh i ch sugge sts the noblest poe t ry

,
”
.
 TH E P U R I TA N AG E 2 1 3

On account of th e i r controve rs i al charac te r th e se prose

works are seldom re ad and i t i s probable that M i lton neve r ,

thought of the m as worthy of a plac e i n l i te ratu re

Ar p g i t
.

eo a i ca
Of the m all A r e op ag i ti ca has pe rhaps th e mos t pe r
mane nt i nte re s t and i s be s t worth read i ng I n M i lton s t i m e .
’

the re was a law forb i dd i ng the publ i cat i on of book s un t i l they

we re i ndorsed by th e o ffi c i al censor N eedle ss to say the .
,

ce nsor hold i ng h i s o ffi c e and salary by favor was natu rally

, ,

more conce rned w i th the d i v i n e r i gh t of k i ngs and b i shops

than w i th the d el i ghts of l i te ratu re and many book s we re sup ,

pressed for no be tte r reason than that they we re d i spleas i ng

to the author i t i es M i lton prote sted aga i ns t th i s as aga i ns t
.
,

e ve ry othe r form of tyranny and h i s A r e op ag i tic a so called ,

from th e A reopagu s or F oru m of A the ns th e plac e of publ i c ,

appeal and the Mars H i ll of S t Paul s add re ss

, i s t he most .
’

famou s plea i n E ngl i sh for th e fre edom of the pre s s .

Mi l t on s L a ter P oet ry U ndoubted ly th e noble st of M i lton s

’
.
’

works wr i tte n whe n h e was bl i nd and su ffe r i ng are P a r a d i s e

, ,

L os t P a r a d i s e R eg a i n e d and S a m s on Ag on i s t
,
es Th e fi rs t i s
,
.

the greate st i nde ed the only gene rally acknowledged e p i c i n

,

ou r l i te rature s i nc e B e ow u lf ; th e last i s th e mos t pe rfec t

spec i me n of a d rama afte r the G re e k me th od i n ou r l anguage .

O f the h i story of the great ep i c we have some i nte rest i ng

gl i mps es I n C amb r i dge th e re i s pre se rved a notebook of
.

par a di seM i lton s conta i n i ng a l i st of nearly one hu nd red

’

L “
0
sub j e c ts for a great poe m selec ted wh i le he was
1
,

a boy at th e u n i ve rs i ty K i ng A rthu r attracted h i m at fi rs t ;

.

bu t h i s ch o i ce finally se ttled upon th e F all of Man and we ,

have four separate ou tl i ne s show i ng M i lton s p roposed t reat ’

m en t of the subj ec t T hese outl i ne s i nd i cate that h e con

.

te m p la te d a m i gh ty d rama or m i racle play ; bu t wh e the r

because of P u r i tan ant i pathy to plays and playe rs or becau se ,

of th e wre tc hed d ramat i c treatme nt of rel i g i ous sub j e cts wh i c h

1 Of t e se h s ix ty w e re ta enk f ro m i l
th e B b e ,
h i ty th
t r -
r ee f ro m E ng li hs an d fiv e f ro m

S c otc h h i t ry
s o .
2 I4 E N GL ISH L I TE R A TU R E

M i lton had w i tne ssed i n I taly he abandoned th e i dea of a play ,

and se ttled on the form of an ep i c poe m ; most fortuna t ely i t ,

mus t be conc ed ed for M i l to n had not the k nowledge of me n

,

nece ssa ry for a d rama A s a study of charac te r P a r a d i s e

.

L os t would be a gr i evous fa i lu re A dam the ce ntral c harac .

,

te r i s someth i ng of a pr i g ; wh i le S atan looms u p a m ag n i fi

,

c en t figu re ent i re ly d i ffe ren t from the d ev i l of th e m i racle

,

plays and comple tely ove rshadow i ng th e h e ro both i n i nte re s t

and i n manl i ne ss Th e othe r characte rs the A lm i ghty th e
.
, ,

S o n R aphael M i chael the angels and fall e n sp i ri ts are

, , , ,

me rely mouthp i ece s for M i lton s d eclamat i ons w i thou t any ’

pe rsonal o r h u man i nte re st R egarded as a d rama the re .

,

fore P a ra d i s e L os t could neve r have be e n a succe ss ; bu t as

,

poe try w i t h i ts s ubl i me i mage ry i ts h armo n i ous ve rse i ts

'

, , ,

t i tan i c background of he ave n hell and th e i ll i m i table vo i d , ,

t hat l i e s be twe en i t i s unsu rpassed i n any l i te rature

, .

I n 1 6 5 8 M i l ton i n h i s darkne ss sat down to d i c tate th e

work wh i ch h e had planned th i rty years before I n orde r to .

unde rstand the m i gh ty swee p of th e poe m i t i s nece ssary to

su m up the argume nt of th e twelve boo k s as follows : ,

B ook I Op e n s w i t h a stat e m e n t o f th e sub j e c t th e F a ll o f M an a n d , ,

a n ob l e i n v oc ati o n fo r li g h t a n d d ivi n e gu i da n c e T h e n b e g i n s th e .

a c c o u n t o f S ata n a n d t h e re b e l a n ge l s t h e i r b an ish m e n t
Ar g u m e t n ,

o f p ar a di se f r o m h e a v e n a n d t h e i r p l o t to o pp o s e th e d e s i g n of th e
,

L 9 8 1: A l m i g h ty b y d ragg i n g d ow n h i s C hil d re n o u r fi rst p ar e n ts , ,

f r om the i r stat e o f i n n oc e n c e Th e b o o k c l os e s w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f
.

th e l a n d o f fi re a n d e n d l e ss pa i n w h e r e th e f a ll e n sp i r i ts ab i d e a n d th e ,

e r e c t i o n o f P a n d e m o n i um t h e p a l a c e o f S ata n
, B oo k I I i s a d e s c r i pt i o n
.

of t h e c o u n c il o f e vil sp i r i ts o f S ata n s c o n s e n t t o u n d e rta k e th e te m p

’
,

ta ti o n o f A da m a n d E v e a n d hi s j o ur n e y t
, o t h e gat e s o f h e ll w hi c h a re ,

guard e d b y S i n a n d D e at h B oo k I I I tra n sp o rts us to h e a v e n aga i n

. .

G o d f o r e s e e i n g th e f a ll s e n ds R ap h a e l to war n A da m a n d E v e s o t h at
, , ,

t h e i r d i s ob e d i e n c e s h a ll b e u p o n t h e i r o w n h e ads T h e n th e S o n off e rs .

hi m s e l f a sa c r i fi c e to ta k e aw ay th e s in o f th e c o m i n g d i s o b e d i e n c e o f
,

m an . A t th e e n d o f t h i s b oo k S ata n app e ars i n a d i ffe r e n t s c e n e m e e ts ,

U ri e l th e A n ge l o f th e S u n i n qu i r e s f r om h i m th e w ay to e arth a n d
, , ,

ta k e s h i s j o ur n e y t h i t h e r d i sgu i se d as an a n g e l o f l i g h t B oo k I V s h ows .

us P arad i s e a n d th e i n n o c e n t stat e o f m a n A n a n g e l guard i s s e to v e r .

2 1 6 E N G LI S H L TE R A T I UR E
the t heology o r the de sc r i pt i ons of B i ble sc e ne s that ch i efly ,

i nte re sts us T hus M i l ton d e sc r i be s th e separat i on of earth

.

and wate r and th e re i s l i ttle or noth i ng added to th e s i m

,

p li c i t
y and stre ngth of G e n e s is ; bu t the sunse t wh i c h follows
i s M i lton s own d ream and i nstantly we are transported to a
’

land of beauty and poe t ry :

N ow c a m e st il l E v e i g o d T w ili g h t gray n n n , an

H d i h s o b r liv ry ll t hi gs c l ad ;
a n er e e a n

S il c e a c c m pa i e d ; f
en b ast d b i rd o n or e an ,

Th y t o t h e i r grass y c o u c h
e t h e s to th e i r e sts ,
e n

W r e s l u k a ll bu t th e w a k f u l i g h t i ga l e
e n ,
e n n .

S h e a ll i g h t l o g h a m o r o u s d e s c a t su g
n n er n n

S il c e w as p l e as e d
en N w g l o w e d th e fi m m e t . o r a n

Wi th livi g sa pp hi r s He sp e u s t h at l d n e r , e

T h starry h o st r o d b r i g h t e st t il l th e M oo
e , e ,
n ,

R i s i g i C l o ud d m aj e sty at l
n n gt h e , en

A pp ar t qu u v il e d h r p e r l e ss li g h t
en een, n e e e ,

A d o h e dar k h e s ilv e r m a t l e t h r e w
’
t n er r n .

So also M i l ton s A lm i gh ty c ons i de red purely as a l i te rary

’

C harac te r i s unfortunately t i nged w i th t h e narrow and l i te ral

,

theology of the t i me H e i s a be i ng e normously egot i st i c th e .

,

d e spot rathe r than the se rvan t of the un i ve rse seated upon a ,

th rone w i th a c horu s of angels abou t h i m e te rnally s i ng i ng h i s

p ra i se s and m i n i ste r i ng to a k i nd of d i v i ne van i ty I t i s not .

nece ssary to searc h h e ave n for such a c harac te r ; the type i s

too common upon earth Bu t i n S atan M i lton breaks away .

f rom crude med i aeval concep t i ons ; h e follows th e d ream aga i n ,

and g i ve s u s a charac te r to ad m i re and u nde rstand

“
I s t h i s th e r e g i o t hi s th e s il th e c li m n, o , e ,
”

S a i d t h e th e l st Ar c h a g l n t h i s th e s e at
o n e ,
“

Th at w e m u st C h a g e f H av P— t h i s m o u r f u l g l oom
n or e en n

F o t h at c l e st i a l li g h t ? B e i t o s i
r e e He s , nc

Wh o ow i s s ov ra c d i sp o s e d b i d
n n an an

W h at s h a ll b e r i g h t : f art h st f r m H i m i s b st e o e ,

W h om r e as o h at h e qu a ll d f o r h at h m ad su pr m e
n e , ce e e

Ab ov hi s qua l s F ar e w e ll h app y fi l ds
e e .
,
e ,

Wh re joy for v r dw e ll s ! H a il h o rr rs ! h a il
e e e , o ,

I f e r a l Wor l d ! a d t h o u pr o fo u d e st H e ll
n n n , n ,
 TH E P U R I TA N AG E 21 7

R ece iv e t h y new p o ss e s s o r — on e w h o br i n gs
A m i n d n otto b e c h a n g e d b y p l a c e or t i m e .

T h e m i n d i s i ts o w n p l a c e a n d i n i ts e l f
,

C an m a k e a H e a v e n o f H e ll a H e ll o f H e a v e n, .

W h at m att e r w h e r e if I b e st il l th e sa m e
, ,

A n d w h at I s h o u l d b e a ll b u t l e ss t h a n h e
,

\Vh o m t h u n d e r h at h m ad e gr e at e r ? H e r e at l e ast
We s h a ll b e f re e th e A l m i g h ty h at h n o tb u il t
H e r e f o r h i s e n v y w il l n o tdr iv e u s h e n c e :
,

H e r e w e m a y r e i g n s e c ur e a n d i n m y C h oi c e , ,

T o re i g n i s w o rt h a m b i t i o n t h o u g h i n H e ll :
,

B e tte r to r e i g n i n H e ll t h a n s e rv e i n He a v e n .

In th i s magn i fice nt h ero i s m M i l ton has u nconsc i ously i m m or

taliz e d the P ur i tan sp i r i t the same unconqu e rable sp i r i t that
,

se t me n to wr i t i ng poe ms and allegor i e s whe n i n p ri son for

th e fa i th and that se nt the m ove r th e s tormy se a i n a cockle
,

shell to found a fre e c ommonweal th i n th e w i lds of A me r i ca .

F o r a mode rn read e r th e unde rstand i ng of P a ra d i s e L os t

presuppose s two th i ngs a knowledge of th e fi rs t chapte rs of
,

th e S c r i ptu re s and of th e gene ral pr i nc i ple s of C alv i n i st i c

,

theolo gy ; bu t i t i s a p i ty to use the poe m as has so ofte n ,

bee n d one to teach a l i te ral acce ptanc e of one or th e othe r

, .

Of th e theology of P a r a d i s e L os t the leas t sa i d th e be tte r ;

bu t to the splendor of the Pu r i tan d ream and the glor i ous
melody of i ts expre ss i on no word s can do j ust i ce E ve n a .

sl i gh t ac qua i ntance w i ll make th e reade r und e rstand why i t

ranks w i th the D i v i n a Com m e d i a of D ante and w h y i t i s ,

ge ne rally accepted by c r i t i cs as th e greate st s i ngl e poe m i n

ou r l i te ratu re .

S oon afte r the comple t i on of P a ra d i s e L os t T homas E ll ,

wood a fr i e nd of M i l ton asked one day afte r read i ng th e

, ,
"
P r di
a a se
manusc r i pt Bu t what h as t thou to say of Para
,

R g i d
e a ne
d i se F ound ? I twas i n re sponse to th i s sugge st i on
”

that M i l ton wrote th e second part of th e great e p i c known ,

to u s as P a r a d i s e R eg a i n e d Th e fi rs t tell s how mank i nd i n

.
,

the pe rson of A dam fell at th e fi rst temptat i on by S atan and

,

became an ou tcas t from Parad i se and from d i v i ne grace ; the

2 I8 E NG L I S H I
L TE R A T UR E
sec ond shows how mank i nd i n the pe rson of C hr i s t w i th , ,

stand s the tempte r and i s e stabl i she d once more i n the

d i v i ne favo r C hr i st s tem ptat i on i n the w i ld e rne ss i s the
.
’

the me and M i lton follows the accou nt i n th e fou rth c hapte r

,

of Matthew s gospel Though P a ra d i s e R eg a i n e d was M i l

’
.

ton s favor i te and thou gh i t h as many passage s of nobl e

’

though t and sple nd i d i mage ry e qual to the be st of P a ra d i s e

L os t th e poe m as a whole falls below the level of the fi rst
, ,

and i s le ss i nt e re st i ng to read .

I n S a m s on Ag on i s te s M i lton tu rns to a more v i tal and pe r

sonal them e and h i s gen i us tran s fig u re s th e sto ry of S am
,

son the m i ghty ch amp i on o f I srael now bl i nd and

S ms
, ,
a on
scorned wor k i ng as a slave among the Ph i l i st i ne s
, .

Th e poe t s a i m was to pre sen t i n E ngl i sh a pu re t ragedy w i th

’

all the pass i on and re stra i nt wh i ch mar k ed th e old G reek d ra

mas T hat h e succeeded whe re othe rs fa i led i s d ue to two
.

cause s : fi rst M i lton h i mself s uggests th e he ro of one of th e

,

G re ek t raged i e s h i s sorrow and affl i c t i on g i ve to h i s nobl e

,
—

nature that touch of melancholy and calm d i gn i ty wh i ch i s i n

perfec t ke ep i ng w i th h i s sub j ec t S econd M i lton i s tell i ng h i s .
,

own story L i k e S amson h e had s truggled m i gh t i ly aga i ns t th e

.

ene m i e s of h i s race ; h e had take n a w i fe from the Ph i l i s t i ne s

and had pa i d th e pe nalty ; he was bl i nd alone scorned by h i s , ,

va i n and though tle ss maste rs To th e e sse nt i al act i on of the .

tragedy M i l ton could add the refore that touch of i nte nse ye t , ,

re stra i ned pe rsonal f eel i ng wh i c h carr i e s more conv i c t i on than

any argumen t S a m s on i s i n many re spe cts the most couv i n
.

c i ng of h i s wor k s E nt i rely apart from the i nte re st of i ts sub

.

je c t and t reatme nt one may obta i n from i t a be tte r i de a of

,

what great tragedy was among the G re eks than from any
othe r wor k i n our language .

N o t h i n g i s he r e fo r te ars n o t hi n g to wa il ,

O r k n o c k th e br e ast n o w e a k n e ss n o c on t e m pt
, , ,

D i spra i s e o r b l a m e n ot hi n g b ut w e ll a n d f a i r
,
—
,

An d w h at m a y qu i e t u s i n a d e at h s o n ob l e .
2 20 E NG L I S H I
L T E R AT UR E
mul t i p l i ca t ion of s tran ge sec t s — Q u ak e r s Fr ee Wi l l e rs R an t e r s
, ,
-
, ,

An aba pt i s t s M il le n a r i an s — an d t he u n t e m p e r ed z e a l of a l l c l asses
, , ,

l ik e an e n gin e w i t ho u t a ba l an ce whe e l whe n m e n we r e b r eaki ng ,

away fr o m au t ho r i ty and se tt i n g up t he i r 0 e r el igi ous s ta n da rds .

Bu n yan s l ife i s an e p i t o m e of t ha t as t on ish i n g r e ligi ous ind iv idual ism

’

wh ich ma r k ed t he cl o se of t he E n gli sh R efo r ma t ion .

He was bo r n in t he l i tt l e v il lage of E l s t ow n ea r Bedfo rd in 1 6 2 8 , , ,

the so n of a p oo r t i n k e r F or a li tt l e wh il e t he boy wa s se n t t o schoo l

.
,

whe r e he lea r n ed t o r ead an d wr i t e aft e r a fash i o n ; bu t h e was soon

b u sy in h i s fa t he r s sh o p w he r e am i d t he gl owin g po t s an d t he fire
’

, ,

an d smo k e o f h i s l i tt l e fo r ge he saw v iv id p i c tu r es of he ll an d t he
,

dev il s wh i ch hau n t ed h i m all h i s l i fe Wh e n he was s ix t ee n yea r s o l d.

h i s fa t h e r ma rr i ed t he seco n d t i m e whe r e u po n Bu n yan ran away an d

,

became a so l d i e r in t he Pa r l iam e n ta ry a r m y .

Th e r el ig i ous fe r me n t o f t he age made a tr emendo u s i mp r ess i on

on B u n ya n s se n s i t i ve i m ag i n a t i on He we n t to ch u r ch o ccas i o n al ly
’
.
,

o n ly to fin d h imse l f wr a p p ed in t e rr o r s an d t o r me n t s by some fiery

i t i n e r an t p r e a c he r ; an d he would r ush v i o l en t ly away fr o m chu r ch
to fo rge t h i s fea r s by j o i n i n g i n S u n day s p o rt s on t he v ill age g r ee n .

A s n igh t ca m e on t he s p o rt s we r e fo rgo tt e n bu t t he t e rr o r s r e tu r n ed , ,

m u l t i p li ed l ik e t he ev i l s p i r i t s o f t he pa r able V i s i o n s o f he l l an d t he .

demon s swa r m ed in h i s b r a in He wou l d gr o an a l oud in h i s r emo r se

. .

a n d eve n yea r s af t e rwa r ds he bem o a n s t he s i n s of h i s ea r ly l if e .

Whe n we l oo k fo r t hem fea r f u l ly ex p e c t i n g so me sh o c kin g c r i m es

,

an d m i s demea n o rs we fin d t , ha t t hey c on s i s t ed of p l ay i n g ba ll on
S u n d ay an d swea r i n g T h e la tt e r s in sad t o say was begu n by
.
, ,

l i st e n i n g t o h i s fa t he r cu r s i n g some obs t i n a t e k e tt l e wh i c h r efuse d to

be t in k e r ed an d i t was pe r fec t ed in t he Pa r lia m e n t a ry a r my On e
, .

day h i s t e rr i b l e swea r i n g sca r ed a woma n a v e ry loo se an d u n god ly ,

"

wr e tch as he t e l ls us who r e pr i ma n ded h i m fo r h is p r ofan i ty Th e

,
”
,
.

r e pr o ac h of t he poo r wo m a n w e n t s tra igh t h ome l ik e t he vo i ce of a ,

pr o p h e t All h i s p r ofan i ty lef t h i m ; he h u n g do w n h i s head wi t h

.

sh a m e . I wi shed w i t h a l l my hea rt he s ay s t ha t I m igh t be a

"
,
”
,
"

l i tt l e c h il d aga i n t ha t my fa the r m igh t l ea r n me t o speak wi th

,

ou t t h is wi c k ed way of swea r i n g Wi t h ch arac t e r i st i c veheme n ce

.
”

B u n ya n h u r ls h imself u p on a pr om i s e of S c r i ptu r e an d i n s tan t ly t he ,

r efo r m a t i on begi n s t o wo r k iii h i s s ou l He cas t s ou t t he h a b i t r oo t .

,

a n d b r a n ch an d fi n ds t o h i s as t o n i shm e n t t ha t he c an s p ea k mo r e
,

fr ee l y an d v igo r o u sl y t han befo r e N o t h i n g i s mo r e cha r ac t e r i st i c

.

of t he m an t ha n t h i s sudde n se iz in g u p on a t e x t wh ich he had ,

 TH E P U R I TA N AG E 22 1

doub tless hea r d man y t i m es b e fo r e an d be in g s u dd e n ly r a i sed u p ,

o r cas t down by i t s in fl u e n ce .

Wi t h Bu n yan s ma rr iage t o a good woman t he r e al r efo r m at i on in

’

h is l ife bega n Wh i le s t il l in h i s t eens he ma rr i ed a gi r l as p oo r as

.

h imse l f We ca m e t oge t he r he says as poo r as m ight be hav

.
,
”
,
"
,

in g n otso much household s t uff as a d i sh or spoo n be tween u s bo t h

”
.

T h e o n ly d owry wh i ch t he gi r l b r o ugh t t o he r new home was tw o old ,

t h r eadba r e book s Th e P la i n M a n s P a th w ay to H e a ven and Th e

,
’

P r a cti ce of P i e t y Bu n yan r e ad t hese book s wh i ch i n st antly gave

.
1
,

fire t o h i s i ma g i n a t i o n H e saw n e w v i s i on s an d d r eamed t e rr i ble new

.

d r eams of los t sou l s ; h i s a tt e n dan c e a t chu r ch gr e w exe m p l a ry ; he

bega n sl owl y an d p a i n f u l ly t o r ead t he B ible fo r h i mself b u tbecause ,

of h i s ow n ign o r a n ce an d t he co n tr ad ic t o ry i n t e r p r e t a t i on s of S c r i p
tu r e wh i ch he hea r d on eve ry s i de he was t ossed abou t l ik e a fea t he r ,

by al l t he win ds of d o c tr i n e .

T h e r e co r d of t he nex t few yea r s i s l ik e a n igh t ma r e so te rr i ble i s ,

Bu n yan s sp i r i tu al s tru ggl e On e day h e fee l s h imse l f an ou t cas t ;

’
.

t he n e x t t he co m p an i on of ange l s ; t he t h i r d he tr i es e x pe r i me n t s
wi t h t he A l m igh ty in o rde r to p u t h i s sa l va t i on t o t he p r oof A s he .

g oes a l o n g t he r o ad t o Bedfo r d he t h i n k s he w il l wo r k a m i r acle l ik e ,

G id eon w i t h h i s fl eece H e w il l say to t he l i tt le p uddles of wa t e r in

.

t he ho r se s t r ac k s B e ye d ry ’
a n d t o a l l t he d ry tr ac k s he w il l
,

say Be ye p uddles
,
"
A s he i s ab ou t to pe r fo r m t he m i rac l e a
.
”

t hough t occ u r s t o h i m : Bu t go fi rs t u n de r yo n de r hedge an d p ray

t ha t t he L o r d wil l mak e you ab l e to pe r fo r m a m i r ac l e H e go e s .
”

p r om p t ly an d p r ays Then he i s afr a i d of t he t es t an d goes on h is

.
,

Way mo r e t r oub l ed t han befo r e .

A ft er yea r s of such s tr uggl e chased abou t be tween heaven an d ,

he l l B u n yan a t las t eme rges i n t o a san e r a t mos p he r e eve n as P i lgr i m

, ,

cam e ou t of t he ho rr ible Va ll ey of t he S had ow S o on l ed by h i s i n t e n se .

,

fee l in gs he becomes an o p e n a i r p r eache r and c r o w ds o f labo r e r s

,
-
,

ga t he r ab o u t h im on the v i l l age gr e e n They li s t e n in s i le n ce t o h i s .

wo rds ; t hey e n d in gr oan s an d t ea r s ; sco r es of t hem ame n d t he i r

s inful l ives F o r t he A n gl o S a xo n pe 0 p 1e a r e rema r k ab l e fo r t h is
.
-
,

t ha t howeve r dee p ly t hey a r e e n gaged i n b u s i n ess o r pleasu r e t hey ,

a r e s t i l l sens i t iv e as ba r ome t e r s t o any tr ue s p i r i tu a l i n fl ue n ce whe t he r ,

of p r i es t o r p easan t ; t hey r ecogn i z e wha t E m e r son calls t he accen t

1 Th e l atte r was b y L ewi B yl y b i h p f B g I ti i t r sti g t t th
s a ,
s o o an or . s n e e n o no e at

t hi s b oo k wh
,
o se v y ti tl is u f m i l i t w sp d i l y t l t d i t fi d i ff r
er e n a ar o us, as ee ra n s a e n o ve e ent

l
a n gu a
ge s . I th a d m u
a n e no r l d th gh fifty d i ti s
o s sa e , a n ft p ub l i ti
ran rou e on soo n a er ca on .
222 E NG L I S H I
L TE R AT U RE
of t he Holy Ghost an d in t h is r ecogn i t i on of s p i r i t ual leade r sh i p
,
”

li es t he sec r e t of t he i r democ r acy So t h is v illage t in k e r wi t h h i s .

,

s tr e n gt h an d s i nce r i ty i s p r ese n t ly th e ac k n ow l edged leade r of an

,

i m me n se con gr e gat ion an d h i s i n fl u e n ce i s fe l t t h r ougho u t E nglan d

, .

I t i s a tr i b ut e to h is p owe r t ha t aft e r t he r e t u r n of C ha r les I I Bun yan, ,

was t he fi r s t t o be p r oh i b i t ed fr o m hold i n g p u b l i c mee t i n gs .

C on ce r n i n g B u n ya n s i m p r i so n me n t in Bedfo rd j a il wh i ch fol l owed

’

h i s r ef u sal t o obey t he la w p r oh i b i t in g r el igi o u s mee t in gs w i t ho u t t he

a u t h o r i ty of t he E s tab lished C hu r ch t he r e i s a d iffe r e n ce of O p in i on , .

Th at t he law was u n j u s t goes wi t hou t say i n g ; b u t t he r e was no r el i

gion s p e r sec u t ion as we u n de r s tan d t he t e r m Bun yan was a l l owed t o
,
.

wo r sh i p whe n an d how he p leased he was s i mply fo r b idde n t o ho l d

p u b li c m ee t in gs wh i ch fr e qu e n t ly became fie r c e de n u n c i at i on s of t he
,

E s tab li shed C h u r ch an d gove r n me n t H i s j u d ges p l e aded w i t h Bu n yan .

to c o n fo r m w i t h t he law H e r e fused say i n g tha t whe n t he S p i r i t

.
,

was u p on h im he m u s t go u p an d down t he lan d call in g on m e n ,

eve ry w he r e to r epe n t I n h i s r efusal we see much he r o i sm a l i tt le

.
,

o bs t i n acy a n d pe r h a p s s o m e t h i n g o f t ha t des i r e fo r m a rty r dom wh i ch

,

t em pt s eve ry s p i r i tu al l e a de r Tha t h i s fi n a l se n t en ce t o i ndefi n i t e

.

i m pr ison m e n t was a ha rd b l ow t o Bun yan i s beyon d ques t i on He .

gr oan ed a l o u d a t th e t ho u gh t of h i s p o o r fa m il y an d espec i al ly a t t he ,

t hough t of l eavi n g h i s li tt l e b li n d da u gh t e r :
I fo u d m ys l f a m a
n c o m p ass e d w i t h i fi m i t
e i
n en h e p art i g w as
; t n r es n

li k e p u lli g th e fl s h f ro m m y b s
n e O h th t h u g h ts o f th h ard on e .
, e o e

s h i p I t h o u g h t m y p oo r b li d o e m i g h t g o u d e r w o u l d br a k m y h art
n n n e e

to p i e c e s P o r c hil d t h o ug h t I w h at s rr ow t h o u a rt li k to h a v e fo
. o , , o e r

t h y p rt i o i t hi s w o r l d ; t h o u m u st b b e at e m ust b e g s u ffe r h u g e r
o n n e n, , n ,

c ol d , a k d e ss
n e d a t h o usa d c a l a m i t i e s t h o ug h I c a
n , an ot o w e d u re
n ,
nn n n

t h at th w i d s h o u l d b l ow u p t h e e
e n on .
1

An d t he n be ca u se he t h i n k s always in p a r ables an d see k s ou t mos t

,

cu r io u s t ex t s of S c r i ptu r e he s p eak s of t he tw o m il ch ki n e t ha t
"
,

we r e to c arry t he a r k o f G od i n t o a n o t he r c o u n try an d leave t he i r

calves b e h i n d t hem ”
Po o r c ows p oo r Bu n yan ! S u ch i s t he m i n d
.
,

o f t h i s e xtra o r d i n a ry m an .

Wi t h cha r ac t e r i st i c d il ige n ce B u n ya n se tt o wo r k in p r i so n m a ki n g
shoe l ac e s an d so ea r n e d a l iv i n g fo r h i s f a m ily H i s i m p r i son m e n t
, .

l a st ed fo r n e ar l y twe l ve y e a rs ; b u t he saw h i s fam ily fr e que n t ly an d ,

was fo r som e t i m e a r e gu l a r p r eache r in t he Ba p t is t c hu r ch in

1 Ab i d g d fr e ro m Gr a c e Ab ou n d i n g , P a rt 3 ; Wor h s ( e d .
p 71. .
2 24 E N GLI SH L I T E R A TU R E

Wor k s of B u n y an T h e world s l i te ratu re has th re e great .

’

allegor i e s — S pe nse r s F a e ry Qu e e n D ante s D i v i n a Com m e

,
’

,
’

d i a and Bunyan s P i lg r i m s P r og r e s s Th e fi rst appeal s to

’ ’
.
,

poets the second to scholars the th i rd to people of eve ry age

, ,

and cond i t i on H e re i s a b r i ef ou tl i ne of the famous work :

.

“
As I wa l k e d t h r o ug h th e w il d e r ss o f th i s w o r l d I li gh t e d o a ne n

c e rta i p l a c e w h e r was a d e [B e d fo rd j a il ! d l a i d m d w i t h at
n e n an e o n n

p l a c e to s l e e p ; a d as I s l e pt I d r e a m e d a d r e a m S n , , .
”
o

h e story b e g i s c a ll d C h r i st i a s e tt i g
f
t
o
H s s a m n e ee an e n n
P lg m
i ri
’

o tW t h a b oo k
s
n h s ha d
u d a gri e at l ad o h ba k
.

i i n an o n is c
P g ro re s s
f r o m th e c i ty o f D e stru c t i C h r i st i a h as tw o o b j e c ts on . n ,

to g e t r i d o f h i s b u rd e w hi c h h ol ds th e s i s d fe ars o f hi s l ife n , n an ,

a d t
n o m a k e hi s way t o t h H ol y C i ty A t th e o uts e t E v a g e li st fi ds e . n n

h i m w e e p i g b e c aus h e k o ws o t w h e r t
n o g o a d p oi ts h i m t
e o a n n e ,
n n

w i c k e t gate o a h ill f ar aw ay A s C h r i st i a g o e s f o rward h i s e i gh

n . n n

b ors f r i e ds wif e d c hil d r e c a l l to h im to c o m e ba c k ; but h e p uts

,
n ,
an n

hi s fi g e rs i hi s e ars c ryi g o t L i fe life e t e r a l life a d s o rus h e s

n n , n u , , , n ,
”
n

a c r oss th e p l a i n .

Th b g i s a j o ur e y i te stag e s w h i c h i s a viv i d p i c tu r e o f th e
en e n n n n ,

d i flflc lti s u d tr i u m p h s f th e C h r i st i a
e an lif E v r y tri al e v e ry d i fli o n e . e ,
‘

c u l ty e v e ry e x p e r i e c e o f jo y o
,
s o rr w o f p e a c e o t e m ptat i o i s p ut
n r o , r n,

i t o th e fo r m a d d i s c o u rs e o f a l ivi g C h ara c t r O th r a l l e g o r i sts

n n n e . e

wr i te i p oe try a d t h e i r c h ara c t e rs a e s h ad ow y a d u r a l b u t B u ya
n n r n n e n n

sp a k s i t e rs e i d i o m ati c pro s e
e n d hi s C h ara c t rs
, e l ivi g m e a d , an e ar n n n

w om T he re e M r Wo r l d l y W i s e m a a s e l f ti fie d d d og m at i c '

en . ar . n ,
-
sa s an

k i d o f m a y o u th f u l I g ora c e s w e t Pi e ty c o u rte o us D e m as gar

n n, n n , e , ,

ru lo us T a l k at iv e h o e st F a i t h f u l a d a s c o r e o f ot h e rs w h o
, n o tat , n , a re n

a ll th e b l ood l e ss c r e atur s o f th R m e of t h R b u t m e r al e e o anc e os e , n e

e o ug h t
n o st o p yo o th r o ad d to h l d y o u r att t i o
u n S c e e a ft r
e an o en n . n e

s c e f ol l o ws i n w h i c h e p i tu r d m a y o f o ow s p i ri tu a l e xp e
ne , ar c e n ur n

r ie c n T h r e i s th S l o ug h o f D e sp o d i t o w h i c h w e ll h a v e f a ll e
es . e e n , n a n ,

o t o f w hi c h
u Pli ab l e s c ra m b l s o th e h i th e r s i d e a d g oe s ba k e n n c

gru m b li g b ut t h r o ug h w h i c h C h ri sti a strugg l s m i g h t ily t il l H e l p f u l

n , n e

str t c h s h i m a h a d a d d rags h i m o t o s oli d gr ou d d b i ds h i m

e e n n u n n an

go hi s w ay T h c m e I t rpr e t r s h o us th e P a l a c e B e aut i f u l
on . en o
’
n e e
’
e , ,

th e L i o s i th way T n h e V a ll y o f H u m ili at i o
n e th e h ard fi g h t w i t h t
,
h e n, e

d e m o Ap oll yo th m o r t e rr i b l e V a ll y o f th e S h ad o w V a i ty F a i r
n n , e e e , n ,

a d t
n h e tri a l o f F a i t h f u l T h e l atte r i o de m ed t o d at h b y a j u ry . s c n n e

m ad e u p o f M r B li d m a M r N ogo od M r H e ady M r L i e loo e M r

. n n , .
, .
, . v s , .

H te li gh t
a d o t h e rs , f t h i r k i d t w h o m q u st i o s o f j ust i e a e
an o e n o e n c r

p om m it te d b y th e j u ry s yste m M ost f a m o us i s D o ubt i g C astl w h e re . n e,

C h i st i ar d H p f u l a e t h r ow
n an i to a d u g o b y G i a t D e spa i r
o e r n n n e n n .
 T H E P U R I TA N AG E 225

An d th e n at l as t th e D e l e c tab l e M o u n ta i n s o f Yout h th e d e e p r iv e r t h at ,

C h r i st i a n m ust c r oss a n d th e c i ty o f A l l D e li g h t a n d th e g l o r i o u s c o m
,

pa n y o f a n g e l s t h at c o m e s i n g i n g d ow n th e str e e ts A t th e v e ry e n d .
,

w h e n i n s i g h t o f th e c i ty an d w h il e h e c a n h e ar th e w e l c o m e w i th w h i c h
C h r i st i a n i s gre e t e d I g n o ra n c e i s s n at c h e d away to g o to h i s ow n p l a c e ;
,

a n d B u n y a n qua i n t l y o bs e r v e s T h e n I saw t h at t h e r e was a wa y to

“
,

h e l l e v e n f r om th e gat e s o f h e a v e n as w e ll as f r om th e c i ty o f D e s tru c
t i on S o I aw o k e a n d b e h o l d i t w as a dr e a m !
.
,
”

S u c h i n br i e f i s th e st or y th e gr e at e p i c o f a P u r i ta n s i n d ivi dua l e x
’
, , ,

p e r i e n c e i n a r o ug h w o r l d j ust as P a r a d i s e L os twas th e e p i c o f m a n k i n d
,

as d r e a m e d b y th e gr e at P ur i ta n w h o h ad f al l e n as l e e p ov e r hi s B i b l e
“ ”
.

Th e ch i e f fac t wh i c h confronts the stude nt of l i te ratu re as

h e pause s be fo re th i s great allegory i s t hat i t has be e n trans
Su cce s f
s o
lated i n to seve n ty fiv e language s and d i alec ts and -

P i l gri m ’
has bee n read more than any o the r book save one
s
P gr
ro ess
i n th e E ngl i sh language .

"
A s for th e sec re t of i ts pop ular i ty T a i ne say s N e xt to , ,

th e B i ble th e book mos t w i dely read i n E ngland i s the P il

,

g r i m s P r og r e s s
’
P rote stant i sm i s th. e doctr i ne of sal va
t i on by grace and no wr i te r has e qualed B unyan i n mak i ng
,

th i s d oc t r i ne u nde rstood A n d th i s Op i n i on i s e c hoed by th e

.
”

ma j or i ty of ou r l i te rary h i stor i ans I t i s pe rh aps su ffi c i e nt .

answe r to quot e the s i mple fac t that P i lg r i m s P rog r e s s i s ’

not e xclu s i vely a P rote s tant s tudy ; i t appeals to C hr i st i ans

of e ve ry name and to Mohammedan s and B uddh i sts i n pre
,

c is e ly the same way that i t appeals to C h r i st i ans Whe n i t .

was translated i nto the language s of C ath ol i c cou ntr i e s l i ke ,

F ranc e and Portugal only one or two i nc i d ents we re om i tted , ,

and the s tory was almost as popular th e re as w i th E ngl i sh

re ad e rs Th e se c re t of i t s succe s s i s probably s i mple I t i s
. .
,

fi rst of all not a proce ss i on of shadows re peat i ng th e aut h o r s

,
’

d ecl amat i ons bu t a real sto ry the fi rst e x te nded

, ,

la n guage O u r P u r i tan fathe rs may have read t

.

re l i g i ous i nstruc t i on ; but all classe s of

cause they found i n i t a t rue pe rsonal
strength i nte re st hu mor — in a word
, , , ,

that suc h a story should posse ss Y oun .

226 E N G L I S H L I TE R A TU R E

fi rst for i ts i ntr i ns i c worth because the d ramat i c i nte res t of

, ,

the story lured the m on to the ve ry e nd and second because ,

i t was the i r i ntroduc t i on to t rue allegory Th e ch i ld w i th .

h i s i mag i nat i ve m i nd th e man also who h as p re se rved h i s ,

s i mpl i c i ty — n atu rally p e rs on i fie s ob j ec ts and ta k e s pleasu re ,

i n g i v i ng them powe rs of th i nk i ng and spea k i ng l i ke h i m self .

B unyan was the fi rst wr i te r to appeal to th i s pleasant and

natural i nc l i nat i on i n a way that all could u nd e rstand A d d .

to th i s th e fac t that P i lg r i m s P r og re ss was the only book

’

hav i ng any sto ry i nte re s t i n th e great ma j or i ty of E ngl i sh

and A me r i can h ome s for a full ce ntury and we have fouh d ,

the real reason for i ts w i de read i ng .

Th e Holy Wa r publ i shed i n 1 6 6 5 i s th e fi rst i mportant

, ,

wor k of B unyan I t i s a prose P a ra d is e L os t and would u n

.
,

doubtedly be known as a re markable allegory were

Ot h r W rk
o
e
f Bu yn
o
i
an
t s
not ove rshadowed by i ts great r i val G ra c e .

A bou n d i ng to th e Ch i ef of S i n n e rs publ i shed i n ,

1 66 6 twel ve years before P i lg r i m s P rog re ss i s the work

,
’

from wh i c h we obta i n the cle are st i ns i ght i nto B unyan s re ’

markable l i fe and to a man w i th h i stor i cal or ant i quar i an

,

taste s i t i s st i ll e xcelle nt read i ng I n 1 6 8 2 appeared Th e .

L ife a n d D e a t h of M r B a d m a n a r e al i st i c c harac te r s tudy

.
,

wh i c h i s a prec ursor of the mode rn novel ; and i n 1 6 8 4 the

second part of P i lg r i m s P rog re s s show i ng the j ourney of
’

C hr i st i ana and he r ch i ldr e n to the c i ty of A ll D el i ght Be s i de s .

th e se B unyan publ i shed a mul t i tud e of treat i se s and se rmons ,

all i n the same style — d i rec t S i mple conv i nc i ng express i ng

, , , ,

every though t and e mot i on pe rfec tly i n words that eve n a

ch i ld can unde rstand M any of the se are maste rp i ece s ad
.
,

m i red by wor k i ngme n and scholars al ik e for the i r thought and

"
for i nstanc e Th e H eave nly F ootman
, ,
”

w i th the be s t work of L at i me r and th e ,

le i s startl i ng I t i s d i ffi cul t to real i ze

.

e from an i gnoran t t in ke r and th e othe r

engaged i n t he same ge ne ral work .
228 E NG L I S H I
L T E R AT UR E
R ob e r t B u rton ( Burton 1 i s
5 77famous ch i efly as
the au thor of the of M e la n c h o y one of the most
A n a tom y
l ,

aston i sh i ng books i n all l i te ratu re wh i c h appeared i n 1 6 2 1 , .

Burton was a cle rgyman of the E stabl i shed C hu rch an i n c o m ,

prehens i ble gen i us g i ve n to brood i ngs and melancholy and

,

to read i ng of e ve ry conce i vable k i nd of l i te ratu re Thanks to .

h i s wond erful m e mory everyth i ng h e read was stored u p fo r

,

use or ornament t i ll h i s m i nd re se mbled a huge c u ri os i ty

,

sh 0 p A ll h i s l i fe he su ffe red from hypochond r i a bu t cu r i

.
,

ousl
y trac ed h i s malady to th e stars rathe r than to h i s own
l i ve r I t i s related of h i m that he u sed to s u ffe r so from d e
.

s p o n d e n c y that no help was to be found i n med i c i ne or the

olo gy ; h i s only rel i ef was to go down t o th e r i ve r and hear

the barge me n swear at one anothe r .

Bu rton s A na tomy was b e g u n as a med i cal t reat i se on mor

'

b id n e s s arranged and d i v i ded w i th all the e xac tness of the

,

s c h o o lm e n s d e monstrat i on of d oc tr i n es ; bu t i t turned ou t to
’

be an e normous hodgepodge of quotat i ons and refe rence s

to authors known and unknown l i v 1 ng and d ead wh i c h
, , ,
"
se e med to prove ch i efly that muc h study i s a wear i ne ss to
”
the fl esh By some freak of tas te i t became i nstantly p op u
.

lar and was procla i med o n e of the greate st books i n l i te rature

, .

A fe w sc holars s t i ll e xplore i t w i th del i gh t as a m i ne of class i c ,

wealth ; but the style i s h opele ssly i nvolve d and to th e ord i ,

nary reade r most of h i s nume rous refe re nce s are now as u n

mean i ng as a hype r j acob i an su rface -
.

S i r Th om as Br ow n e ( 1 6 0 5 B rowne was a phys i c i an

who afte r muc h s tudy and travel se ttled down to h is p ro fe s
, ,

s i on i n N orw i c h ; bu t e ve n t hen h e gave far more t i me to th e

i nve st i gat i on of natu ral phe nome na than to the barbarou s
prac t i c es wh i ch largely const i tu ted t he art of med i c i ne i n " "

h i s d ay H e was known far and w i de as a learned doc tor and

.

an hon e st man whose sc i ent i fi c stud i e s had placed h i m i n ad

,

vance of h i s age and whose rel i g i ous v i e ws we re l i be ral to th e

,

po i nt of he re sy Wi th th i s i n m i nd i t i s i nte re st i ng to note
.
, ,
 TH E P U R I TA N AG E 229

as a s i gn of th e t i me s th at th i s most sc i ent i fi c doc tor was

,
"
onc e called to g i ve e xpe rt te st i mony i n th e case of two old
"

wome n who we re be i ng tr i ed for the cap i tal c r i me of w i tch

"
c raft H e te st i fi ed unde r oath that the fi ts we re natu ral
.
,

bu t he i ghtene d by th e d ev i l s co ope rat i ng w i th the w i tche s

’

at whose i nstanc e h e [th e alle ge d d ev i l ! d i d th e v i lla i n i e s .

"

B rowne s great work i s the R e ligi o M e d i c i i e Th e R el i g i on

’

, . .

of a Phys i c i an wh i c h me t w i th mos t u nusual suc cess .

"
R l i gi
e o H ardly eve r was a bo ok publ i sh ed i n B r i ta i n ,
”

M d ia
e
says Old y s a C h ron i cle r who wrote nearly a c entury
’

late r that mad e more no i se than the R e ligi o M e d ic i

,
"
I ts .
”

succe s s may be d ue largely to the fac t that among thousand s ,

of rel i g i ous wo rks i t was one of the fe w wh i c h saw i n nature

,

a profound revelat i on and wh i c h treated pu rely rel i g i ou s

,

sub j ects i n a reve re nt k i ndly tole ran t way w i thou t e c c le s i

, , ,

as t i c al b i as I t i s st i ll the refore e xcelle nt read i ng ; bu t i t i s

.
, ,

no t so m uch the matte r as t he manne r — the charm the ,

ge ntlene ss the re markable p rose style — wh i c h has e stab

,

li s h e d the boo k as one of the class i cs of o u r l i te ratu re .

Tw o othe r works of B rowne are V ulg a r E r rors a

c u r i ous comb i nat i on of sc i ent i fic and c redulous re search i n
the matte r of popular supe rst i t i on and U rn B u r i a l a treat i se , ,

sugge ste d by the d i scove ry of R oman bu r i al urns at Wals in g

ham I t began as an i nqu i ry i nto th e var i ou s me thod s of bu r i al
.
,

bu t e nded i n a d i sse rtat i on on the van i ty of earthly h ope and

amb i t i ons F rom a l i te rary po i nt of V i e w i t i s B rowne s be st
.
’

work but i s le s s read than the R e ligi o M e d ic i

,
.

Th omas F u ller ( 1 6 0 8 F ulle r was a cl e rg yman and

royal i st whose l i vely s tyle and w i tty obse rvat i ons would natu
rally plac e h i m w i th th e gay C arol i ne poe ts H i s be st known .

works are Th e H oly Wa r Th e H oly S ta te a n d th e P r of a n e

,

S ta te Ch u rc h H i s tory of B r i ta i n and the H i s tory of t

, he
,

Wor th ze s of E ng la n d Th e H oly a n d P r of a n e S ta te i s ch i efly

.

a b i ograph i cal record the fi rst part cons i st i n g of nu me rou s

,

h i stor i cal e xample s to be i m i tated the second of example s to ,

2 30 E N G L I S H L I TE R ATU R E

be avo i ded Th e Ch u rc h H i s tory i s not a scholarly work not

.
,

w i th stand i ng i ts author s undoubted learni ng but i s a l i vely

’

and goss i py account wh i ch has at leas t one v i rtue that i t ,

e nte rta i ns the reade r Th e Wor th i e s th e mos t w i dely re ad

.
,

of h i s works i s a racy acc ount of the i mportant me n of E n g

,

land F ulle r t raveled cons tantly for years collec t i ng i n fo r

.
,

mat i on fro m ou t of th e way source s and ga i n i ng a m i nute

- - -

knowle dge of h i s own coun t ry Th i s w i th h i s ove rflow i ng.

,

h umor and nume rous anecdotes and i llus trat i ons make s l i vely ,

and i nte re st i ng read i ng I nd eed we hard ly fi nd a dull page

.
,

i n any of h i s nu me rou s books .

Je r e m y Tay lor ( 1 6 1 3 Taylor was the greate st of

th e cle rgy me n who made th i s pe r i od famous a man who l i ke , ,

M i lton u ph eld a noble i d eal i n storm and cal m and h i m

, ,
"
self l i ve d i t nobly H e has bee n called the S hake speare of
.

d i v i ne s and a k i nd of S p e n s br i n a cassock and both

,
" "
,
”

de sc r i pt i ons apply to h i m ve ry well H i s wr i t i ngs w i th the i r

.
,

e xube rant fancy and t he i r noble d i c t i on belong rathe r to ,

th e E l i zabe than than to the P ur i tan age .

F rom th e large numbe r of h i s works two stand out as re p re

se n t at iv e of the man h i mself : Th e L ib e r t y of P r op h e sy i ng
wh i c h H allam calls the fi rst ple a for tole rance i n
rel i g i on on a compre he ns i ve bas i s and On de ep se ated foun
,
-

dat i ons ; and Th e R u le s a n d E x e rc i s e s of Holy L i v i ng 1 6

To the latte r m i gh t be added i ts compan i on vol ume H oly ,

Dy i ng publ i shed i n the follow i ng year

, Th e H oly L i v i ng .

a n d Dy i n
g as a s i ngle volume was fo r many years read i n
, ,

almost e ve ry E ngl i sh cottage Wi th Baxte r s S a i n ts R e s t

.
’ ’

P i lg r i m s P rog r e s s and th e K i ng j a m e s B i b le i t ofte n con

’

, ,

st i tuted th e e nt i re l i brary of mult i tude s of P u r i tan h omes ;

and as we read i ts noble words and breathe i ts ge ntle sp i r i t ,

we c annot help w i sh i ng th at our mode rn l i brar i e s we re gathe red

toge the r on the same though tful fou nd at i ons .

Th i s bu s i e st m an of h i s "
R i c h ar d B ax te r ( 1 6 1 5
”
a ge strongly sugge s ts Bu nyan i n h i s l i fe and wr i t i ngs L i k e .
232 E N G LI S H I
L TE R A T UR E
the fi she rman d i scourse abou t h i s art Th e conve rsat i ons i t .
,

must be confe ssed are ofte n d i ffuse and pedant i c ; bu t they ,

only ma k e u s feel most comfortably sleepy as one i nvar i ably ,

feels afte r a good day s fi sh i ng S o k i ndly i s the sp i r i t of the ’

.

angl er so e xqu i s i te h i s app rec i at i on of the beau ty of the earth

,

and sky th at one re tu rn s to the book as to a favor i te t rou t

, ,

stream w i th the u ndy i ng e xpec tat i on of catch i ng some th i ng

, ,

A mong a thou sand boo k s on angl i ng i t stand s al most alone i n

posse s s i ng a charm i ng style and so i t w i ll probably be read ,

as long as me n go fi sh i ng Be s t of all i t lead s to a be tte r ap .

,

prec i at i on of nature and i t d rops l i ttle moral lessons i nto the ,

reade r s m i nd as gently as one casts a fly to a wary trout ;

’

so that one neve r suspec ts h i s be tte r nature i s be i ng angled

for Though we have some t i me s se e n angle rs catch more than
.

they need o r sneak ahead of brothe r fi she rmen to the be st

,

pools we are glad for Walton s sake to ove rlook such unac
, ,
’

,
"
countable except i ons and agree w i th th e m i l k ma i d that we ,

love all angle rs they be s u c h hone st c i v i l qu i e t men , , ,

.
”

u m m ary of th e P ur i ta n P e r i od Th h a lf c tury b tw e 1 62 5 a d
S . e en e e n n

1 67 5 i c a ll d t
s h e P urita e p i o d f r tw re as s : fi rst be aus P uri ta n er o o on , c e n

sta dards pre v a i l d fo a ti m i E gl a d ; d s e c d b c aus e th e gr at st

n e r e n n n an on , e e e

l it rary figur duri g a ll t h s e y ars was th P u i ta J h M i lt o Hi t

e e n e e e r n, o n n . s or

i c a lly th g was
e e o f tr e m
a e d us c o fl ic t Th P u i ta struggl e d f
on en o n . e r n or

rig h t us ss d l ib rty d b aus e h e pr v ai l e d th e g i s o e f m ra l

eo ne an e , an ec e , a e n o o

an d p l iti a l r e v l uti
o c I h is struggl f l ib rty th P urita v rt h re w th
o on . n e or e e n o e e

c o rrupt m o ar c h y b h e ad d C h arl s I a d stab l is h e d th C m m w e a l t h

n , e e e , n e e o on

u d e r C r m w ll Th e C m m w a l t h l ast e d but a f w y ars d th re st

n o e . o on e e e , an e o

rati on o f C h ar l s I I i 1 660 is f t e put as th e e d f th P u rita p ri d Th

n o en n o e n e o . e

ag e h as o d ist i c t l im its but v rl aps th E l izab e th a p ri d o o e sid

n n , o e e n e o n n e ,

an d t h R st rati e p e ri d o th t h r
e o on o n e o e .

Th e g pr du d m a y writ rs a f w i m m rta l b
a e o ce ks d n f th e , e o oo , an on e o e

w rl d s gre at l it ra y l ad rs Th l it ratur f th age i e xtr m l y d iv rs

o
’
e r e e . e e e o e s e e e e

i n h arac t r
c d th e di v e rs ity i d
e , an t th br e a k i g up f th e id e a l s f p l it s ue o e n o o o

ic a l d r l igi us u i ty T h is l it ratur e di ff rs f r m th at f th pr c di g g
an e o n . e e o o e e e n a e

i th r
n m ark d ways
ee
( I ) I t h as
e u ity f spirit as i th days f E l iza
: no n o , n e o

b t h re su l t i g f ro m th e pa tri ti c n t h usias m f a ll c l ass s ( 2 ) I c o trast

e , n o e o e . n n

wit h th e h p e f u l ss d v ig r f E l izab e t h a writi gs m u h f th l it e ratur

o ne an o o n n , c o e e

o f t h is p i o d i s m be r i C h a ac t r ; it sadd s at h e r th a i spir s us ( 3 ) I t
er s o n r e en r n n e .

h as l o st th r m a ti c im pu l s f y ut h d b c o m c rit i a l d i t e ll e c tua l ;
e o n e o o , an e e c an n

it m ak s us th i k ra th r t h a f e e l de p l y
e n , e n e .
 TH E P U R ITAN AG E 233

In ou r s tud y we h a ve n oted
( r) th e T ra n s i ti on P oe ts, of wh om D an i l
e

is ch e i f; ( 2) th e S on g Wri te rs , C am p i on an d B re to n ; (3 ) th e S pe n se r i an

P oe ts, Wi th e r
il F l e tc h e r ; ( 4 ) th e y i l P et Do
an d d G es M e tap h s c a o s, nne an

H e b e t; ( 5 ) th C a v ali
r r P e ts H e i c k C w L o v e l ac e d S c kli g ; er o , rr ,
a re , e, an u n

( 6) J h M il t h i lif h i
o n ly Ho t p e m s h is m ili t t p o e
on , d s e, s e ar or r on o , an r s , an

h is l as tg a tp ti l w k ; ( 7 ) J h B y h i e x t a d i ary l if a n d h i
re oe ca or s o n un an , s r or n e, s

c h i e f wo k 77 P ilg i m P gr r
( 8 ) th M i
, P s e W it B t
18 r
’
s ro ess e n or ro r e rs , ur on ,

B w e F ll
ro T yl n B xt , a d Wa l t u o Th e e b o o k
e r, l t d f m th i
a o r, a e r, n n . r s se ec e ro s

g ro u
p e B ro w s R l gi arfli d Tayl o r s H ly L i z i g d Dy i g d
ne
’
e i o e
'

zc z,
'
’
o / n an n , an

Wa l to C mp l t A g l n s
’
o e e n er .

S e l ecti on s f or R e a d i n g . fli t/ton . P a ra d s e i L o s t, b o o ks 1 — 2, L A lle g ro , I l

’

P e ri s e ro s o , C o m u s , L yc id a s , an d se ec ted l S o n n e ts , — a ll i n S tan d a rd E n g l is h
C l a ss c s i ; s am e
p o e m s , m o r e o r e s s c o m p e te , i n l l v i a r o us other ser es i ; A re
o
p agi ti c a i
a n d T r e a ts e o n E d u c a to n , s e e c to n s , i n i l i Ma n ly ’
s E ng li sh P ro s e , or

A re o
p ag tc a i n ii A rb e r s
’
E ng li sh R e pr i n s, C
t l a re n d o n P re s s Ser i e s, Mo r l e y ’
s

U n iv e r s a L b ra r l i y , etc .

M i n or P oe t
s . S e l e c ti on s f ro m H e rr i c k , e d i te d b y H a l e i n A th e n ae u m P re s s ,

Ser ie s ;
l ti o f o m H e i c k
se ec ns r rr , L o v e l ac e D o n n e , H e rb e r t e tc , i n Ma n ly s E n g
,
’
, .

li s h P o e t y G l d e T a s ry O xf d B k o f E g li s h Ve s e e tc ; Va gh
r , o n re u ,
or oo n r , . u an s
’

S il e x S c i till a s i Te m p l e C l ass i c s a l s i th e A l d i e S i e ; H e rb e ts Th e
’
n n ,
n , o n n er s r

Te m p l i E v y m an L i b a y Te m p l e C l s i c s e tc
’
e , n er s r r ,
a s , .

T h e P il g i m s P o g e i n S t d a d E n gl i s h C l ass i c s P oc k e t
’
B y un an . r r r ss, an r ,

Cl i c e tc ; G rac e A b
as s s, d i g i n C a s s e l l s N a ti
.
'

a l L ib y o un n ,
’
on r ar .

Mi P W t
n or W e tw o rth s S e l c ti o s f m J e e m y Ta yl r ;
r os e ri er s . n
’
e n ro r o

B o w e s R e li g i o M d i c i W l to s C o m p l e te A g l b th i E v ry m
’ ’ ’
r n e s , a n n e r, o n e an

L ib y Te m p l e C l as s i c s e tc ; s l e c ti o s f m T yl B w a d Wa l t
ra r , , . e n ro a o r, ro ne, n on

i M ly s E g li s h P ro e a l s i C a rn e tts E g li h P
’ ’
n an n s , o n n s ro s e .

B i b li ograp h y .
I His tory . Te x t5 0 0 k , -
Mo n tgo m e ry , pp . 2 38- 2 5 7; Ch e yn e y ,

pp 43 . 1 — 4 64 ; 8 ; T ra ill ; G a r d i n e r
G re e n , ch . .

Sp e c i a l Wor k s Wa k e lin g s i n g an d a rli am e n t ( O xfo rd M a n u a l s ) ; G a r

’
. K P
d i ne r s
’
Th e F i rs tTw o S tu a rts a n d th e u r i ta n R e v o l u ti on ; T u llo c h s E n g li s h
’
P
P it i
ur an sm an d i ts L e a d e rs ; L ivC ro m w e l l b y H a rri s o n , b y C h u rc h ,
e s of an d

b y Mo rl e y lyl e s O liv e r C ro m w e l l s L e tte rs an d S p e e c h e s

’
C ar
’
; .

S i ts b y s E li b th L i te t ( x te d s t 1 660 ) M s te r
’
L ite ra ture . a n ur za e an r a u re e n o a

s T h e A g e o f Mil t ; D wd s P i t a d A g li c a
’ ’
m an o n o en ur an n n n .

M ilt T e x ts P on ti a l W k s G l o b e e d i ti
. e dit d b y M
, ; C am
oe c or , on , e as s o n

b ri d g P o e ts d i ti o e dit d b M od y ; E li h P ro e W i t i e dited b
e
y g e g n,
y e o n s s r n s,

M l y in C i b
or e , k e L i b y ; a l s i B o h S ta d d L i b y
ar s ro o ra r o n u s
’
n ar ra r .

M s s o s L ife f J h M il to ( 8 v l ) L ife b y G tt b y P tti s (E g

’
a n o o n n o s .
,
a rn e , a on n

li s h M o f L e tte s ) R l e i gh M il t n ; T t J h M il t ; C s I t
’ ’ ’
en r . a s o re n s o n on o rs o n n ro

d c ti o to M il ton ; B r o k e s M il t
u n i St d ts L i b ary ; M c l y Mil to n ;o
’
on , n u en
’
r a au a
’
s

L w e ll E
o y s i n A m o g My B k
’
s ssa d i L t s tL i t ry E s y s ; M A n o l d s
, n oo s , an n a e e ra sa . r
’

Es y i E sa y s i C i ti c i m ; D w d n E y i P ri ta a d A g li a
, n ssa n r s o e
’
s ssa , n u n n n c n .

1 F ti tl d p b li h
or f f w k
e s an G l B i b li g p h y tth
u d s e rs o re e re n c e or s, s e e e n e ra o ra a e en

o f th i b k s oo .
2 34 E N GL I S H L IT E R ATU R E

Ca v a li e r P oe t
s . S c h e lli n g
’
s S e v e n te e n th C e n tu r y L yi r c s, in A th e n ae u m

P re s s Ser i es ; Ca v a li e r an d C o u rt e r L i yi r sts, in C a n te rb u r y P oe ts S e ri e s ;
G os s e
’
s J v e l ac e tc i L i b y of O ld A th s
a c o b e an P oe t
s ; Lo e, .
, n ra r u or .

D m P m i M s s L i b y ; L if e i W l to L iv e i Te m p l e C l a i c s
o ze . oe s, n u e
’
ra r , n a n s
’
s, n ss ,

M l y s U n iv l L i b a y ; L if e b y G e ; J e ss p J o h D e ;
’ ’
a d i
n n or e e rs a r r , os s u s n on n

D owd ay i N w S t d ie s ; S t p h S t d ie s f a B i g ph e
’
l 3
’
s E en ss , n e u e en s u o o ra r, v o . .

H b t P lm g H e b e t; P d P os e S l ti e d it d
’
er G er . msa er s s e or e r r oe an r e ec on , e

b y R h y s i C an t b y P e t ; D w d E y i P i ta a d A g li ’
, n er ur o s o en s ssa , n ur n n n c an .

B y B w
an J oh n B y
an . H i L if T i m e s a d Wo k s ; L if b y
ro n s
’
.
un an , s e, , n r e,

Ve bl
na a n d b y F ro d ( E g li h M
e s, f L e tt ) ; E ay s b y Mac a l y b y u e n s en o e rs ss u a ,

D wd e o p a d by Wn , su db y i M k e s f L i te t e
ra, n oo e rr , n a r o ra u r .

j my T y l
ere H ly L ivi g H ly D yi g i T m p l C l s s i c s a d i B h s
a or . o n , o n , n e e a ,
n n o u
’

S ta d d L i b a y ; S e l c ti o s e d i t d b y W tw o th ; L if e b y H e b
n ar r r a d be
y n , e en r , e r, n

G o s s e ( E g li s h M e f Le tt s ) ; D w d e y p a ’
n E n o er o n s ss a ,
su r .

Tfi m B wo W k s d i t d b y W ilki ; th s m e i Te m p l C l i
as ro ne . or , e e n e a , n e as s c s ,

d in B oh L ib ry ; R e li g i o Me d i i i E v e ym L ib a y ; s ay b
’ ’
an u s ra c n r an s r r e s
y ,

P a te r i n A pp e c i ati s ; b y D o wd e
, p ; r d b y L S t ph i on H s n , su ra an . e en, n our

i n aL i b a y ; L ife b y G s s e ( E n g li s h M n o f L e tte s )
r r ,
o e r .

[ l W lt
za a W k i T m p l C l i C as e ll s L i b y a d M l y s
!
a on . or s, n e e as s c s , s
’
ra r ,
n or e
’

L ib ry ; I t d c ti n i
ra A L a g s Wa l t s C o m p l e te A gl ; L w e ll s
n ro u o , n . n
’
on
’
n er o
’

E s y i L a te t L i t ry E s y s
sa , n s e ra s a .

S u gge s ti v eQ I W h at i m e a ue s t
t b yi on s
t h e P ri ta p ri. o d ? Wh a t
. s n u n e

w e e th e b j e c ts a d th e s l t f th P i t n m v e m ti E g l i s h h i t y ?
r o n re u s o e ur a o en n n s or

2 Wh at e th m i
. h a t i t
ar i c s f th l i t te a nf th i p i d c ar c er s o e e ra u re o s er o ?

C o m p a e i t wi th E li b e th
r l i te a t H w d i d r li g i za a d p o li t i c s aff c t
an r u re . o e on n e

P i tan li te at e ? C a yo q o te a y p s g s r m
ur r ur n
y w o rk s w h i c h
u u n a sa e o na e an

j s tify y r p i i o ?
u ou o n n

3 W h a t is m e
. t b y th e te m s C v li r p e ts S p e s e i an p o e t
an s M t r a a e o , n r , e a

p h y i c a l p o e ts ? N m
s th e c h i f w i t f e h g o p
a eTo w h o m a e w e e r e rs o ac r u . r

i d e b te d f r
n fi s t E g li s h h y m n b o k ? W l d y o c a l l th i a w o k f
o o ur r n o ou u s r o

li te a t ? W h y ?
r u re

4 Wh t a e th e q a li ti e of H i k p oe t y ? Wh at m a k e d c t ts ’
. a r u s e rr c s r r on ras

ar e f d i He i k a d i
o un en ly a ll th e p t o f th i s p ri d ?
rr c n n n ar oe s e o

W W H w w i Wh a t
'

5 h o. s G e o g e e b t ? aF h t p p r os rd i d h e r te ? r er or a u e

q li ti e e f u d i n h is p e t y ?
ua s ar o n o r

6 T ll b i e fly th e s to y o f Mil to s l ife W h a ta e th e th e e p e ri o d o f h is ’
. e r r n . r r s

l i t ry w o k Wh ti s m tb y th e H o to n p m s ? C om p a
e ra r a L A lle g
e an r oe re
’
ro

an d I l P e se os
"
A th n
y P it r i d l s i n C o m s ? Wh y i s
o .
”
re e re an ur an ea
"
u
"

Ly id co ft e p t
asa tth e s m m i t f E n
g li h ly ri
u c a l p o e t y
? G iv e t he m i u o n s r a n

id e a o r ar
g me t f P di L t Wh t a e th
u n o h i f q a li ti s f th p
ara sem os . a r e c e u e o e oe

De ib i tl i P d a d S m Ag m t W h at p e l
'
’
R g i
'

sc r e n ou ne a r a a zs e e a ne n a s on o s es . rs o n a

e l e m t e te e d i to th e l tte ? \Vh t q a li ty s trik s y u m o s t f c i b ly in

en n r n a r a u e o or

Mil t s p e t y ? W h a t o c c s i
on
’
o d M il to s p os w k s ? D o th y p p ly
r a on e n
’
r e or e ro er

b l e on
g t li t t e ? Wh y ? C m p
o e ra u rM il t a d S h ak e p wi th re g rd o a re on n s e are a

to ( 1 ) k o wl e d g e f m
n
( 2 ) i d e l s o f lif e ( 3 ) p rp o s e in w ri ti g
o en, a , u n .
 C HAPTE R V I I I

PE R I OD OF THE R E S TOR ATI ON

T HE AG E OF FR E NC H I N FLU E N C E
Hi s tory of th e P e ri od . I t se e m s di c tion at fi rst
a i
c u r ou s c on tra ,

l ce to l ac e t h e re t u rn of C h ar l e s I I a tt h e b e g i n n i n g of m od e rn
g an , p
E n g l an d as o u r h i s tor i an s are w on t to d o ; fo r t
,
h e re w as n e v e r a
ti m e w h e n th e p rog re ss of l ibe rt y w h i c h h i story re c o rd s was m o re
, ,

p l a i n ly t urn e d b ac k w a rd s T h e P uri t
. an reg im e h ad b e e n t oo se v e re ;

i t h ad r e p re sse d too m a n y n a tura l p l e a su re s N o w re l e ase d f ro m .

,

re s t ra i n t soc i e t
,
y aban d on e d th e d e c e n ci e s of l i f e an d th e re ve re n c e
fo r law i tse lf an d p l u n ge d i n to e xce ss e s m o re u n n atu ra l th an h ad
,

b e e n th e re s trai n ts of P uri tan i s m Th e i n e vi tab l e e ff e c t of e xc e ss is

.

d i se a s e an d for al m os t an e n ti re ge n e ra ti on fo l l o w i n g th e R e stora
,

ti o n in 1 6 6 0 E n gl a n d lay s i c k o f a f e v e r S o c i a l ly p o l i ti c al l y m o r
, ,
.
, ,

a l ly L on d o n su gge s t
,
s an I t a l i an c i t
y in th e d ay s of th e M e di c i an d
its l i te ratu re e sp e c i a l l y its d ra m a o f te n s e e m s m o re l ik e th e d e l i ri u m
, ,

of i l l n e s s t h an th e e x p re ss i on of a h e a l th y m i n d B u t e ve n a fe ve r .

h as its a d van tag e s Wh ate ve r i m p u r i t

. y is in th e b l ood is b u rn tan d
u rge d a w ay a n d a m an r i se s f ro m f e v e r w i t
”
p , h a n e w st re n gt h an d
a n e w id e a of t h e v a l u e of l if e l i k e K in g H e z e ki a h w h o af te r h is
, ,

s i c kn e s s an d f e a r of d e a t h re s o l v e d to go so f tl y a ll h is d a y s Th e .

R e sto ra ti on w as th e gre at c ri si s in E n gl i sh h i s to ry ; an d th a t E n g
l an d l ive d th ro u gh itw as d u e so l e l y to th e s tre n gth an d e x c e l l e n c e
of t h at P u ri tan i sm w h i c h s h e th ou gh t s h e h ad fl u n g to th e w i n d s
w h e n s h e w e l c o m e d b ac k a v i c i ou s m on arc h at D ove r Th e c h i e f .

l e sson of th e R e sto rati on w as th i s th a tits h o w e d by awfu l c on tras t

,

th e n e c e s s i t y of tru th an d h o n e sty an d of a stron g gove rn m e n t o f ,

.

fre e m e n for w h i c h th e P u ri ta n h ad s tood l ik e a roc k in e v e ry h ou r

,

of h is ru gge d h i s t o ry T h rou gh f e v e r E n gl an d c a m e s l o wly b ac k to

.
,

h e a l th th rou gh gross c o rru p ti on in so c ie t y an d in th e sta te E n gl an d

l e a rn e d th at h e r p e o p l e w e re a t h e a rt s ob e r s i n c e re re l igi ou s fol k , , ,

an d t h at th e i r c h a ra c te r w as n a tu ra l ly too s tron g to f o l l o w af te r
p l e asu re an d b e sa ti s fi e d S o P u ri t an i s m su dd e n l y ga i n e d a ll t
. h at
ith ad s tru ggl e d fo r an d ga i n e d it e ve n in th e h ou r w h e n a ll se e m e d
,

236
 T H E R E S T OR ATI O N P E R I OD 237

l ost w h e n Mi l ton
,
in h is s o rro w i
u n c o n sc o u s
p o rtraye d th e go v e rn
ly
m e n t of C h a r l e s an d h is C ab a l in th a t tre m e n d ou s sc e n e of t he
c oun c il of he
t i n fe rn a l p e e rs in P an d e m on i u m ,
i
p l o ttn g th e i
ru n of

th e w o rl d .

Of th e ki n g an d h is f o l l o w e rs it is d i ffi c u l t to w ri te te m p e ra te ly .

M ostof th e d ra m a ti c
l i te ratu re of th e ti m e is a troc i ou s an d w e c an ,

u n d e rstan d i to n l y a s w e r e m e m b e r t h e c h arac t e r of t h e
Th e K in g
an d h is c ou rta n d so c i e t y for w h ic h i tw as w ri tte n U n sp e aka b l y .

F °u° w e s r
vi l e in h is p rivate l i f e th e ki n g h ad n o re d e e m i n g p atri,

ot ism n o se n se o f r e sp on s ibi l i t
,
y to h is c ou n try for e v e n h is p u b l i c
ac t s . H e ga v e h i gh o ffi c e s to b l ac k gu a rd s s to l e f ro m th e e x c h e q u e r ,

l ik e a c o m m on th i e f p l ay e d O ff C ath o l i c s an d P rote s tan ts aga i n st

,

e ac h o t h e r d i sre ga rdi n g h is p l e d ge s to b oth a l ik e b rok e h is so l e m n

, ,

tre at y w i th th e D u tc h an d w i th h is o wn m i n i ste rs an d b e tray e d h is ,

c ou n t ry fo r F re n c h m o n e y t o s p e n d o n h is o w n p l e a su re s I ti s u s e .

l e ss to p a i n tth e d i sh on or of a c ou rtw h i c h fo l l o w e d gay l y af te r su c h

a l e ad e r Th e fi rst Par l ia m e n t w h i l e i t c on ta i n e d s om e n ob l e an d
.
,

p atri o ti c m e m b e rs w a s d o m i n a te d b y you n g m e n w h o re m e m b e re d
,

th e e x c e s s o f P u r i tan z e al b u t f orgo t th e d e sp o ti s m an d i n j u s ti c e
,

w h i c h h ad c o m p e l l e d P u r i tan i sm t o stan d u p an d a ss e rtt h e m an h ood

of E n gl a n d T h e se youn g p o l i ti c ian s vi e d w i th th e ki n g in p ass in g
.

l aw s for th e su bj u ga ti on of C h u rc h an d S tate an d in th e i r th i rstfor ,

r e v e n ge u p on a ll w h o h ad b e e n c on n e c t ed w it h C rom w e l l s i ro n go v
’

e rn m e n t O n c e m o re a w re t
. c h e d f o rm a l i s m — t h a tp e rp e tua l d an ge r
to th e E n g l i sh C h u rc h — c a m e to th e f ron tan d e x e rc i se d a u th o ri t y
ov e r t h e f re e c h u rc h e s T h e H o use of L o rd s w a s l arge l y i n c re ase d
.

by th e c re ati on of h e red i tary ti tl e s an d e state s for i gn ob l e m e n an d

s h am e l e s s w o m e n w h o h ad fl at te re d th e ki n g s va n i t y E v e n th e ’
.

B e n c h th at la s t stron g re fu ge of E n gl i sh j u sti c e w as c orru p te d b y

, ,

th e a p p o i n tm e n t o f j u d ge s l ik e th e b ru t a l J e ff r e y s w h os e a im
, l ik e , ,

th a tof th e i r ro y a l m aste r w as to ge t m on e y an d to e x e rc i s e p o w e r
,

wi th ou t p e rson a l r e sp on s ibi l i ty Am i d all th i s di sh on o r th e fore i gn

.

i n fl u e n c e an d au th ori ty of C ro m w e l l s s tron g gove rn m e n t van i sh e d ’

l ik e sm ok e Th e va l i an t l i ttl e D u tc h n avy s w e p t th e E n gli sh fl e e t

.

f rom th e s e a an d on ly th e th u n d e r of D u tc h gun s in th e T h am e s
, ,

un d e r t h e v e ry w i n d o w s of L o n d on a w ok e th e n a ti on to th e re a l i z a ,

ti on o f h o w low i th ad fa l l e n .

Tw o c on s i d e rati on s m u stm o d i fy ou r j ud gm e n tof th i s d i sh e arte n

in g sp e c t ac l e Fi rs t th e k i n g a n d h is c o u rt a re n ot E n gl an d
.
,
.

T h ou gh our h is tori e s are l arge ly fi l l e d w i th th e re c ord s o f k in gs a n d

238 E N GLISH L IT E R ATU R E

s ol di e rs , of i n tri gu e s an d fi gh ti n g , th e s e no m o re e x p re ss he
t re a l
l i fe of a p e o p l e th an f e ve r an d d e l i ri u m
x p re ss a n orm a l m an h ood e .

R e v ol ut
i on T h ough kin g an d c ou rt an d h i gh s oc i e ty a rou se ou r
“ 6881 di sgu st o r p i ty re c ord s are n o t wan tin g to sh ow th at
,

p r ivat e l i f e i n E n gl an d re m a i n e d h on e s tan d p u r e e v e n in t h e w or s t

d ay s of th e R e s tora ti on Wh i l e L on d on soc i e t . y m i gh tb e e n te rta i n e d

by th e d e ge n e rate p o e try of R oc h e ste r an d th e d ram as of D ryd e n
a n d Wy c h e r l e y E n gl i sh sc h o l a rs h a i l e d Mi l t
,
on wi t h d e l i gh t; an d th e
c o m m on p e o p l e f o l l o w e d B u n y a n an d B a x t e r wi th th e i r tre m e n d ou s
al t o ri h t e o u sn e s s an d l ib e rt y S e c on d th e ki n g wi t h all h is
a
pp e g .
, ,

re t e n s ion s t o divi n e ri gh t re m a i n e d o n l y a figu r e h e a d ; an d t h e

p ,

An gl o S a x on p e o p l e w h e n th e y ti re of on e figu re h e ad h av e a l w a y s
-
, ,

t h e w i l l an d th e p o w e r to th ro w i t ov e rbo a rd an d c h oose a b e tte r

on e .Th e c ou n try w as d iv id e d i n to tw o p o l i ti c a l p a rti e s : th e Wh i gs ,

w h o so u gh t t o l im i t t h e ro y a l p o w e r in th e in te re s ts o f P a r l i a m e n t
an d t h e p e o p l e ; an d t h e T o ri e s w h o s trov e to c h e c k th e gro w i n g
,

p o w e r of t h e p e o p l e i n t h e i nte re s ts of th e i r h e re di ta ry ru le rs B o t h .

p ar ti e s h o w e v e r w e re l a rge ly d e vo te d to th e An g l i c an C h u rc h ; an d
, ,

w h e n J a m e s I I af te r fou r y e ars of m i sru l e atte m p te d to e stab l i sh a

, ,

n at ion a l C a th olic i s m by i n tri gu e s w h i c h arou s e d th e p rote s to f th e

Po p e as w e l l as o f P arl i am e n t th e n Wh i gs an d T or i e s C ath o l i c s
1
, ,

an d P ro t s un it e d in E n gl an d s l a stgre a tr e v o l u t i on ’
e st an t , .

T h e c o m p l e te a n d b l o od l e ss R e vo l u ti on of 1 68 8 w h ic h c all e d ,

Wi l l i a m of Oran ge to th e th ron e w as s i m ply th e i n di c atio n o f E n g ,

l an d s re s tore d h e a l th a n d san i ty I t p roc l a i m e d th a t sh e h ad n ot

’
.

l on g fo rgo tte n an d c ou l d n e ve r agai n fo rge t th e l e sson tau gh t h e r

, ,

by Pu r i ta n i sm in its h u n d re d ye ars of s tru ggle an d sac rifi c e M od e rn .

E n gl an d w a s fi rm l y e st a b l i s h e d by t h e R e v o l u ti on w h i c h w as b rou gh t ,

a b ou tby t h e e x c e ss e s o f th e R e s torati o n .

Li te rar y Ch ar acte r i s tic s l i te ratu r e of th e R e s tora

. I n th e
ti on w e n o te a s u dd e n b re a ki n g a w a y f ro m old s tan d ar d s ,

Fr n h
e c j u s t a s so c i e ty b r ok e a wa y f ro m th e re s tra i n ts of
I fl
n ue n ce
P ur i tan i s m M an y o f th e li te r ary m e n h ad b e e n
.

d r iv e n ou to f E n g l an d wi th C h ar l e s a n d h is c our t or e l s e h ad ,

f oll o w e d th e i r p atron s i n to e xil e in th e d ay s of th e Co m m on

w e al th O n th e i r r e tu rn th e y r e n o un c e d old id e al s an d d e
.

m an d e d th at E n g li s h p o e try a n d d ra m a s h ou ld f oll ow t he
1 G u i z ot’ s H is tor y o f t/1 e R e v ol u tion i n E n
g la n d .
 24 o E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
p u bli sh e d a vi g orou s atta ck u p on th e e vil pl ay s an d th e pl ay
w ri g h ts of th e d ay all L on d on ti re d of th e c oa rs e n e s s an d
, ,

e xc e s s e s of t h e R e s to ra ti o n j o i n e d th e l i te ra ry r e v ol u ti on
, ,

an d t h e c or ru p t d ram a w a s d r iv e n f rom th e s ta ge .

Wi th th e fi n al re j e c ti o n o f th e R e stora ti o n d ra m a w e r e a c h
a c r i s i s in t h e h i s tory o f o u r li te ra tu r e Th e o ld E li z a b e th an .

s pi r i t wi t h i ts p atri oti s m its c r e ativ e vi g o r it s l ove

N ew T n ed _ , , ,

e m i t o f ro m a n c e an d t h e P ur i tan s pi r i t wi th its m o ra l
,

e ar n e s t n e s s a n d i n divid u ali s m w e re b oth th i n g s of th e p as t;

,

a n d a t fi rs t t h e r e w a s n o th i n g to ta k e th e i r pl ac e s D ryd e n .
,

th e g re ate s t w r i te r of th e a ge v o ic e d a g e n e ra l c om pl a i n t ,
"
w h e n h e s a id th at in h is p ro s e an d p o e try h e w as d ra wi n g
”
th e o u tli n e s o f a n e w a rt b u t h a d n o t ea c h e r t
, o i n st ru c t

h im . B u t l i te ratu r e i s a p rog re s s iv e a rt an d s oon th e w r i te r s ,

of t h e ag e d e v e l op e d tw o m ar k e d te n d e n ci e s Of th e i r ow n ,

i th e te n d e n cy to r e al i s m a n d th e te n d e n cy to th a t p r e ci s e n e s s
,

a n d e l e g an c e o f e xp re s s i on w h ic h m ar k s ou r l i t e ra tu r e for t he
n e x t h u n d re d y e a r s .

I n r e a li s m — th at i s th e re p re s e n tati on of m e n e x a c tly a s
,

th e y are th e e xp re s s i on of th e pl a i n u n v ar n i s h e d tru th wi th
, ,

o u t re ga r d t o id e a l s o r r o m an c e th e te n d e n cy —
R eali m
s
w a s a t fi r s t th o r ou gh ly b ad Th e e ar ly R e s tora .

ti on w r i te r s s o u gh t to p a i n t re ali s tic pic tu re s o f a c o rr u p t

c ou rtan d s o ci e ty an d as w e hav e s ugg e s te d th e y e m p h as i z e d
, , ,

vic e s ra th e r th an vi rtue s an d gav e u s c oar s e low pl ay s wi th

, ,

ou t i n t e r e s t or m ora l s i n ifi c a n c e L ik e H o bb e s th e y s aw
g .
,

on ly t h e e x te r n a l s of m a n h is b ody a n d a pp e ti te s n ot h i s
, ,

s o u l an d i t s id e al s ; an d s o lik e m os t r e al i s t ,s t h e y r e s e m bl e ,

a m a n l os t in t h e w o od s w h o w an d e r s a iml e s s ly arou n d in
,

ci r cl e s s e e i n g th e c on f u s in g tre e s b u t n e v e r th e w h ol e f ore s t
, ,

a n d w h o s e ld om t h i n k s of cli m bi n g th e n ea r e s t h i g h h ill to
ge t h is b e a r i n g s . L ate r h ow e v e r th i s te n d e n cy to r ea li s m
, ,

b e cam e m or e w h ol e s om e Wh il e i tn e g l e c te d rom an tic p oe try

.
,

in w h ic h y ou th i s e te rn ally i n te r e s te d it le d to a k e e n e r ,

st u dy o f t h e p r ac tic al m o tiv e s w h ic h g o v e rn h u m an a c ti on .
 THE RES T O R ATI O N P E R I O D 24 1

Th e se c on d te n d e n cy
wa r d di re c tn e s s an d of th e ag e w as to
s i m plici t y o f e xp re s s i on a n d to th i s e xc e ll e n t te n d e n cy ou r ,

li te r atur e is g r e atly i n d e b te d I n b oth th e E li z a .

F m li m
or a s
b e th a n an d th e P u r ita n ag e s th e g e n e ra l te n d e n cy
of w r i t e rs w a s t o w ar d s e x tr a v a an c e o f t
g h o u g h ta n d l a n g uage .

S e n te n c e s w e re o f te n i n v olv e d a n d l o ad e d wi th L ati n q uota ,

ti o n s an d cl a s s ic al a ll u s i on s Th e R e s tor a ti on w r i te r s Opp o s e d .

th i s vi g orou s ly F r om F r an c e th e y b ro u g h tb ack th e te n d e n cy
.

to r e ga rd e s ta bli s h e d r u l e s f or w r i ti n g to e m p h a s i z e cl os e ,

re a son i n rat h e r t h a n r om a n t ic f n cy an d t o u s e s h or t cl e a n
g a , ,

c ut se n t e n c e s wi t h ou t an u n n e c e s sar y w or d We s e e th i s .

F re n c h i n fl u e n c e in th e R oy al S oci e ty w h ich h ad for on e of

1
,

its o bj e c ts th e re f or m o f E n g li s h p ro s e by g e tti n g r id of i ts .
,

”
s w e lli n gs Of s t yl e a n d w h ic h b ou n d a ll its m e m b e rs to u s e
,
"
a cl o se n ak e d n at u ra l w a o f s p e a ki n g a s n e ar t o
, y ,

”
m ath e m atica l pl a i n n e s s as th e y c a n D ryd e n a cc e p te d th i s .

e xc e ll e n t r u l e f o r h is p r o s e an d a d o p t
,
ed t h e h e ro ic c o u pl e t , ,

as t h e n e x t b e s tth i n g for th e g re ate r p arto f h i s p o e try A s , .

h e te ll s u s h i m se l f

An d th i s un po l i s h e d r u gg e d v e rs e I c h os e
As fi tte s tfo r d i s c o u rs e a n d n e a re s tp ros e
, .

I t is l arg e ly d u e to h im th at w r i te r s d e v e l op e d th at f or m al
i s m o f s tyl e th at p re ci s e a l m os t m a th e m a tic a l e l e ga n c e
, ,

m i s c a ll e d cl as s ici s m w h ic h r u l e d E n g li s h li te ra tur e for th e

,

n e xt c e n t ur y
2
.

A n oth e r th i n g w h ic h th e r e a d e r will n ote wi th i n te re s t in

R e s toratio n lite rature i s th e a d op ti o n o f th e h e r o ic c ou pl e t; th at
is tw o i am bic p e n ta m e te r li n e s w h ic h r i m e to g e th e r as th e
, ,

1 Th e R o y l
i v ti g ti
a d di
S oc i f i tifi q ti
i tye ,
fo r th e w n es a on a n s c u s s on o sc e n c ue s on s, as

f d d i 66
ou n e d i l d d p ti lly ll f th li t y d i tifi m
n 1 2 , an so o n nc u f e rac ca a o e e rar an sc e n c en o

th e a
g It e g d th w k f I
. N wt w h w
e n c ou ra e f it m m b e ; d it
or o sa a c e on , o as one o s e e rs an s

i fl
n f t th —
u e n ce t ti m wh
or m ru w till t yi g t mp
a d th p h il
a ph e en en
‘

e re s r n o co o un e o so
’
er s

t l l ti g m
s on e , ca c u a ti f m th t n d h gi g h m l
e n s ac
’
ld w m f
on s ro e s a rs , a n an n ar e ss o o en or

wi t h —c es h d ly b e v ti m t d
c an ar o e re s a e .

2 If t w l d th i i t f m l th i m g p h f M il t
’
h d e rea er ou d p se e s n c o n c re e or ,
e re a a a ra ra o on s

pro s e , t orf h i p tya d mp

s a n za o it x b t m l d i d i ti with
s oe r ,
an co are s e u e ra n ,
e o ous c on

D yd m th d f w i ti g
’
r i
e n s oon c se e o o r n .
24 2 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
m os t s u ta i bl e f or m o f p oe try Wall e r w h o b e g an to us e it .
,
1

in 1 6 2 3 is g e n e ra lly r e g ard e d as th e f a th e r of th e c ou pl e t for

, ,

h e is th e fi r s t p oe tto u s e itc on s i s te n tly in th e b u lk

Th C p l t
e ou e
o f h is p oe try C h au c e r h a d u se d th e r i m e d c ou pl e t .

w on d e rf u lly w e ll in h is Ca n te r b u ry Ta le s b u t in C h au c e r it ,

i s th e p o e ti ca l th ou g h t m or e th an th e e xp re s s i on w h ic h d e
lig h ts u s Wi th th e R e s torati on w ri te rs f or m c ou n ts for
.
,

e v e ry th i n g Wall e r a n d D ryd e n m a d e th e c o u pl e tth e p re v a il

.

i n g li te rary f a s h i on a n d i n th e i r h an d s th e c ou pl e t b e c om e s ,

" "
cl os e d ; th at i s e a c h pai r o f li n e s m u s t c on tai n a c o m pl e te
,

Th u s Walle r w ri te s :
‘

th o u gh t s ta te d a s p re ci s e ly a s p o s s ibl e
, .

Th e s ou l ’
s d a rk c otta ge , b a tte r e d an d de c aye d ,
L e ts i n new l i g h tth rou gh ch ni ks th a ttm i e h as m ade .
2

T h at is a ki n d of a p h or i s m s u c h a s Pop e m ad e in l arg e q ua n
ti ti e s in th e f oll o wi n g ag e I t c on ta i n s a th ou g h t i s c a tc h y .
, ,

q u ota bl e e a s y to r e m e m b e r ; a n d th e R e s tor ati on w r i te rs d e

,

l i g h te d in it S oon th i s m e c h a n ic al cl o s e d c ou pl e t in w h ic h
.
,

th e s e c on d l i n e w as of te n m a d e fi r s t al m o s t e xcl u d e d all
3
,

ot h e r f orm s of p oe tr y I t w a s d o m i nan t in E n gl an d f or a f u ll .

c e n tu ry an d w e h a v e g r ow n f am ili ar wi th it a n d s om e w h at
, ,
"
w e ary of its m on oton y in s u c h f am ou s p oe m s a s P op e s E s s ay ,
’

o n Ma n
”
a n d G old s m i t h s D e s e r te d V ill ag e T h e s e h ow ! ’
.
,

e v e r a re e s s ay s ra t
,
h e r th an p oe m s T h at e v e n th e c ou pl e ti s .

c ap a bl e o f m e l ody a n d v a ri e ty i s s h ow n i n C h a u c e r s Ta les an d ’

i n K e a ts s e x q u i s i te E n dy m i on
’
.

T h e s e f ou r th i n g s th e te n d e n cy to v u l gar r e a li s m i n th e ,

d ram a a g e n e ral f orm ali s m w h ic h c a m e f rom f oll owi n g s e t

,

ru l e s th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a s i m pl e r a n d m or e di r e c t p ros e
,

st yl e an d th e p re v a l e n c e o f th e h e r o ic c ou pl e t i n p oe tr y are
,

th e m a i n c h ara c te r i s tic s of R e s tora ti on li te r atu re T h e y ar e .

a ll e x e m plifi e d in t h e w or k o f o n e m a n J oh n D ryd e n , .

1 E d m u n d \Va
“

ll er ( 1 60 6 th e m os tn o te d p oe t o f t h e R e stora to n pe r i i od u n t il
il
h i s p u p D r d e n a p p e a re d H i sy . k
w o r s a re n o w se d o m r e a d l .

2 F ro m D i v i n e P oe m s ”
, Old Age an d D ea th .

3 F o ow n ll i
g th e a d i c e o f B o ea u v il ( 1 6 76 a n oted F re n c h c ri tc , i wh om Vo ta l i re

l
cal e d th l wg iv e a e r of P a rn a s s us .
”
2 44 E N GLIS H L IT E R ATU R E
I n th e s e f ou r l i n e s , ta k e n a l m os t a t ran d om f ro m he
t H e roi c
St
an z as ,
”
w e h a v e an i to m e o f th e th ough t th e p re c i s e n e ss an d
ep , ,

t h e p o l i sh th at m ark all h is l ite rary w o rk .

T h i s p oe m m ad e D ryd e n w e l l kn own an d h e was in a fa i r way ,

t o b e c om e t h e n e w p oe t of P u ri tan i sm wh e n th e R e s to ra t i on m a d e
a c om p l e t e c h an ge in h is m e t h od s H e h ad c om e to L o n d on for a
.

l i te rary l ife an d w h e n th e R oya l i sts we re aga i n in p o w e r h e p l ac e d

,

h i m s e lf p ro m p tl y on th e w i n n i n g s id e H is As traea R e d u x a p o e m
”
.
,

I
L BR AR Y AT TR INI T Y C OL L E G E , C AM B R I DGE
of we l c om e o C h ar l e s
t II , an d h is Pan e gyri c o h i s S ac re
t d M aj e sty ,
”

"
b re a th e m o re d e voti on to th e old goat,
”
as he
t ki n g w as k n own t o

h is i
c ou rte rs , th an h ad h is e ar l ie rp o e m s to P u ri tan i sm .

In 1 66 7 he b e c am e m o re wi d e l y k n o wn an d p o p u l ar by h is
"
An n us Mi rabi l i s ,
”
a n arra t e iv p oe m d e sc r i b i n g th e te rro rs of th e

gre a t fire in L on d on an d so m e e v e n ts
i sgrac e f u l w ar w i th
of th e d
H o l l an d ; b u t w t i
h th e th e ate rs re o p e n e d a n d n i gh tl y fi l l e d th e ,

d ram a o ffe e d th e m os t att ac tiv e fie l d to o n e w h o m ad e h is l i vi n g

r r

b y l ite ratu e ; so D ry d e n tu rn e d to th e s tage an d agre e d to fu rn i sh

r

th re e p l ay s y e a rly fo r th e a c t
o rs o f th e K i n g s T h e ate r F or n e arly
’
.
 TH E R ES T O R ATI O N P E R I O D 24 5

tw e n t y y e a rs b e s t of h is l ife D ry d e n gave h i m s e l f u p to th i s
, th e ,

u n f o rtu n at e w o rk B o th by n a tu re a n d h a bi t h e se e m s to h a ve b e e n
.

c l e an in h is p e rson a l l i fe ; b u t th e sta ge d e m an d e d un c l e an p l a y s ,

an d D ry d e n fo l l o w e d h i s a u d i e n c e T h a th e d e p l ore d th i s is e vid e n t
.

f rom so m e of h is l a te r work an d w e h a v e h is s tate m e n t th at h e ,

w ro te on l y on e p l a y h is b e s t to p l e ase h i m s e lf T h i s wa s A ll f or
, , .

l ove w h i c h w as w ri tte n in b l an k v e rs e m osto f th e o th e rs b e i n g in

, ,

ri m e d c o u p l e ts .

D u ri n g th i s ti m e D ry d e n h ad b e c om e th e b e s tk n o w n l i te ra r y m an
o f L o n d on an d w as a l m os t a s m u c h a d ic t
, ator t o t h e l i te ra y s e t r

wh i c h gath e re d in th e tav e rn s an d c o ff e e h o u s e s as B e n J on so n h ad
b e e n b e fo re h im H is w ork m e an w h i l e w as re w a rd e d by l a rge fin an
.
, ,

c ial r e tu rn s an d by h is b e i n g a pp o i n t
, e d p o e t l a u re a t e an d c o l l e c t
or

of t h e p o rt o f L o n d on Th e l a tte r o ffic e i t m ay b e re m e m b e re d
.
, ,

h ad o n c e b e e n h e l d by C h au c e r .

At fi ft y y e a rs of age an d b e fo re J e re m y C o l l i e r h ad d ri v e n h is
,

d ra m as f rom th e s tage D ry d e n tu rn e d f ro m d ra m a tic w o rk to th ro w

,

h im se lf i n to th e s tr i f e of r e l i g i o n a n d p o l i ti c s w r i ti n g a t th i s p e ri o d ,

h is n u m e rous p ro s e an d p o e ti c a l tre a ti s e s I n 1 68 2 a pp e a e d h is . r

R e lig i o L a i e i ( R e l i gi on o f a L a y m an ) d e fe n d i n g th e An gl i c an ,

C h u rc h a ga i n s t a ll o th e r s e c ts e sp e c i a l l y th e C a th o l i c s a n d P re sb y
,

te rian s ; b u t t h re e y e a rs l a te r w h e n J a m e s I I c a m e to th e th ron e
,

w i th sc h e m e s to e stab l i sh th e R om an fa i th D ry d e n tu rn e d C ath o l i c ,

h is m ost fa m ou s r e l i gi ou s p o e m Th e H i n d an d th e
u
an d wro t e ,

Pan th e r b e gi n n i n g :
,
”

A m ilk w h i te H i n d i m m orta l a n d u n c h a n g e d
-
, ,

F e d on t h e l a w n s a n d i n th e fo re s t ra n g e d ;
W i th o u tu n s p o tte d i n n oc e n tw i th i n
, ,

S h e fe a re d n o d a n g e r fo r s h e k n e w n o s i n
, .

Th i s h in d is a s y m bo l fo r th e R o m an C h u rc h ; a n d th e An g l i c a n s ,
as a p an th e r , a re d re re s e n t
p e as p e rse c u tn g th e f ai t
h f ul i
um e r . N
ou s oth e r s e c ts — C a l vi n i s ts , An a b a p ti s ts , Q keua rs — w e re r e p re s e n ted

by th e w o lf b oar h are an d o th e r an i m a l s w h i c h gav e th e p oe tan

, , , ,

e x c e l l e n t c h a n c e fo r e x e rc i s i n g h is s a ti re D ryd e n s e n e m i e s m ad e ’
.

th e a c c u sati on o f te n s i n c e re p e a te d o f h y p oc r i s y in th u s c h a n gin g
, ,

h is c h u rc h ; b u t th a t h e w a s s i n c e re i n th e m a tte r c an n ow h a rd ly
b e q u e sti o n e d for h e k n e w h o w to h e f a i th
”
,
su ff e r fo r t an d t
o

b e tru e to h is re l i gi o n e v e n w h e n i t m e an tm i s j u d gm e n ta n d l oss of
,

f ortu n e Atth e R e vo l u ti on of 1 68 8 h e re fu sed all e gian c e to Wi l l i a m

.
24 6 E N GLI S H L IT E R ATU R E

of O ra n g e ; h e w as d e p rive d o f a ll h is c
o ffi e s an d i
p e n s o n s , an d as

an old m an w a s aga i n t h rown b ac k on l i te ra ture as of h is on ly m e an s

l ive l i h ood He w e n tto w ork wi th e x traord in a ry c ou rage an d e n e rgy
.
,

w ri ti n g p l ay s p oe m s p re fac e s for o th e r m e n e u l ogi e s for fu n e ral

, , ,

o c c as i on s e v e ry k i n d o f l i t
,
— e ra ry wo rk t h a t m e n w ou l d p ay fo r .

H is m o s tsu c c e ssfu l wo rk a tth i s ti m e w as h is tran s l a ti on s wh i c h re ,

h e c om p l e te fi n e i d an d m an y se l e c ti o n s f ro m H o m e r
‘

s u lte d in t z ,

Ovid an d J uv e n a l ap p e ari n g in E n g l i sh r i m e d c ou p l e ts H is m o s t
, ,
.

e n d u ri n g p oe m th e s p l e n d i d od e c a l l e d Al e x an d e r s F e a s t w as
’ ”
, ,

w ri tte n in 1 6 9 7 T h re e y e a rs l a te r h e p ub l i sh e d h is l ast work

.
,

F a b le s c on ta i n in g p oe ti c al p ara p h rase s of th e t
,
a l e s of B o c c a c c i o a n d

C h au c e r a n d th e m i sc e l l a n e o us p o e m s of h is l asty e ars L on g p re f
,
.

ac e s w e re t h e fa sh i on in D ryd e n s d ay an d h is b e s t c r i ti c a l w o rk is
’
,

foun d in h is i n trod u c ti on s Th e p re fac e to th e F a b le s is ge n e ra l ly

‘

ad m i re d as a n e x am p l e o f t h e n e w p ro s e s t y l e d e ve l op e d by D ryd e n
an d fo l l ow e rs
h is .

F ro m th e l i te ra ry vi e w p oi n t th e s e l a st trou b l e d y e ars w e re th e
b e st of D ryd e n s l i f e th ou gh th e y w e re m ad e b i tte r by obsc u ri ty
’

an d by th e cr i ti c i sm of h is n u m e ro u s e n e m ie s . H e d i e d in 1 70 0
an d w as b u ri e d n e ar C h au c e r in We s tm i n ste r Abb e y .

Work s of D ry d e n Th e n u m e r ou s d ra m atic w ork s of D ry

.

d e n are b e s t l e f t i n th a t ob s c u r i ty i n to w h ic h th e y h av e f a ll e n .

N o w an d th e n th e y c on ta i n a b it o f e xc e ll e n t ly r ic p oe try ,

an d i n A ll f or L ov e an ot h e r v e r s i on of A n tony a n d Cle op a tra

, ,

w h e re h e l e av e s h is c h e r i s h e d h e roic c ou pl e t for th e bl an k
v e r s e of M a rl ow e a n d S h a k e s p e are h e s h o w s w h a t h e m igh t ,

h av e d on e h ad h e n ot s old h is ta l e n ts to a d e p rav e d au di e n c e .

O n th e w h o l e r e a di n g h is pl ay s i s l ik e n ibbl i n g a ta r otti n g
,

appl e ; e v e n t h e g ood s p ots ar e a ff e c te d by th e d e c ay an d ,

on e e n d s by t h ro wi n g th e w h ol e th i n g i n to th e garbag e c an ,

w h e re m os t o f th e d ra m atic w ork s of th i s p e r i o d b e l on g .

Th e c o n tro v e rs i a l an d sati ri c al p oe m s a re on a h i g h e r
pl an e ; th o u g h it m u s t b e c on f e s s e d D ryd e n s s ati r e of te n
, ,
’

st r ik e s u s a s c u t ti n g an d re v e n ge f u l rath e r th a n ,
P m
oe s
wi tty Th e b e s t k n ow n o f th e s e a n d a m as te rpi e c e
.
,

”
of it s ki n d i s A b sal om an d A c h i top h e l w h ic h is u n d ou b te dly
, ,

th e m o st p ow e r f u l p ol i tic a l s a ti re in o u r l an ua e T a ki n g
g g .
24 8 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
( THE DU KE OF BU C K I N G HA M)
S om e of th e ir ch e i fs w e re p r i n c e s o f th e l an d ;
I n th e fi rs tra n k o f th e s e d i d Z i m r i s ta n d ,
A m an s o v a ri o u s th a th e s e e m e d to b e ,

N o to n e b u t a ll m a n ki n d s e p i to m e :
’

S tiff i n op i n i o n s a l w a y s i n t h e w r on g , ,

Was e v e ry th i n g b y s ta rts a n d n o th i n g l o n g ;
B u t i n th e c o u rs e o f o n e r e v o lv i n g m oon
, ,

Was c h y m i s t fi dd l e r s ta te s m a n a n d b u ffoo n ;
, , ,

T h e n all fo r w o m e n p a i n ti n g rh y m i n g d r i n ki n g , , , ,

B e s i d e s te n th o u s a n d f re a k s th a td i e d i n th i n k i n g .

B l e s tm ad m a n w h o c o u l d e v e r y h o u r e m p l o y
,

W i th s o m e th i n g n e w to w i s h o r to e n j o y !
R a il i n g an d p r a i s i n g w e r e h i s u s u a l th e m e s ,

A n d b o th to S h o w h i s j u d g m e n t i n e x tr e m e s :
, ,

S O ov e r v i ole n t o r o v e r c i v i l
-
,
-
,

T h a te v e ry m a n w i th h i m w as G od o r d e v i l .

O f th e m an y m i s c e ll a n e ou s p oe m s o f D ryd e n th e c u r i o u s ,

re ad e r will g e t a n id e a o f h is s u s t a i n e d n arrativ e p o w e r f ro m

th e A n n u s Wi ra b i li s Th e b e s t e xp r e s s i o n of D ryd e n s li te r
’
. .

" ”
ar
y g e n i u s h ow e v e r
,
i s fou n d in A l e x an d e r s F e a s t
,
w h ic h
’

is h is m o s t e n d u r i n g o d e a n d on e o f th e b e s t in ou r l an g u ag e , .

A s a p ro s e w ri te r D ryd e n h a d a v e ry m ar k e d i n fl u e n c e on
ou r li t e ra t u r e i n S h ort e n i n g h is s e n t e n c e s a n d e s p e ci a lly i n ,

p ros e an d w r i ti n g n atu ra lly wi th o u t d e p e n di n g on li te rary ,

C it i i m
r c s
o rn am e n t at i o n to g iv e e ff e c t to w h at h e is s ayi n g .

I f w e c o m p a re h is p ros e wi th th a t o f M il ton or B row n e or , ,

J e re m y T ayl o r w e n ote th at D ryd e n c a re s l e s s for s tyl e th an

,

an
y o f th e o th e r s b u t ta k e s m ore p a i n s to s ta te h is th o ug h t
,

cl ea rly an d c o n ci s e ly as m e n s p ea k w h e n th e y wi s h to b e,

u n d e rs t oo d Th e cl a s s i c a l s c h ool w h ic h f o ll ow e d th e R e s tora
.
,

ti o n l o ok e d to D ryd e n a s a l e ad e r an d to h im w e o w e l arg e ly
, ,

th at te n d e n cy to e x ac tn e s s o f e xp re s s i on w h ic h m ark s o u r
i n g Wi th h is p ros e D ryd e n rapidly
.

s u b s e q u e n t p rose w r i t .
,

d e ve l o pe d h is c r itic al a bili ty an d b e c a m e th e f ore m o s t c r i tic ,

1

1 By i
a c r i tc w e m ea n s m p i ly on e wh o e x
a m n es i th e li t
e rar yw k fv i or s o a r ou s a ge s ,

se f m th
p a ra te s th e goo d ro e ba d , and gi v es th e r e a so n s fo r h i s c l ifi ti
as sI ti ca on . s n otc ei
l
ab e t i i l w i ti g i
h at c r tc a r n s n c rea s e in an a
ge , lik e th a t o f th e R t ti wh
e s ora on , en grea t
c re a tiv w k
e w ti g
or s ar e an n .
 TH E R E S T O R ATI O N PE R I OD 24 9

of h is a ge . His
c r i tici s m s i n s te a d o f b e i n g p u bli s h e d as i n d e
,

p e n d e n t w or k s we r e g e n e ra lly u s e d a s p re fa c e s or in tro d u c
,

ti on s to h is p oe try Th e b e st k n o w n o f th e s e c r i tici s m s ar e
.

”
th e p r e f a c e to th e F a ble s O f H e ro ic P l ay s
, D i s c ou r s e o n
,

” ”
S ati re ,a n d e s p e ci a lly t he E s sa y of D ra m atic P o e s y
w h ich atte m p ts to lay a f o u n d a ti on for all li te rar y c r i tici s m .

D ry d e n s I n fl u e n c e on Li te r atu r e D ryd e n s pl ac e a m on g
’
’
.

au t h or s i s d u e p a rtly to h is gr e at i n fl u e n c e o n th e s u cc e e di n g

W E S T M IN S T E R

ag e of cl a s s ici s m . B ri e fl y , th i s
i n fl u e n c e m ay b e s u m m e d u p
by n oti n g th e th r e e n e w e l e m e n ts w h ic h h e b ro u g h t i n to o u r
li te ra tu re T h e s e are : ( I ) th e e s tabli s h m e n t of th e h e ro ic
.

c o u pl e t a s th e fa sh i on f or s ati r ic did a c tic a n d d e s c r ip tive

, ,

p oe try ( 2 ) h is d e v e l op m e n tOf a d i re c t s e rv ic e abl e p ros e s tyl e

,

s uc h as w e st ill c u l tiv ate an d 3 ) h is d e v e l op m e n tof th e artof

li te rary c r i tici s m in h is e s s ay s a n d in th e n u m e ro u s p re fa c e s
to h is p o e m s T h i s is c e r ta i n ly a l arg e w o r k f or on e m an to
.

a cc o m pli s h a n d D r yd e n i s w or t
,
h y o f h on o r th ou g h c o m p ara
,

tiv e ly l i ttl e o f w h ath e w ro te i s n o w f o u n d o n o u r b o ok s h e lv e s .

250 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

S am u e l B u tle r ( 16 1 2 I n m ar k e d c on tra s twi th D ry

de n ,
d e v ote d h is l i f e to l i te ratu re a n d w on h is s u cc e s s
who

b y h ard w or k is S am u e l B u tl e r w h o j u m p e d i n to f a m e by a
, ,

s ingle ca re l e s s w or k w h ic h re p re s e n ts n otan y s e ri ous i n te n t

, ,

o r e ff or t b u t t h e p as ti m e o f an idl e h o u r W e a re to re m e m
,
.

b e r th at th ou gh th e R oy a li s ts h ad tr i u m p h e d i n th e R e s tora
,

ti o n th e P ur i tan s pi r i t w a s n ot d e a d n or e v e n s l e e pi n g an d
, , ,

th atth e P u r i tan h e ld s te a d fas tly to h is ow n p r i n cipl e s A g a i n s t .

th e s e p r i n cipl e s of j u s tic e tru th an d l ib e rty th e r e w a s n o

, ,

ar g u m e n t s i n c e t h e y e xp r e s s e d th e m an h oo d of E n gl an d ;
,

b u t m an y of th e P ur i tan p ra c tic e s w e r e op e n to r id ic u l e an d
‘

th e R oy al i s ts i n r e v e n g e for th e i r d e f e at b e g an to u s e r id ic u l e
, ,

wi th o ut m e r cy D u r i n g th e e ar ly y e ars of th e R e s to ra ti on
.

d ogg e re l v e rs e s r id ic u l i n g P u r i tan i s m an d b ur l e s q u e — th a t , ,

is a r idic u l ou s re p re se n tati on of s e ri ou s s u bj e c ts or a s e ri o u s
'

, ,

r e p re s e n tat i on o f r id ic u l o u s s u bj e c ts w e re th e m os tp op u l a r ,

f o rm of l i te ratu r e wi th L on d on s o ci e ty O f all th i s b u rl e s q u e .

a n d d ogg e r e l t h e m o s t f am o us is B u tl e r s H u d i b ra s a w o rk
’

to w h ic h w e c a n tra c e m an y o f th e p r e j u dic e s th at s till p r e

v ail ag a i n s t P u r i tan i s m .

O f B u tl e r h i m s e l f w e k n o w li ttl e ; h e is o n e of th e m os t
Ob s c u re fi g u r e s i n o ur li t e ra tu re D u r i n g th e d ay s Of C r o m
.

w e ll s P rote c torate h e w as i n th e e m pl oy of S ir S am u e l L u k e
’

a c r a bb e d an d e x t re m e t y p e of P u r i tan n obl e m an an d h e re ,

h e c oll e c te d h is m a te r i a l a n d p ro b a bly w r ote th e fi r s t p art of

h is b u r l e s q u e w h ic h o f c ou rs e h e did n ot d are to p u bli s h
, , ,

un t il af te r th e R e s torati on .

[{ ud zb ra s i s pl a i n ly m od e l e d u p on th e D on Qu ix ote o f
'

C e r van te s I t d e s c r ib e s th e adv e n tu re s o f a fan a tic a l j u s tic e

.

of t h e p e a c e S ir H u dib ras an d o f h i s s q u i re
, , ,
H di b
u ras
R alp h o i n th e i r e n d e a v or to p u t d ow n all i n n o c e n t
,

pl e a s u r e s I n H u dib ras a n d R alp h o th e tw o e x tre m e typ e s o f

.

th e P u r i ta n p ar ty P re s by te r i an s an d I n d e p e n d e n ts ar e m e r ci
, ,

l e s s ly r idic u l e d Wh e n th e p oe m fi rs t app e ar e d in p u bl ic in
.
,

1 66 3 aft e r ci r c u l at
, in g s e c r e tly for y e a rs in m an u s c r i pt it ,
2 52 E N G L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

c o m bi n i n g tw o c e n tral id e a s w h ic h c h all e n g e a n d s tartl e th e

'

at te n ti on n am e ly th at s e l f i n te r e s t is th e on ly g u idi n g p o w e r
, ,
-

o f h u m an i t y a n d th a t bli n d s u b m i s s i on to r u l e rs i s th e on ly
,

tru e b as i s o f g o v e rn m e n t I n a w o rd H o bb e s r e d u c e d h u m an
1
.
,

n at u re t o it s p u re ly a n i m a l a s p e c t s an d t h e n as s e rte d c on ,

fid e n tly th a t th e re w as n oth i n g m ore to s tu dy C e rta i n ly .

,

th e r e f o re a s a r e fl e c ti on of th e u n d e r lyi n g s pi r i t o f C h ar l e s
,

a n d h is f o ll o w e r s i t h a s n o e q u a l in a n y p u r e ly li t e ra r y w o r k

of t h e ti m e .

J oh n L ock e ( 1 6 3 2 1 7 0 4 ) i s f a m ou s a s th e au th or of a —

sin l e r e a t p h il os o p h ic a l w or k t h e E s s ay c on c e r n i ng H um a n
g g ,

U n d e rs ta n d i ng T h i s is a s tu dy o f th e n a tu r e of th e
h u m an m i n d an d of th e o r i g i n of id e as w h ic h far m ore th an , ,

th e w o r k o f B ac on a n d H obb e s is th e b as i s u p on w h ic h E n g ,

l i s h p h il os op h y h a s s i n c e b e e n b u il t A s id e f rom th e i r s u bj e c ts .
,

b oth w ork s a re m od e l s of th e n e w p ros e di re c t s impl e c on , , ,

v in c i n
g f or w h ic h D ryd e n a n d th e R oy a l S o ci e ty l ab o r e d
, .

T h e y ar e k n o w n to e v e ry s tu d e n t of p h il os op h y b u t ar e s e l ,

d om i n cl u d e d in a w or k o f l i te ra tu re 2
.

E v e ly n an d P e p y s T h e se tw o m e n J oh n E v e ly n ( 1 6 2 0 .
,

1 7 0 6 ) a n d S a m u e l P e py s ( 1 6 3 3 a re f a m ou s as th e
w r i te rs of d i a ri e s in w h ic h th e y j o tte d d ow n th e d a ily o cc u r
,

re n c e s O f t h e ir o w n l iv e s wi th ou t a n y th o u g h t th at th e w orld ,

w ou ld e v e r s e e or b e i n te re ste d i n w h a t th e y h ad w r i tte n .

1 Tw o other pr i i pl
nc e s of th i s b oo k s h ou l d be n oted : (1) h ata ll p o
t w e r or i gi n at
es in
th e pe o p l e ; an d ( 2) j
th a t th e o b e c t of a ll g v o e rn m e n t is th e c om m o n goo d . He re e v i
d e n tly i s a d e m oc r a ti c d t i wh i
oc r ne , ch a b li h
o s es th e d ivi ne righ t f ki g ; o n s b u t Hob be s
i m m d i t ly d t
e a e th d ti
e s ro y d m
s y bye b y th
oc ra c ano er oc r ne , —th t th a p w g iv e o er en e

p p l t th
eo e l o wy H
e ru e r c o u th l d tb t k no b k t e a en a a . e n ce e R y li t
o a ld th
s s c ou use e oo o

j tfy th d p ti m f th S t t
us i e es th g o d th
s o e th m uar s on e rou n a t th p p l h d h
e eo e a c os e n e .

T h i p t f th b
s ar k i i d i t p p i ti t Mil t D f
o e oo
f th E g li h P p l
s n re c o os on o on s
’
e e n se o e n s eo e.

L k
2 T l d l b m ti d f th y
’
octi G
e s m t h r ea ses on f p
ove r n en s ou a so e en on e ,
or e a re o ro

f d i t tt A m i
oun n e re s td t f hi t y o d p li ti l i I tw
e r c an s u f mL k en s o s or an o ca sc e n c e . as ro oc e
th tth f m
a ef th D lra ti f I d p d
e rs o d f th C
e ti t ti d wm
e c a ra y on o n e en e n c e an o e on s u on re an
o f th i i d e r d v m f th i m
e as , t t iki g p h
an e en A ll m so d w d
e o e r os s r n r ase s . e n a re en o e

wi th t i i li b l i gh t ; lif li b ty d th p i t f h p p i
ce r a n na ena e r ; th s
” "
e , er , an e u rs u o a n e ss
” "
e
or igi d b i
n an f g v m t i i th
as s t f th
o
g m d
o e rn th d m en y s n e c o n se n o e ov e e ,
”—
e se an an

m oref m ili d t iki g x p

a i
a r an f m L k I ti i t ti g t t th th
s r n e re s s o n s a re ro oc e . s n e re s n o no e a e
w as ap p i t d t d ft o n e ti t ti f th o w p vira f C li ; b t h i w k
a c on s u on or e ne ro nce o a ro na u s or

w j t d p b b ly be
a s re ec e it w
, t d m ti f
ro a th g i wh i h h liv dca u se as oo e oc ra c or e a e n c e e .
 TH E R E S T O R ATI O N P E R I OD 25 3

E v e ly n w a s th e fi r s t b ook o n tre e s
a u t orh of Sy lv a , th e
a n d f ore s t ry i n E n g li s h an d Te r r a w h ic h is th e fi rs t a tte m p t
, ,

at a s ci e n t ifi c s tu dy of ag r i c u l tu r e ; b u t th e w or ld h a s l os t
s i h t of t h e s e tw o goo d b ook s w h il e i t c h e r i s h e s h i s di a r y
g , ,

w h ic h e x te n d s o v e r th e g re ate r p a rt of h i s l i f e an d g iv e s u s
vivid pic tu re s of s oci e ty i n h i s ti m e a n d e s p e cia lly o f th e ,

f ri gh tf u l c or r u p ti on of th e roy al c ou rt .

P e py s b e ga n li f e in a s m a ll w ay as a cl e r k in a g ov e r n m e n t
offi c e b u t s oon r o s e by h i s d ili g e n c e a n d i n d u s t
, ry to be Sec

re t ar of t h e A d m i ra l ty H e re h e w as b r ou g h ti n t
Di y
’ y o .

P py
e s s ar
c on tac twi th e v e ry g ra d e of s o ci e ty f r om th e ki n g s ,
'

m i n i s te rs to th e p o or s a il o r s o f th e fl e e t B e i n g i n q u i s i tiv e as .

a bl u e ja y h e i n v e s t i gate d th e r u m or s an d g o s s ip of th e c o u rt
, ,

a s w e ll a s t h e s m a ll a ff a i r s o f h is n e i g h b or s an d w rote th e m ,

a ll d ow n in h i s d i ar y wi t h e vid e n t i n te re s t B u t b e c au se h e .

c h a tte r e d m os t f re e ly an d told h is li ttl e b oo k a g re at m an y

,

s e c re t s w h ic h i t w e r e n o t w e ll f o r t h e w or ld to k n o w b e c on ,

c e ale d e v e r y t h i n g in s h orth an d a n d h e re a ga i n h e w a s lik e ,

th e bl u e jay w h i ch c a rr i e s off an d h id e s e v e r y b r i g h t tr i n k e t
,

it di s c o v e rs Th e D i a ry c o v e r s th e y e ar s f r om 1 66 0 to 1 6 6 9
.
,

a n d g os s ip s a b o u t e v e ry t h i n g f rom h is o w n p os i ti on an d ,
'

d u ti e s at th e o fli c e h is d re s s a n d ki tc h e n an d c oo k an d c h il
,

d re n to th e gr e a t p ol i tic a l i n tr i g u e s of offi c e a n d th e s c an d a l s
,

o f h i g h s o ci e t y N o oth e r s u c h m i n u te pic tu r e of th e d a ily

.

li f e of a n age h as b e e n w ri tte n Ye t for a c e n tu ry a n d a h al f .

it r e m a i n e d e n ti re ly u n k n o w n an d n otu n til 1 8 2 5 w a s Pe p y s s
’

s h o rt h a n d d e cip h e re d an d p u bli s h e d S i n c e th e n it h a s b e e n .

wid e ly r e ad an d i s s till on e o f th e m o s t i n te re s ti n g e x am pl e s
,

o f di ar y w r i t i n g th a tw e p oss e s s F o ll o wi n g are a fe w e x trac ts 1

.
,

c ov e ri n g o n ly a fe w d ay s in A p ril 1 6 6 3 f ro m w h ic h on e m ay , ,

i n f e r th e m i n u te an d i n te r e s ti n g ch ar a c te r of th e w or k th a t
th i s cl e r k p ol i tici an p re s id e n t o f th e R oy a l S o ci e ty an d g e n
, , ,

e ra l b u s yb o dy w r ot e t o pl e a s e h i m s e l f

1 Af ew sli gh t h c a n g e s an d o m s s on s i i f rom th e or i gi l t x t
na e as giv i en n \Vh ea tle y ’
s

i fq
,

ed i ti on o f P py (L
e s o n d on , 1 89 2 , 9 a re n o t n d c a ted i i i n th e s e br e u ot
a ton s i .
2 54 E N G L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

Ap r i l l st . I w e n tt
o he
t Te m pl e o m y C oz e n R o g e r
t Pe py s, t
o se e

an d tal k w i th
l i ttl e : w h o te l l s
h im a wi ad o t h e P ar m e th a t, th m uc h ,

li a m e n t d o ag re e to th ro w d ow n P o p e r y ; b u th e s a y s i ti s wi th s o m u c h
sp i t e a n d p as s i o n a n d a n e n d e a v o r o f b ri n g i n
, g a ll N o n c o n for m i s t s int o

t h e s a m e c o n d i ti o n th a th e i s a fe ard m a tte rs w il l n o t g o s o w e l l as h e
,

c o u l d wi s h T o m y offi c e a ll th e a f te rn oo n ; L o rd ! h o w S i r J
. .

Mi n n e s li k e a m ad c o x c o m b d i d s w e ar a n d s ta m p s w e a ri n g th a t C o m
, , ,

m i s s i o n e r P e tt h a t h s til l th e o ld h e a r t a g a i n s t th e K i n g th a t e v e r h e
h ad ,
a n d a ll t h e d a m n a b l e r e p ro a c h e s i n th e w o r l d a t w h i c h I w as ,

as h a m e d b u t s a i d l i ttl e ; b u t u p o n t
,
h e w h o l e I fin d h i m s til l a foo le
, , ,

le d b y th e n o s e w i th s to ri e s to l d b y S i r W B a tt en w h e th e r w i th or .
,

wi th o u tre as o n S o v e x e d i n m y m i n d to s e e th i n gs o rd e re d s o u n l i k e
.
,

g e n tl e m e n o r m e n o f re a s o n I w e n th om e a n d to b e d
, , .

3 d T o W h i te H a l l a n d to C h a p p e l l w h i c h b e i n g m os t m on s t
. ro u s ,

f u l l I c o u l d n o tg o i n to m y p e w b u ts a tam o n g th e q u i re D r C re e to n
, , . .
,

th e S c o tc h m a n p re a c h e d a m o s t a d m i r ab l e g o o d l e a rn e d h o n e s t an d
, , , , ,

m os t s e v e re s e r m o n ye t c o m i c all He ra i l e d b i tte r l y e v e r a n d a n o n
, .

a a i n s t J o h n C a lv i n a n d h i s b rood th e P re s b y t e ri a n s a n d ag a i n s t t
he
g , ,

te n d e r c o n s c i e n c e s He ri pp e d u p
”
p re s e n t te r m e n o w i n u s e o f , , .

H u g h P e te rs ( c a l li n g h i m th e e x e c ra b l e s k e ll u m ) h is p re a c h i n g an d ,

st i rri n g u p th e m ayd s o f th e c i ty to b ri n g i n th e i r b od ki n s a n d th i m b l e s .

T h e n c e g o i n g o u t o f Wh i te H a l l I m e tC a p ta i n G ro v e w h o d id g iv e , ,

m e a let te r d i re c t ed t o m y s e l f f rom h i m s e l f I d i s c e rn e d m o n e y to b e .

i n i t an d t
,
oo k i t k n o wi n g as I f o u n d i tt , o be th e p ro c e e d o f th e p l a c e
, ,

I h a v e got h i m th e ta ki n g u p o f v e s s e l s fo r T a n g i e r B u t I d id n o t
, .

op e n i t t i l l I c a m e h o m e to m y offi c e a n d th e re I b ro k e i t o p e n n o t , ,

l o o k i n g i n to i t ti l l a ll th e m o n e y w a s o u t th a t I m i g h t s a y I s a w n o ,

m o n e y i n th e p a p e r i f e v e r I s h o ul d b e q u e s t ,i o n e d ab o u ti t Th e re w as .

a p i e c e o f g o l d a n d 4 £ i n s i lv e r .

4 th T o m y o ffi c e
. H o m e to d i n n e r w h i th e r b y a n d b y c o m e s R og e r
.
,

P e p y s e tc Ve r y m e rry at b e fo re a n d a f te r d i n n e r a n d th e m o re for
, .
, , ,

th a t m y d i n n e r w as g re a t a n d m os t n e a tl y d re s s e d b y o u r ow n e o n l y
,

We h ad a fri c as e e o f rab b i ts a n d c h i c k e n s a le g o f m u tto n

.

m ay d e .
,

b oi le d t h re e c a rp s i n a d i s h a g re a td i s h o f a s i d e o f l am b e a d i s h o f
, , ,

e d p i e on s a d i s h o f f o u r l ob s t th re e ta r t a l a m p re y p i e
r o as t
g e rs
, s
( a , ,

m o s t r a r e p i e ) a d i s h o f a n c h o v i e s g o o d w i n e o f s e v e ra l s o r t
, s a n d a ll , ,

t h i n g s m i gh ty n o b l e a n d to m y g r e a t c on te n t .

5 th ( L o r d s d a y ) U p an d s p e n t th e m o r n i n g til l th e B a rb e r c a m e
’
.
, ,

i n re a d i n g i n m y c h a m b e r p a r to f O s b o r n e s Ad v i c e to h i s S o n w h i c h I ’
,

s h a l l n o t n e v e r e n o u h a d m i re fo r s e n s e a n d l a n u a e an d b e i n g b y
g g g ,

an d b
y tr i m m e d to C h u rc h m y s e l f w i fe As h w e l l e tc Ho m e a n d
, , , , , .
,

w h i l e d i n n e r w as p re p a re d to m y o ffi c e to re a d o v e r m y v o w s w i th g re a t
,

a ff e c t i on a n d to v e ry g ood p u rp o s e T h e n to c h u rc h a ga i n w h e re a .
,

s i m p l e b a wli n g y o u n
g S c o tp re a c h e d .
25 6 E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
as th e y a re , is sh o w n i n th e w k f or o th e R o yal S o c i e ty , i n th e p h il os o p h y o f
Hob b e s an d Lo c k d i e , an n th di ie ar e s of E v ly e n an d p P
e y s , wi t h th e i r m i n u te

pi t c u re s o f s o c i l l ife
a Th . e ag e w as one of tr a n s to n ii f ro m th e e x u b e ran c e an d

vi g o r of Rena is s l it
an c e e ra tu re to th e f o rm a li ty an d po li s h Of th e A ug u s tan

Ag e . In stro n g c on tra s t wi th th e p re c e d n g a g e s , i c om p a ra t iv ly li ttl e

e of

R e s to ra to n i li te ra tu re is f m ili a t
a r o m o d e rn re a d e rs .

S e l e c ti on s f or R e a d i n g . D ry d e n . Al x e an d e r s
’
F e as t, S o n g f o r S t C e c . ili a s ’

D a y, l
se e c i
to n s A h i t p h l R li g i L i i
f ro m Ab l sa o m an d c o e , e o a c , H in d an d P an th e r,
A n n us M i b ili — i M ly E g li h P t y
ra s, W d n an
’
s n s oe r , or ar
’
s E ng li s h P oe ts , or

l l N ti l L i b y P l m d A i t ( D yd v i C h auc e r
’
e rs o n o f
’ ’
C a ss e s a on a ra r a a o n an rc e r en s s

ta l e
) , li s h C l s i c s R iv e i d e L i t t e e t ; D ry d s
i n S ta n d a rd E n g as , rs e ra u r , c . en
’
An
ay o f D m ti c P o s y i M ly E g li h P s e
’ ’
E ss ra C ett
a e , n an s, or a rn s, n s ro .

B t l u S l c ti er f m H d ib as i Ma ly s E gli s h P o e t y W
. e e ons ro u r , n n
’
n r , a rd s
’

g li h P o ts Mo rl e y s U n iv e s l L i b ra ry ’
En s e , or r a .

P py e S e l c ti s i
s . M ly s E g li h P e e ; th e D i a y i
on E v e ym n an
’
n s ro s r n r an s
’

B i b l i ograp h y . His tory . Te x tbook , -

M o n tg o m e ry p p , . 2 5 7 —28 0 ; Che y y ne ,

p p 4 66 5 1 4 ; G re e n , c h 9 ; T ra
.
-
. il l ; G a rd i n e r ; M ac au l ay .

Sp e e i a l Wor k s y y i l L if i E g l f i
’
S d n e s S oc . a e n n an d ro m th e R e s to ra to n to
th e R e v l ti
o u on ; Ai y s r
’
Th e E n g li s h R e s to ra ti a on nd L ou is XIV ; Ha l e ’
s Th e
F a ll of th e S tu a r ts .

L it
e ra t
ure . C a rn e tts Th e A g e o f D r d e n ; D o d e n s u r tan an d
’
n
g c an y w ’
P i A li .

D ry d e n i l k wi .if P i o e tc a W o r s ,
i i i
th L e , e d te d b y C h r s te ; th e s a m e , e d te d
b y N y e s i C m b i d g P e ts S e i e s ; L if e
o , n d W ks ( 1 8
a b y W lt
r e o r an or a er

S c tt e vi s d ( 1 8 93 ) b y S i t b ry ; E s ay s e d i te d b y K e ; L ife b y S a i ts
o , r e a n s u s , r , n

b y ( E g li s h M
ur f L e tte ) ; M c
n l y s E y ; Lo w e l l s E y i A m g
en o rs a au a
’
s sa
’
ssa , n on

My B o k s ( i L i te o y E s s ay s l 3 ) D w d e E y p
or n ra r , vo . o n s
’
ssa , su ra .

B tl H d i b as i M l y s U iv e s a l L i b ra y ; P o e ti c l W k e d i te d
u er . u r , n or e
’
n r r a or s,

b y J oh s ; D owd s E s s ay
’
n on
p en , su ra .

D i ry i E v e ry m a s L i b ry ; th e d i t d b y W h a tl y ( 8
’
P py e s . me
a n n ra sa , e e e e

W h a tl e y s S m e l P p y s d th W l d H L iv e d I ; S t v o s E ss ay
e
’
a u e an e or e n e ens n
’
,

i F a m ili
n S t d i e s f Me a d B o o k s
ar u o n n .

T/ R t ti zeD m P l y i th e Me m a i d S ri ; Ha litt L e c t s
e s or a on ra a . a s n r e es z
’
s u re

on th E g li h C m i c W ri t s ; M e d i th s E s s ay
e n s C om e d y
o d th C m ic er er
’
on an e o

S p i i t; L a m b s E s s y
r th A rtifi c i a l C o m d y ; Th c k e ay E s y C o n
’
a on e e a r
’
s sa on

g evr i E g li h H m o ris ts
e , n n s u .

S u gge s ti v e Que s ti on s . 1 . W h a t m a rk e d c h an e
g in s oc a i l c o d i ti n on s fol
l ow e d th e R e s to r a to n i ? How a re th e s e c h a n g e s re fl ecte d in li t t ? e ra u re

2 . W h a t a re i i o f R e to a ti l i t t e ? Wh y i
th e c h ie f c h a rac te r s tc s s r on e ra u r s

th i p e i d c l l e d th e A e o f F
s r o
g c h i fl ? W h t e w te n d e c i e w e
a re n n ue n c e a n n s er

i tro d e d ? W h at e ffe c t d id th R o y l S oc i ty a d th e s t d y f s c i e c e
n uc e a e n u o n

h ve p
a E gli h p ou ? Wh ti s m
on tb y li m ? b y f rm li m ?
n s r se a e an re a s o a s

3 W h a ti s m . tb y th h oi co pl t E x p l a i n w h y i tb c a m e th p e
e an e er c u e e e r !

v a ili g fo m o f E g li h p e t y W h t a e i ts g o d q a li ti s a d i ts d e f c ts ?
n r n s o r . a r o u e n e
 TH E R E ST O R ATI O N P E R I OD 2 57

N am e s o m w e ll k w p m w h i h a w i tt i c p l e ts H ow d o D y d e s
e -
no n oe s c re r en n ou . r n
’

c oup l e t
s c o m p e wi th C h c e ar ? C yo x p l a i th e d iff ce ?
au
’
r s an u e n e re n

4 G iv e
. b i f ac c o t f D y d n lif e
a r e W h t e h is c h i f p ti l w o k ?
un o r e
’
s . a ar e oe ca r s

F or w h t w b j e c t d id h s e p o e ty ? I s a ti e a p ti c a l s b j e c t? Wh y
a ne o e u r s r oe u

i s a p e ti c a l s a ti ff c tiv e th a a s a ti e i p os ? W h tw as D y d e s ’
o m re o re e e n r n r e a r n

c ont i b ti o t E g li s h p
r u n o Wh a ti fl e c e d id h e e x t o li te a t ?
n ro s e n u n er on ur r u re

5 Wh a tis B tl H dib E x p l i i ts p p l i ty R
’
. u er s u d a p as s a g e
r asd a n o u ar . ea an

c om m e n t p i t fi s t as s a ti e ; s e c o n d as a d e s c i p ti
u on , r , of th P it I
r , r on e ur an s . s

H u d i b r a s p o e try Wh y
6 . N am e th e p h il o s o p h e rs a n d li i l
p o tc a e c o n o m s ts i of th i
p e r o d C a n yo u
s i .

e xp lai n wh y ld l l H ob b e s i Ash ou ca h is w k
or L e v i a tk a n ? Wh at m p o rta n t m e r
i c a d m e ts s h o w th e i fl
n oc u e of L c k
n ? n ue nc o e

7 T e ll b i fly th e s t ry f P p y s
. r e d h is D i y Wh tligh t d th l o o e an ar . a oe s e atte r
th w o th e life of th e age ? I th e D i y a w o k f li t a t e ? Wh y ?
ro n s ar r o er ur

C H R ON O L OG Y

L a s tH a lf f
o t/1 e S ev e n t /z C e n tu ry
ee n t

H I ST O R Y L I TE R AT U R E
1 64 9 . E x e c ti u on of C h ar l es I
64 9— 1 660 C o m m on w l th H ob b e s Le vi h an
’
1 . ea 1 65 1 . s at

1 660 . R e sto ra to n o f i C h ar le s II 1 66 0—1 669 . P e p ys

’
s D ia y r

1 66 2 . Ro yal S oc i ty f e o un ded
tl e H d ib r
’
1 66 3 . Bu r s u as

I 665 -
1 666 . Pl ag u e an d F i re o f L o n d on
Wa r wi th H o ll a n d
1 667 . D u tc h fl e e ti n th e Th am e s 1 66 7 . M il to n ’
s P a ra d s e i L os t . D ry
den
’
s A nnus Mi rab ili s
1 663 -
1 69 4 . D r de n y ’
s d ra m as
1 67 1 . P di R
a ra se e
ga i ned

1 67 8 . P il g i m P r
’
s ro
g re s s p u b li sh e d

1 68 0 . R i s e of W h i gs an d To r ie s
1 68 1 . D r de n y ’
s Ab l sa om an d A h it
c

Op h e l
1 68 5 . J am e s II
M on m o u th ’
s R eb e lli on

1 68 7 . N wt e on s
’
P i ip i
r nc a
p ro ves th e
la w of g ra vi t ti a on

1 68 8 . E ng li s h Re v o l ti W illi am o fu on ,

O ran g e c a ll e d t th e o ro n

1 68 9 . B ill of R i gh t T l e a ti A c t
s . o r on

1 6 90 . Loc k e s
’
H u m a n U n d e rs ta n d i n g
1 698 . J e re m y Co lli a tta k er c s sta
ge
1 70 0 . D e a th of D ry d e n
 C HA P TE R I X

E I GHTE E N TH— CE N TU R Y L I TE R ATU RE

I . AU G U S TA N OR CL AS S IC AG E

Hi story of th e P e ri od . Th e R e v o l u ti on of 1 68 8 , w h i c h ban i sh e d
th e l ast of th e S t
uart ki n gs an d ca l l e d Wi l l i a m of O ran ge to th e
th ron e , m a r ks th e e n d of th e l on g st ru ggl e fo r p o l i ti c a l f re e d o m in
E n gl a n d T h e re af te r th e E n gl i sh m an s p e n t h is tre m e n d ous e n e rgy
.
,

w h i c h h is fo rbe ars h ad large ly sp e n tin fi gh ti n g for f re e d om in e n d ,

l e ss p ol i ti c a l di scu ss i on s an d in e fforts to i m p rove h is gov e rn m e n t .

I n o rd e r to b ri n g ab ou t re fo rm s vo te s w e re n ow n e c e s sary ; an d to
,

ge t v ote s th e p e o p l e of E n gl an d m us t b e a p p roac h e d w i th i d e a s ,

fac ts argu m e n ts i n form ati on S o th e n e w sp ap e r w as bo rn an d lit

, , .
,
1

e rat u re i n i t s wi d e s t se n s e i n c l ud i n g th e b ook th e n e w sp ap e r an d
, , ,

h e m aga z i n e b e c a m e th e c h i e f i n stru m e n tof a n a ti on s p rogre ss

’
t , .

Th e fi rs t h a lf of th e e i gh te e n th c e n tu ry is r e m a rk ab l e fo r th e
ra id s o ci a l d e v e l o p m e n t in E n gl an d Hi th e rto m e n h ad b e e n m ore
p .

S i l
oc a o r le ss gov e rn e d by t h e n arro w i s o l ate d s tan d ard s o f th e ,

D v l pm
e e o t Midd l e A e s an d w h e n t
en h e y d i ff e re d th e y f e l l s p e e d i l y
g ,

to b l o w s N ow fo r th e fi rs tti m e th e y s e tth e m se l v e s to th e task o f

.

l e arn i n g th e artof l ivi n g toge th e r w h i l e s ti l l h o l di n g d i ff e re n to p i n

,

i on s I n a si n gl e ge n e rati on n e a rly tw o th ousan d p u b l i c C offe e h ou se s

.
,

e ac h a c e n t e r o f soc i abi l i ty sp ran g u p in L ond on a l on e an d th e

, ,

n u m b e r of p riva t e c l u bs is q u i t on i s h i n g T h i s n e w s oc ia l l i f e 2
e as a s t .

h ad a m a rk e d e ff e c t in p o l i sh i n g m e n s wo rd s an d m an n e rs Th e
’
.

ty p i c al Lo n d on e r of Q u e e n An n e s d ay w a s s til l ru d e an d a l i ttl e
’
,

vu l gar in h is taste s th e c i ty w as s ti l l v e ry fi l th y th e stre e ts u n l igh te d ,

“
an d i n f e s t e d a t n i gh t by b an d s o f ro w di e s an d M oh a wk s ; b u t ”

ou t w ard l y m e n sou gh t to r e fi n e th e i r m an n e rs ac c ord i n g to p re

va i lin g stan d ard s ; an d to b e e l e gan t to h av e good fo rm w as , ,
”

a m an s fi rs t d u t y w h e th e r h e e n te re d s oci e ty or wrote l i te ra tu re
’
.
,

On e c an h a rd l y re ad a b ook o r p o e m o f th e age w i th ou tf e e l in g th i s

1 Th e fi r s tda ily w ne
pa pe r , Tb e D a i ly Cou r a n t, a p pe a re d i n L on d on i n
s 1 70 2 .

2 S ee L e c ky ,
E n g la n d i n tb e E zg kte e n t/z Ce n tu ry .

:5 8
2 60 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
L i te r ary Ch a r ac te r i s tic s ve ry p re c e di n g age w e h av e
. In e

n ot e d e s p e ci a lly t h e p oe tica l w ork s w h i c h c on s ti tu te a cc or d , ,

A Ag
n f
e o
i n
g t o M a t h
t e w A r n o ld t h e g l o r y o f E n g li s h l i ter ,

Pros e at u re N ow for th e fi r s t ti m e w e m u s t c h ro n icl e

.

th e tr i u m p h o f E n g l i s h p ros e A m u l ti tu d e of p rg cgc al in
g)
'

te r e s ts ar i s i n g f ro m th e n e w e fl g on s _

d e m an d e d e xp re s s i on n ots i m ply in b ook s b utm or e e s p e ci a lly

, ,

in pa m p h l e ts m aga z i n e s a n d n e w s p a p e r s
,
P oe try w a s in ad e
, .

q u ate fo r s u c h a ta s k ; h e n c e th e d e v e l op m e n t of p ros e of ,

”
th e u n fe t te r e d w ord a s D an t e c a ll s i t — ,
a d e v e l op m e n t ,

w h ic h a s ton i sh e s u s by i ts rapidi ty a n d e xc e ll e n c e Th e .

g ra c e f u l e l e ga n c e of A dd i s on s e s say s th e te rs e vi g or of
’

S wi f ts sa ti re s th e ar ti s ti c fi ni s h o f F i e ld i n g s n ov e l s th e
’ ’

, ,

s o n orou s e l o q u e n c e o f G ibb on s h i s t o ry a n d of B u r k e s ora

’ ’

ti on s — th e se h av e n o p a rall e l in th e p oe try o f th e ag e
,
.

I n d e e d p oe tr y i ts e lf b e c am e p r os a ic in th i s re s p e c t th at it
, ,

w a s u s e d n ot f o r c r e ativ e w o r k s o f i m ag i n a ti on b u tf or e s say s , ,

for s a ti r e fo r c r i tici s m
,
f or e x a c tly th e sa m e p ra c tic al e n d s
,
—
l

as w a s p ro s e Th e p oe tr y o f th e fi rs t h a lf o f th e c e n tu ry a s
‘

.
,

typi fi e d i n th e w o r k o f P o p e is p ol i s h e d a n d wi tty e n o u g h , ,

b u ta rt i fi ci a l ; it l a ck s fir e fin e f e e li n g e n tln i s ia s m th e g l o w
, , ,

of t h e E li z ab e th a n A g e a n d th e m ora l e arn e s tn e s s o f P u r i tan

is m . I n a w o r d it i n te r e s ts u s a s a s tu dy of li f e r ath e r th an
, ,

d e li gh ts or i n s pi r e s u s by its a ppe al to th e i m ag i n ati on Th e .

v ar i e ty an d e xc e ll e n c e of p ro s e w ork s a n d th e d e v e l o p m e n t ,

of a Se rvic e a bl e p r o s e s t yl e w h ic h h ad b e e n b e g u n b y D ry ,

d e n u n til it se r v e d to e xp r e s s cl e a rly e v e r y h u m an i n te r e s t
,

a n d e m ot i on th e s e a re th e c h i e f li te rary g l or i e s of th e
,
—

e igh t eent h c e n tu ry .

I n th e li te ratur e o f th e p r e c e di n g age w e n ote d tw o m ar k e d

te n d e n ci e s — t h e te n d e n cy to r e ali s m in s u bj e c tm a tte r a n d
,
-
,

th e te n d e n cy to p o li s h an d r e fi n e m e n t o f e xp r e s 7 ,
S t
a i re
S i on B o th th e s e te n d e n ci e s w e re c on ti n u e d i n th e
.

A u g u s tan A g e an d a re s e e n cl e a r ly i n th e p o e tr y o f P o p e
, ,

w h o b ro u g h t th e c o u pl e t to p e r f e c ti on an d in th e p r o s e of ,
 E G HT E E N T H C E
l —
NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 26 1

A ddi s on . A th i rd te n d e n cy is sh o wn p re val e n c e of
in th e

3 sa t i re ,re su lt i n
g f r om t h e u n f or tu n a t e u n i o n o f p o li tic s wi th
l i te ratur e We h a v e a l re ady n ote d th e p ow e r o f th e p re s s in
.

th i s a ge an d th e p e r p e tu a l s trif e o f p oli tica l p a rti e s

, N e arly .

e v e ry w r i t e r of t h e fi r s t h a l f of th e c e n tu r y w a s u se d a n d r e
war d e d by Wh i g s or T or i e s fo r s ati r iz i n g th e i r e n e m i e s an d for
a dv an ci n g t h e i r s p e ci a l p o li tic a l i n te r e s ts P op e w a s a m a r k e d
.

e xc e p t i on b u t h e n e v e rth e l e s s f o ll o w e d th e p ro se w r i te rs in
,

u s i n g sa t i re too l arg e ly in h is p oe try N o w s ati r e — th at i s a

.
,

li te rar y w or k w h ic h s e ar c h e s ou tth e f au l ts of m e n or in s titu

ti on s i n o rd e r to h old th e m u p to r idic u l e is at b e s t a d e
—

st ru c tiv e kin d of c r i tici s m . sat i r i s t i s lik e a l ab ore r w h o

cl e ar s aw a y th e r u i n s an d r u bbi s h of an old h ou s e b e f ore th e
arc h i t e c ta n d b u ild e rs b e g i n on a n e w an d b e a u t i f u l s tr u c tu re .

Th e w or k m ay s om e ti m e s b e n e c e s s ary b u t it rare ly a rou s e s ,

ou r e n t h u s i as m Wh il e th e s ati r e s of P op e S wi f t an d A ddi
.
, ,

s on a r e d o u b t l e s s th e b e s t in ou r l an g uage w e h ar dly pl a c e ,

th e m wi th our g r e at li te ratu r e w h ic h is alw ay s c on s tru c tiv e

'

in s pi r i t; an d w e h av e th e f e e li n g th at a ll th e s e m e n w e r e
c ap abl e of b e tte r th i n g s th a n th e y e v e r w rote .

Th e Cla s s i c Age Th e p e r i o d w e a r e s tu dyi n g i s k n o w n to

.

u s by v ar i o u s n am e s I t i s o f te n c a ll e d th e A g e o f Q u e e n
.

" ”
A n n e ; b u t u n lik e E li z a b e th th i s
, , m e e kly s tu pid q u e e n
h a d p ra c tic a lly n o i n fl u e n c e u p on ou r l i te ra ture Th e n am e
.

C l a s s ic Ag e is m or e o f te n h e ar d ; b u t in u s i n g it w e s h ou ld .

r e m e m b e r cl e ar ly t h e se th re e di ffe re n t w ay s i n w h ic h th e
”
w or d cl a s s ic is a ppli e d to li te ra tu r e : ( I ) th e te r m cl a s s ic
re f e r s i n g e n e ra l t
, o w ri t
, e r s of t h e h i g h e s tr an k i n an y n ati on .

A s u s e d in ou r l i te ratu r e it w a s fi r s ta ppli e d to th e w ork s of

,

th e g re at G re e k a n d R o m an w r i te rs lik e H o m e r a n d V i rg il ;
,

an d an E n li s h b o ok w h ic h f oll o w e d t h e S i m pl e a n d n o bl e
y g
m e th od of th e s e w r i t e r s w as s a id t o h av e a cl a s s ic s t yl e .

L ate r th e te r m w as e n l arg e d to c o v e r th e g r e a t l i te ra ry w ork s

o f ot h e r an ci e n t n a ti o n s ; s o th a t th e B ibl e a n d th e A v e s tas ,

as w e ll a s th e I li ad a n d th e fE n e id are ca ll e d cl as s ic s ,
.
262 E N GLISH L IT E R ATU R E

( )
2 E v e ry i l li t e rat
n a to n a u re h a s a t l ea s t o n e p e r i od in w h ic h

a n u n u s u a l n u m b e r o f g re a t w r i t e r s ar e p r od u ci n g b oo k s an d ,

th i s is c a ll e d th e cl a s s i c pe r i o d of a n at i on s li te rature T h u s ’
.

th e r e i g n of A u g us tu s is th e c la s s ic o r g o ld e n ag e o f R o m e ;
th e g e n e ra ti o n of D an te i s th e cl a s s ic ag e o f I t a li an li te ra

tu re ; th e ag e of L o u i s X I V i s th e F r e n c h cl a s s ic ag e ; a n d
th e ag e o f Q u e e n A n n e is o f te n c all e d th e cl a s s ic a g e o f
”
E n g l an d ( 3 ) Th e w or d cla s s i c a cq u i re d an e n ti re ly di ff e r e n t
.

m e a n i n g i n th e p e r i o d w e a r e s tu dyi n g ; a n d w e S h all b e tte r

u n d e rs t an d t h i s by re f e re n c e to th e p r e c e di n g age s Th e .

E li za b e th an w r i te rs w e r e le d by p atr i oti s m by e n th u s i as m , ,

a n d i n g e n e ral by ro m an t
,
i c e m oti on s T h e y w rote in a n at
, .

u ra l s t yl e wi th ou tr e ga r d to r u l e s ; an d th oug h th e y e xag ge r
,

at e d an d u s e d t oo m a n y w or d s th e i r w or k s a re d e li g h tf u l ,

b e cau s e of th e i r vig o r a n d f re s h n e s s an d fin e f e e li n g I n th e .

f oll owi n g age p atr i oti s m h ad l arg e ly di s a pp e are d f rom p oli tic s
an d e n t h u s i as m f ro m li te ratu re P o e ts n o l on ge r w ro te n atu .

r ally b u t a r t
,
ifi ci ally wi th s tran ge an d fan tas tic v e rs e f or m s to
,

g iv e e ff e c t s i n c e fi n e f e e li n g w as w an ti n g
,
A n d th i s is th e .

g e e a l c h ara c te r o f th e p oe try o f th e P u ri ta A g e G rad u

1
n r n .

a lly o u r w r i t e r s r e b e ll e d aga i n s tth e e x ag g e ra ti o n s o f b oth th e

n at u r a l an d t h e fan ta s tic s tyl e T h e y d e m an d e d th a t p oe try .

s h ou ld f oll o w e x a c t r u l e s ; a n d i n t h i s th e y w e r e i n fl u e n c e d
by F r e n c h w ri te rs e s p e ci ally by B o il e a u a n d R api n w h o in
, ,

s ist e d o n p r e ci s e m e t h od s of w r i ti n g p oe tr y a n d w h o p r o f e s s e d ,

to h a v e d i s c ov e re d th e i r r u l e s i n th e cl as s ic s of H or a c e a n d
A r i s totl e I n ou r s tu dy of th e E li z a b e th an d ram a w e n ote d
.

th e g ood i n fl u e n c e o f th e cl as s ic m ov e m e n t i n i n s i s ti n g u p on
th at b ea u ty of f orm a n d d e fin ite n e s s o f e xp re s s i on w h ic h
c h ara c te r i z e th e d ra m a s of G re e c e an d R om e ; an d in th e
w ork of D ryd e n an d h is f o ll ow e rs w e s e e a r e viva l of cl as s i
c is m i n t h e e ff or tto m ak e E n g li s h li te ratu re c o n f or m to r u l e s
1 w it
G rea t r e rs in e v y
er a ge , m en lik e S ha k e s p ea re a n d M il to n ,
ma k th i w
e e ro yl
n st e .

Th e y th
are fe re o re n o ti l
n c u d ed in th i
s sum m ar y A m g th m i
. on e n or w it l
r e rs a s o th e re
a re e x pti t
ce on s o th e l ;
ru e an d fin e fee l i ng is ft m if ti th
o en an es n e p oe try of D o n n e,
He r b e rt, Vau gh a n , and He rr ik
c .
2 64 E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E

AL E XAN D E R POPE ( 1 68 8 — I 74 4 )
P op e i s in m a n y p e c ts a u n iq u e fi g u re I n th e fi rs t
re s .

pl a c e h e w a s for a g e n e ra ti on th e p oe t o f a g re at n ati on
, .
.

To b e s u re p oe try w as l i m i te d in th e e ar ly e i g h te e n th c e n
,

tu r y ; th e r e w e re fe w ly r ic s li ttl e or n o l o v e p o e try n o e pic s

, , ,

n o d ra m as or s on g s o f n at u r e w or th c o n s id e r i n g ; b u t in th e
n arro w fi e ld o f s at i r ic a n d d id a c tic v e rse P op e w a s th e u n di s
p u te d m a st e r m n fl u e n c e c om pl e t
. e ly d om i n a ted t h e p oe t ry

of h is ag e a n d m a n y f or e i g n w r i te rs a s w e ll as t
,
h e m a j or i ty ,

o f E n g li s h p o e t s l ook e d to h im as th e i r m od e l S e c on d h e
, .
,

w as a r e m ar k a bly cl e ar a n d a d e q u ate re fl e c t i on of th e s pi ri t
of t h e ag e in w h ic h h e liv e d T h e r e is h a rdly an id e al a b e .
,

l i e f a d ou b t a fa s h i on a w h im o f Q u e e n A n n e s ti m e th a t i s
, , ,
’

n o t n e at ly e xp r e s s e d in h is p oe t ry T h i rd h e w as th e o n ly .
,

i m p or tan t w ri te r of th at age w h o gav e h is w h o l e li f e to le t

te r s . S wi f t w a s a cl e rg ym an an d p oli tici a n ; A ddi s on w a s
s e c re t ar y of s t at e ; oth e r w r i te rs d e p e n d e d on pa tron s or
p olitic s o r p e n s i on s for fa m e an d a liv e lih ood ; b u t P op e w a s
i n d e p e n d e n t an d h a d n o p ro f e s s i on b u t l i te ratu r e A n d
, .

f o ur th by th e s h e e r f or c e of h is a m bi ti on h e w on h i s pl ac e
, ,

a n d h e ld i t i n s pi t e o f r e li g i ou s p r e j u di c e an d i n t
, h e fa c e of ,

p h y s i c a l an d te m p e ram e n ta l o b s tacl e s that w ou ld hav e d is

c ou rag e d a s t ro n g e r m a n F o r P o p e w a s d e f or m e d an d s i ckly
.
,

d w ar fis h in s o u l a n d b ody H e k n e w li ttl e Of th e w o r ld of
.

n at u r e o r of t h e w or l d o f th e h u m an h e a rt H e w as l a cki n g .
,

a pp are n t ly i n n o bl e f e e li n g an d i n s ti n c tiv e ly c h os e a lie w h e n

, ,

th e tru th h a d m a n i f e s tly m or e a d v an tag e s Ye t th i s j e al ou s .

,

p e e vi s h w as pi s h li ttl e m an b e c am e th e m o s t f a m ou s p oe t of
,

h is ag e an d th e a ck n owl e d g e d l e a d e r Of E n g li s h l i te ra tu re .

We re cord th e f act wi th w o n d e r a n d ad m i rati on ; b ut w e d o

n o t at te m p t to e xpl a i n it .

Lif e . Pop e w as bo rn i n Lo n d on in
‘

1 68 8 , th e ye ar of vo
th e R e
lu tio n . H is p a re n ts w e re both C a th o l i c s w h o , p r e s e n tl y r e m o v e d
fro m L on d o n an d tl e d in B in fie ld n e a r Wi n d so r w h e re th e p oe ts
’
se t , ,
 E IGHT E E NTH — C E NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 26 5

c h i l d h ood w as p asse d Partly b e c au se of an un fo rtu n ate p re j u dic e

.

aga i n s t C ath o l i c s in th e p u b l i c sc h oo l s p a rtl y b e c au se of h i s o wn ,

w e ak n e ss an d d e fo rm i ty P op e re c e ive d v e ry l i ttl e sc h oo l e d u c a ti on
, ,

b u tb ro w se d fo r h i m s e l f a m o n g E n gl i sh b ook s an d p i c k e d u p a s m a t
te rin g of th e c la s s i c s Ve ry e a r l y h e b e gan to w ri t
. e poe t ry an d re c ord s ,

th e f ac tw i th h is u su a l van i ty
A s y e ta c h i l d , n or y e ta fo o l to f a m e ,
I l i s p e d i n n u m b e rs , fo r th e n u m b e rs c a m e .

B e i n g d e ba rre d by y d e si rab l e e m p l oy m e n ts
h is re l i gi on f rom m an ,

h e r e so l ve d to m ak e l i te ra tu re h is l i f e w ork ; an d in th is h e r e
se m b l e d D ry d e n w h o h e te l l s u s w a s h is o n l y m a s te r t
, , h ou gh , ,

m uc h of h is w o rk s e e m s t o d e p e n d o n B o i l e au t h e F re n c h p o e tan d ,

c ri t i c Wh e n on l y s ix te e n y e ars old h e h ad w r i tte n h is Pasto ra l s

.
1

a f e w y e a rs l a t e r a p p e are d h is E s say o n C r i ti c i sm
”
w h i c h m ad e ,

h im fa m ou s Wi th th e p u b l i c a ti on of th e R ap e of t
. b e L e e k in 1 7 1 2 , ,

Po p e s n am e w as kn o w n an d h on ore d all ove r E n gl an d an d th i s

’
,

d warf of tw e n ty f ou r y e ars by th e s h e e r f o rc e of h is ow n am b i ti on
-
, ,

h ad j u m p e d to th e for e m os t p l ac e in E n gl i s h l e tte rs I t w as soon .

af t er t h i s th atVo l ta i re c a l l e d h im th e b e st p oe t o f E n gl an d an d ,

h e w o rl d — 1 w h i c h i s ab o u t a s n e ar t ”
a tp re s e n t o f all t ,
h e tru th as
,

Vo l ta i re ge n e ra l l y ge ts i n h is n u m e ro u s u n iv e rsa l j u d gm e n ts F or .

th e n e x ttw e l v e y e a rs Po p e w as bu sy w i t h p oe try e s p e c i a l l y w i th h is ,

tran s l a ti on s of H o m e r ; an d h is work w a s so su c c e ssf u l fi n an c i a l l y

th a th e b ou gh ta vi l l a a tT w i c k e n h a m on th e T h a m e s an d r e m a i n e d , ,

h ap p i l y i n d e p e n d e n t of w e a l th y p atron s for a live l i h o od .

L e d by h is suc c e ss P o p e re t u rn e d t o L o n d o n an d fo r a t
,
im e e u
d e av o re d to l iv e th e gay a n d di sso l u te l i fe w h i c h w a s su p p ose d to b e
su i t ab l e fo r a li t e ra ry g e n i u s ; b u th e w a s u t te rl y un fitte d for i t m e n ,

ta l l y a n d p h ys i c a l l y an d s oon r e t i re d t6 T w i c k e n h a m T h e re h e
,
.

gav e h i m s e lf u p to p o e try m an u fac tu re d a li ttl e gard e n m o re a rti ,

fic ial th an h is v e rs e s a n d c u l ti v a te d h is f ri e n d s h i p w i t
,
h M a rth a
B l ou n t wi th w h om fo r m an y y e a rs h e s p e n ta goo d p arto f e ac h d ay
, ,

an d w h o re m a i n e d f a i t h fu l to h im to th e e n d o f h is l if e AtTw ic k e n .

h am h e w ro te h is M or a l E p i s t le s ( p oe ti c a l sa ti re s m od e l e d af te r

1 P ope s
’
i
s a tre s , f or i nsta n c e , a re stron g ly s u gge s ted in B o il e au ; h i s R ap e of tb e
L oc k i s m u c h lik e th e m oc kh i L -
e ro c e L ut
’

ri n ,
‘

an d th e E s sa y on C r t cii i
s m ,
”
wh ch i
m a de h i m f a m ou s , is an E n g li h d i ti
s e on a n d i v
m p ro e m e n to f L A r tP oétiq u e T h e a s t
’
. l
w as , i n tu r n , i
a c o m b n a to n o f i th e A r s P oetic a of Hora ce a n d of m an e y w ll
k n o n ru e -

‘
l :
of th e l
c as s c s ts ii .
 2 66 E N G LI SH L IT E R ATU R E
H orac e ) ve n ge d h i m se lf u p on all h is c ri tic s in th e bi tte r abu se
an d r e

of t h e D u n e i a d H e di e d in 7 4 4 an d w a s bu ri e d a t T w i c k e n h a m
. 1 ,

h is r e l i gi o n p re ve n ti n g h im f rom th e h on o r w h i c h w a s c e rta i n ly h is ,

d u e of a re s ti n g p l ac e in We stm in s te r Abb e y
,
.

Work s of Pop e F o r c o n v e n i e n c e w e m ay s e parate P ope s

.
’

w ork i n to th re e grou p s c orre s p on di n g to th e e ar ly middl e , , ,

"
an d l a t e r p e r i od o f h is l i f e I n th e fi rs t h e w rote h is .Pa s
torals ,
Wi n d s or F ore s t M e ss i ah
” ”
E s s ay on C r i tici s m
, ,
”
,
”

" ”
E l oi s e to A b e l ar d an d t h e R ap e of t/ze L oc k ; in th e s e c
,

on d ,h is tran s l ati on s o f H om e r ; in th e th i rd th e D u n c i a d
an d t h e E p is t le s th e l atte r c on ta i n i n g th e f am ou s
,
E s s ay
o n Man
” ”
an d t he E pi s tl e to D r A rb u th n ot w h i c h i s in .
,
”
A p ol og i a a n d i n w h ic h a l on e w e s e e P o p e s li f e
’

tru th h is ,

f rom h is ow n vi e w p o i n t .

”
Th e E s s a y on C r i ti ci s m sum s up t h e a rt of p oe try a s
t a u g h t fi rs t by H ora c e th e n b y B oil e a u an d th e e i g h te e n th
,
.

E ssa y on
c ent u ry cl a s s ici s ts T h ou g h w r i tte n in h e ro ic c o u p.

Cfi t i i m
C s
l e ts w e h ar dly c on s id e r th i s as a p oe m b u t rath e r
,

as a st or e h o u s e o f c r i t ic al m ax i ms F or fo ol s ru s h in w h e r e .

” ”
a n e l s f e ar t o t re a d To e rr is h u m an to f o rg iv e d ivi n e
g ; ,
" ”
A l i ttl e l e arn i n g i s a d an g e ro u s th i n g th e s e li n e s a n d , ,

m an y m ore lik e th e m f ro m th e sam e s ou rc e h av e f ou n d th e i r ,

w ay i n to ou r c om m o n s p e e c h a n d ar e u s e d wi t h ou t th i n ki n g , ,

of t h e au th or w h e n e v e r w e n e e d an a p t q u ot
, at i on .

Th e R ap e of tk e L e e k i s a m as te r pi e c e of its ki n d an d c om e s ,

”
n e ar e r t o be in c re ation th an an y th i n g e l s e th at P op e
g a
R pa f t
e o h h a s w ri tt
e en Th e o cc a s i on o f th e f a m o u s p oe m w a s
.

“ kC
tr ivi a l e n ou g h A fop a tth e c o u r to f Q u e e n A n n e
.
,

o n e L or d P e t re s n ipp e d a l o ck of h a i r f ro m t
, h e a b u n d an t
c u r l s of a p r e tty m a id of h o n or n am e d A rab e ll a F e r m or Th e .

y ou n g l ady r e s e n te d i t an d th e tw o fam ili e s w e re pl u n g e d

,

i n to a q u ar re l w h ic h w a s th e talk of L on d on P op e b e i n g .
,

a pp e a l e d t o s e i ze d t
, h e o cc a s i on to c on s tru c t n ota b a ll ad as ,
,

th e C av al i e rs w ou ld h av e d on e n or a n e pi r am as F re n c h
$ 3 g , ,

.
o
‘
jb oe t g lm ge to d o b u ta l on ,g p oe m i n w h ic h all t h e m a n n e ri sm s

’
:i
 E NG L I S H L I TE R ATU R E
th e l atte r w ork w a s fi n i s h e d by tw o C a m b r id g e s c h ol ar s ,

E lij a h F e n to n a n d Willi a m B roo m e w h o i m i ta te d th e m e ,

c h a n ic a l c o u pl e ts s o pe r fe ctly th at it i s di ffi c u l tto di s ti n g u i s h
th e i r w or k f ro m th a to f th e g re a te s t p oe tof th e ag e A s in gl e .

se l e c ti on is g iv e n to s h o w h ow in th e n obl e r p as s ag e s e v e n
, ,

P op e m ay f a i n tly s ugg e s t th e e l e m e n tal g ra n d e u r of H o m e r

T h e tr oop s x u l ti n g s a ti n ord e r ro u n d
e ,

A n d b e a m i n g fi re s i l l u m i n e d a ll th e g rou n d .

A s w h e n th e m oo n re f u l g e n t l a m p o f n i gh t
, ,

O e r He a v e n s c l e a r a u re s p r e a d s h e r s a c re d l i g h t
’ ’
z ,

Wh e n n o ta b re a th d i s tu rb s th e d e e p s e r e n e ,

A n d n o t a c l o u d o e r c a s ts th e s o l e m n s c e n e
’

A rou n d h e r th ro n e th e v i v i d p l an e ts ro l l ,

A n d s ta rs n n u m b e re d g i l d th e g l o w i n g p o l e
u ,

O e r th e d a r k tre e s a y e ll o w e r v e rd u re s h e d
’
,

A n d ti p w i th s i l v e r e v e r y mo u n ta i n s h e a d
’
.

”
Th e E s s ay b e s t k n o w n an d th e m o s t q u ote d of
i s th e
a ll P o p e s w o r k s E xc e p t i n f or m it i s n o t p oe tr y a n d w h e n
’

,
.

Essa on o n e c o n s id e r s it a s a n e s s ay a n d r e d u c e s it to pl a i n
y
M an
p ros e i t i s f ou n d to c on s i s t of n u m e r ou s l i te r ary
,

o rn a m e n t s wi t h o u t a n y v e r y s olid s tr u c tu r e o f th o u g h t to r e s t
"
u p on Th e p u rp os e o f th e e s say is in P o p e s w o rd s to v in
’
.
, ,

d ic a te th e w ay s of G o d to Ma n ; a n d a s th e r e ar e n o u n an
”

s w e re d p r o bl e m s i n P o p e s p h il o s op h y t h e vi n dic a ti on i s p e r
’

fe c tly acc om pli s h e d in f ou r p o e tic a l e pi s tl e s c on c e rn i n g m an s

’

re l a ti on s to th e u n iv e rs e to h i m s e l f to s oci e ty an d to h appi n e s s
, , , .

Th e fi n al r e s u l t i s s u m m e d u p i n a fe w w e ll kn ow n li n e s -
:

Al l n atu re i s b u ta r t, un k n o w n to th e e
A ll c h an c e ,
d i re c ti o n w h i c h th o u c a n s tn ots e e ;
A ll d i s c o rd , h a r m o n y n o tu n d e rs too d ;
A ll p a r ti a l e v il , u n i v e rs a l g ood :

An d , sp i te of p r i d e , i n e rr i n g re as o n s s p i t
e,
’

O n e tr u th i s c l e a r, w h a t e v e r is , i s r i h t
g .

”
L ik e th e E s s ay on C r i tici s m , th ep oe m a b o u n d s in q u o t
su ch as th e f oll owi n g , w h ic h m ak e th e e n ti re w ork
e a d in
g
 E IG HT E E NTH —
C E NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 2 69

H o p e s p r i n gs e te rn a l i n th e h u m a n b re as t:
M a n n e v e r i s , b u ta l w a y s to b e b l e s t .

K w no t y s e l f p re s u m e n o tG od to s c a n
h e n th , ;
T h e p r op e r s tu d y o f M a n k i n d i s M a n .

T h e s a m e a m b i ti o n c an d e s tro y o r s a v e ,

An d m a k e s a p a tr i o tas i tm a k e s a k n a v e .

H o n o r a n d s h a m e fr o m n o c o n d i ti o n r i s e ;
A c t w e l l y o u r p a r t th e re a ll th e h o n or l i e s , .

V i c e i s a m o n s te r o f s o f r i g h tfu l m i e n ,

A S , to b e h a te d , n e e ds b u tto b e see n ;
Ye ts e e n to o fa m i l i a r w i th h e r fa c e
oft, ,

We fi rs te n d u re th e n p i ty th e n e m b ra c e , , .

B e h o l d th e c h il d b y N a tu r e s k i n d l y law
’
, ,

Pl e as e d w i th a ra ttl e ti c kl e d wi th a s tra w ,

S o m e l iv e l i e r p l a y th i n g g iv e s h i s y ou th d e l i g h t ,

A l i ttl e l ou d e r b u tas e m p ty q u i te :
,

S c ar fs g arte rs g o l d a m u s e h i s r i p e r s ta g e
, , , ,

A n d b e a d s a n d p ra y e r b o o k s a re th e to y s o f a g e :
P l e as e d w i th th i s b au b l e s til l as th a tb e f ore ,

T il l ti re d h e s l e e p s an d L i f e s p o o r p l a y i s o e r l
,
’ ’
.

Tb e D n n e i a a ’
( i
.I li a d o f th e D u n c e s b e ga n or i g i
e . th e
n a lly a s a c o n t ro v e r s y c on c e r n i n g S h a k e s p e ar e b u t tu rn e d ,

Mi sce ll an e .out t o b e a c oars e an d r e v e n g e f u l s a t i re u p on all

W k °r 9
th e li te rary m e n of th e ag e w h o h ad a rou se d P o p e s
’

a n g e r by t h e i r c r i tici s m or l a ck of app r e ci a ti on of h is g e n i u s .

T h ou g h b r illi an tly w r i tte n an d i m m e n s e ly p o p u l ar a t o n e ti m e ,

i ts p r e s e n t e ff e c t on th e re a d e r is to ar ou se a se n se of pi ty
th ata m a n o f s u c h a ck n o wl e d g e d p o w e r a n d p o s i ti on s h o u ld
ab u s e b oth by d e v oti n g h is ta l e n ts to p e r s on a l s p i te an d
p e tty q u ar re l s A m on g th e re s t of h is n u m e r ou s w ork s th e
.

re a d e r will fin d P o p e s e s t i m a te of h i m s e l f b e s t s e t f or th in
’

”
h is E pi s tl e to D r A r b u th n o t a n d it will b e w e ll to cl os e
.
,

ou r s t u dy of t h i s s tra n g e m ix tu r e o f v an i ty an d g re atn e s s wi th
”
Th e U n iv e r s al P ra y e r w h ic h s h o w s at l e as t th at P op e h ad
,

c on s id e r e d an d j u d g e d h i m s e l f an d th atall f u rth e r j u d gm e n t
, ,

is c on s e q u e n tly s u p e r fl u ou s .

1 C mp
o th i w i th S h k p
a re s A ll th w l d
a es tg i A Y
e a re s
’
L ik I t I I 7 e or
’
s a s a e,
”
n s ou e , ,
.
2 70 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

J O N A T HA N S WI F T ( 1 6 67 1 74 5)

In ea c h o f M ar l o w e s trage di e s w e h av e th e pic tu re of a
’

m an d om i n a te d by a s i n g l e p a s s i o n th e l u s t o f p o w e r f or i ts
,

o w n sak e . I n e a c h w e s e e th a ta p ow e r f u l m an wi th ou t s e l f
c o n tro l is lik e a d an g e rou s i n s tru m e n t in th e h a n d s of a c h ild
an d t h e tr ag e dy e n d s i n th e d e s tr u c ti o n of th e m an by th e
u n g o v e r n e d p o w e r w h ic h h e p os s e s s e s Th e l i f e of S wi f t i s
.

j u s t s u c h a livi n g trag e dy H e h ad th e p ow e r o f ga i n i n g
.

w e a l th lik e th e h e ro of
,

th e f ew o
f M a lta ; y e t
he d it s c orn f u lly a n d
use ,

in s ad i ro n y l e f t w h at r e
m a i n e d to h im of a l arg e
p r op e rty to f o un d a h o s
pi ta l for l u n atic s B y h ard .

w or k h e w on e n orm o u s
li te rary p ow e r an d u s e d ,

itto s ati r i z e o u r c om m o n
h u m a n i ty H e w r e s te d .

p oli tic a l p ow e r f ro m th e
h an d s of th e T or i e s an d ,

u s e d it t o in sult t h e v e ry
m e n w h o h ad h e lp e d h im ,

an d w h o h e ld h i s f a t e in
J ONAT HAN S W I F T
th e i r h an d s B y h i s d om i
.

n an t p e r son a l i ty h e e x e r ci s e d a c u ri ous p ow e r o v e r w om e n ,

a n d u s e d itb r u t ally t o m ak e t h e m f e e l th e i r i n f e r i or i ty B e i n g .

l o ve d s u p r e m e ly by tw o g oo d w om e n h e b rou g h t s or row an d
,

d e a th to b o th an d e n dl e s s m i s e ry to h i m se l f S o h is p o w e r
, .

b rou g h t a lw ay s trag e dy i n its w a k e I t is on ly w h e n w e re

.

m e m b e r h is l i f e o f s tru gg l e an d d i sa pp o i n tm e n t an d bi tte r
n e ss t h at w e c an a ppr e ci ate th e p e rs on al q ua li ty in h is sati re ,

an d p e rh a p s fin d som e s y m p a t h y fo r th i s g re ate s t g e n i u s of
all t h e A u g u s ta n w r i te rs .
272 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

po we rfu l p o l i ti c a l w e ap on k n o w n ; an d as S w i f t h ad no q ua l a t
e

p am p h l e t w ii
r tn g , h e so o n be c a m e a ve ri tab l e d i c tator . F o r s e v e ra l
ye a rs , e sp e c a i l ly f rom 7 1 0 to 1 7 1 3 , S wif t w as o n e o f th e m os t i m
1

an t
p o rt fi gu re s in L o n d o n T h e Wh gs f e are th e l as h of h is sa tre
. i d i
th e To ri e s f e a re d to l ose h is s u p p o r t H e w as c ou rte d , a tte re ,
. fl d
c a j o l e d o n e v e ry s id e b u tth e u se he ma de of h is n ew
p o w e r i s sa d
t
o c on e m p l at
t e . An un b e a rab l e a rro ga n c e too k p o s s e ss i on of h im .

TR INI T Y COL L E G E , D UBL IN

L ord s , at
st e sm e n ,
ve n l ad i e s w e re c o m p e l l e d to su e
e fo r h is favor
an d t
o l
ap o og z e i fo r e ve ry fan c i e d s l i gh tto h is e go i s m . I t is at th si
ti m e th at h e w ri te s in h is j ou r n a l to S te lla
M r S e c re ta r y to l d m e th e D u k e o f B u c ki n g h a m h a d b e e n ta l ki n g
.

m u c h a b o u tm e a n d d e s i r e d m y a c q u a i n tan c e I a n s w e re d i t c ou l d n ot
.

b e f o r h e h a d n o t ye t m a d e s u ffi c i e n ta d v an c e s ; th e n S h r e w s b u r y s a i d
,

h e th o u g h t th e D u k e w a s n o t u s e d to m a k e a d v a n c e s I s ai d I c o u l d .

n ot h e l p t h a t fo r I a l w a y s e x p e c te d a d v a n c e s i n p rop o r ti o n to m e n s
’
,

q u al i ty a n d m ore from a D u k e th a n a n y o th e r m an
, .

Wri ti n g to th e D uc h e ss of Q u e e n sb e rry h e say s :

I a m g l ad y ou k n o w y ou r d u ty ; for i t h as b e e n a k n o w n a n d e s tab
li s h e d ru l e ab o v e tw e n ty y e a rs i n E n g l a n d t h a tth e fi rs t ad v an c e s h a v e
b e e n c on s ta n tl y m a d e m e b y a ll l a d i e s w h o a s p i re to m y a c q u a i n tan c e ,

an d t h e g re a te r th e i r q u a l i ty th e g re a te r w e re th e i r a d v a n c e s .
 E IGHT E E NTH C E NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E
-
273

Wh e n th e T ori e s w e n t ou t of p o w e r S w i f ts p o s i ti on be c am e un ’

c e rt ain H e e x p e c te d an d h ad p rob ab l y b e e n p ro m i se d a bi sh op ric

.

in E n gl an d w i th a s e a t am on g th e p e e rs o f th e r e a l m ; b u t th e
,

Tor i e s off e re d h im i n ste ad th e p l ac e of d e an of S t P atrick s C ath e .

’

d ral in D u b l i n I t w as ga l l in g to a m an o f h is p rou d sp i ri t; b u t
.

a ft e r h is m e rc i l e ss s at i re on re l i gi on in Th e Ta le of a Tu b an y
, ,

e c c l e s i as ti c a l p os i tion in E n gl an d w as re n d e re d i m p oss i b l e D u b li n .

w as t h e be s t h e c o u l d ge t an d h e ac c e p te d i t b i tte r ly on c e m o r e
, ,

c u rs i n g t h e fa te w h i c h h e h ad b ro u gh tu p on h i m s e lf .

Wi th h is re tu rn to I re l an d be gi n s th e l ast ac t in th e trage dy o f
h is l i f e H is b e s tkn ow n li te ra ry w o rk G u lli ve r s Tr a ve ls w as d on e ’
.
, ,

h e re b u tth e bi tte rn e ss of l i f e gre w s l o wl y to i n san i t y a n d a f ri g h t ,

'

f ul p e rson a l s o rro w o f w h ic h h e n e v e r s p ok e re ac h e d i ts c l i m ax i n
, ,

th e d e a th of E s th e r J o h n so n a b e au ti f u l youn g w o m an w h o h ad
, ,

l ov e d S wif te ve r s i n c e th e tw o h ad m e tin Te m p l e s h ou s e h o l d an d ’
,

to w h o m h e h ad wri t te n h is j ou r n a l to St e lla D u ri n g th e l a sty e ars

.

of h is l if e a b ra i n di s e ase o f w h i c h h e h ad s h o w n f re q u e n t sy m p
,

to m s f as te n e d i ts te rrib l e h o l d u p on S w i f t an d h e b e c a m e by tu rn s
, ,

a n idi o t an d a m ad m an H e d i e d in 1 7 4 5 a n d w h e n h i s w i l l w a s
.
,

o p e n e d i t w a s f ou n d t h a t h e h ad l e f t all h is p ro p e rty to foun d S t .

Pa tri c k s As y l u m fo r l u n atic s an d i n c u rab l e s I t stan d s to d ay as

’
.
—

th e m os tsu gge s tiv e m on u m e n to f h is p e c u l i ar ge n i u s .

Th e Work s of S w i f t F r om S wi f ts li f e on e c a n r e a dily
.
’

f ore s e e th e ki n d o f li te ratu re h e will p rod u c e T a k e n tog e th e r .

h is w or k s a re a m on s tro u s s ati r e on h u m an i ty a n d th e s pi r i t
of t h at s ati re is s h ow n cl e ar ly in a l i ttl e i n cid e n t of h is fi rs t
d ay s in L on d on T h e r e w as in th e c i ty atth at ti m e a c e rta i n
.

a st r ol og e r n a m e d Ear t ridg e w h o d u p e d th e p u blic by c a lc u

,

l ati n g n ativi ti e s f rom th e s tar s an d by s e lli n g a y e ar ly al m an a c

,

p re dic ti n g f u tu r e e v e n ts S wi f t w h o h ate d all s h am s w ro te

.
, , ,

wi th a g r e a t S h ow of l e arn i n g h is fam ou s B iek e r s tafi A lm a

,
r

n ac , c on tai n i n g P re dic ti on s fo r th e Ye ar 1 7 0 8 as D e te r ,
”
m i n e d by t h e U n e r r i n g S tars A s S wi f t rar e ly s i g n e d h is
.

n am e t o an
y l i te rar y work l e tti n
g it stan d or f a ll o n it
, s o w n

m e ri ts h is b u r l e s q u e app e are d o v e r th e p s e u d on y m of I saa c

,

B ick e r s ta ff a n am e a f te rw a r d s m a d e f am ou s by S te e l e i n Tb e
,

Ta tle r A m on g th e p r e d ic ti on s w a s th e f oll o wi n g :
.
2 74 E N G L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

My fi rs tp re d i c ti on is b u ta tri fl e ye t I w il l m e n ti on i t to s h o w h ow
i g n or an tth os e s otti s h p re te n d e rs to as tro l og y a re i n th e i r ow n c o n c e rn s :
i tre l a te s to P a r tr i d g e th e a l m a n ac k m a k e r ; I h a v e c o n s u l te d th e s ta r
o f h is n a t i v i ty b y m y ow n rul e s a n d fin d h e w i l l i n fa l l i b l y d ie u p on th e
,

2 9t h o f M a r c h n e x t a b o u te l e v e n a t n i g h t o f a ra g i n g f e v e r ; th e re fo re
, ,

I ad v i s e h i m to c o n s i d e r o f i t an d s e ttl e h i s a ff a i rs i n ti m e
,
.

On M ar c h 3 0 th e d ay a f te r th e p re dic ti on w as to b e f u l
,

fill e d th e re a pp e ar e d in th e n e w s p ap e rs a l e tte r f r om a r e v e n u e
,

off i c e r g ivi n g t h e d e ta il s of P ar tr id g e s d e a th wi th th e d o i n g s
’
.
,

of t h e b a ili ff an d th e c offi n m a k e r ; an d on th e f o ll owi n g

m orn i n g app ea re d an e l ab orate E l e gy of Mr P ar tr id ge . .
”

Wh e n p oor P ar tr id g e w h o s u dd e n ly f ou n d h i m s e l f wi th ou t
.

c u s tom e r s p u bl i s h e d a d e n i al of th e b ur i al S wi f t an s w e re d
, ,

”
wi th an e l a b orate V i n dic ati on o f I s aa c B ick e rs taff in w h ic h ,

h e p rov e d by as trol og ic al r u l e s th at P artr id g e w a s d e a d an d ,

th at th e m a n n ow in hi s pl a c e w as ah i m po s to r tryi n g to c h e at -

th e h e i rs ou t of th e i r i n h e r i ta n c e .

T h i s f e ro ci ou s j ok e is sug g e s tiv e o f all S wi f ts s ati re s ’

.

A ga i n s t an y c a s e of h yp o c r i s y or i n j u s tic e h e s e ts u p a re m e dy
o f p r e ci s e ly t h e sa m e ki n d on ly m ore atro ci ou s , ,
Ch t
ara c e r

f w i ft a n d d e f e n d s h i s pl an wi t h s u c h s e r i ou s n e s s th at
S
’
o s
s m a e
th e sa ti re o v e r w h e l m s t h e r e a d e r wi th a s e n s e of
m on s trou s fal s i ty T h u s h is s ol e m n A rg u m e n tto p r ov e th at
.

th e A b o l i s h i n g o f C h r i s ti an i ty m ay b e atte n d e d wi th S o m e
I n c on v e n i e n c e s is s u c h a f r i gh tf u l s a ti re u p on th e a b u s e s of
C h r i s ti an i ty by i ts p ro f e s s e d f ol l ow e r s th at iti s i m p os s ibl e f or
us t o say w h e t h e r S wi f ti n te n d e d to p oi n t ou t n e e d e d r e fo rm s ,

or t o s at i s f y h is c on s ci e n c e 1 o r to p e rp e trate a j ok e on th e
,

C h ur c h a s h e h a d d on e on p oor Pa r tr id g e
, S o a l s o wi th h is .

M od e s tPr op os al c on c e rn i n g th e c h ild re n of I re l an d w h ich

,
”
,

se t s up t h e p rop o s i ti on th at p oor I r i s h f ar m e r s ou g h tto r a i s e

c h ild r e n a s d ai n ti e s to b e e a te n l ik e r o as t pi g s on th e tabl e s
'

, , ,

of p ro s p e ro u s E n l i s h m e n I t h i m t c h ara c te r i stic w or k
g n s o s .

1 I ti s on ly f ia r i t
to p o n ou tth a tS wif tw ro te th i s an d tw o o t l
h e r pa m p h e ts on re g o n li i
at a i
wh
tm e en he k w th
ne a tthe y w ld d
ou a m a ge , if n ot d e s t y
ro , h i s o w n p ros pe c ts of

po li ti l d v
ca a an c e m e n t.
2 76 E N GL I S H L IT E R ATU R E
G u lli v e r
’
s Tr a v e ls re c o rd s h e p re te n d e d ou r
t f v o y ag e s of on e Le m u e l
G u l l i v e r, an d h is ad v e n tu re s
f i
in ou r as t ri e s
o u n d ng
c ou n t T h e fi rs t .

b oo k te l l s o f h i s v o y ag e a n d s h i p w re c k i n L i l l i p u t w h e r e th e i n h a b i ta n ts ,

a l l as o n e s t h u m b an d all th e i r a c t s an d m o t iv e s a re o n
’
a re a b o u t a s t ,

t h e s a m e d w a r fis h s c a l e In t h e p e tty q u a rre l s o f th e s e d w a r fs w e a re
.

s u p p os e d t o se e t h e l i ttl e n e s s o f h u m a n i ty Th e s t at e s m e n w h o ob t
. ai n

p l a c e an d f a v o r b y c u tti n g m o n k e y c a p e rs on th e ti g h trop e b e f o re th e i r
s o v e re i g n a n d t
, h e tw o g re a t p a r ti e s th e L i ttle e n d i a n s a n d B ige n d i an s
, ,

w h o p l u n ge t h e c ou n tr y i n t o c iv il w a r o v e r t h e m o m e n to u s q u e s ti o n o f
w h e th e r an e gg s h ou l d b e b ro k e n o n i ts b ig or on i ts l i ttl e e n d a re s a t ,

i r e s on th e p ol i ti c s o f S w i f ts ow n d ay a n d g e n e ra ti o n T h e s ty l e i s
’
.

s i m p l e an d c o n v i n c i n g ; t h e s u rp ri s i n g s i tu a ti on s a n d a d v e n tu re s are a s
a b s or b i n g a s t h o s e o f D e foe s m a s te rp i e c e ; a n d altog e t h e r i t i s th e
’

m os t i n t i n g of S wi f ts s a ti re s ’
e re s t .

O n th e s e c o n d v o y ag e G u l l i v e r i s a b an d o n e d i n B rob d i n gn a g w h e re ,

t h e i n h ab i tan ts a re g i a n ts a n d e v e r y th i n g i s d on e u p on a n e n orm o u s
,

s c al e T h e m e a n n e s s o f h u m a n i ty s e e m s a ll t
. h e m ore d e te s tab l e i n v i e w
of t h e g re a tn e s s o f t h e se s u p e r i or b e i n g s Wh e n G u l l i v e r te l l s ab o u t
.

h is o w n p e o p l e th e i r a m b i ti o n s a n d w ars a n d c o n q u e s t
, s t h e g i an t s c an ,

o n l y w on d e r t h a ts u c h g re a t e n o m c o u l d e x i s ti n s u c h l i ttl e i n s e c ts
g .

In t h e th i rd v oy ag e G u l l i v e r c o n ti n u e s h is a d v e n tu re s i n L a p u ta an d ,

t h i s i s a s a ti re u p on a ll th e s c i e n ti s ts a n d p h i l os op h e rs L a p u ta i s a .

fl y i n g i s l a n d h e l d u p i n th e ai r b y a l oa d s ton e ; a n d all th e p ro fe s s o rs
,

of t h e fa m ou s a c a d e m y a t L a g ad o a re o f th e s a m e a i r y c on s ti t ut i on .

T h e p h il os o p h e r w h o w o r k e d e i g h t y e a rs to e x tra c t s u n s h i n e fro m
c u c u m b e rs i s t y p i c a l of S w if ts s a ti ri c tre atm e n t o f all s c i e n ti fi c p rob
’

l e m s I t i s i n th i s v o y ag e th a t w e h e ar o f th e S tr u l d b rug s a gh as tl y
.
,

r a c e o f m e n w h o a re d o o m e d t o l i v e u p o n e art h a f te r l os i ng h o p e a n d
t h e d e s i re fo r l i fe T h e p i c tu r e i s a ll th e m o re te r ri b l e i n v i e w o f th e
.

l as t y e ars o f S wi f ts ow n l ife i n w h i c h h e w as c om p e l l e d to l i v e on a
’
, ,

b u rd e n to h i m s e l f a n d h is f r i e n d s .

In t h e s e th re e v o y a g e s t h e e v i d e n tp u rp o s e i s t o st r i p o ff t h e v e i l of
h ab i t a n d c u s to m w i t h w h i c h m e n d e c e i v e th é rh se lv e s a n d S h ow th e
’

, ,

c ru d e v i c e s o f h u m a n i t y as S wi f t f an c i e s h e s e e s th e m I n th e fou rth .

v oy age th e m e rc il e s s s a ti re i s c arri e d o u tto its l og i c al c o n c l u s i on T h i s .

b r i n gs u s to th e l a n d o f t h e H o u y h n h n m s i n w h i c h h o rs e s s u p e ri o r , ,

an d i n t e l l i g e n t c re a t u r e s a re t h e r u l i n g an i m a l s A ll o u r i n t
, e re s t h o w .
,

e v e r is c e n t
, e re d o n t h e Y ah oo s a fri gh tfu l ra c e h a v i n g th e fo rm a n d
, ,

a p p e a ra n c e o f m e n b u t l iv i n , g i n u n s p e a k ab l e d e g ra d a ti o n .

Th e j ou rn a l o St
t e lla , w ri tte n c h i e fly in th e y e ar s 1 7 1 0
1 7 1 3 fo r th e b e n e fi t of E s th e r J oh n s on is i n te re s ti n g to u s
,

f or tw o r ea s o n s . I t is, fi r s t an e xc e ll e n t c om m e n tary o n
,
 E I GHT E E NTH -
C E NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 277

c on te m p orary c h arac te rs an d p oli tic a l e v e n ts by on e of th e ,

m o s t p o w e rf u l an d o r i g i n a l m i n d s o f th e a g e ; a n d s e c on d i n ,

Mi sce ll its l o v e p a s s ag e s an d p ur e ly p e r s on a l d e s c r ip ti on s
an e

W k °r
it g iv e s u s th e b e s t pic tu re w e p osse s s of S wi f t
8

h i m se l f at th e s u m m i t of h is p ow e r an d i n fl u e n c e A s w e .

r e ad n o w it s w or d s o f t e n d e rn e s s f or t h e w o m an w h o l ov e d
h im an d w h o b rough t a l m os t th e o n ly ray of s u n li g h t i n to
,

h is li f e w e c an o n ly w on d e r a n d b e s il e n t E n ti re ly di ff e re n t
, .

e rs a m od e l o f p o l i t ic a l h aran g u e a n d of
’
a r e h i s D rap i e r s L e t t ,

p op u l ar arg u m e n t w h ic h ro u se d a n u n th i n ki n g E n gli s h p u bl ic
,

an d d id m u c h b e n e fi t t o I r e l a n d by p re v e n t i n g th e p ol i tici an s ’

pl an o f d e b a s i n g th e I r i s h c o i n age S wi f ts p o e m s th ou gh .
’

vi g or ou s an d or i g i n al ( lik e D e f oe s of th e sam e p e r i od ) a re
.
’

, ,

g e n e rally s ati r ic al o f te n c oa rse a n d s e ld om r i s e a b o v e d og

, ,

e re l U n lik e h is f r i e n d A ddi s o n S wi f t sa w i n t h e g r o wi n g
g .
, ,

p oli s h an d d e c e n cy o f s o ci e ty on ly a m a s k for h yp o c r i s y ;
,

an d h e of t e n u se d h is v e r s e t o s h ock t h e n e w b o rn m o d e s ty -

by p o i n ti n g ou t s om e n ativ e u g li n e s s w h ic h h is di s e a s e d m i n d
d i s c ov e r e d u n d e r e ve ry b e au ti f u l e x te ri or .

T ha t S wi f t i s th e m os t ori gi n al w r i te r of h is ti m e a n d on e ,

of t h e gr e a te s t m a s te r s of E n g li s h p ro s e is un d e n i a bl e , .

C h t
ara c e r o f D i r e c t n e s s vi g or , s i m plici ty ,
m a rk e v e ry p a g e ,
.

S wift P ’
s
A m o n g w r i te r s o f th atag e h e s tan d s al m os t a l on e
1 089

i n h i s di s d a i n of li te rary e ffe c ts K e e pi n g h is o bj e c t s te adily

.

b e for e h im h e d r iv e s s trai gh t on to th e e n d wi th a c on v in
, ,

ci n g p ow e r th at h a s n e v e r b e e n s u r p as se d in o u r l an g uag e .

E v e n in h is m o s t g ro te s q u e c re a ti on s th e r e a d e r n e v e r l o se s ,

th e se n s e of r e al i ty of b e i n g p r e s e n ta s an e y e wi tn e s s of th e
,

m o s t i m p o s s ibl e e v e n ts s o p o w e r f u l an d c on vi n ci n g i s S wi f ts
’

p ros e D e f oe h ad th e s am e p o w e r ; b u t in w r i ti n g R ob i n s on
.

Cr u s oe for i n s tan c e h is tas k w a s c om p a ra tiv e ly e a s y s i n c e

, , ,

h is h e r o a n d h i s a dv e n tu re s w e re b oth n atu ral ; w h il e S wif t

gi v e s re al i ty to py g m i e s g i a n ts an d th e m o s t im p os s ibl e
, ,

sit ua t i on s a s e as ily a s i f h e w e r e w ri ti n g of fac ts N otw ith

, .

st a n di n g t h e s e e xc e ll e n t q ual i ti e s th e ordi na ry r e ad e r will d o

,
278 E N G L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

w e ll to c on fi n e h i m se l f to G u lli v e r s Tra v e ls an d a b ook of ’

w e ll c h os e n s e l e c ti on s F or it m u s t b e c on fe ss e d th e b ulk
’

-
.
, ,

o f S wi f ts w o r k i s n ot w h ol e s o m e r e a di n g I t is too te r r ibly
’
.

s at i r i c a n d d e s tru c tiv e ; it e m p h as i z e s th e f a u l ts a n d fa il i n g s
of h u m an i t y ; a n d s o r u n s c ou n te r to th e ge n e ra l c ou r s e o f
ou r li t e ra tu r e w h ic h f ro m C y n e w u lf t
, o T e n n y s o n f oll o w s the
I d e a l a s M e r li n f oll ow e d th e G l e a m a n d i s n ot s ati s fi e d till
,
1
,
'

th e h idd e n b e a u ty of m an s s o u l a n d th e divi n e p u rp os e of h is
’

st r u g l e a re m an if e s t
g .

J OS E P H A D D I S ON ( 1 672 — 1 7 1 9)
I n th epl e asan tar t of lI v m g w i th on e s f e ll ow s A ddi son is ’

e as ily a m as t er I t i s d u e to h iS p e r f e c t e xp r e s s i on of th at
.

a r t of t
,
h atn e w s oci al li f e w h ic h as w e h av e n ote d w a s c h ar
, ,

ac te ris tic of th e A g e of An n e ,

th a t A dd i s on
cc u pi e s s u c h a o

l arg e pla c e in th e h i s tory o f

l ite ratu re Of l e s s p ow e r a n d .

ori g i n al i ty th an S wi f t h e n e v e r ,

th e le s s wi e ld s an d d e s e r v e s to ,

wi e ld a m or e l as ti n g i n fl u e n c e
, .

S wif t is th e s torm r oa r i n g ,

a ga i n s t t h e i c e a n d f ro s t o f
th e l ate s p r i n g of E n gl i s h li f e .

A ddi s on is th e s u n s h i n e w h ic h ,

m e l ts th e ic e an d d r i e s th e m u d
a n d m ak e s t h e ear th th rill wi th
l i g h ta n d h o p e L ik e S wi f t h e
J O S E P H A D D I S ON .
,

d e s pi s e d s h am s b u tu n lik e h im , ,

h e n e v e r l o s tfa i th i n h u m an i ty ; a n d in all h is sa ti re s th e r e i s
a
g e n tl e ki n dli n e s s w h ic h m a k e s on e th i n k b e tte r o f h is f e ll o w
m e n e v e n w h il e h e l a u h s at th e i r li t tl e v a n i ti e s
,
g .

T w o th i n g s A ddi s o n d id for o u r li te ra tu re w h ic h a re of
i n e s ti m abl e val ue F i rs t h e o v e r cam e a c e rta i n c orr u p t
.
,

1 S e e Te n n y s on s
’
Me rli n an d th e G l ea m .
”
2 80 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

F ro m a l i te rary vi e w po i n tth e m ost n t i

e re s tn g i w ork of Ad d i so n
’
s

ly l if e
e ar is h is A c c ou n tof Me G r e a te s tE n
g li s /z P o e t
s 1 69 w ri tte n
wh ile h e f e l l o w of O x fo rd U n iv e rsi ty On e ru b s h is e ye s to
w as a .

fin d D ryd e n l a v i s h l y p ra i se d S p e n se r e xc u se d o r p a tron i z e d w h il e
, ,

Sh ak e s p e a re i s n o t e v e n m e n ti o n e d B u t Ad d i s on w a s w r i ti n g u n d e r
.

“
Bo i l e a u s c l ass i c h e p o e t l ik e th e a ge w as p e rh ap s
”
ru l e s ; an d t
’
, ,

t oo a r t ifi c i a l to a ppre c ia te n a tu ra l ge n i u s .

Wh i l e h e w a s tra v e l i n g a b road th e d e a th of Wi l l i am an d th e ,

l oss of p o w e r by th e Wh i gs sud d e n l y s to p p e d Ad d i son s p e n s i on ; ’

y b rou gh th im h om e an d fo r a ti m e h e l iv e d in p ove rty an d

n e c e ss i t ,

o b s c uri ty T h e n o c c u rre d th e ba ttl e o f B l e n h e i m an d in th e e ff ort

.
,

t o fin d a p o e t t o c e l e b ra t e th e e v e n t Ad d i son w as b rou gh t to th e ,

T o r i e s atte n ti on H is p oe m Th e C a m p a i gn c e l e b rati n g th e
’
.
,
”
,

vic to ry too k th e c oun try b y sto rm I n s te a d o f m aki n g th e h e ro

, .

s l a y h is t h ou san d s an d te n th ou san d s l ik e th e old e p i c h e ro e s , ,

Ad d i son h ad som e s e n se of w h a t is re q u i re d in a m od e rn ge n e ra l ,

an d s o m ad e M a rl b o rou gh d i re c t t h e b a ttl e f ro m th e ou ts id e c o m ,

p ari n g h im to an an ge l r i d i n g on th e w h i rlw i n d

T w a s th e n g re a t M a rlb ro s m i g h ty s o u l w as p ro v e d ,
’ ’

T h a t, i n th e s h o c k o f c h arg i n g h o s ts u n m o v e d ,
Am i d s t c o n f u s i o n , h o rro r, an d d e s p a i r,
E x a m i n e d a ll th e d re ad fu l s c e n e s o f w a r ;
I n p e a c e fu l t h o u g h tth e fi e l d o f d e a th s u r v e y e d ,

T o f a i n ti n g s q u a d ro n s s e n t th e ti m e l y a id ,

I n s p i re d r e p u l s e d b a ttal i o n s to e n g age ,

A n d ta u g h tth e d o u b tfu l b a ttl e w h e r e to ra g e .

S o w h e n a n a n ge l b y d i v i n e c om m a n d
Wi th r i s i n g te m p e s ts s h a k e s a g ui l ty l a n d ,

( S u c h as o f l a te o e r p a l e B ri ta n n i a p as t)
’
,

C a l m an d s e re n e h e d r i v e s th e f u ri o u s b l as t;
A n d p l e a s e d th A l m i g h ty s o rd e rs to p e r form
’ ’
, ,

R i d e s i n th e w h i rl wi n d a n d d i re c t ,s t h e s tor m .

T h at o n e d ou b tf u l S i m il e
di son s f ortu n e N e ve r b e fo re
m ad e Ad
’
.

o r s in c e w a s a
p o e ts m e c h an i c al w o rk so w e l l re w ard e d
’
I t w as .

c al l e d t h e fi n e s tth i n g e v e r w r i tte n an d f ro m th at d ay Addi son rose ,

st e ad ily in p o l i t ic a l fa v o r an d offi c e He b e c am e in tu rn U n d e r ’

se c r e ta ry m e m be r o i Pa rl i am e n t S e c re t
, a ry fo r I re l an d
, an d fi n a l l y ,

S e c re ta ry o f S t ate P ro ba b l y n o oth e r l i te ra ry m an a id e d by h is
.
,

p e n a l on e e v e r ros e s o rap i d l y a n d so h igh in o fli c e

, .
 E IGHT E E NTH —
C E NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 28 1

re st of Ad di son l i fe di v i d e d b e tw e e n p o l i ti c a l d u ti e s
’
Th e s w as
an d l i te ratu re H is e ssays fo r th e Ta tle r
. an d Sp e c t
at or , w h i c h w e

st i l l c h e ri sh w e re w ri tte n b e tw e e n I 7 0 9 an d 1 7 1 4 b u th e w on m ore
,

l i te ra ry fa m e by h is c l a ssi c trage dy Ca to w h i c h w e h a v e a l m ostfor ,

go tte n . I n 1 7 1 6 h e m arri e d a wi d o w th e C ou n te ss o f Wa rw i c k a n d , ,

w e n tto l ive a t h e r h om e th e fam ou s H o l l an d H ou se H is m arri e d

, .

l i fe l a ste d on l y th re e y e a rs an d w as p ro bab ly n o t a h appy on e , .

C e rtai n l y h e n e ve r w ro te of w o m e n e x c e p t w i th g e n tl e sati re an d ,

h e b e c a m e m ore an d m ore a c l u b m an sp e n di n g m o s to f h is ti m e i n ,

th e c l ub s an d C o ff e e h ou se s o f L on d on U p to th i s ti m e h is l i f e h ad .

b e e n si n gu l ar ly p e ac e f u l ; b u t h is l as ty e ars w e r e sh ad o w e d by qua r
re l s ,
fi rs t wi th P op e th e n w i th S w i f t an d fi n a l l y w i th h is l ife l on g
, ,

f ri e n d S te e l e Th e fi rs t qu arre l w as on l i te rary grou n d s an d was

.
,

l arge l y th e re su l t of Po p e s j e a l ousy Th e l atte r s v e n om ou s c aric a

’
.
’

tu re o f Ad d i so n as Attic u s s h o w s h ow h e took h is p e tt y re v e n ge on
a gr e a ta n d goo d m an w h o h a d b e e n h is f r i e n d Th e o t h e r qua rre l s .

w i th S w i f t an d e sp e c i a l ly w i th h is old f ri e n d S te e l e w e re th e u n fo r
, ,

tun a te re su l t o f p o l i tic a l di ff e r e n c e s an d S h o w h ow i m p o ss ib l e i t ,

i s to m i n g l e l i te rary id e a l s w i th p art y p o l i ti c s H e di e d se re n e ly in .

A b rie f d e sc ri p ti on f ro m T h ac k e ray s E ng li s /z H u m or i s ts is
’
1 71 9 .

h is b e st e p i tap h :

A l i fe p ro s p e rou s an d b e a u ti fu l a c a l m d e ath ; a n i m m e n s e fam e , an d

a ff e c ti o n a fte rw a rd s fo r h is h ap p y a n d s p o tl e s s n a m e .

Work s of m os t e n d ur i n g of A ddi son s w ork s

Ad di s on . Th e
’

a r e h i s f am ou s E s s ay s c oll e c te d f rom th e Ta tle r an d Sp e c ta

,
e

tor We h a v e s p o k e n of h im a s a m as te r of th e
.

Th E
e y
ssa s
a rt o f g e n t l e l ivi n g a n d th e s e e s say s ar e a p e rp e t ,

u al i n d u c e m e n t t o ot h e rs to k n o w an d to p rac tic e th e sam e

fi n e a r t To a n a g e o f f u n d a m e n t
. a l c oa r s e n e s s a n d a r tific iality
h e c am e wi th a w h o l e s om e m e s s ag e of re fi n e m e n t a n d s im

p li c ity m u c
,
h a s R u s k i n a n d A r n o ld s p ok e to a l a te r ag e of
m ate r i ali s m on ly A dd i s on s s u cc e s s w a s g r e at h an th e i r s
’
er t

b e cau se of h i s g re ate r k n o wl e d g e o f l i f e an d h is g re ate r fa i th

in m e n He atta ck s all th e li ttl e v an i ti e s an d all th e b ig vic e s
.

o f h is t i m e n ot in S wi f ts te rr ibl e w ay w h ic h m ak e s u s f e e l
,
’

h o p e l e s s o f h um an i ty b u t wi th a ki n dly r idic u l e a n d g e n tl e
,

h u m or w h ic h tak e s s p e e dy i m p r o v e m e n tf or g ra n te d T o re a d .
282 E N GLI SH L IT E R ATU R E
" ”
S wi f ts
’
b ru tal L e tte rs to a You n g La dy ,
an d th e n to re a d
A dd i s on D i s s e c ti on H e a d an d h is D i s s e c ti on
'
’
of a Bean
’
s s
”
o f a C oq u e t te s H e art i s to k n ow at on c e th e se c re t o f th e
’

l atte r s m o re e n d u ri n g i n fl u e n c e
’

T h re e oth e r r e s u l ts o f th e s e d e l i g h tf u l e s say s ar e w orth y

o f at te n ti o n : fi rs t th e y ar e th e b e s t pic tu r e w e p os s e s s o f
,

th e n e w so ci al li f e o f E n g l an d wi th its m an y n e w i n te re s ts ; ,

s e c on d t h e y adv an c e d th e ar t of li te rar y cr i tici s m to a m u c h

,

h i g h e r s tag e th an it h ad e v e r b e f or e r e a c h e d an d h ow e v e r ,

m u c h w e di ff e r f ro m th e i r j u d g m e n t a n d th e ir in te rp re tation
o f s u c h a m an a s M il t on th e y c e r ta i n ly le d E n g l i s h m e n to
,

a be t te r k n owl e d g e an d a pp r e ci ati on of th e i r ow n l i te ra tu r e ;
a n d fi n a lly in Ne d S o f ty t
, l h e li t e r a ry d a bbl e r W e ,

th e p o or r e l a ti on S ir A n d r e w M ,
m th e m e r c h an t Will ,

Hone y c om b th e f op a n d S ir R og e r th e c ou n try g e n tl e m a n
, ,

th e y g iv e u s c h ara c te rs th a t l iv e f o re v e r as p ar tof th a tg o od ly
c om p an y w h ic h e x te n d s f rom C h au c e r s c ou n try p a r s on to ’

K ipli n g s M u lv a n e y A dd i son a n d S te e l e n oto n ly i n tro d u c e d

’
.

th e m od e rn e s s ay b u t i n s u c h c h ara c te rs a s th e s e th e y h e ra ld
,

th e d a w n of th e m od e rn n ov e l O f all h i s e s say s th e b e s t .

k n ow n a n d l o ve d ar e th os e w h ic h i n trod u c e u s to S ir R og e r
d e C ov e r l e y th e g e n i a l dic ta tor o f li f e a n d m a n n e rs in th e
,

q u i e t E n g l i sh c o u n tr y .

I n s tyl e th e se e s say s a r e re m a rk a bl e as s h owi n g th e g r o w

in g p e r f e c ti o n o f th e E n g li sh l a n g u a g e J oh n s on s ay s Wh o .
,

Addi s on s
t e v e r wi s h e s t o at ta i n an E n g li s h s tyl e fa m ili a r b u t ,

St yle
n ot c o ar s e an d e l e a n t b u t n ot os t ent at i ou s m u s t
g , ,

”
g iv e h i s d a y s an d n i h t
g s to th e v ol u m e s of A dd i s on An d .

"
a g a i n h e s ay s G iv e n i g h ts a n d d ay s s ir to th e s tu dy o f
, , ,

A ddi son i f y o u m e a n to b e a g o od w r i te r or w h at i s m ore , ,

”
worth a n h on e s tm an
, T h at w as g ood c r i tici s m for its d ay
.
,

a n d e v e n at t h e p r e s e n tti m e c r i tic s a re ag r e e d th a tA dd i s on s
’

E s s ay s ar e w e ll w or th re adi n g o n c e f or th e i r o w n s ak e an d ,

m an y ti m e s for th e i r i n fl u e n c e i n s h api n a cl e a r an d ra c e f ul
g g
st yl e o f w ri ti n g .
2 84 E N GLISH I
L TE RA TU R E
A ddi s on , aski n g n oth i n g b u t l ov e in r e turn U n lik e A ddi s on .
,

h e s tu di e d b u tli ttl e a n d l e f tth e u n iv e rs i ty to e n te r th e H o r se

,

G u ar d s He w as in tu rn s oldi e r c ap ta i n p oe t pl ayw ri g h t
.
, , , ,

e s sa yi s t m e mb e r o f P ar li a m e n t m a n a g e r of a t
, ,h e a te r p u b ,

lis h e r o f a n e w s p ap e r an d tw e n ty o th e r th i n g s
, all of w h ic h ,

h e b e gan j o y ou s ly an d th e n a b an d on e d s om e ti m e s ag a i n s th is ,
’

will a s w h e n h e w a s e xp e ll e d fr om Par liam e n t a n d ag a i n b e

, ,

c a u s e s om e oth e r i n te re s t of th e m om e n th ad m ore attra c ti on .

H is p oe m s a n d pl ay s ar e n ow li ttl e k n o w n ; b u t th e r e ad e r
w h o s e a r c h e s th e m ou t will fin d o n e or tw o s u gge s tiv e th i n g s

abo ut S t e e l e h im se l f F or i n s ta n c e h e l ov e s c h ild r e n ; an d
.
,

h e is on e o f th e fe w w r i te r s o f h is ti m e w h o S h o w a s i n c e r e
a n d u n s w e r vi n g r e s p e c t f o r w om a n h ood E v e n m or e th an .

A dd i s on h e r id ic u l e s v ic e a n d m a k e s v i rtu e l o v e ly H e i s th e .

or i g i n ator o f t h e Ta tle r an d j o i n s wi th A ddi son in c re ati n g

,

th e S p e c t at or , th e tw o p e r i odic a l s w h ic h in th e s h o r t s p a c e ,

of l e s s t h a n fo u r y e a rs d id m or e to i n fl u e n c e s u b s e q u e n t lit
,

e r atu re t h an a ll oth e r m agaz i n e s of th e c e n tu r y c ombi n e d .

M or e ov e r h e is th e or i g i n al g e n i u s of S ir R og e r an d of m an y
, ,

ot h e r c h ara c te rs an d e s say s for w h ic h A dd i s on u s ua lly r e c e iv e s

th e w h o l e c r e di t I t is o f te n i m p os s ibl e i n th e Ta t
. le r e s say s
to se para te th e w or k o f th e tw o m e n ; b u t th e m aj or i t y of
cr i tic s h o ld th at th e m ore or i g i n a l p a rts th e c h arac te rs th e , ,

th o ug h t th e o v e r fl o wi n g ki n dl i n e s s a r e l a rg e ly S te e l e s c r e a
’

, ,

ti on w h il e to A ddi s o n f e ll th e w or k of p ol i s h i n g an d p e r f e c t
i n g th e e s s ay s an d of a ddi n g th a t tou c h o f h u m or w h ic h
,

m ad e th e m th e m os t w e l c om e li te r ary vi s i tors th at E n g l an d
h a d e v e r r e c e iv e d .

Th e Tatle r an d Th e S p ec tator O n a cc ou n t of h is ta l e n ti n
.

w r i ti n g p oli tic a l p am p h l e ts S te e l e w a s a w ard e d th e p os i ti on

,

o f o ffi ci a l
g e tte e r Wh il e in th i s p os i ti o n a n d w r i ti n g for
a z .
,

s e v e ra l s m al l n e w s p a e r s t h e id e a o cc urr e d to S te e l e to p u b
p ,

li s h a pap e r w h ic h s h ou ld c on ta i n n ot on ly th e p ol i tic al n e w s ,

b u t a l s o th e g o s s ip of th e cl u b s a n d c offe e h ou s e s wi th s o m e ,

lig h te s say s on th e l ife an d m an n e rs of th e age Th e i m m e d iate .

 E IGHT E E NTH -
C E NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 285

re s u l t— for S te e l e ve r
id e a r e m ai n idl e — w a s th e
ne le t an
f a m ous Ta tle r th e fi rs t n u m b e r o f w h ic h app e are d A p r il 1 2
, ,

1 70 9 I tw as a s m a ll fo l i o s h e e t a pp e a r i n g on p os td ay s th re e
.
, ,

ti m e s a w e e k a n d it sold for a p e n n y a c o py
, T h at it h ad .

a s e r i o u s p u r p o s e i s e vid e n t f rom t h i s d e dicati on to th e fi rs t

v ol u m e of c oll e c te d Ta tle r e s say s

T h e g e n e ra l p u r p o s e o f t h i s p a p e r i s ? ) e x p o s e th e fa l s e ar ts of l ife ,

o p u l l O ff t
t h e d i s g u i s e s o f c u n n i n g , v a n i ty , a n d a ff e c ta ti o n , an d to re c o m

m end a
g e n e ra l s i m p l i c i ty in ou r d re s s , ou r d i s c o u rs e , an d ou r b e h a v i or .

Th e cc e s s of th i s u n h e ar d of c om bi n ati on of n e w s g oss ip
su -
, ,

a n d e s s ay w a s i n s t an tan e o u s N ot a cl u b o r a c o ff e e h o u se .

i n L o n d o n c o u ld a ff or d to b e wi th ou t i t an d o v e r its p ag e s ,

b e gan th e fi rs t g e n e ra l i n te r e s t i n c o n te m p orar y E n g li s h li f e
a s e xp r e s s e d in li t e rature S te e l e at fi rs t w r ote th e e n ti re
.

'

p ap e r an d s i g n e d h is e s s ay s wi th th e n am e o f I saac B ick e r
st a ff w h ic h h ad b e e n m a d e f am o u s by S wi f ta f e w y e a r s b e
,

f ore A ddi s o n i s s a id to h av e s oon re c ogn i z e d on e of h is ow n

.

r e m ar k s t o St e e l e an d t h e s e c re t of th e a u th or s h ip w a s o u t
, .

F rom th at ti m e A ddi s on w as a r e g u l ar c on tr ib u tor a n d occ a ,

s ion all ot h e r w rit e rs a dd e d e s s ay s on t h e n e w so ci a l li f e o f

y
E n g l an d 1
.

S te e l e l os t h is p os i ti on as g az e tte e r a n d th e Ta tle r w a s ,

di s c on ti n u e d a f te r l e s s th an tw o y e ars l if e b u t n ot till it ’

w on a n a s ton i s h i n g p op u l a r i ty a n d m a d e r e a dy th e w ay f or
its s u cc e s s or Tw o m on th s l ate r on M ar c h I I 7 1 I a pp e ar e d
.
, , ,

th e fi rs t n u m b e r of th e Sp e c t at or I n th e n e w m a ga z i n e .

p o li tic s an d n e w s a s s u c h w e re i gn ore d ; it w as a l i te ra ry
, ,

m ag az i n e p u re an d s i m pl e an d its e n ti re c on te n ts c on s i s te d
, ,

o f a s i n l e li h t e s s a y I t w a s c on s id e r e d a c raz y v e n tu r e at
g g .

th e tim e b u t its i n s t
, an t s u cc e s s p r o v e d th a t m e n w e re e ag e r
f or s om e l i te rar y e xp r e s s i on of th e n e w s oci a l id e a l s Th e .

1 O f th e Ta tle r e s s a s y Ad d i son c o n tr ib uted f ty tw

or -
; th i rty s i x oth e rs
o e
w
w i tt
e re r en

in l
c o la b o ra ton w t i
h S te e i l ; w h il
e l
e at ea s ta h u n d re d a n d e gh t a re th e i y w k f St l
or o ee e

l
a on e .
2 86 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

f oll owi n g w h im s i ca l l e tte r to th e e di tor m ay ser ve to i n dic ate

th e p art pl ay e d by th e Sp e c t
ator i n the d a ily l i f e of L on d on

M r S p e c ta to r
.
,
— Y ou r p a r t o f m y te a e u i p a g e ; a n d m y
p ap e r i s a q
se r v a n t k n o w s m y h u m o r s o w e l l , t h a t i n c a l l i n g fo r m y b re a kfas t th i s
m orn i n g ( i tb e i n g p as tm y u s u a l h o u r ) s h e a n s w e r e d , th e S p e c t
ator w as n o t

y e tc om e i n , b u tth e te a k e ttl e b oil e d , an d s h e e x p e c te d i te v e r y m o m e n t .

I t i s in th e i n c om p arabl e Sp e c ta tor p a p e rs th at A ddi son

" ”
s h o w s h i m s e l f m os t w orth y to b e r e m e m b e re d H e c on .

tr ib u te d th e m aj or i ty of its e s s ay s a n d i n its fi rs t n u m b e r ,

a pp e a r s t h i s d e s c rip ti on of th e S p e c tator b y w h ic h n a m e
'

A ddi s on is n ow g e n e ra lly k n ow n

Th e re is no p l ac e of g e n e ra l w h e re i n I d o n o to fte n m a k e m y
r e s o rt

a p p e a ra n c e ; s o m e t i m e s I a m s e e n th r us ti n g m y h e ad i n to a ro u n d o f
p o l i ti c i a n s a t W i l l s [C o ff e e h ou s e ! a n d l i s te n i n g w i th g re a t a t i o n to
’
tent

th e n arra ti v e s th a ta re m a d e i n t h os e l i ttl e c i r c u l ar a u d i e n c e s S o m e ti m e s .

I s m o k e a p i p e a t C h i l d s an d w h i l s t I s e e m a tte n ti v e to n o th i n g b u t
’
, ,

Tlze P os t m a n o v e r h e ar t
, h e c o n v e rs a ti o n o f e v e r y tab l e i n th e ro om I .

ap p e a r o n S u n d a y n i g h t s at S t J a m e s s a n d s om e t
.
’
i m e s j o i n th e l i ttl e
,

c om m i t t e e o f p o li ti c s i n th e i n n e r roo m as o n e w h o c o m e s to h e ar a n d
,

i m p rov e M y fa c e i s l i k e w i s e v e r y w e l l k n o w n a tth e G re c i an th e C o c oa
.
,

T re e a n d i n th e th e ate rs b oth of D ru r y L an e a n d the H a y m a r k e t I

, .

h a v e b e e n ta k e n fo r a m e r c h a n t u p o n th e E x c h a n g e fo r ab o v e th e s e
te n y e a rs ; a n d s o m e ti m e s p as s f o r a J e w i n th e as s e m b l y o f s to c k job
b e rs a t J o n a th a n s
’
T h u s I l i v e i n th e w orl d ra th e r as a s p e c tato r
.

o f m an ki n d t h an as o n e o f th e s p e c i e s w h i c h is th e c h a r a c te r I i n
,

t e nd t o p re s e r v e i n t h i s p ap e r .

Th e l arge pl ac e w h ic h th e s e tw o li ttl e m agaz i n e s h old in

ou r li t e rat u re s e e m s m o s t di s p ro p or ti on ate to th e i r s h orts p an
o f d ay s I n th e s h ort s p ac e O
. f f our y e ar s in w h i c h A ddi son
an d S t e e l e w or k e d t og e th e r th e li gh t e s s ay w as e s ta bli s h e d as
o n e of t h e m o s t i m p o rtan t f orm s of m od e rn li te ra tu re an d ,

th e li te ra r y m aga z i n e w on its pl ac e as th e e xp re s s i on of th e
s o ci al li f e o f a n at i on .
288 E N G LI SH L IT E R ATU R E
an d li s te n i n g to h is d og m ati s m a s th e G re e k s li s te n e d to th e
v o ic e of th e i r o ra cl e .

Wh a t i s th e s e re t o t s a
c f h i s to u n d i n
g s p e c ta cl e ? I f th e
r ea d e r t u ra lly t o J oh n s on s w or k s for an e xpl an a t i on
’

u rn s n a t ,

h e will b e di sa pp oi n te d R e adi n g h i s v e r s e s w e fin d n oth i n g

.
,

to d e li g h tor i n s pi re u s b u t ra th e r g l oom a n d p e s s imi s m wi th

, ,

a fe w m ora l o b se r v at i on s i n r im e d c ou pl e ts
B ut
,
s c a rc e v e d th e k n o wi n g an d th e b ol d
ob s e r ,

F all i n th e ge n e ral m as s a c re of gol d ;

W i d e w as ti n g p e s t! th a trage s u n c on fi n e d
-
,

An d c ro w d s wi th c r i m e s th e r e c ord s o f m a n ki n d ;
F o r g ol d h is s w o rd th e h i re l i n g r u ffi an d raw s ,

F or g ol d th e h i re l i n g j u d g e d i s t
ort s t h e l aw s ;
‘
We al th h e ap e d on w e a l th n or tr u th n or s a fe ty b u y s ;
T h e d a n g e rs g a th e r as th e tre as u re s r i s e l .

T h at is e xc e ll e n t c om m on s e n s e b u t it is n ot p oe try ; an d ,

it is n o t n e c e s sar y to h u n t th rou g h J oh n s on s b u lky v ol u m e s

’

for th e i n f orm ati on s i n c e an y m or ali s t c an g iv e u s o ffh an d

,

th e sam e d oc tr i n e A s for h is R a m ble r e s s ay s on c e s o s u c

.
,

c e ss f u l, th oug h w e m ar v e l at th e b ig w o rd s th e c a re f u lly ,

bal an c e d se n te n c e s th e cl a s s ic al all u s i on s on e m i gh t a s w e ll
, ,

try to g e t i n te r e s te d i n an old f a s h i on e d th re e h ou r s e rm on
-
,
-
.

We re ad a fe w p age s li s tl e s s ly y aw n an d g o to b e d , , .

S i n c e th e m an s w or k f a il s to a cc ou n t fo r h is l e ad e rs h ip
’

a n d i n fl ue n c e w e e x am i n e h is E e sg 3 alny ; an d h e r e e v e ry
,
g . ,

th i n g i s i n te re s ti n g B e c au s e o f a f e w o ftq u ote d p a s s ag e s
.
-

f rom B o s w e ll s bi og ra p h y J oh n s on a pp e ars to u s a s an
’

e cc e n t r ic b e ar w h o am u s e s u s by h i s g r o wli n g s a n d cl u m s y
,

an t ic s B u t th e re is a n oth e r J oh n s on a b ra v e p ati e n t ki n dly

.
, , , ,

"
r e li g i ou s s o u l
, w h o as G old s m i th s a id h ad
, n oth i n g of th e ,
”
b e a r b u t h is s k i n ; a m an w h o b attl e d l ik e a h e ro ag ai n s t
p ov e rty an d p ai n an d m e l an c h oly a n d th e awf u l f e ar of d e ath ,

an d w h o ov e r c am e t h e m m an f u lly Tli a t tr ou b le p a s s e d.

”
awa
y s o w i ll t
/zi s s an g t h e s orro wi n g D e or in th e fi r s told
,

1 F ro m T h e Va n t iy of H u ma n Wi s h es .
”
 E I G HTE E N T H C E N TU R Y L IT E R ATU R E ~
2 89

A n g l o S a x on -
lyr ic ; an d th at e xp re s s e s th e gr ea t an d s u ff e r
in g s pi r i t o f J oh n s on w h o in th e f a c e of e n or m ou s o b s tacl e s ,

n e v e r l os t fa i th in G od or in h i m se l f T h oug h h e w a s a re ac .

tion ary in p oli tic s u p h oldi n g th e ar bi tra ry p o w e r of ki n g s an d

,

opp os i n g t h e g ro wi n g lib e rty o f th e p e o pl e y e t h is p o li tic a l ,

th e or i e s lik e h i s m a n n e r s w e r e n o d e e p e r th an h is S ki n ; f or
, ,

in all L o n d on th e r e w a s n on e m ore ki n d to th e w re tc h e d an d ,

n o n e m or e r ea dy t o e xte n d an o p e n h an d t o e v e ry s tru gg li n g

m a n an d w o m an w h o c r os s e d h is p a th Wh e n h e p a s se d ’

p oor h om e l e s s A ra b s s l e e pi n g in th e s tre e ts h e w ou ld s lip a

c o i n i n to th e i r h an d s i n or d e r th at th e y m i gh t h av e a h a ppy ,

a w a k e n i n g ; fo r h e h i m s e lf k n e w w e l l w h a t i t m e a n t t o be
”
h u n g ry S u c h w as J oh n s on
. a m a s s of g e n u i n e m an h ood , ,

a s C ar lyl e c a ll e d h im a n d as s u c h m e n l o v e d an d h on or e d h im
1
, .
,

Li f e of J oh n s on J oh n son
bo rn i n L ic h fie ld S taff ord sh i e in
. w as ,
r ,

1 70 9 . H e w a s th e so n of a s m a l l bo ok se l l e r a p oor m an b u ti n te lli , ,

ge n tan d fo n d of l i te ra t u re a s b ook se l l e r s i n va r i ab l y w e re i n th e goo d

,

d ays w h e n e v e ry tow n h ad i ts b ooksh op F rom h is c h i l d h ood J oh n .

son h ad t o st ru ggl e aga i n s t

W W an d d i s e as e a n d the
c on se q u e n t d i si n c l i n ati on to h ard w ork H e p re p a re d for th e u n i .

v e rsi ty p artl y i n th e sc h oo l s b u t l arge l y by om n ivorou s re adi n g in

, ,

h is fath e r s sh op an d w h e n h e e n te re d O x ford h e h ad re ad m o re
’
,

c l a ss i c a l au th o rs th a n h ad m ost of th e grad u ate s B e f ore fi n i sh i n g .

h is c ou rse h e h ad t o l e av e t h e u n iv e rs i ty o n a c c o un tof h is p ove r ty ,

a n d a t on c e h e b e an h i s l o n g s t ru gg l e a s a h a ck w ri t er t o e a rn
g
h is l i v i n g
y fiv e ye ars h e m arri e d a w o m an o ld e n ou gh to b e h is a}
.

At tw e n t -

m ot h er a ge n u i n e l ov e m a t
, ch h e c al l e d it an d w i t h h e r d o w ry , ,

of £ 8 0 0 t h e y st art e d a p r iva t e sc h ool t o ge t h e r w h i c h w a s a di sm a l ,

fa i l u re T h e n w i th ou tm on e y o r i n fl u e n ti a l fri e n d s h e l e f th is h o m e
.
, ,

an d w i f e i n L ic h fie ld an d t ra m
p e d to L o n d on ac c o m p an i e d on l y by ,

D avi d G arr i c k a f te rw ard s th e f am o u s a c tor w h o h ad b e e n o n e o f

, ,

h is pu p i l s H e re le d by old a ssoc i a ti on s J oh n son m ad e h i m se lf

.
, ,

1 A v y l v b l id f J h
er o a t
e s i h w by h i d i g p
e o o i th p b
n s on s
’
n a u re s s o n s o n e n an ce n e u

k l
lic m a r e tp a c e fo r h i s u n fili al c o n d u c ta s a b oy .
(S ee ,
i n Ha wth o rn e s
’
Ou r Old H om e ,
il
th e a rtc e o n L ic h fie ld a n d Hi s s te rli n g m an h oo d i s r e ca ll f
e d i n h is a m o u s

l etter to L o rd C h e s te r fi ld f i g e ,
re u s n th e l at
te r s
’
pa tron a ge for th e D i c ti on a ry . Th e stu

d e n ts h ou d l r ea d th i i i d t ti
s nc en en re ,
in Bos w ll
e
’
s L if e o
f J oh n s on .
2 90 E N GLIS H L IT E R ATU R E
kn ow n he
o t
t books e lle rs an d n ow an d th e n e arn e d a pe n n y by ,

w ri tin g p re fac e s re vi e w s a n d t ran s l a t

,
i on s ,
.

I t w as a d o g s l ife i n d e e d th a t h e le d th e re wi th h is l i te rar y
’
, ,

bre th re n M a n y of th e w ri te rs of th e d ay w h o are rid i c u l e d in Po p e s

.
,
’

h e a rtl e ss D u n c i a d h avi n g n o w e a l th y p a tro n s to s u p p ort th e m

:

, ,

l ive d l arge l y in th e s tre e ts a n d ta v e rn s s l e e p i n g on an ash h e ap or ,

u n d e r a w h a rf l i k e ra t s ; gl a d o f a c ru s t a n d h a p p y o v e r a s i n g l e
, ,

m e a l w h i c h e n ab l e d th e m to w o rk fo r a w h i l e wi t h o u t th e re m i n d e r
o f h u n ge r A fe w fa vo re d on e s l ive d i n w re tc h e d lod gi n gs i n G ru b
.

S tre e t w h i c h h a s s i n c e b e c o m e a syn on y m fo r th e fo rt
,
u n e s of st ru g

l i n w ri te rs l O f te n J o h n s on t e l l s u s h e w a l ke d t h e st re e t s all n i gh t
g g .
, ,

l on g i n d re a ry w e ath e r w h e n i tw as too c o l d to s l e e p w i th ou tfo od

, , ,

o r sh e l t er B u t h e w ro te s te a d i l y fo r th e book se l l e rs an d fo r th e
. .

le m a n s M ag a zi n e an d p re s e n tl y h e b e c a m e k n own i n L on d on
’
Ge n t ,

an d re c e iv e d e n ou gh w o rk t o e a rn a b are l ivi n g .

Th e w o rks w h i c h oc c as i o n e d th i s s m a l l su c c e ss w e re h is p oe m ,

lze P oe tS a v ag e a wre tc h e d l i f e a tb e s t
”
L on d on a n d h is L if e of t
, , , ,

w h i c h w e re p e rh ap s b e tte r l e f t w i th ou ta bi ograp h e r B u th is su c c e ss .

w as ge n u i n e t h o u gh sm a l l a n d p re s e n tl y th e b ook s e l l e rs of L on d on
, ,

a re c o m i n
g to h i m to ask h im to w ri te a di c ti on ary o f th e E n g l i sh
lan guage I t w as a n e n orm ou s w o rk t
. a ki n
g n e a r l y e i gh t ye ars ,

o f h is t i m e an d l o n g be fo re h e h ad fi n i sh e d it h e h ad e ate n up
,

th e m on e y wh i c h h e r e c e iv e d fo r h is l abo r I n th e l e i s u re i n te rva l s .

h i s w ork h e w ro te of H u m an
”
Vish e s
i

of t an d o t her
p o e m s an d fi n i sh e d h is c l ass i c trage d y o g e n e
,
r .

L e d by th e gre a t su c c e s s of th e Sp e c t ator J oh n son sta rte d two ,

m aga i n e s Th e R a m b le
z , ( 1 1 50 — 1
7 )
5 2 an d l e I d le r
r .

L a te r th e R a m ble r e ssa y s w e re p u b l i sh e d in b ook f orm an d ran

ra p id ly t h rou gh te n e di ti o n s ; b u t th e fi n an c i a l re t u rn s w e re s m a l l ,

an d J oh n so n s e n ta la r e
p g p a rto f h is e a rn i n gs in c h ari t y Wh e n h is .

m ot h e r di e d i n 1 7 5 9 J o h n so n a l th o u gh o n e of th e b e s tk n o w n m e n
, , ,

i n L o n d on h ad n o m o n e y an d h u rri e d l y fi n i sh e d R a sse la s h is on ly
, , ,

ro m an c e i n o rd e r i tis s a id t h e r s bu ri a l
p a y for h is m o t
’
, o , , .

I tw as n o t ti l l I 7 6 2 w h e n J oh n son w as fift y ,t h re e y e a rs o ld t h at -
,

h is l i te ra ry labors we re r e w ard e d i n th e u su al w ay by ro y a l t y an d h e ,

r e c e iv e d f ro m G e o r e I I I a y e a rl y
g p e n s i o n o f th re e h u n d re d po u n d s .

T h e n b e gan a li ttl e su n sh i n e i n h is l ife Wi th J osh ua R e yn o l d s th e .

,

1 In J oh n s o n s
D i c tion a r y w e fin d th s d e n ton : G ru b s t
’
ree t, t h e n am e of a s t i
ree t fi ii
i n L o n d on m u c h n h a b te d b y i
r te rs of s m a i wi
i on a r ie s , a n d t
h sto r e s , d i c t e m po ra r y ll i i
p oe m s ; h e w
n c e a n y m ea n p r o d u c ton i s ca e d G ru b -
s tre e t ”
i ll .
292 E NG L I S H L IT E RATU R E
h is p re j u dic e i
a ga n s t the S c otc h ,
wh om h e n e v e r u n d e rs tood ,
”
j u s t a s in h is d e fi n i ti on o f p e n s i on h e tak e s occ a s i on to
, ,

r ap t h e w r i te r s w h o h ad fl a tte r e d th e i r p atr on s s i n c e th e d ay s
o f E li za b e t h ; th o u g h h e a f te r ward s a cc e p te d a c om f ortabl e
p e n s i on fo r h i m s e l f Wi th c h arac te r i s tic h on e s ty h e re f u se d
.

to a l te r h is d e fi n i ti on in s u b s e q u e n te di ti on s o f th e D i c ti ona ry .

Th e L i v e s of t/ze P oe ts are th e s i m pl e s t a n d m os t rea d a bl e

o f h is l i t e ra r y w o r k s F or te n y e a r s b e f or e b e g i n n i n g th e s e
.

L iv f
es o bi og rap h i e s h e h ad g iv e n h i m s e l f u p to c on v e r s ati on ,

th P “
e 09
an d t h e p on d e ro u s s tyl e o f h is R a m b le r e s s ay s
h e r e g iv e s w ay to a li g h te r a n d m or e n atu ral e xp re s s i on A s .

c r i tici s m s th e y ar e o f te n m i s l e adi n g g ivi n g p r a i s e to a rtifici a l ,

p o e ts l ik e C owl e y an d P op e an d d oi n g s ca n t j u s tic e or a b u n
, ,

d an t i n j u s tic e to n o bl e r p oe ts l ik e G ray a n d Mil ton ; a n d th e y

ar e n o tt o b e c om p ar e d wi t h th o s e f ou n d in T h om a s War ton s ’

H i s tory of E ng li s /z P oe try w h ic h w a s p u bli s h e d i n th e sa m e

,

g e n e rati on A S bi og ra p h i e s h ow e v e r th e y a r e e xc e l l e n t r e ad
.
, ,

in g an d w e o w e to th e m s om e o f ou r b e s t k n ow n pic tu re s of
,

th e e a r ly E n g l i s h p o e ts .

Of J oh n s on s p oe m s th e r e ad e r will h av e e n ou gh i f h e g l a n c e
’

Th e Van i ty of H u m an Wi s h e s
"
His on ly s to ry
”
ov e r .
,

p oe m s an d
R a s s e la s , P r i nc e o f A by s s i n i a i s , a m atte r of rh e to
E s sa ys r ic r at e rh th an i n te r e s ti n g s til l
o f rom an ce ,
b u t is
to th e r e ad e r w h o w an ts to h e a r J o h n s on s p e rs on a l vi e w s of
’

s o ci e ty p h il os op h y a n d r e li g i on A n y on e of h is E s s ay s l ik e
, , .
,

” " ”
th a t o n R e ad i n g or Th e P e rn ici ou s E ff e c ts o f R e v e ry
, ,

will b e e n o ug h to a cq ua i n t th e r e ad e r wi th th e J oh n s on e s e
st yl e w h ic h w as on ce m u c h ad m i re d an d c o pi e d by orator s
, ,

b u t w h ic h h a ppily h as b e e n r e pl a c e d by a m or e n atu ra l w ay
o f s p ea ki n M os t of h is w ork s it m us t b e c on f e s s e d a r e
g .
, ,

r at h e r ti r e s om e I t i s n ot to h is b oo k s b u t rath e r to th e
.
,

pic tu re o f th e m an h i m s e l f a s gi v e n by B os w e ll th at J oh n s on
, ,

o w e s h is
g e at pl a c e i n o u r l i te ra tu r e
r .
 E IGHT E E NTH —
C E NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 29 3

" ”
B O S WE L L
’
S L IF E OF J OH N S O N
InJ a m e s B o s w e ll ( 1 7 4 0 1 7 9 5 ) w e h av e an o th e r e xtraord i —

n ar y fi u r e a h ll w l i t tl e S c tc h b a i te w h o tro ts a b o u t
g s a o, o rr s r ,

l ik e a d og at th e h e e l s of h is b ig m as te r f ran tic at a c are s s ,

a n d g ro v e l i n
g a t a c u ff a n d a b u n d an tly c on te n te d i f o n ly h e ,

c a n b e n e ar h im a n d r e c or d h is o ra cl e s A ll h is li fe l on g B os .

w e ll s on e am bi ti on s e e m s to h av e b e e n to S h i n e in th e r e fl e c te d
’

g l or y of g re a t m e n an d h i s c h i e f tas k to r e c o r d th e i r s a yi n g s
,

an d d o i n g s Wh e n h e cam e to L on d on at tw e n ty tw o y e ar s
.
,
-

of a e
g J o h n s on th e n a tth e b e g i n n i n g of h i s g r e at f am e w as
, , ,

to th i s i n s ati a bl e l i ttl e g l ory s e e k e r lik e a S ilv e r D o c tor to a -

h u n gry tr ou t H e s ou g h t an i n tro d u c ti on as a m an se e k s
.

g old h au n te d e v e r y pl a c e w h e r e J oh n s on d e cl a i m e d u n til in
, ,

D av ie s s b ook s tore th e s u p re m e opp or tu n i ty c am e T h i s is h is

’
.

r e c or d o f t h e g re a t e v e n t
I w m c h agi tat d [ y B o w l l ! a d e c ol l e ti g h i p e j d i c e
as u e sa s s e n r c n s r u

a g i t th e S c o t h
a ns f wh i c h I h d h c d m ,
h I
o i d to D v i a e ar uc ,
sa a es,

D t t l l h im w h
on
’
e I c m e f om F om S c otl d
e re i d D v ie
o r .
”
r an ,
”
cr e a s

rog i h l y
u s M J oh o . i d I I d o i d d c om e f om S c o tl d
r . ns n ,
”
sa ,
"
n ee r an ,

b tI c a o th l p i t
u nn Th t s i [ i d J h o ! I fi d i w h t
e .
”
a ,
r
”
cr e o ns n ,
"
n s a a

v e y g tm y f y
r re a an
co t ym c o ot h l p Th i tok e t e d
ou r un r en an n e .
”
s s r s un n

me g oo d d
a l ; d w h e w e h d t d w I f l t m y e l f o t a l i ttl
ea an n a sa o n e s n e

em b a rras s e d , a n d a p p re h e n s iv e of w h atm i gh tc om e ne xt .

T h e n for s e v e ral y e ar s with a p e r s i ste n cy th at n o re b u ff s ,

c ou ld ab ate an d wi th a th ick s ki n th at n o am ou n t of r idic u l e

,

c ou ld r e n d e r s e n s i tiv e h e f o ll ow s J oh n s on ; for c e s h is w ay ,

i n to th e L i te rar y C l u b w h e re h e i s n ot w e l c o m e in ord e r to , ,

b e n e ar h is id o l ; c a rr i e s h im off on a vi s i tto th e H e b r id e s
talk s wi th h im o n e v e ry p o s s ibl e o c ca s i on ; a n d w h e n h e i s ,

n ot i n vi ted t o a f ea s t w a i t s out s id e t h e h ou s e o r tav e r n in

,

ord e r t o w a lk h om e wi t h h is m a ste r in th e th ick fog o f th e

e ar ly m or n i n A n d t h e m o m e n t th e ora cl e i s ou t of s i g h t
g .

an d in b e d B o s w e ll p at te r s h om e to r e c o r d in d e t a il a ll th ath e
'

h a s s e e n an d h e ar d I t i s to h is m i n u te r e c o rd th at we ow e
.

o u r o n ly p e r f e c t pic t u r e o f a g re a t m a n ; all h is v an i t y as
294 E N G L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

w e ll ash i s g re a tn e s s , h is p re j u dic e s , su pe rs ti ti on s , an d e ve n
th e d e ta il s of h is p e r s on a l a pp ea r an c e

Th e re i s th e gi g a n ti c b od y , th e h u g e fa c e s e am e d w i th t h e s c a rs o f
d i s e as e , h e b ro w n c oa t, th e b l ac k w o rs te d s t
t oc ki n g s , t
h e gra y w ig wi t h
he
t s c orc h e d fore top ,
he d
t i r ty
il s b i tte n an d p are d to th e
h an d s , th e na

q u i c k W e s e e th e e y e s a n d m o u th m o v i n g wi th c on v u l s iv e twi tc h e s ;
.

we se e t h e h e a v y fo rm ro ll i n g ; w e h e ar i t p u ffi n g ; a n d th e n c o m e s th e
Wh y s i r ! a n d th e Wh a t th e n s i r
”
,
? ”
an d t he “
N o s ir !
”
an d the , ,

Yo u d o n ts e e y o u r w a y th ro ug th e q u e s ti o
’
h n s i r ! 1
,

To B o s w e ll c ord w e are i n d e b te d a l so for ou r k n owl e d ge

’
s re

of t h os e f am o u s c o n v e rsa ti on s th os e w ordy k n o ckd ow n b attl e s , , ,

w h ic h m a d e J oh n son fam ou s in h is tim e an d w h ic h s till m ov e

'

us t o w on d e r H e re is a s p e ci m e n c on v e rs ati on tak e n a l m os t
.
,

a t ran d o m f r o m a h u n d re d s u c h in B os w e ll s i n c om p a r a bl e
’

bi og rap h y A f te r l i s te n i n g to J oh n s on s p r e j u d ic e ag ai n s t
.
’

S c otl an d an d h is d og m a tic u tte ran c e s o n V o l ta i r e R o b e rts on

, , ,

an d t w e n ty oth e r s an u n f or tu n ate th e or i s t b r i n g s u p a r e c e n t
,

e s s ay on t h e p os s ibl e f u tu re li f e o f b r u te s q u oti n g s o m e p os ,

s ibl e a u t h or i ty f rom th e sa c r e d s c rip tu re s

J oh n s o n w h o d id n o tl i k e to h e a r an y th i n g c on c e rn i n g a f u tu re s ta te
,

w h i c h w as n ot a u th ori e d b y th e re g u l a r c an on s of orth od ox y d i s c ou r
z ,

ag e d t h i s tal k ; a n d b e i n g o ffe n d e d a t i t
s c on t i n u a ti on h e w a tc h e d an ,

op p o r tun i ty to g i v e th e g e n tl e m an a b l o w of re p re h e n s i o n S o w h e n th e .

p oor s p e c u l a ti s t w i t
h a s e ri o u s m e ta p h y s i c a l p e n s iv e fa c e a d d re s s e d
, , , ,

h im ,
B u t r e all y s i r w h e n w e s e e a v e ry s e n s i b l e d og w e d o n t k n o w
, , ,
’

w h a t to th i n k of h im ; J oh n s on rol l i n g w i th joy at th e th o u gh t w h i c h
”
,

b e am e d i n h i s e y e tu rn e d q u i c kl y ro un d a n d re p l i e d
,
T rue s ir ; an d , ,

w h e n w e s e e a v e r y foo l i s h f ellow w e d on t k n o w w h atto th i n k of lzi m ,

’
.
”

H e th e n r os e u p s tri d e d to th e fire a n d s tood f or s om e ti m e l a u gh i n g

, ,

an d e x ul t ing .

T h e n th e oracl e p r o c e e d s to ta lk of s c orpi on s a n d n atu ra l

h i s tory d e n yi n g f a c ts an d d e m a n di n g p roo f s w h ic h n o body
, ,

c ou ld p o s s ibly f ur n i s h
H em d pl
e se e d t t l k of e t l p h il op h y T h tw ood oc k
e as o a n a u ra os . a c s,
”

id h i p ov d b e c a e th y h a v
"
sa fl y ov
e , th h
o t ti e er e n r e rn c oun r s s r e ,
us e e

be e n ob s e r ved at s e a . S w all o w s c e rta n i l y sl e e p all th e w in te r . A n um

1 F ro m M aca u l ay ’ s re vi w
e of B os w lle
’
s L if e f / o/zn s on
o .
2 96 E N GLISH L IT E R ATU R E
Wh e n J oh n s on di e d th e opp or tu n i ty c am e for w h ic h B o s
w e l l h ad b e e n w atc h i n g an d w ai ti n g s om e tw e n ty y ea r s H e .

w ou ld s h i n e in th e w or ld n o w n ot by re fl e c ti on b u t by h is , ,

ow n l u m i n o s i t y He gath e r e d tog e th e r h is e n dl e s s n ote s a n d

.

re c ord s a n d b e ga n t
, o writ e h is bi o g ra p h y ; b u t h e did n o t

h u rry S e v e ra l bi og rap h i e s of J oh n s on app e a r e d i n th e f ou r

.
,

y e ar s a f te r h i s d e ath wi th o u t d i s tu r bi n g B os we ll s p e r f e c t ,
’

c o m pla c e n cy A f te r s e v e n y e ars l ab or h e gav e th e w or ld h is

.
’

L if e of f oli n s on I ti s an i m m orta l w or k ; p ra i s e i s s u p e r fl u ou s ;
.

it m u s t b e r e a d to b e a pp r e ci ate d L ik e th e G re e k s c u lp tors .
,

th e l i ttl e s l av e p r od u c e d a m or e e n d u ri n g w or k th an th e g re a t
m a s te r Th e m a n w h o r e ad s itwill k n ow J oh n s on a s h e k n o w s
.

n o ot h e r m an w h o dw e ll s a c ro s s th e b or d e r ; an d h e wil l l a ck
se n sit iv e n e s s i n d e e d i f h e lay d o w n th e w or k wi th ou ta g re ate r
, ,

l ov e a n d a pp re ci ati on o f all g oo d li te ratu r e .

L ate r Au gu s tan Wri ters Wi th J oh n s on w h o s u cc e e d e d .

,

D ryd e n a n d P op e in th e c h i e f pl a c e o f E n g l i s h l e tte r s th e ,

cl a s s ic m o v e m e n t h ad l ar ge ly s p e n t its f or c e ; an d th e l atte r
h a l f of th e e i gh te e n th c e n tu r y g iv e s u s an i m p o s i n g a rray o f
w r i te r s w h o di ff e r s o wid e ly th at it is a l m os t i m p os s ibl e to
cl as s i f y th e m I n g e n e ral th re e s c h ool s o f w r i te rs are n otic e
.
,

a bl e : fi rs t t h e cla s s ici s ts w h o u n d e r J oh n s on s l e a d i n s i s te d
’

, , , ,

u p o n e l e g a n c e a n d r e g u l ar i t y of s tyl e ; s e c on d th e r om an tic ,

p oe ts lik e C o lli n s G ray T h om s on an d B u r n s w h o r e v ol te d

, , , , ,

f rom P o p e s ar tifici a l c o u pl e ts an d w rote of n atu re an d th e

’

'

h u m an b e ar t ; th i rd th e e ar lv n ov e li s ts lik e D e f oe an d
l
, ,

F i e ldi n g w h o i n trod u c e d a n e w typ e of li te ratu r e Th e

, .

r o m an t ic p oe ts a n d th e n o v e l i s ts ar e re s e r v e d f o r s p e ci al
c h a p te r s ; a n d of th e oth e r w r i te rs B e rk e l e y an d H u m e in
p h il os oph y R o b e rts on H u m e a n d G ibb on i n h i s tor y ; C h e s , ,

te r fie ld a n d L ady M o n t agu in l e t te r w r i ti n g ; A d am S m i th

1 Ma n y
w i t h w m i gli g f th l i
of th e r e rs s o a n n o e c a ss c an d th e ro m a n tc i e n de n c
t i es

G l d m i th f ll w d J h
.

Th us o s d pp od th o m e o n so n an O o se e ro ii
a n tc s ts b u t h i s D e se r te d
;
Vi ll g i a m e ti i s
p i i t th
ro angh i t l ic pl t n s r ,
ou s c a ss c c ou e s are a lm o s t a s m ec h a n c a a s i l
Pp S B k
o e s
’
. ti o url g tly l i i tyl
’
e s o ra o n s a re e e an c as s c
”
n s e , b u ta re ill
u m i n e d b y b u rs ts

of m ti
e d o m ti f li g
on a n ro an c ee n .
 E IG HT E E NTH —
C E NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 297

in ec o n om ic s ; P i tt B u rk e F ox an d a s c ore o f l e s s e r w r i te rs
, , ,

i n p oli ti c s w e s e l e c t on ly tw o B u r k e an d G ibb o n
— w h os e , ,

w ork s are m os ttypic a l of th e A u g u s ta n i e th e e l e gan t cl a s s ic , . .

,

st yl e of p r ose w r i ti n g .

E D MU N D B U R K E ( 1 7 29
-
1 7 9 7)
To re a d a ll o f B urk e
c oll e c te d wor k s an d s o to u n d e r
’
s ,

st a n d h im t h or oug h ly is s om e th i n g of a tas k F e w ar e e q u al
, .

to it On th e oth e r h an d to r e ad s e l e c ti on s h e re an d th e re
.
, ,

a s m os t of u s d o i s t o g e t a w r on g id e a o f t
, h e m an an d to
j o i n e i th e r in f u l som e p ra i s e of h is b r illian t oratory or in ,

h on e s t c on f e s s i on th at h i s p on d e ro u s a n d h is

id e a s o f te n b u r i e d u n d e r W ge S u c h ar e th e .

c on tras ts to b e f ou n d on s u cc e s s iv e p age s o f B u rk e s tw e lv e ’

v ol u m e s w h ic h c ov e r th e e n or m ou s ran g e o f th e p oli tic a l a n d

,

e c on o mic t h ou g h to f th e a g e a n d w h ic h m i n g l e fa c tan d fan cy

, ,

p h il os op h y s tati s tic s an d b r illi an t fl i g h ts of th e i m ag i n ati on

, , ,

to a d e g r e e n e v e r b e f or e s e e n in E n g li s h li te ratu re F or B u rk e .

b e l on g s in s pi r i t to th e n e w r om an tic s c h ool w h il e in s tyl e ,

h e is a m o d e l f or th e f orm a l cl a s s ici s ts We c an o n ly g l a n ce .

att h e li f e of th i s m ar v e l ou s I r i s h m a n an d th e n c on s id e r h i s ,

pl a c e in ou r li te ra tur e .

Li f e . Bu r ke
b orn in D u b l in th e son o f an I ri sh barri s te r in
w as , ,

1 729 Af te r h is u n i ve rs i t
. y c ou rs e in T r i n i ty C o l l e ge h e c am e to
L on d o n to s t u d y la w b u tsoon gav e u, p th e id e a to fo l l ow li te ra tu re ,

w h i c h in tu rn le d h im to p o l i ti c s H e h ad th e sou l th e i m agi n ati on .

,

of a p oe t an d t h e la w w a s o n l y a c l o g to h is p rog e ss H is tw o fi rs t
,
r .

w ork s A Vi n di c a tion of N a tu a l S oc i e y an d Tb e Or igi n of ou r

,
r t

I d e a s of t h e S u bli m e a n d t f u l b rou gh th im p o l i ti c a l as we l l
lze B e a u t i ,

as l i t e ra ry r e c ogn i tion an d se ve ra l s m a l l o ffi c e s we re in tu rn giv e n

,

to h im Wh e n th i rty six y e ars o ld h e was e l e c te d to Pa rl ia m e n ta s

.
-

m e m b e r f ro m W ep d o e r ; an d fo r th e n e x t th i rt
v y y e ars h e w as th e
fo re m ost fi gu re in th e H ou se o f C om m on s an d th e
o ra t or w h i c h t h a tbod y h as e v e r kn own P u re an d i .

h is p o l i ti c s a s in h is p e rson a l l i f e n o m o re l e arn ,

se rvan t o f t h e C o m m on w e a l th e v e r p l e ad e d fo r j u st
298 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
l i b e rty H e
. w as h e s um
a tt i
m tof h is i n fl u e n c e atth e ti m e w h e n th e
colon i e s w e re s tru gg l in g for in d e p e n d e n c e an d th e fac t th a t h e
c h a m p i on e d th e i r c au s e in on e o f h is gre ate s t s p e e c h e s , O n C on
c ia tion
il w i th Am e ri c a
give s ,
”
h im an a dd e d i n te r e s t in th e e y e s of
Am e ri c an re ad e rs H is c h am p i on s h i p of Am e ri c a is a ll th e m ore
.

re m a rk ab l e f ro m t h e fa c t th a t in o th e r m a tte rs B u rke w as fa r f ro m
, ,

l ibe ra l He s e t h i m s e lf sq u are ly agai n s tth e te ac h i n gs of th e rom an

.

tic w ri te rs w h o w e re e n th u s i a s t
,
i c ove r th e F re n c h R e vol u ti on ; h e
d e n oun c e d th e p ri n c i p l e s o f th e R e vo l u ti o n i sts b rok e w i th th e lib ,

e ra l Wh i g p art y to j o i n th e Tori e s an d w a s l a rge ly in stru m e n ta l in ,

bri n gi n g on th e te rrib l e w ar w i th F ran c e wh i c h re su l te d in th e ,

d own fa l l of N a p o l e on .

I t is goo d to re m e m b e r th at in all th e s trif e a n d bi tt , e rn e ss o f

p a rt y po l i ti c s B u rk e h e l d s t
,
e a di ly t o t h e n o b l e s t p e rs on a l id e a l s of

tru th an d h on e st y ; a n d th a tin all h is w ork w h e th e r o p p osi n g th e ,

s l av e t rad e o r p l e ad i n g fo r j u st
,
ic e for Am e ri c a or p ro te c tin g th e ,

p o o r nat iv e s of I n di a f ro m th e g re e d o f c o r ora t
p i on s o r se t ti ng ,

h im se lf a ga in st th e p op u l ar sym p ath y for F ran c e in h e r d e sp e rate

y Wh e n h e re
'

st ru ggl e h e a i m e d so l e l y a t th e w e l fare of h u m an i t
, .

ti re d o n a p e n s i on in I h e h ad w on an d h e d e se rv e d th e gra ti , ,

tu d e an d aff e c t i on of t e wh o l e n ation .

Work s T h e re ar e th re e di s ti n ctly m ark e d p e r i od s in

.

B u rk e s c a re e r a n d th e s e c orr e s p on d cl o s e ly to th e y e ars in
’

w h ic h h e w as b u s i e d wi th th e a ffa i r s of A m e r ica I n dia an d , ,

F ran c e s u cc e s s iv e ly Th e fi rs t p e r i od w as on e of p ro p h e cy
. .

He h a d s tu di e d th e h i s tor y an d te m p e r o f th e A m e r ic a n c ol
o n ie s a n d h e w arn e d E n l a n d of t h e d i s as te r w h ic h m u s t
, g
f oll ow h e r p e r s i s te n c e in i g n or i n g th e A m e r ic an d e m an d s ,

a n d e s p e ci a lly t h e A m e r ic an s p ir i t Hi s g r ea t s p e e c h e s On .
,

” ”
A m e r ic an T a x ati o n an d O n C on cili ati on wi th A m e r ica ,

w e re d e liv e r e d in I 7 7 4 a n d 1 7 7 5 p r e c e d i n g th e D e cl ara ti on ,

of I n d e p e n d e n ce I n th i s pe r i od B u rk e s la bor s e e m e d all in
’
.

va i n h e l os t h is c au s e an d E n g l an d h e r gr e ate s t c ol on y
, .

( 1 p e ri o d i s on e o f d e n u n ci ati o n r ath e r th an of
‘

h ad w on I n dia ; b u t w h e n B urk e s tu di e d
h e r vic to ry a n d un d e r s too d th e s ou ll e s s w a y
n s of poor n at iv e s w e re m ad e to s e rv e th e
 E IGHT E E NTH -
C E NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 2 99

i n te r e s ts of a n E n g li s h
m on o p oly h is s ou l r os e in r e v ol t a n d , ,

ag a i n h e w a s th e c h a m pi on o f an Opp r e s s e d p e opl e H i s tw o .

g re a te s t s p e e c h e s o f t h i s p e r i o d a r e e N a b o b o f A r co s
’

”
D e b ts a n d h is tre m e n d ou s I m p e a c h m e n t of Wa rr e n H as t
”
i n g s Aga i n h e a pp are n tly l os t h is c au s e th ou g h h e w as s till
.
,

fi g h ti n g on th e s id e of rig h t Has ti n g s w a s acq u i tte d an d th e

.
,

s p o li at i on of I n dia w e n ton b u tth e s e e d s of r e f or m w e r e s o w n ,

a n d g r e w an d b o r e f r u i tl on g a f t e r B u r k e s l a b or s w e re e n d e d
’
.

T h e th i rd p e r i o d is c u r i ou s ly e n o u g h on e o f r e a c ti on
, , .

Wh e th e r b e c a u s e th e h or rors of th e F r e n ch R e v o l u ti o n h ad
f r ig h te n e d h i m wi th th e d an g e r o f p op u l ar lib e r ty o r b e c au s e ,

h i s o w n adv an c e i n offi c e a n d p o w e r h a d m ad e h im s id e u n
c on s ci ou s ly wi th th e u pp e r cl as s e s is u n k n ow n T h at h e w as , .

a s s i n c e r e a n d n o bl e n o w a s i n a ll h is p r e vi o u s li f e i s n ot

q u e s ti on e d He b ro k e wi th th e lib e ral Wh i g s a n d j o i n e d
.

f or c e s wi th th e re a c ti on ary T or i e s H e opp os e d th e r om a n tic .

w r i te r s w h o w e re on fir e wi th e n th u s i as m ov e r th e F re n c h
,

R e v ol u ti on a n d th u n d e r e d a ga i n s t th e d a n g e rs w h ic h th e
,

r e v ol u t i on ary s p i r i tm u s t b re e d f o rge tti n g th at itw as a re v o ,

lu tion w h ic h h a d m ad e m od e rn E n g l an d p os s ibl e H e r e w h e r e .
,

w e m u s t j u d g e h im to h a v e b e e n m i s tak e n i n h is c au s e h e ,

s u cc e e de d for t h e fi rs t ti m e I t w a s d u e l ar g e ly to B u r k e s
’
.

i n fl u e n c e th at th e g r o w i n g s y m p ath y f or th e F re n c h p e opl e
w a s c h e ck e d i n E n g l an d a n d w ar w a s d e cl ar e d w h i c h e n d e d
, ,

in th e f r i g h tf u l vic to r i e s o f T r a fa l g ar a n d Wate r l o o .

B u r k e s b e s t k n o w n w o rk o f th i s p e r i od i s h is R qfl e c l zom
’ ’

0 72 Me F r anc /z R e v olu t i on w h ic h h e p oli s h e d a n d r e vi s e d ag a i n

,

E s sa on a n d a g a i n b e f or e it w a s fi n a lly p r i n t ed T h i s am
y
.

R l fim
e VO u
b itiou s li te ra r y e s s a y th ou g h it m e t wi th r e m ark
‘
,

a bl e s u cc e s s is a di sa pp oi n tm e n t to th e r e ad e r
, T h o u g h of .

C e l tic bl oo d B ur k e d id n ot u n d e r s tan d th e F re n c h or th e
, ,

p ri n cipl e s for w h ic h th e c o m m on p e 0 p 1e w e re fi g h ti n g in th e i r
a n d h is d e n u n ci at i n s an d a p o s t roph e s t F ra n c e
l
ow n w a o o
y ;

1 Am uch m ore i nt i w k i Th m
e re s tn g or s o as Pi ’
a ne s R ig /2t: o
f fl l cm ,
i
w h c h w as w i tt
r en

in an s w e r to B u r k ’
e s e s sa y d wh i h h d
,
an c a e n o r m o us i fl
n uen ce in E n g l an d a n d Am i er ca .
30 0 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
s u gg e s ta p re a c h e r wi th ou th u m or h am m e r i n g aw ay ats i n n e rs ,

w h o a re n o t p re s e n t i n h is c o n g r e g ati o n Th e e s sa y h a s f e w .

ill u m i n ati n g id e a s b u t a g rea t d e a l of J oh n s on ia n r h e tor ic

, ,

w h ic h m a k e its p e ri od s ti re som e n otwi th s tan di n g ou r ad m i ra ,

ti o n for th e b r illi an cy of its au th or M ore s ig n ifi c an t is on e of .

B u rk e s fi rs t e s s ay s A P /zi /os op /zi c a l I n q u i ry I n t

’

,
o t /ze Or igi n
u l w h i c h is s om e t i
of O u r I d ea s o f th e S u bli m e a n d B e a u t if m es ,

yl e wi th A ddi s on s
’

r e ad in o r d e r t o s h ow t h e c on tra s t in s t
”
Sp oc t at or e s say s on t he P l ea s u re s o f th e I m ag i n ati on .

"
B u rk e s b e s t k n o w n S p e e c h e s O n C o n c il i a ti o n w i th
’

A m e ric a
"
A m e r ic a n T a x a ti on
,
”
an d t he
"
I mp ea c h m e n t of ,
”

B k
ur e s
’ W arr e n H a s ti n g s are s t ill m u ch st u di e d in ou r ,
”

0 mm “ s c h oo l s a s m od e l s o f E n g li s h p r ose ; an d t h i s fa ct
te n d s to g iv e th e m an e x ag g e rate d li te ra r y i m p or tan c e V i e w e d .

p u r e ly a s l i te ratu re th e y h av e f au l ts e n ou g h ; a n d th e fi rs t
,

of t h e s e s o c h ara c te r i s tic o f th e C l as s ic A g e is th at th e y
, ,

a b o u n d in fin e r h e t or ic b u t l a ck s i m plici t y I n a s tri ct s e n s e
1
.
,

th e s e e l oq u e n t s p e e c h e s a re n ot li te ratur e to d e li g h t th e ,

r e ad e r a n d t o s ugg e s t id e as b u t s tu di e s in r h e tor i c an d in ,

m e nt a l c on c e n t rat i on A ll th i s h o w e ve r is on th e s u r fa c e .
, , .

A ca re f u l s tu dy o f a n y o f th e s e th re e f am ou s s p e e c h e s re v e a l s
c e rta i n ad m i rabl e q uali ti e s w h ic h a cc oun t for th e i m p ortan t
pl a c e th e y ar e g iv e n in th e s tu dy o f E n gli s h F ir s t a s s h o w .
,

i n g th e s tate l i n e s s an d th e r h e toric al p ow e r of ou r l an g ua g e ,

th e s e s p e e c h e s a r e a l m o s t u n r iv al e d S e c on d th ou g h B u rk e .
,

s p e ak s i n p rose h e i s e s s e n ti ally a p oe t w h o s e im age ry l ik e

, , ,

th a t o f M il ton s p r os e w ork s is m o re r e m ar k a bl e th an th a to f
’

m a n y o f o u r w r i te rs of v e r s e H e s p ea k s i n fi g u re s i m ag e s .
, ,

s y m b ol s ; a n d t h e m u s ic a l c a d e n c e of h is s e n te n c e s r e fl e c ts

1 I n th e sam e y ea r , 1 775 , i n h ch B ’
w i
ur e s m a n
g ce n t k ifi C on c ili ti a on
”
ora ton i w as
de liv e re d ,P ti k H y a r c enr m a d e a re m a r a b e k l li l
tte s pe e c h b e f o re a i
ga th e r n g o f d e e ga t
es l
In Vi g i
r B th m
in a .
w o en e re p l ea di n g th e s a m e c a u se of j u s tc e ,i an d w
e re a c tu ated by t he
sa m e h i gh i d l Av yi ea s . er nt
e re s tn i g co n tra s t,
ho wv e e r, m ay be w w
d ra n b e t ee n th e m e th
od s and th e e ff ec ts of He n r y ’
s s
pe e c h an d of B ur k e s
’
m o re b r i llia n t ora ton i k
Bur e

q
.

ma k es us w o n d e r a t h is l e ar n n g , i h is b r illi
a n c , h is e oy l u e n ce ; b u t h e d oe s n ot m o e v ‘

us t
o a c to i n
.
P ti k
a r c He n r y ca ll s us , an d we s r n
p g to i f ll w
o o h i m Th at s u gge sts th e
.

e ss e n t d i fl e re n ce b e t w ee n th e tw o o r ators .
30 2 E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
as th e m ora l la w H e n c e th ou g h h e app are n tly f a il s of h is
.
,

i m m e diate d e s ir e i n e a c h o f th e s e th re e ora ti on s th e p r i n cipl e ,

for w h ic h h e c on t e n d s c an n o t f ail A s a m o d e r n w r i te r sa y s .

o f L i n c ol n Th e f u ll r ic h fl oo d o f h is l i f e th ro u g h th e n a ti on s
, ,

p u l s e is y e t b e a ti n g ; an d h i s w o rd s a re s till p o te n tin s h ap in g
"

th e c o urs e of E n gli s h p oli tic s in th e w ay of j u s tic e .

E DW AR D G I B BO N ( 737 1 — 1 7 94 )

To un d e r s tan d B u rk e or J oh n s on on e m u s t r e ad a m u l ti ,

tu d e of b o ok s a n d b e w ar y in h is j u d gm e n t b u t wi th G ibb o n
th e ta s k is c o m p arativ e ly e a s y fo r on e h a s on ly to c on s id e r ,

tw o b oo k s h is M e m oi rs a n d th e fi r s t v ol u m e o f h is H i s t
,
ory ,

to u n d e r s tan d th e a u th o r I n h is [ Me m oi rs w e h a v e a n i n t
. er

i n g re fl e cti on o f G ibb on s o w n p e rs on ality a m an w h o

'
’
e st —
,

l ook s wi th sati s fac ti on on th e m ate r i al s id e o f th i n g s w h o ,

s e e k s a lw ay s t h e e a s i e s t p a th fo r h i m se l f an d a v o id s li f e s
’

,
"
d ifli c u ltie s an d re s p o n s ibili ti e s I s i gh e d a s a l ov e r ; b u t I
.

"
o b e y e d a s a s on h e s ay s w h e n to s a ve h is i n h e r i tan c e h e
, , , ,

g a v e u p th e w o m an h e l ov e d an d c a m e h om e to e n j o y th e
p ate rn al l oa v e s a n d fi s h e s T h at is s u gg e s tiv e of th e m an s
.
’

w h ol e li fe His H i s tory on th e o th e r h an d i s a re m ar k abl e

.
, ,

w or k I tw as th e fi rs t in ou r l an g u ag e to b e w r itte n on s c ie n
.

ti fic p r i n cipl e s a n d wi th a s ol id b a s i s o f f a c t a n d th e s tyl e is
,

th e v e ry cli m a x of th at cl as s ici s m w h ic h h a d r u l e d E n g l a n d for

an e n t i re c e n tu ry I tS c om bi n ati on of h i s tor ic a l fac tan d li te rary
.

st yl e m ak e s T/ze D e c li n e a n d F a ll of th e R om a n E mp i re th e on e
”
th i n g of G ib b on S li f e th a ti s worth y to b e r e m e m b e r e d
'

Gi b b on s Hi s tory
’
F or m an y y e a r s G ibb on h ad m e di tate d
.
,

l ik e M il ton u p on an i m m orta l w ork a n d h ad tr i e d s e v e ra l

, ,

h i s to r ic a l s u bj e c ts o n ly to g iv e th e m u p idly I n h is j ou r n a l
, .

h e te ll s u s h ow h is va g u e re s ol u ti on s w e r e b rou h tto a f oc u s
g
I tw as t R om
a o eh e fi f t e th o f O c t b e
t , n 1 7 64 e
a I s at m s i g
n o r, , s u n
a m i d s tt
.

h e ru n s o f i t i l w il
h e C a p to , h e th e b a re oo te d r a rs e re f fi w i
S ng n i g
v e s p e rs i n th e T l J i
e m p e of up t h a t th e d e a o f ri tn g th e d e c
e r, t i w i l in e an d
fa ll o f th e c i ty fi rs ts ta rte d to m y m i n d .
 E IG HT E E NTH —
C E NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 30 3

Tw e lv e y e a r s l ate r I 7 7 6 G ibb on p u bli s h e d th e fi r s t v ol

,
in ,

u m e o f T/ze D e c li n e a n d F a ll of Me R om a n E mp i r e ; an d t he
e n or m ou s s u cc e s s o f th e w or k e n c ou rag e d h im to g o o n wi th
th e o th e r fiv e v o l u m e s w h ic h w e r e p u bli s h e d a t i n te r v a l s
,

d u r i n g th e n e x t tw e lv e y e a rs Th e H i s tory b e g i n s wi th th e
.

"
r e i g n of T raj an i n A D 9 8 an d
, . b u ild s a s tra i g h t R om an
.
,

r oad th rou g h th e c on f u se d h i s tor i e s o f th i rte e n c e n tu ri e s ,

e n di n g wi t h th e fall of th e B y z an ti n e E m pi re in 1 4 5 3 Th e .

s c o p e of t h e H i s tor y i s e n orm ou s I t i n cl u d e s n ot on ly
.

th e d e cl i n e of th e R om an E m pi r e b u t s u c h m ov e m e n ts a s th e
,

d e s c e n tof th e n orth e rn b ar b ar i an s th e S p r e a d of C h r i s ti an i ty
, ,

th e r e o rga n i za ti on of th e E ur op e a n n ati on s th e e s ta bli s h m e n t ,

of t h e g re at E a s te rn E mpi re th e r i s e o f M oh a m m e d an i s m
, ,

an d t h e s pl e n d or of th e C ru s a d e s O n th e on e h an d it l a ck s
.

p h il osop h ica l i n s ig h t b e i n g s ati s fi e d wi th fac ts wi th ou t c om

,

p re h e n d i n g th e ca u s e s ; an d as G ibb on s e e m s l a cki n g in
,

a bili t y to u n d e rs tan d s pi ri tu al an d r e li g i o u s m o v e m e n ts it is ,

ut te r ly i n ad e q uate in i ts tre atm e n t o f th e tr e m e n d ou s in fl u

e n c e of C h r i s t i an i ty O n th e oth e r h an d G ibb on s s c h o l ar ’
.
,

s h ip l e a v e s l i ttl e to c r i tici se ; h e r e ad e n or m o u s ly S i f te d h is ,

f ac ts o u t of m u l ti tu d e s of b ook s an d r e c or d s a n d th e n m ar ,

shal e d t h e m in th e i m p os i n g array wi th w h ic h w e h av e g row n

fa m il i ar M ore ov e r h e is s i n g u l a r ly j u s t an d d i s c r i m i n ati n g
.
,

in th e u s e o f all d oc u m e n ts an d au th or i ti e s at h is c om m an d .

H e n c e h e h as g iv e n u s th e fi r s t h i s tory in E n g l i s h th at h as
b orn e s u cc e s s f u lly th e te s tof m od e rn r e s e ar c h an d s c h o l a rs h ip .

Th e s tyl e of th e w o r k is a s i m p os i n g a s h i s g r e at s u bj e c t .

I n d e e d with al m os t an y o th e r s u bj e c t th e s on orou s r oll of h i s

,

m aj e s tic s e n te n c e s w ou ld b e ou t o f pl a c e Wh il e it d e s e rv e s .

all t h e a dj e c tiv e s th at h a v e b e e n a ppli e d to it by e n th u s i a s tic

a d m i r e rs fi n i s h e d e l e gan t s pl e n did rou n d e d m a s s iv e s on o
, , , , , ,

r ou s c opi ou s e l ab o rat
, , e or n at e e x h au s t
,
iv e i t m u s t b e c on
, ,
—

f e s se d th ou g h on e w h i s p e r s th e c on f e s s i on th at th e s tyl e
, ,

s om e t i m e s ob s c ure s ou r i n te re s t in th e n arrativ e A s h e .

s if t e d h is f a c t s f ro m a m u l t i tu d e of s ou r c e s s o h e ofte n h id e s ,
 30 4 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
th e m aga n i dl e s s pe r i od s a n d o n e m u s t o f te n s i f t th e m
in en ,

o u t ag a i n i n o rd e r t o b e q uit e s u r e of e v e n t h e s i m pl e f ac ts .

A n o th e r d ra wb a ck is th a t Gibb on i s h o p e l e s s ly w orldly in h is
p oi n t o f vi e w ; h e l ov e s p ag e a n ts a n d c ro wd s rath e r th an in
d iv id uals an d h e is l a cki n g i n e n th u s i a s m a n d i n s pi r i tu al
,

i n s i g h t Th e re s u l t is s o f ran kly m ate r i a l at ti m e s th at on e

.

w on d e rs i f h e is n ot r e adi n g o f f o rc e s o r m ac h i n e s rath e r ,

th an of h u m an b e i n g s A li ttl e rea di n g o f h is H i s tor y h e re

.

an d t h e re i s a n e xc e lle n t th in g l e avi n g on e imp r e s s e d wi th

,

th e e l e gan t cl as s ic al s t yl e an d th e s c h ol ars h ip ; b u t a c on ti n
u e d re a di n g is v e r y ap t t o l e a v e u s l on g i n g fo r S i m plici ty fo r ,

n at u ra l n e s s a n d a b o v e a ll for t
, ,
h e g l ow o f e n th u s i a s m w h ic h
,

m ak e s th e d e ad h e ro e s l iv e on c e m o r e in th e w r i tte n p a g e s .

T h i s j u d gm e n t h ow e v e r m u s t n ot o b s c u re th e fa c t that
, , .

th e b ook h ad a r e m ark a bly l arg e s a l e an d t h a tth i s of i ts e l f , ,

is a n e vid e n c e th a t m u l ti tu d e s of r ea d e r s f o un d it n o t on ly
e ru di t e , b u t re ad a bl e an d i n te re s ti n g .

11 . THE REV V I AL OF R OM A N TI C P O E T R Y
Th e o ld o rd e r c h a n y i e l d i n g p l a c e to n e w ;
g e th ,

A n d G o d f u l fil l s H i m s e l f i n m a n y w a y s ,

Le s to n e g o od c us to m s h o u l d c o rr u p tt h e w orl d .

Te n n y s o n s T h e P as s i n g o f A r th u r
" ’
.
”

W Th e Me ani n g of Wh il e D ryd e n P ope a n d

R om an tic i s m .
, ,

J oh n s on w e re s u cc e s s iv e ly th e dic tato rs of E n g li s h l e tte rs ,

an d w h il e un d e r t
, h e i r l e a d e r s h ip th e h e roi c c ou pl e t b e ca m e
,

th e fas h ion of p oe try a n d l i te ra tu r e i n l b c i ic

‘

,
g e n e r a e a m e sa t r

o r c ri tic al in s pi r i t an d f or m a l in e xp re s s i on a n e w rom an tic

, ,

m ov e m e n t q u i e tly m ad e its a pp ea ran c e T h om s o n s Th e .

’

S e a s on s ( I 7 3 0 ) w a s th e fi rs t n o te w o rth y p oe m of th e ro m a n
tic re vival an d t h e p oe m s an d th e p oe ts i n c r e a s e d s te adily in
n um b e r an d i m p or t an c e t ill i n th e ag e of Wor d s w orth an d
,

S c ott th e s pi r i t o f R om an tici s m d o m i n ate d o u r li te ratu re

,

m o re c o m pl e te ly th an C l as s ici s m h ad e v e r d o n e T h i s ro m an tic .
30 6 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
ch ild re n Po pe h ad n o app re ci abl e h u m an i ty ; S w if ts w ork is
’

a f i
r gh t f u l s a ti r e ; A ddi s o n d e li g h te d p o li te s o c i e ty b u t h ad ,

n o m e s s ag e f o r pl a i n p e o pl e w h il e e v e n J o h n s o n wi t h a ll h i s ,

ki n d n e s s h ad n o f e e li n g f or m e n in th e m as s b ut s u pp orte d
,
,

S i r R o b e r t W a lp o l e i n h i s p o licy o f l e t ti n
g e vil s a l o n e un t il
’

f orc e d by a r e v ol u ti on to tak e n otice of h um an i ty s appe a l .

Wi th th e r o m an tic r e vival all th i s w as c h an g e d Wh il e H ow .

ard w a s w o rki n g h e ro ic a lly for p r i s on r e f o r m a n d Wilb e r f or c e ,

"
for th e lib e ra ti on of th e s l av e s G ray w r ote h i s ,
s h o r t an d

e d Vi lla e
”
s i m pl e an n al s of t h e p oor a n d G old s m i th h is D e s e r t
, g ,

a n d C owp e r s an g ,

My e ar is p ai n e d ,
My s ou l is i k w i th e v e r y d a y s re p o rt
s c
’

Of w r on g an d o u trag e wi t h w h i c h e a r th is fi l le d .

Th e re is no fl e sh i n m an
’
s o b d u ra t
e h e a r t,
I td o e s n ot e e f l for m an .
1

T h i s sy m path y for th e p oor an d th i s c ry aga i n s t o pp re s si on

, ,
”
re w s t r on g e r a n d s t ro n g e r t ill i t c u l m i n ate d in B o bby
g
B u rn s w h o m or e th an an y o th e r w r i te r in a n y l an g u age i s
, , ,

th e p oe t o f th e u n l e tte re d h u m an h e ar t .

5 Th e ro m an tic m ov e m e n tw a s th e e xp r e s s i on of i n d ivid ua l
.

g e n i us r a th e r th a n o f e s tabli s h e d r u l e s I n c o n se q uen ce th e .
,

l i te ratu re of th e re viv a l is as v ar i e d as th e c h ara c te r s an d

m o od s of th e di ff e r e n t w r i te r s Wh e n w e r e ad Pop e for .
,

i n s tan c e w e h av e a ge n e ra l i m p re s s i on of sam e n e s s as i f all

, ,

h is p oli s h e d p o e m s w e r e m ad e i n th e s a m e m a c h in e ; b u t i n
th e w ork of th e b e s t rom an tici s ts th e r e i s e n dl e s s v ar i e ty .

To r e a d th e m is l ik e p as s i n g th ro u g h a n e w vill a ge m e e ti n g ,

a s c or e o f di ff e r e n t h u m an t yp e s an d fi n di n g in e ac h on e ,

som e t h i n g to l ov e or to r e m e m b e r N atu r e an d th e h e a rt of .

m an ar e a s n e w a s i f w e h ad n e v e r s tu d i e d th e m H e n c e in .
,

re ad i n
g th e rom a n tici s ts w h o w e n t to th e s e s o u r c e s f or th e i r
,

m ate r i al w e ar e s e ld om w ea ri e d b u t o fte n s ur p r i s e d ; a n d th e
,

s urp r i s e is lik e t h at of th e s u n r i s e or th e s e a w h ic h a lw ay s , ,

1 F ro m Th e Ta sk , B oo k II .
 E IGHT E E N TH -
C E NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 30 7

of e rs
f s om e new b e au ty an d i
s trs
‘

us d e e ply , as if we h ad
ne ve r se en b e fore
it .

6 Th e ro m an tic m o v e m e n t w h il e it f o ll o w e d its o w n
.
,

g e n i u s w a s n ot a l tog e th e r u n g u id e d
, S tric tly s p e a ki n g th e r e .
,

i s n o n e w m ov e m e n t e i th e r in h i s tory o r i n li te ratu re ; e a c h

g row s ou t of s o m e g ood th i n g w h ic h h a s p r e c e d e d it an d ,

l ook s b a ck wi th re v e r e n c e to p as t m a s te r s S p e n s e r S h ak e .
,

s pe are an d
,
M il ton w e re th e i n s pi rati on of th e r om an tic
re viv al ; a n d w e c an h ardly r e a d a p oe m of t h e e ar ly ro m an
ti c i s ts wi th ou t fi n di n g a s u gg e s ti on o f th e i n fl u e n c e o f on e of
th e s e g r e at l e ad e r s 1
.

T h e re are v ar i o u s oth e r c hara c te r i s tic s of R om a n tici s m ,

b u tth e s e s i x th e p ro te s t ag a i n s t th e b on d ag e of r u l e s th e
—
,

re t u rn t o n at u r e an d t h e h u m an h e ar t th e i n te re s t in o ld ,

s a a s a n d m e d i ae v a l rom a n c e s a s s u g g e s t iv e of a h e ro ic age
g ,

th e s y m p a th y for th e to il e r s of th e w or ld th e e m p h a s i s u p on ,

i n divid ua l g e n i u s a n d th e re tu r n to M il to n a n d th e E li za
,

b e th an s i n s te a d of to P o p e an d D ryd e n f or li te rary m od e l s
, ,

— a re t h e m o s t n otic e a bl e a n d th e m os ti n te re s ti n g R e m e m .

b e r i n g th e m w e S h all b e tte r app r e cia te th e w or k of th e fol

,

l owi n g w r i te rs w h o in v a ryi n g d e g re e ill u s tra te th e r e viv a l

, ,

of rom a n t ic p oe tr y in th e e i g h te e n th c e n tu ry .

T HO M A S ( G R AY ) 1 7 6
1 —
1 77 1

Th e c u rfe w t ol l s th e k n e l l o f p a r ti n g d a y ;
Th e l o w i n g h e r d w i n d s l o wl y o e r th e le a ; ’

Th e p l o w m a n h o m e w a rd p l o d s h i s w e a r y w a y ,

An d l e a v e s th e w o r l d to d ar k n e s s a n d to m e .

N ow f ad e s h
t e g l i m m e ri n g
l a n d s c ap e o n th e s i gh t ,

An d a ll th e ai r a s o l e m n s ti l l n e s s h o l d s ,

S a v e w h e re th e b e e tl e w h e e l s h i s d r o n i n g fl i g h t ,

A n d d r o w s y ti n kl i n gs l u l l th e d i s tan tf o l d s .

" ”
So b e gin s th e b e s t k n ow n p oe m in th e E n g li s h la n g u age ,

a p oe m f u ll of th e g e n tl e m e l a n c h o ly w h ic h m ar k s a ll e a r ly
1 S ee , for i t
n s an c e , P h l p B g i i g f th R m ti M m t f
e s, e n n n s o li t f
e o an c ove en ,
or a s o

S pe n se ria n imit t f
a or s ro m 1 70 0 t
o 1 775 .
30 8 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

ro m a n tic p oe try I t S h ou ld b e re ad e n ti r e a s a p e rf e c t m od e l
. ,
”
I l P e ns e ro s o
"
o f it s ki n d N ot e v e n M il to n s
.
w h ic h it ’

st ro n gly s u g g e s ts e xc e l s i t in b e au t
,
y an d s ugge s tiv e n e s s .

" "
Lif e of Gray . Th e fam ous E l e gy is th e m os t
h or
au t of he
t

sc h o l a rl y an d w e l l ba l an c e d o f a ll t h e e a rly ro m an ti c p oe ts I n h is
- .

yo u th h e was a w e ak l in g th e o n l y o n e of tw e l ve c h i l d re n w h o su r
,

v iv e d i n fan c y ; a n d h is u n h a p p y c h il d h o od t h e tyran n y of h i s fa th e r , ,

an d t h e se p a ra ti on f ro m h is l ov e d m o th e r ga v e t o h is w h o l e l i fe the ,

st a m p o f m e l an c h o ly w h i c h i s n o t i c e ab l e in all h is p o e m s A t th e .

fam ou s E ton sc h oo l an d agai n atC am bri d ge h e se e m s to h ave fol

, ,

l owe d h is ow n sc h o l a rl y ta ste s ra th e r
th an t h e c u rr ic u l u m an d w as s h oc k e d , ,

l ik e G i bbon a t th e ge n e ral id l e n e ss ,

an d a i m l e ss n e ss of u n iv e rs i ty l i f e On e .

h a ppy re su l t o f h is sc h o ol l i fe w a s h is
f ri e n d sh i p for H o rac e Wa l po l e w h o took ,

h im a b road for a th re e y e a rs ’
tour of he
t
C on ti n e n t .

b e tte r i n d e x of th e e sse n ti a l d i ffe r

No
e n c e be t w e e n th e c l a ssi c a l an d th e n e w
ro m a n t i c sc h oo l c an b e i m agi n e d th an
th a t w h i c h is r e v e a l e d in t h e l e tte rs o f
G ray an d Ad d i son as th e y r e c o rd th e i r ,

T HO MAS G R A Y i m p re ss i on s of fore i gn tra ve l T h u s w h e n .

,

Ad d i son c ross e d th e A l p s s o m e tw e n t y ,
"
fi e y e ars be fo re in good w e a th e r h e w ro te : A v e ry trou b l e som e
v , ,

j o u rn e y . You c an n o ti m a gi n e h o w I am p l e as e d w i th th e si gh t
of a p l a i n G a y c ro se d th e Al p s in th e b e gi n n in g of w i n te r
”
. r s ,

w ra p p e d in m u ff s h ood s an d m asks of b e av e r fu r boo ts an d b e ar

, , ,
"
b u t w ro te e c s ta ti c a l l y N ot a p re c i p i c e n o t a to rre n t n ota
”
sk i n s , ,
, ,

h r e l i gi on a n d p oe try
”
c l iff b u t i s re n an tw i t
p g .

On h is re tu rn to E n gla n d G ray li v e d for a s h ort ti m e at S tok e

,
"
Poge s w h e re h e w ro te h is Od e on E ton an d p rob ab ly sk e tc h e d
, ,
”

E l e gy w h ic h h ow e ve r w as n ot fi n i sh e d ti l l 1 7 5 0 e i gh tye ars
”
h is , , , ,

l ate r Du i n g th e l a tte r y e a rs of h is s h y an d sc h o l arly l i fe h e was

. r

P rofe sso r of M od e rn H i s to ry an d L an gu age s a tC am bri d ge wi th ou t ,

an y t r ou b l e so m e w ork of l e c t u rin g t o st ud e n ts H e re h e gave h im .

ud y a n d t varyi n g h is w o rk by p row l in gs
"
s e lf u ry
p to s t o po e t ,

a m on g t h e m an u sc ri p ts of th e n e w B ri ti sh M u s e u m a n d by h is ,
3 10 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
m ost p e rf e c t p oe m of th e ag e be l on g s to th i s
th e ,
’

p e r i od To re ad M il ton s I l P e n s e ros o a n d G ray s E l e g y

.
’

"
is to s e e th e b e g i n n i n g an d th e p e r f e c ti on of th at li te ratu re
o f m e l a n c h o ly w h ic h l arg e ly o cc u pi e d E n g li s h p oe ts for
”

m o re th a n a c e n tu ry Tw o oth e r w e ll k n o w n p oe m s of th i s -
.

" ”
s e c o n d p e r i od a r e t h e P i n d a r ic od e s Th e P ro g r e s s of P o e s y
,

Th e B ard Th e fi r s tis s tr on g ly s ug g e s tiv e of D ryd e n s

” ’

an d .

A l e x an d e r s F e as t b u tS h o w s M il ton s i n fl u e n c e in a g r ea te r
" ’ ” ’

,
"
m e l ody a n d va r i e ty of e xp r e s s i on Th e B a r d i s in e v e r y
.
,

w ay m ore ro m a n tic a n d or i g i n al
,
A n old m i n s tre l th e l as t of
.
,

th e We l s h S i n g e rs h a l ts K i n g E d w ar d an d h is ar m y i n a wild
,

m ou n ta i n p a ss a n d wi t ,
h fin e p oe tic f re n zy p r op h e s i e s th e te rror
an d d e s o l at i on w h ic h m u s t e v e r f oll ow th e ty ra n t F ro m its .

”
fi rs t l i n e R u i n s e i z e th e e r u th l e s s K i n g ! to th e e n d w h e n
, , ,

th e old b ar d pl u n g e s f rom h is l o f ty c rag an d di s a pp e ars i n th e

r iv e r s fl ood th e p o e m th r ill s wi th th e fire of an an ci e n t a n d
’

n obl e ra c e o f m e n I t b re ak s a b sol u te ly wi th th e cl a s s ic al
.

s c h oo l a n d p ro cl a i m s a li t e rar y d e cl a ra t i on of i n d e p e n d e n c e .

I n th e th i rd p e r i o d G r ay tu rn s m om e n tar ily f r om h is We l s h
m at e r i a l an d r e v e a l s a n e w fi e l d o f rom a n t ic i n te r e st in tw o
" ” "
N ors e p oe m s Th e F ata l S i s te r s an d Th e D e s c e n t of
,

”
Odi n G ray tran s l a te d h is m ate r i a l fr om th e L ati n ,

an d t h ou gh th e s e tw o p oe m s l a ck m u c h of th e e l e m e n ta l
st re n t
g h an d g ra n d e u r of th e N or s e sag as th e y a r e r e m ark
I
-
,

abl e fo r ca ll i n tt e n ti t th d w l th f li t y
g a o n o e u n u s e e a o e ra r

m ate r i al th at w a s h idd e n i n N orth e rn my th o l og y To G ra y .

an d t o P e r cy h o p u bl i s h e d h is N o r t /ze rn A n ti q u i ti e s i n
( w
1 7 7 0 ) i s d u e i n l a r e m e a s u re t h e p ro f o u n d i n te re s t in th e
g
old N ors e sa a s w h ic h h a s c on t i n u e d to ou r ow n day
g .

T ak e n toge th e r G ray s w ork s f orm a m os t i n te re s ti n g c o m

,
’

ment ar y o n t h e v ar i e d l i f e of th e e i gh te e n th c e n tu r y H e w a s .

a s c h ol ar f a m ili a r wi t
, h all th e i n te l l e c tu al i n te r e s ts o f h is ag e ,

an d h i s w o r k h a s m u c h o f t h e p r e ci s i on an d p oli s h of th e cl as
s ic al s c h ool ; b u t h e S h are s a l so t h e re a wa k e n e d i n te r e s t in
n at u re in c o m m on m a n a n d i n m e d i ae v a l c u l tu r e a n d h is
, , ,
 E IGHT E E NT H —
C E NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 3 1 I

lly rom a n tic b oth in s tyl e an d i n S pi r i t Th e

w or k _ i s g e n e r a .

s am e c o n fl ic t b e tw e e n th e cl as s ic an d rom an tic s c h ool s a n d ,

th e tr i u m p h o f R o m an tici s m i s s h o w n cl e a rly in th e m os t
,

v e rs atil e of G ray s c on te mp orar i e s O liv e r G old s m i th

’

, .

O L I VE R G OL D S M I TH ( 1 7 2 8 — 1 7 74 )
B e c au s e ed
T/ze D e s e r t Villag e i s of th e m os t f a m ili ar
‘
on e

p oe m s in ou r l an g u ag e G old s m i th i s g e n e r ally g iv e n a h i g h
,

pl ac e am on g th e p oe ts of th e r om an tic d a w n B utth e .

w h e n w e re ad it c are
f u lly tur n s ou t to b e a
,

r i m e d e s s a y in t h e s tyl e
o f P op e s f a m ou s E s s ay
’

on Man it o w e s its
p op u l ar i ty to th e s y m p a
th e tic m e m or i e s w h ic h it
a w a k e n s rat h e r th an to
,

its p oe tic e xc e ll e n c e It .

i s as a p ros e w r i te r th at
G old s m i th e xc e l s He i s .

an e s s ayi s t wi t h A ddi ,

so n s fin e p oli s h b u twi t
’
h
m or e s y m p at h y for h u
m an li f e ; h e is a d ram a
tis t o n e o f th e v e r y f e w
,

w h o h av e e v e r w r i t te n a
c om e dy th at c a n ke ep O L I VE R G O L D S M I T H

its p o p u l ar i ty u n c h a n g e d
w h il e a c e n tur y roll s o v e r its h e ad b u tg re ate r p e r h ap s th an , ,

th e p o e ta n d e s sayi s tan d d ram ati s t i s G o ld s m i th th e n o v e li s t ,

w h o s e t h i m s e l f to t h e i m p orta n t w or k of p u r i f yi n g th e e ar ly
n ov e l o f it s b ru t a l an d i n d e c e n t te n d e n ci e s a n d w h o h a s g iv e n
,

u S in l e Vi c a r
M géj e m o s t e n d u r i n g c h ar
’
, e e la on e o f t h ,

ac t e rs in E n g li s h fic t i on I n h i s m an n e r e s p e ci ally in h is
.
,

oe try G o ld s mi t h w a s too m u c h i n fl u e n c e d by h i s f r i e n d
p ,
3I2 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
J oh n s on cl as s ici s ts b u tin h is m a tte r in h is s ympath y
an d th e ,

fo r n atu re a n d h u m a n l i f e h e b e l o n g s u n m i s ta k a bly to th e n e w ,

ro m an t ic s c h ool A l tog e th e r h e is th e m o s tv e rs a til e th e m os t

. ,

c h a rm i n g th e m ost i n con s i s te n t a n d th e m os t l ova bl e g e n i us

, ,

of a ll t h e li te rary m e n w h o m ad e f a m o u s th e ag e of J o h n s on .

Lif e . Go l d sm i th ’
s c a re e r i s th a t of an i rre sp on s i b l e ,
q n b ala n c e d
“

i
e n us, w h i c h wo u l d m ake o n e d e s pa i r i f th e m an h i m se lf d id Dot
g
re m a in so l ovab l e in a ll h is i n c o n s i s t e n c ie s H e w a s b o rn i n th e vi l .

l age of Pa l l as I re l an d th e son of a p oo r I ri sh c u rate w h os e n ob l e

, ,

ray e d in D r P ri m rose e Vi ca r o f I Va k ej ie /a
’
c h a rac t e r is p o rt of l .
, ,

an d i n th e c o u n try p a rs on o f Tlze D e s e r t
e ct J / illa e
g A f te r an u n sa tis
’
.

fac to ry c ou rs e in vari o u s sc h oo l s w h e re h e w as re gard e d as h o p e ,

l e s s ly s tu p i d G o l d sm i th e n te re d T r i n i ty C o l l e ge D u b l i n as a s i zar
, , , ,

i e a stu d e n tw h o p ays wi th l a bo r fo r h is tu i ti o n
. .
By h is e sc a p ad e s .

h e w as b ro ugh t i n to d i sfavo r w i th th e au th o ri ti e s b u t th a t trou b l e d ,

h im l i ttl e H e w as a l so w re tc h e d ly p oo r w h i c h trou b l e d h im le ss ;
.
,

for w h e n h e e a rn e d a fe w sh il l i n gs b y w ri ti n g ba l l ad s fo r s tre e t
s i n ge rs h is m o n e y w e n t o f t
,
ener to id l e b e gga rs t h an to th e p a y i n g
o f h is h o n e s td e b t s Af ter th re e y e a rs o f un i v e rs i t
. y l i fe h e ran a w ay ,

in d i m e n ov e l fash i on a n d n e a rl y sta rve d to d e a th be fo re h e w as

-
,

fou n d an d b rou gh t bac k in di sgrac e T h e n h e wo rk e d a l i ttl e an d .

,

o b tain e d h is d e gre e in 74 9 1 .

S tran ge th a t suc h
i rre sp on s i b l e you th s h ou l d h ave
an id l e an d

b e e n u rge d by h is fa m ily to take h o ly o rd e rs b u tsuc h w as th e fac t .

F or tw o ye a rs m o re G o l d s m i th l a bo re d w i t h th e o l o gy o n ly to b e ,

re j e c t
e d w h e n h e p re s e n t e d h i m se lf as a c an did a t e fo r t h e m i n i s try .

H e tri e d te ac h i n g an d fa i l e d T h e n h is fan c y tu rn e d to Am e ri c a
, .
,

an d
p rov i d e d w i th m on e y an d a go od h o rse h e st
, a rt e d off fo r C ork , ,

w h e re h e w as to e m ba k fo r th e N e w Worl d H e l oafe d a l on g th e
r .

p l e asan t I ri s h w ay s m i s s e d h is s h i p an d p re s e n tly tu rn e d u p c h e e r
, ,

fu lly am on gst h is re l ative s m i n u s a ll h is m on e y an d ridi n g a sorry , ,

n a g c a l l e d F id d le b ac k fo r w h i c h h e h ad t rad e d h is own o n t
1
, h e w ay .

He bo rrow e d fi f ty p oun d s m o e an d s ta rte d fo r L on d on to s tu dy law r , ,

b u t s p e e d il y l os t h is m on e y at c a rd s an d aga i n a p p e ar e d a m i ab l e , ,

an d ir re s o n s i b l e as e v e r a m o n
p g h is d e s p a i r i n g r e l a tiv e s Th e n e xt
, .

y e a r th e y se n t h im to Ed i n bu rgh to s tu dy m e di c i n e H e re fo r a .

c ou l e of y e a rs h e be c a m e
p po p u la r as a s i n ge r o f son gs an d a te l l e r
l i i wh ii wh il
'

1 S u c h is G o ds m t ’
h s ve rs on of a so m e a t sus p c ou s a d ve n tu re , ose de t
a s
a re un k w
no n .
3 4 1 E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E

a fe ve r an d w i th c h il di sh c on fid e n c e tu rn e d to a q u ac k m e di c i n e to
,

c u re h i m s e lf He di e d in 1 7 7 4 an d J o h n so n p l ac e d a ta b l e t w i th a
.
, ,

s o n o ro u s La t i n e p i ta p h in We s tm i n ste r Abbe y th o u gh G o l d sm i th
, ,

w as b u ri e d e l s e w h e re L e t n o t h is f ra i l ti e s b e re m e m b e re d ; h e
"
.

was a v e ry gre a t m a n s a i d J o h n so n ; a n d t h e l i te ra ry w o rl d
”
,

w h i c h l ik e th ato ld d i c ta tor is ki n d e n ough at h e art th ou gh o f te n

, , ,

ro u gh i n i t s m et h od s is g l ad to ac c e p tan d r e c o rd th e v e rd i c t .

Work s of Golds m i th O f G old s m i th s e arly e s s ay s an d h is

’
.

l ate r s c h ool h i s tori e s li ttl e n e e d b e s a id T h e y h a v e s e ttl e d .

i n to th e i r ow n pl a c e far ou t of s i gh t of th e ord i n ar y r e ad e r
,
.

P e rh ap s th e m os t i n te re s ti n g of th e s e i s a s e r i e s of l e tte r s f or
th e P u bli c L e dg e r (a f te r ward s p u bl i s h e d a s l e Ci ti z e n of t /ze
Wor ld ) w ri tte n f rom th e vi e w p o i n t of an a ll e g e d C h i n e s e
,

trav e l e r a n d g ivi n g th e l a tte r s c om m e n ts on E n g l i s h civili

’

z at ion 1 Th e f oll owi n g fiv e w o rk s a re th os e u p on w h ic h G o ld

.

s m it h s f a m e c h i e fly r e s ts :
’

T/ze Tr a v e lle r ( 1 7 6 4 ) m a d e G old s m i th s r e p u tati on a m on g

’

h is c on te m p ora r i es b u t i s n ow s e ld om re ad e xc e p t by s tu
, ,

d e n ts w h o w o u ld u n d e rs tan d h ow G old s m i th w a s at on e ti m e , ,

d om i n ate d by J oh n s on a n d h is p s e u d o cl a s s ic id ea l s I t is a -
.

l on g p oe m i n r i m e d c ou pl e ts g ivi n g a s u r v e y an d c r i tici s m
, ,

of t h e s oci a l l i f e o f v ar i ou s c ou n tr i e s i n E u rop e an d r e fl e c ts ,

m a n y o f G o ld s m i th s ow n w an d e r i n s a n d i m p r e s s i o n s
’

g .

T/i e D e s e r te d Vi llag e ( I 7 7 0 ) th o u gh w r i tte n i n th e s a m e ,

m e c h an i ca l s tyl e is s o p e rm e ate d wi th h on e s t h u m an sy m
,

Th De t d p ath y
eser e a n d v o ic e s s o p e r f e c t
, ly th e r e v ol t of th e
Vill g a e
i n d ivid u al m an a g a i n s t i n s ti tuti on s th at a m u l ti ,

tud e of c om m on p e o pl e h e a r d it l adly wi th ou t c on s u l ti n
g g ,

th e c ri tic s as to w h e th e r th e y s h ou ld c a ll it oo d p oe tr y
g .

N otwi th s tan di n g i ts fa u l ts to w h ic h M a tth e w A r n old h as ,

call e d s u ffi ci e n t a tte n ti on it h a s b e c om e on e o f ou r b e s t ,

k n own p oe m s th ou g h w e c an n ot h e lp wi sh i n g th at th e m o
,

oton
y o f i ts c o u pl e ts h ad b e e n b r ok e n by s o m e o f th e I r i s h
W’s on g s an d b all ad s th at c h a r m e d s tre e t a u di e n c e s i n
'
t

Gld‘ m ith i d
o
’
s ea , wh i h w
c as b o rro w df e ro m Wa l po l e , re a p p e ars i n th e p se u d o L et
te r s
f ry) a Ch i n e se Ofi c i a l wh i h
, c re ce n tly t
t a rac te d con s id e ra b e l atte n to n i .
 E IGHT E E NTH —
C E N TU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 315

D u bli n , an d th a tb ro u g h tG old s m i th
w e lc om e f ro m th e F re n c h a

p e as an ts w h e re v e r h e s to pp e d to s i n g I n th e vill ag e p ars on .

h e s c h oo l m a s te r G o ld s m i th h a s i n cr e a s e d C h a u c e r s l i s t
’
an d t ,

by tw o l o vabl e c h a ra c te r s th at will e n d u r e as l on g a s th e
E n g li s h l a n g u a g e Th e c r i tici s m th at th e pic tu re o f p r o s p e r
.

”
ou s S w e e t A u b u rn n e v e r a ppli e d to an
y v ill a e i n I re l an d
g
i s j u s t n o d o u b t b u t i t i s ou ts id e th e q u e s ti on
, , G ol d s m i th .

w as a h op e l e s s d r e am e r b ou n d to s e e e v e ry th i n g a s h e sa w
, ,

h i s d e b ts a n d h is g ay cl oth e s in a p u r e ly id e ali s tic w ay ,

.

T/ze Good N a tu re d -
Ma n an d S /ze S toop s to Con q u e r are

G old s m i th c om e di e s Th e f or m e r a c om e dy of ch a ra c
’
s tw o .
,

te r th ou g h it h a s s o m e l a u g h a bl e s c e n e s a n d on e l au g h a bl e
,

c h arac te r Cr oak e r m e t wi th fa il ur e on th e s tag e an d h as

, , ,

n e v e r b e e n r e v iv e d wi t h an y s u cc e s s Th e l atte r a c om e dy .
,

of i n t ri gu e i s o n e o f th e f e w pl ay s th at h a s n e v e r l o s t its
,

p op u l ar i ty I ts liv e ly b u s tli n g s c e n e s an d its pl e a s an tly a h

.
, ,

s u r d c h a ra c t ers M arl o w e th e Har d c a stle s an d Ton y L u m p

, , ,
'

k in s till h old th e a tte n ti on of m od e rn th e ate r g oe rs ; an d

,

n e a r ly e v e r y a m a t e u r d ra m atic cl u b s oon e r or l ate r pl a c e s

S /ze S toop s to Con q u e r on its li s t of a ttra c ti on s .

T/ze Vi c a r of Wa k efie ld is G old s mi th s o n ly n ov e l a n d th e

’

fi r s t in a n y l an g uag e th at g iv e s to h om e l i f e an e n d u ri n g
Th Vi
e f r —
c ar o m an tic i n te r e s t H o w e v e r m u c h w e a d m i re th e .

W k fi ld t
i

a e e
b e g i n n i n g s of th e E n g li s h n ov e l to w h ic h w e s h all ,

p re s e n tly r e f e r w e a r e n e v e r th e l e s s S h o ck e d by its f re q u e n t
,

b r u tali ti e s an d i n d e c e n c ie s G o ld s m i th lik e S te e l e h ad th e .
, ,

I r i s h r e v e re n c e for p u r e w o m a n h ood a n d th i s r e v e re n c e ,

m ad e h im s h u n a s a p e s t th e v u l gar i ty a n d c oa rs e n e s s in
w h ic h c on te mp o rary n o v e li s ts lik e S m oll e ttan d S te rn e s e e m e d , ,

to d e li g h t S o h e d id for th e n ov e l w h a t A ddi s o n a n d S te e l e
.

h a d d on e f o r th e s ati re an d th e e s s a y ; h e r e fi n e d an d e l e v ate d
__ - fl -I
w u n

TTn akin g it w orc of th e old A n glp S a x on id e a l s w h ic h are

n c

it -

ou r b e s t

B r i e fly T/ze Vi ca r of Ha nefi e ld i s th e s to r y o f a
,
’

E n g li s h cl e rg y m a n D r P r i m ros e a n d h is f a m ily
, .
, ,
3 6 1 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
f ro m h appi n e s s th rou g h g re a ttr ib u l ati o n M i s f ortu n e s , wh ic h .
,

are sa id n e v e r to c o m e s i n g ly , a pp e a r i n th i s c as e i n fl oc k s ;
b u tth r ou g h p ov e rty s o r row i m p ri s on m e n t a n d th e u n s p e ak
, , ,

a bl e l o s s o f h i s d a u g h t h e V ic a r s f a i th in G od an d m a n
’
e rs t ,

e m e rg e s t ri u m p h a n t To t . h e v e ry e n d h e i s lik e o n e of th e
old m a r t y rs w h o s i n g s A lle lu i a w h il e th e li on s roar a b ou t
,

h im a n d h is c h ild re n in th e a r e n a G old s m i th s o p timi s m it ’

.
,

m u s t b e c o n f e s s e d i s h e re s tre tc h e d to th e b re a ki n g p o i n t
,
.

Th e re ad e r is s om e ti m e s o ff e re d fin e J oh n s on i a n p h ras e s
w h e re h e w ou ld n atu rally e x pe c t h om e lL an d y ig ggo us lan
e ; an d h e is c ont i n u ally h a u n t e d by t h e s u s pici on t h at
gu gg ,

e v e n in t h i s b e s t of al l p o s s ibl e w o r ld s th e V ica r s
’

of ,

a ffl ic t i on w e re s om e w h a t too e as ily c on v e r te d i n to s h o w e rs of

bl e s s i ng ; y e t h e i s f o rc e d to re ad on an d a t th e e n d h e c on ,

fe s s e s g l adly th a t G old s m i th h a s s u cc e e d e d i n m aki n g a m os t

i n te re s ti n g s tory ou t of m ate r ia l tha t in o th e r b an d s w ou ld , ,

h av e d e v e l o p e d e i th e r a b u r l e s q u e o r a b r u ta l trag e dy
L ay .

in g as id e all r om a n tic pas s i on i n tr i g u e an d a dv e n tu r e u p on

, , ,

w h ic h oth e r n o v e l i s ts d e p e n d e d G old s m i th i n th i s s i m pl e
—
, ,
-

oT o f c o m m o n l i f e h a s a cc o m pli s h e d t
'

st
y , h re e n ote w or th y re
s u lt s h e h as m ad e h u m a n f a th e r h oo d a l m os ta d ivi n e th i n g ;
h e h as lpl ifie d t or al s e n t i w ic cl b
/ g h e m m e n ts h h u s te r a ou t th e

fam ily li f e a s th e c e n te r o f civili z a ti on ; an d h e h as g ive n u s ,

in D r P r i m ro s e a s triki n g a n d e n d u r i n g fi g u r e w h ic h se e m s
.
, ,

m o re lik e a p e r s on a l acq u a i n t an c e t h an a c h arac te r in a b ook .

WI L L I A M C O WP E R ( 731 1 — 1 80 0 )
I n C owpe r w e h a v e i n te r e s ti n g p o e t w h o l ik e G ray
a n oth er , ,

a n d G old s m i t h s h o w s th e s trug g l e b e tw e e n r om an tic an d

,

cl as s i c id e al s I n h is fi rs t v ol u m e o f poe m s C o wpe r i s m ore

.

ha m p e re d by li te rary f as h i o n s th an w as G old s m i th in h is
Tr a v e lle r a n d h i s D e s e r te d Vi lla e I n h i s e c o d p i d
g S n e
. r o ,

C o wp e r u s e s bl a n k v e r s e f re e ly ; a n d h is d e li h t i n
g
d i n h om e ly c h ara c te r s l ik e th e te am s te r a n d th e
,
3 8 1 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

c a re d fo r h im as a son an d w h ate ve r h a p p i n e ss h e e x p e ri e n c e d in
h is p oo r l if e was th e re su l t of th e d e vo tio n of th is go od w o m an ,
wh o

is th e
"
M y
ar
"
of a ll h is p o e m s .

A s e c o n d a ttac k of in san i t y w as b rou gh t on by C o w p e r s m orbid ’

in te re s tin re l igi on i n fl u e n c e d p e rh ap s by th e u n te m p e re d z e a l of

W
, , ,

one ! a c u ra te w it h w h o m C o w p e r wo rk e d in th e s m a l l
, ,

a ri s h ey an d w i t h w h om h e c om p i l e d t h e fa m o us O l n e y
p ,

H y m n s Th e re s t of h is l ife b e tw e e n i n te rva l s of m e l an c h o l i a or
.
,

in san i t y w as s p e n t in ga rd e n i n g in th e c are of h is n u m e rou s p e ts

, , ,
.

an d i n w ri t i n g h is p oe m s h is tra n s l ati on of H om e r an d h is c h arm

, ,

in g l e tte rs H is tw o b e s t k n o w n p o e m s w e re su gge s t
. e d by a l i v e l y

an d c u l t i vate d w i d o w L ady Aus te n w h o to l d h im th e s tory of J o h n

, ,

Gi l p i n a n d c a l l e d fo r a ba l l ad on th e subj e c t S h e a l so u rge d h im .

t o w ri t e a l on g p o e m in b l a n k v e rs e an d w h e n h e d e m an d e d a s u b

j c e t sh e w h i m s ic a l ly su gge ste d th e s ofa w h ic h w as a n e w a rti c l e of

, ,

fu rn i t re a tth atti m e C ow p e r i m m e d iate l y w rote Th e S o fa an d

u .
,
”
,

i n fl u e n c e d b y th e p o e ti c p oss i bi l i ti e s th a tlie in u n e x p e c te d p l ac e s ,

h e add e d to th i s p oe m f ro m ti m e to ti m e an d c a l l e d h is c o m p l e te d ,

w o rk Tl e Ta sk T h i s w as p u b l i sh e d in 1 7 8 5 an d th e au th o r w as
z .
,

i n stan tly re c ogn i ze d as on e of th e c h i e f p oe ts of h is age Th e last .

ye a s o f h is l ife w e re a l on g battl e w i th i n san i ty u n ti l d e ath m e r

r
,
"
c ifu lly ended th e stru gg e l
l as t p o e m Th e C asta
in 1 80 0 . H is ,

is a c ry o f d e sp a i r in w h i c h u n d e r gu i s e of a m an was h e d
”
w ay , , ,

o v e rbo a rd in a s t o rm h e d e sc r i b e s h i m s e lf p e r i sh in g in th e s i gh t of
,

f ri e n d s w h o a re p o w e rl e ss to h e l p .

Cow p e r ’
s Work s . C o wp e r
fi rs t v ol u m e o f p oe m s c on ta i n ’
s ,
" ” "
i n g Th e P rog r e s s o f E rror T r u th T abl e T a lk e tc , ,
”
,
”
.
,

is i n te re s ti n g c h i e fly a s s h o wi n h ow th e p oe t w a s b o u n d by
g
th e cl a s s ic a l r u l e s o f h is a e T h e s e p oe m s a re d re ary on th e
g .
,

wh ol e b u ta c e rta i n g e n tl e n e s s a n d e s p e ci ally a v e i n of p u r e
, ,

h u m or o cc a s i on a lly re w ard s th e re ad e r
, F or C o wp e r w a s a .

h u m or i s t a n d o n ly th e c o n s ta n t S h ad o w o f i n s a n i ty k e p t h im
,

f ro m b e c o m i n g f am o u s in th at l i n e a l on e .

T/ze Tas k w ri tte n in bl an k v e r s e a n d p u bl i s h e d in I 8

,
7 5 , ,

is C o wp e r s l o n e s t p o e m ’

g U s e d a s w e a re to th e n a tu r al
.

poe try o f Wo rd s w or th an d T e n n y s on it is h a r d for u s to ,

app r e ci a te t h e s triki n g or i g i n a l i ty of th i s w or k M u c h o f it is .
 E IGHT E E NTH — C E N TU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 319

c on v e n ti on al an d w ood e n to b e s u re lik e m u c h o f Wor d s ,

”
,

w or th s p oe try b u t w h e n af te r re adi n g th e r im e d e s s ay s an d
’

th e artifi ci a l c ou pl e ts of J o h n s on s ag e w e tur n s u d
’

,
Th T k
e as
d e n ly to C owp e r s d e s c r ip ti on of h om e ly s c e n e s
’

o f w o od s an d b r oo k s of pl owm e n an d t e am s te r s an d t
, he
l e tte r carr i e r on h is rou n d s w e r e ali z e th at w e are a t th e ,

d a w n of a b e tte r d ay i n p oe try
He c om e s , h
t e h e ral d
i y w or l d of a n o s ,

Wi th s p atte r d b o o ts s tr app d w a i s t an d froz e n l o c k s :

’
,
’
,

N e w s from all n a ti on s l u m b e r i n g a th is b a c k .

T ru e to h i s c h a rg e th e c l os e p ac k e d l oad b e h i n d
,
-
,

Ye tc a re l e s s w h a th e b r i n g s h is o n e c on c e rn ,

I s to c on d u c ti tto th e d e s ti n e d i n n ,

An d h a v i n g d ro pp e d th e e x p e c te d b ag p as s o n
, , .

He w h i s tl e s as h e g oe s l i g h th e a r te d w re tc h ,
-
,

C o l d a n d y e t c h e e r f u l : m e s s e n g e r o f g ri e f
P e r h ap s to th o u s a n d s an d o f joy to s om e ,

T o h i m i n d i ff e r e n tw h e th e r g r i e f or joy .

Ho u s e s i n a s h e s a n d th e fa l l o f s to c k s
, ,

B i rth s d e at h s an d m ar r i a g e s e p i s tl e s w e t
, , ,

W i th te a rs th a ttr i c kl e d d o w n th e w r i te r s c h e e k s ’

F as tas th e pe r i od s f r o m h i s fl u e n tq u il l ,

O r c h a rge d w i th am o rou s s i g h s o f a b s e n ts w a i n s ,

O r n y m p h s r e s p o n s iv e e q u a l l y a ffe c t ,

Hi s h orse a n d h i m u n c on s c i ou s o f th e m all
, .

C owp e r m os t l ab or i ou s w or k th e tran s l ati on o f H om e r in

’
s ,

bl an k v e rse w as p u bli s h e d i n I 7 9 1 I ts s tate ly Mil ton lik e

, .
,
-

Mi sc ell m ov e m e n t a n d its b e tte r re n d e r i n g of th e G r e e k

an e .
, ,

W 1“ 01
m a k e th i s tran s l a ti on far s u p e r i or to P op e s a r t ifi
’

c ia l c o u pl e ts I t i s a l s o b e tte r in m an y r e s p e c ts th a n C h a p
.
, ,

m an s m or e fa m o us an d m o re f an ci f u l re n d e r i n g ; b u t f or
’

s om e r e as on itw as n o t s u cc e s s f u l a n d h as n e v e r r e c e iv e d t he ,

r e c og n i ti on w h ic h i t d e s e rv e s E n ti r e ly d i ff e re n t in s pi ri tare .

th e p oe ts n u m e r ou s h y m n s w h ic h w e r e p u bli s h e d in th e
’

O l n e y C o ll e c ti on i n I 7 7 9 a n d w h ic h a r e s till u se d in ou r ,

c h u r c h e s I t i s o n ly n e c e s sary to m e n ti on a f e w fi rs t li n e s
.

”
G od m o v e s in a m y s te r i ou s w ay Oh f or a cl os e r w a lk , ,
3 20 E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
”
wi th Go d ,
”
i
"
S om e tm e s a g li h t s u r p r i s e s — to S h ow h ow

h i s g e n tl e a n d d e v o u t s pi ri t h a s l e f t i ts i m p re s s u p on th o u
s an d s w h o n o w h a rdly k n o w h i s n a m e Wi th C owpe r s c h ar m .
’

in g L e tte r s p u bli s h e d in 1 8 0 3 w e re a c h th e e n d o f h is i m
, ,

p o rtan t w o rk s a n d th e s tu d e n t w h o e n j oy s r e adi n g l e tte rs

,

will fin d th at th e s e ra n k a m on g th e b e st o f th e i r ki n d I t .

is n ot h o we v e r for h is a m bi ti o u s w or k s th a t C o wp e r is
, ,

re m e m b e re d b u t ra th e r fo r h is m i n o r p o e m s w h ic h h a v e
, ,

f oun d th e i r ow n w ay i n to s o m an y h o m e s A m on g th e s e th e .
,

on e t h at b ri n g s q u ick e s t r e s p on s e f ro m h e ar ts th atu n d e r s ta n d
" ”
is h is li ttl e p oe m O n th e R e c e ip t o f My M o th e r s P ic tu re
’

, ,

"
be g i n n i n g wi th th e s tr iki n g l i n e O h th at th os e lip s h ad , ,

” " ”
l a n g u ag e . A n oth e r c all e d A l e x an d e r S e lki r k
, be g in n in g , ,
" ”
I am m on ar c h of all I s u rv e y s u gg e s ts h ow S e lki rk s e x ,
’

p e r ie n c e s a s a c as ta w ay ( w h ic h ga v e D e f o e h is i n s pi rati on for
R ob i n s on Cr u s oe ) a ff e c te d th e p oe ts ti m id n atu r e a n d im ag i
’

"
n at i on L a s t an d m os t f am ou s o f all is h i s i m m ortal J oh n
.

”
G ilpi n . C owp e r w as i n a te rr ibl e fit o f m e l an c h o ly w h e n
L ady A u s te n told h i m th e s to ry w h i c h p rov e d to b e b e tte r ,

th an m e dici n e f or a ll n i g h t l on g c h u ck l e s an d s u pp r e s s e d
,

l a ug h te r w e re h e ard i n th e p oe ts b e d roo m N e x t m orn i n g at ’

b re ak f as t h e r e ci te d th e b all ad th ath ad a ff ord e d i ts a u th or s o

m u c h d e li g h t i n t h e m a ki n g Th e s tu d e n t s h ou ld re a d it
.
,

e v e n i f h e r e ad s n ot h i n g e l s e by C owp e r ; an d h e will b e l a ck
i n g in h u m o r or a pp re ci a ti o n i f h e is n ot r e a dy to e c h o h e a r tily
th e l a s t s ta n z a :

N w l t i g L g l i v th K i g
o e us s n , on e e n ,

A n d G i l p i n , l on g l i v e b e !
A n d w h e n h e n e x td o th r i d e ab r o ad

I
M ay b e th e re to se e .

R O B E R T B U R NS I
( 75 9 -
1 7 9 6)
A f te r ce n tu ry an d m or e of C l as s ici s m w e n ote d wi th
a
,

i n te r e st th e w ork o f th re e m e n G r ay G old s m i th an d C o wp e r , , , ,

w h o s e p oe try l ik e th e c h or u s o f a wa k e n i n g bi rd s s u gg e s ts
,
,

th e d aw n o f a n oth e r d a T w th p oe ts of t h e s am e ag e
y o o e r .
3 22 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

L i fe .
l ife is a l ife o f f ragm e n ts as C arly l e c a l l e d i t;
1
B u rn s
’
s ,
”

"
h e d i ffe re n t f ragm e n ts a re a s u n l ik e a s th e n o b l e C o tte r s
’

an d t
"
S a tu rd ay N i gh t an d th e ra n t a n d r i o t o f Th e J o l l y B e gga rs
” ”
.

T h e d e ta i l s o f th i s sad a n d d i sj o i n te d l i f e w e re b e tte r p e rh ap s , ,

fo rgotte n We c a l l a tte n ti on o n l y to th e fa c ts w h i c h h e lp u s to u n
.

d e rs tan d th e m an an d h is p oe try .

B u rn s w as b orn l l o wa y S c o tl an d in th e b l e ak
in l y
a c a t
c otage a tA , ,

w i n te r of I 7 5 9 H is fath e r w as an e x c e l l e n ttyp e of th e S c otc h p e a s

.

an t o f t h os e d ay s — a p oor h on e st G od f e a ri n g m an w h o toi l e d
, , ,
-
,

f ro m d aw n ti l l d ark to w re s ta l i v i n g for h is fam i ly f rom th e s tu bb o rn

so i l . H is ta l l fi gu re w as b e n tw i th u n c e as i n g l a bo r ; h is h a i r w a s th i n
a n d gra y a n d in h is e y e s w a s t
,
h e c are w o rn h un te d l ook of a p e asan t ,

d r iv e n b y p o v e rt y a n d u n p a id r e n ts f rom on e p oor farm to an o th e r .

Th e fa m ily o f te n fas te d o f n e c e ss i t y an d l iv e d in so l i tu d e to avo id ,

th e te m p t at i on o f s p e n d i n g th e i r h ard e arn e d m on e y Th e c h i l d re n -
.

w e n tbare foo tan d bare h e ad e d in all w ea th e rs an d sh are d th e p are n ts ,

’

toi l an d t h e i r an xi e t
y ov e r th e re n ts Atth i rte e n B obby th e e l d e st .
, ,

w a s d o i n g a p e a san ts fu l l d ay s l a b or a ts ix t e e n h e w as c h i e f l ab o re r
’ ’

"
o n h is fa t h e r s fa rm ; an d h e d e sc r ibe s th e l if e a s th e c h e e r l e ss
’

gl o om of a h e rm i t an d th e un c e as i n g m o i l of a ga l l e y s l av e
”
, In .

1 784 t h e fa th e r af te r a l i f e ti m e of to i l w as save d f ro m a d e b t ’
, or s ,

p r i son b y c o n su m p ti o n an d d e a th To r e sc u e som e th i n g f ro m th e .

w re c k of th e h o m e a n d to w in a p oor c h an c e of bre ad fo r th e fam i l y

, ,

th e tw o o l d e r b oys s e tu p a c l a i m fo r a rr e a rs o f w a ge s th a th a d n e v e r
b e e n p a i d Wi th th e s m a l l su m a l l o w e d th e m th e y bu ri e d th e i r
.
,

fa th e r took an o th e r farm M ossg i e l in M au c h l i n e an d b e gan aga i n

, , , ,

th e l on g s tru ggl e w i th pov e rty .

S uc h in o u tl i n e is B u rn s s o w n s to ry o f h is e a rl y l i fe tak e n m o stl y
, ,
’
,

f rom h is l e tte rs T h e re is an o th e r an d m ore p l e asi n g s i d e to th e p ic

.

u re o f w h i c h w e h a v e
t , gl i m p s e s in h is p oe m s an d in h is C om m on
p l a c e B ook H e re w e s e e th e b oy a t sc h oo l ; for lik e m ost Sc otc h
.

p e a san ts th e fa th e r gav e h is bo y s th e b e st e d u c a ti on h e p oss ib ly

,

c ou ld We se e h im fo l l ow i n g th e p l o w n ot l ik e a s l ave b u t lik e a
.
, ,

f re e m an c roon i n g o v e r an old Sc otc h son g an d m aki n g a be tte r

,

on e t o m at ch t h e m e l od y We s e e h im stop th e p l ow to li ste n to .

w h at th e w i n d is say i n g o r tu rn as id e l e st h e d i stu rb th e bi rd s a t
,

th e i r s in gin g an d n e st m aki n
g At su p p e r w e se e th e fa m i l y ab ou t .

1
i
F tz -G re e n e Ha e c ’ s oe m
p ll k
To a R ose ro m f n ea r A ll w y K i k
o a r
”
( I 82 2) is a goo d
i i
a pp re c ato n o f B u r n s a n d h i s
p oe tr I tm g h tb e y . i w ll t e o re a d th i s poe m b e f
ore th e sa d
stor y o f B u rn s s
’
e lif .
 E IGHT E E NTH —
C E NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 323

th e ta ble , h a p py n ot w i th stan d i n g th e i r s c an t fa re , e ac h c h i ld w i th a

s p oon in on e h an d an d a b ook in th e oth er . We h e a r B e tt

y D avid so n

re c i
i tn g, f ro m h e r gre a t s tore , s om e h e ro i c ba l l a d h at
t fi re d th e
y oun g h e a rts to en th u s as m i an d m ad e th e m forge t th e d a y s to i l ’
.

"
Ni gh t w e S a tu rd a y h av e a gl i m p se o f S c o tc h
”
An d in Th e C o tte r
’
s

e asan t l i f e th a tm ak e s u s a l m o s t r e v e re n c e th e h e r o i c m e n an d
p s e

w om e n w h o ke p t th e i r fa i th an d th e i r se lf r e sp e c t in th e fac e o f
,
-

p ove rty an d w h os e h e a rts u n d e r th e i r rou gh e x te ri o rs w e re te n d e r

, , ,

an d tru e as s tee l .

A m o stu n fo rtun ate l i f e b e gan w h e n h e l e ftth e

c h an ge in B u rn s
’
s

farm atse ve n te e n an d w e n t to K i rkosw a l d to s tud y su rv ey i n g Th e

, , .

to w n w a s th e h au n t of s m u ggl e rs rou gh l ivi n g h ard d ri n ki n g m e n ,

-
,
-
:

I
B R T HP L AC E OF BU RNS

"
an d Bu rn s di ly f oun d h is w ay i n to th ose sc e n e s of rio t an d
sp e e

roar i n g d i ss i p at i on w h ich w e re h is b an e e ve r a fte rward s F or a

”
.

l i ttl e w h il e h e stu di e d d i l i ge n tl y b u t on e d ay w h i l e taki n g th e a l ti

, ,

tud e of th e su n h e sa w a p re tt , y gi rl in th e n e i gh borin g gard e n an d ,

l ov e p u ttri gon om e try to fl i gh t Soon h e gave u p h is w ork an d w an .

d e re d b a ck to th e farm an d p ove rty aga i n .

Wh e n tw e n ty s e v e n ye ars of age Bu rn s fi rst attrac te d l i te rary

-

at te n ti on a n d in th e sa m e m o m e n t s p ran g to th e fi rst p l ac e in
,

S c o tti sh le tte rs I n d e sp a i r ove r h is p ov e rt

. y an d p e rson al h abi ts ,

h e r e so l v e d to e m i gra te to J a m a i c a an d ga th e re d toge th e r a fe w o f ,

h is e ar l y p oe m s h Op in g to s e l l th e m fo r e n ou gh to p ay th e e x p e n se s
,

of h is j ou rn e y Th e r e su l t w as th e fa m ou s K i l m arn ock e di ti on o f
.

B u rn s p u b l i sh e d in 1 7 8 6 for w h i c h h e w as off e re d twe n t

, ,
y po u n d s .

I t is sa id th a t h e e ve n bo u gh t h is ti c k e t an d on th e n i gh t b e fore ,
3 24 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

" ” "
th e i p sa il e d w rote h is F are w e l l to Sc otl an d b e gi n n i n g Th e
sh , ,

g l oo m y n i gh t is ga t h e ri n g f a s t w h i c h h e in t ended t o b e h i s l as t ,
”

s on g on S c o t ti s h so il .

I n th e m orn i n g h e c h an ge d h is m i n d le d p a rtly by som e d im ,

fore sh ad ow i n g of th e re su l t of h is l i te rary a dve n ture ; for th e l i ttl e

book took all S c otl an d by sto rm N o t on l y sc h o l ars an d li te rary .

m e n b u t e v e n p l o w b oy s an d m a id s e rvan t
" ”
s sa y s a c on te m po ,
,

ra ry e age rl y s p e n t t h e i r h a rd e arn e d sh i l l i n gs for th e n e w b ook -

.
,

I n ste ad o f go i n g to J am a ic a th e yo u n g p oe t h u rri e d to E di n bu rgh ,

to a rra n ge fo r an o t h e r e d i ti on of h is w o rk H is j ou rn e y w as a c on .

st a n tova t i on an d in th e c ap i ta l h e w as we l c o m e d an d fe as te d by
,

t h e b e s t o f Sc o tti s h soc i e t y T h i s u n e x p e c te d tri u m p h l aste d on ly .

o n e wi n t B urn s s fon d n e ss fo r tave rn s an d r i otou s l ivi n g s h ock e d

’
er .

h is c u l tu re d e n te rta i n e rs an d w h e n h e re tu rn e d to E di n bu rgh n e x t
,

wi n te r a fte r a p l e asu re j aun t th rough th e H i gh l an d s h e re c e ive d

, ,

sc a n ta t tent i on H e l e f t th e c i ty in an ge r an d d i sapp o i n tm e n t an d
.
,

w e n tbac k to th e so i l w h e re h e w as m o re ath om e , .

Th e l astfe w y e a rs of B u rn s s l if e are a sad trag e dy an d w e p ass

’
,

ov e r t h e m h u rri e d l y H e b ou gh t th e farm E llislan d D u m f ri e ssh i re

.
, ,

an d m a r i e d t r h e fa i th f u l J e an Arm ou r in I 7 8 8 T h ath e c ou l d w ri te , .

of h e r,
I se e h e r i n th e d e wy fl ow e rs ,

Ise e her s w e e ta n d fa i r ;
Ih e ar h e r i n th e tu n e fu b i rd s , ’

Ih e ar her c h ar m h
t e a ir :

Th e re
’
s n ota b on i e fl ow e r th a ts p r i n gs
By fo u n ta i n , Sh a w , or g re e n ;
Th e re
’
s n o ta b on i e b i rd th a ts i n g s ,
B u tm i nds me o
’
my J e an ,

is e n o u gh fo r be r Th e n e x t y e ar h e w as ap p o i n te d e x
us t
o re m e m .

e ise m an i e c o l l e c to r of liq uo r r e ve n u e s an d th e s m a l l sa l a ry w i th
, . .
, ,

th e re t u rn f ro m h is
p o e m s w ou l d h av e be e n s u ffi c i e n t to k e e p h is
,

fa m ily in m od e s tc om fo rt h ad h e b u tk e p ta wa y f rom tave rn s F or , .

a fe w y e a rs h i s l if e o f a l t e rn a te t o i l an d di ss i a ti on w o i o l l y
p a s c c as n a

i l l u m i n e d b y h is s p l e n d id ly ri c ge n i u s an d h e p rod uc e d m an y son gs ,
"
B on n i e D oon ,
”
M y L ove s l ik e a R e d R e d R o s e ”
Au l d
’ "
, ,
"
L an g S y n e ,
”
H i gh l an d M a ry an d th e sou l s ti rrin g S cots w h a ”
-
"
,
”
h ae , c om
p ose d w h il e ga l l o p i n g ov e r th e m oor in a s torm — w h i c h
h ave m ad e th e n a m e of Bu rn s k n o w n w h e re v e r th e E n l i sh l an u a e
g g g
I
p k
S s o e n an d h o n o re
, d w h e re v e r Sc otc h m e n gath e r toge th e r He di e d .
3 26 E N GLIS H L IT E R ATU R E
I ll’ ’
b l a m e m y p a r ti a l
ne e r fa n c y ,

N h i n g c o u l d re s i s tm y
ae t N an c y ;
B u tto see l ove h e r ;
h e r w as to
L o v e b th e r a n d l o v e fo re v e r
u ,
.

H a d w e n e v e r lo v d s a e ki n d l y
’
,

H ad w e n e v e r lov d s a e b l i n d l y
’
,

N e v e r m e t o r n e v e r p arte d
We h ad n e e r b e e n b ro k e n h e arte d
’
-
.

Th e
"
e s se n ce of a th o u s an d l ov e tal e s
’
l i ttl e
i s in th at on e
son
g . B e c a us e h e e m b odi e s th e n e w s pi r i t of rom an tici s m ,

c ri tic s g iv e h i m a h i g h pl a c e i n t h e h i s tor y o f ou r li te ra tur e ;

a n d b e c au se h is s on g s g o s t ra i g h t to t h e h e art h e i s th e p oe t ,

o f c o m m on m e n .

O f B u rn s
’
s m an
g y s on s for m id us T ic li ttl e
h ey nee d be sa .

h a v e f ou n d th e i r w ay i n to th e h ea rts of a w h ol e p e o pl e an d ,

Son g f
s or
th e re th e y s p e ak f o r th e m s e lv e s T h e y ran e fr o m
g .

M “
US :
th e e xq u i s i te
"
O w e r t th o u i n th e ca u ld bl as t to
”
,

th e tr e m e n d ou s app e a l to S c o tti s h p atr i oti s m i n S c ots w h a

h ae w i Wa ll ac e bl e d
”
’
w h ic h C ar lyl e s a id S h ou ld b e s u n g
, , ,

wi th th e th roa t of th e w h i r lwi n d M an y of th e s e s on g s w e r e .

c om p os e d in h is b e s td ay s w h e n f oll owi n g th e pl o w or re s ti n g
,

a ft e r h i s w or k w h il e t h e m u s ic of s om e old S c otc h s on g w a s
,

r i n g i n g i n h is h e ad I ti s l arg e ly b e c a u s e h e th ou g h to f m u s ic
.

w h il e h e c om p os e d th a t s o m an y of h is p oe m s h av e th e s i n g i n g
q ua li ty s ugg e s ti n g a m e l ody a s w e r e a d th e m
, .

" ” "
A m on g h i s p oe m s o f n atu re To a M o u se an d , To a
”
M o u n ta i n D a i sy ar e u n q u e s ti on ably th e b e s t s u gge s ti n g th e ,

p oe tic a l p os s ibili ti e s th a t d a ily p as s u n n otic e d u n d e r ou r f e e t .

T h e s e tw o p oe m s a re as n e ar a s B urn s e v e r c om e s to ap pr e
c iat in g n atu r e fo r its ow n s ak e Th e m aj or i ty of h is p oe m s .
,

l ik e Wi n te r a n d Ye b an k s an d b ra e s o b on i e D oon
" " " ’ ”
,

r e a r d n at u re i n t h e s a m e w ay th a t G ra y r e gar d e d it a s a
g ,

ba ck g ro u n d fo r th e pl ay of h u m an e m o ti on s .

O f h i s p oe m s o f e m o ti o n th e re is a n i m m e n s e n u m b e r I t .

is a c u ri o u s f a c tth atth e w orld is a lway s l au h i n a n d c ryi n

g g g
at t h e s am e m o m e n t; an d w e c an h ardly r ea d a p a e of
g
 E IGHT E E NTH —
C E NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 327

B u rn s wi th ou t fi n di n g th i s n atura l j u x ta p o s i ti on o f s m il e s a n d
te ars . I t is n ote w orth y a l s o th a t all s tro n g e m oti on s w h e n ,

e xp r e s s e d n a tura lly l e n d th e m s e lv e s to p oe try ; an d B u rn s

, ,

m or e th a n an y oth e r w r i t er h a s a n a s ton i s h i n g f a c u l ty o f ,

d e s c ribi n g h is o w n e m oti on s wi th vivid n e s s a n d s i m pl ici ty s o ,

th a tth e y a pp e a l i n s tan tly to o u r o w n O n e c an .

" ”
n ot r e a d I l ov e my J e a n f o r i n s tan c e wi th
, , ,

o u t b e i n g in l o v e wi t h s om e id e a li z e d w om an ;
" "
or To M a r y i n H e a v e n wi th ou t s h ar i n g th e ,

p e r s on a l g ri e f of on e w h o h as l ov e d an d l os t .

5
. Sc a r. E |D E L

T HE AU L D I
B R G , A YR
( AYR B R DGE I )

B e s id e s th e s on g s of n atur e a n d of h u m an e m oti on B u r n s
,

h a s g iv e n us a l a rg e n um be r of p oe m s for w h ic h n o g e n e ra l
M i s c e ll an e ti tl e c an be g iv e n . N ote w or th y a m on g th e s e a re
" ”
P 0 8 111 8 A m an w h ic h v o ic e s th e
’
s a m an f or a
’
th a t,
" ”
n e w r om a n t ic e s ti m ate of h u m an i ty ; Th e Vi s i on from ,

w h ic h w e g e t a s tron g i m p r e s s i on of B u rn s s e arly id e al s th e ’

”
E pi s tl e to a Yo u n g F r i e n d f ro m w h ic h ra th e r th an f rom , ,

h is sati re s w e l e arn B u rn s s p e rs on a l vi e w s o f r e li g i on an d
’

" ”
h on o r ; th e A dd re s s to th e U n c o G u id w h ic h is th e p oe ts ,
’

" ”
pl e a for m e r cy in j u d gm e n t; an d A B ar d s E pi ta p h w h ic h ’

, ,

a s a Su m m ary of h is o w n l i f e m i h tw e ll b e w r i t te n a tt h e end
g ,

”
o f h is p oe m s H all o we e n a pic tu re of r us tic m e rry m aki n g
.
, ,

"
a c on tra s t b e tw e e n th e r ic h a n d p o or
"
an d Th e Tw a D og s , ,
3 28 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
are g e n e ra lly cl as s e d am on g th e p oe ts b e s t w or k s ; b u t on e ’

u n f a m ili a r wi th th e S c otc h di a l e c twill fin d th e m ra th e r d ifli c u lt .

O f B u rn s s l on g e r p oe m s th e tw o b e s t w or th re adi n g a re
’

” ”
Th e C o tte r s S atu rd ay N ig h t an d Tam o S h an te r
’
th e
’

o n e g ivi n g t h e m o s t p e rf e c t pic tu re w e p os s e s s of a n o bl e
pov e r ty ; th e oth e r b e i n g th e m os t l iv e ly an d th e l e as t ob je c
tio n ab le of h is h u m oro u s w or k s I t w o u ld b e d i ffi c u l t to fin d
.

e l s e w h e re s u c h a c om bi n a t i on of th e gr e w s om e an d th e r idic u
l o u s as is pa ck e d u p in Tam o S h an te r Wi th th e e xc e p
" ’
.
”

ti on of th e s e tw o th e l on g e r p oe m s a d d li ttl e to th e au th o r s
’

f am e or to ou r o w n e n j oy m e n t I t is b e tte r for th e b e g i n n e r
.

to r e ad B u rn s s e xq u i s i te s on g s an d g l adly to r e c og n i z e h is pl a c e
’

i n th e h e a rts o f a p e 0 p 1e a n d f org e tth e re s t s i n c e th e y on ly

, ,

sa dd e n u s an d o b s c u re t h e po e ts be tte r n atu r e
’
.

WI L L I AM B LAKE ( 757
1 — 1 8 2 7)

Pipi g n d o w n th e
v al l e y s w i l d ,

Pipi n
g s o n g s o f p l e as a n tg l e e ,

O n a c l o u d I s aw a c h i l d ,

A n d h e l au g h i n g s a i d to m e

Pip e a s on
g l am b ab o u t a

So I pipe d
wi th m e rr y c h e e r .

P i pe r p i p e th a ts on g a g a i n
,

S o I p i p e d : h e w e p tto h e a r .

P i pe r, s i tth ee d ow n an d w ri te
In a b oo k , th a t all m ay re a d
So he v an i s h e d fro m m y s i gh t,
And I p l c ke d
u a h ol l ow re e d ,

An d I m ad e a ru r a l pe n ,
An d I i
a ned
st he
t w a te r c l e a r ,

An d Iw ro t
e my h ap p y s o n g s
E v e ry ch ild m ay j
oy o h e ar
t .
1

Of a ll th e ic p oe ts
rom a n t of th e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry B l ak e
e ,

)8 th e m o s t in d e pe n d e n tan d th e m o s t or i g i n a l I n h is e ar li e s t .

1 I ntrod u c to n i , S on g s of In n oc e n c e .
3 30 E N GLI S H L IT E R ATU R E
w ay , i i
s ng ng c h e e rfu l ly , wo rki n g p a te n t i l y in th e fac e o f d i sc ou rage
,

m e n t an d fai l ure . T h at w ri te rs of fa r l e ss ge n i u s w e re e x a l te d t
o

fa v o r w h i l e h e re m a i n e d p oo r an d obsc u re d oe s n o t s e e m to h ave
,
,

trou b l e d h im in th e l e as t F o r o v e r fo rt y y e a rs h e l a bo re d di l i ge n tl y
.

a t bo ok e n gra v i n g g u i d e d in h is a rt by Mi c h a e l An ge l o b u t i n v e n t
, ,

in g h is o wn c u ri o u s d e s i gn s at w h i c h w e s til l w on d e r Th e i l l u s tra ,
.

" "
ti o n s fo r Y ou n g s N i gh t T h ough ts fo r B l a i r s G rav e a n d th e
’ ”
,
’

"
I n v e n ti on s to th e B oo k of Jo b S h o w th e p e c u l i ari ty of B l ak e s
”
,
’

m in d qu i t e as c l e arl y as h is p o e m s Wh i l e h e w ork e d a t h is trad e .

he fl u n g o ff — for h e ne v e r se e m e d t
o c om p o se — d i sj o i n te d vis ion s
an d i n c o m p re h e n s i b l e rh a p so d e s , i w i th an o c c as o n al i l i ttl e ge m th a t
st il l se t
s our h e arts to i
s ng ng : i
Ah , su n fl we w e y
o r, ar of i
tm e ,
Wh o e s tt
c ou n t e ps o f
h e st th e sun ;
S e e ki n g a f te r h a ts
t w e e tg o l d e n c l i m e
W h e re th e tr a v e l l e r s j o u r n e y i s d o n e
’
;

Wh e re y o u th p i n e d a w a y w i th d e s i re
he
t ,

A n d th e p a l e v i rg i n S h r o u d e d i n s n o w ,

R i se f ro m th e i r g ra v e s a n d a s p i re ,

Wh e re m y s u n fl o w e r w i s h e s to g o !
T h a t is ’

a c u r ou s i fl ow e r d on s tre e t; b u t
o fin d gro w
t in g in th e L on
its u gge s ts B l a k e s ow n l if e w h i c h w a s ou tw ard l y b u sy an d qu i e t b u t
’

, ,

in w ard ly f u l l of adve n tu re an d e xci te m e n t H is l asth u ge p ro p h e tic .

w orks l ike j e u sa le m an d M i lton

,
r we re d ic ta te d to h im h e ,

d e c l a re s by su p e rn a tu ra l m e an s an d e v e n a ga i n st h is ow n w i l l
, ,
.

T h ey a re on l y h a lf i n te l l igib l e b u t h e re an d th e re o n e se e s fl ash e s ,

of t h e s a m e p o e ti c b e au t y th a t m a rk s h is l i ttl e p oe m s C ri ti c s ge n .

"
e rally d i s m i ss B l ak e w i t b u tth a tis on ly an
"
h th e w o rd m ad m a n
e v a s i on Atb e st h e is th e w ri te r of e xq u i s i te ly ri c s a t w o rs t h e is
.
, ,

h n o rth w e st l i k e H a m l e t a n d th e p u zz l e i s to fin d
”
m ad o n l y n o rt -
,

th e m e th od in h is m ad n e s s Th e m os t a m az in g th i n g ab ou t h im is .

th e p e rfe c tl y san e an d c h e e rf u l w ay in wh i c h h e m ov e d th ro u gh
po v e rty an d ob sc u rit y fl in gi n g o u te xq u i s i te p o e m s o r se n s e l e s s rh ap
,

so d ie s a s a c h i l d m i h t l a y w i t h ge m s o r s tra w s o r s u n b e a m s in d if
, g p
fe re n tly H e w as a ge n tl e k i n d l y m os t u n w o rl d l y l i ttl e m an w i th
.
, , ,

e xt rao rd i n a ry e y e s w h i c h s e e m e v e n in t h e lif e l e ss p ortra i ts to re

,

fl e c t so m e un u su a l h y p n o ti c o w e r He di e d o b sc u re l y s m i l i n a ta
p g .
,

v is i on of Pa rad i se in 8 2 7 T h a twas n e arly a c e n tu ry ago y e th e sti l l

, 1 .
,

re m a in s o n e of t h e m o s t i n c om p re h e n s i b l e fi gu r e s in o u r l i te ra tu re .
 E IG HT E E N TH -
C E NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 33 I

Work s of B lak e Th e P oe tic a l Sf cj gk es p u bli s h e d in I 7 S 3

W
.
, ,

i s a c oll e c ti on o f B l ak e s h a m m u c h o f it w r i tte n in
’

b oy h ood I t c on ta i n s m u c h c r u d e an d i n c o h e re n t w or k b u t
.
,

a l so a fe w ly r i c s o f s t r iki n g or i g i n a li ty Tw o l ate r an d b e tte r .

k n ow n v ol u m e s are S ong s of I n n oc e n c e an d S ong s of E xp e r i

e n ce r e fl e c t
, i n g tw o wid e ly di ff e re n t vi e w s of th e h u m an s ou l .

A s i n a ll h i s w o r k s th e re is a n a b un d an c e o f a pp are n tly w orth

,

l e s s S tu ff i n th e s e s on g s b u t in th e l a n gu ag e of m i n e rs itis all , ,

" ”
a
p y di r t i t s h o w s g l e a m s o f g o ld e n g r a i n s th a t a w a i t ou r

s ift i n g an d n ow an d th e n w e fin d a n u gg e tu n e xp e c te dly
,

M y l o d w as l i k e a fl o w r p o th e b o w er u n r s

O f l s ty M y ; h l i f u s f il fl ow !
a a e a ra as er

My l ord w as l i k e a s tar i n h i gh e s th e a v e n ,

D ra w n d o w n to e a r th b y s p e l l s a n d wi c k e d n e s s ;
M y l o rd w as l i k e th e op e n i n g e y e o f d ay ;
B u th e i s d ar k e n e d ; l i k e th e s u m m e r m oo n
C l ou d e d ; f a ll n l i k e t
h e s ta te l y t c u td o w n
’
re e ,

T h e b re a t h o f h e a v e n d w e l ta m o n g h is l e a v e s .

On cc ou n t o f th e c h aotic c h ara c te r of m os t of B l ak e s
a
’

w ork it is w e ll to b e g i n our r e ad i n g wi th a s h ort b oo k of

,

se l e ct i on s c on tai n i n g th e b e s t s on g s of th e s e th re e l i ttl e v ol
,

"
um e s . S wi n b u r n e c all s B l ak e th e o n ly p o e t of s u p r e m e an d
” "
s i m pl e p oe t ic g e n i u s o f th e e i g h te e n th c e n tu ry th e on e ,

m an of th atag e fit on a ll a cc o u n ts to ran k wi th th e o ld gr e at
, ,
” 1
m aste rs Th e p ra i s e is d o u b tl e s s e x tra v aga n t a n d th e e r i ti
.
,
"
c i s m som e w h a t i n t e m p e ra te ; b u t w h e n w e h av e r e a d Th e
” " " ” ”
E v e n i n g S tar M e m o ry N i gh t
, L ov e To th e , , ,
" ” " " " " " ” ”
M use s S p ri n g
, S um m er Th e T i g e r
, Th e L a m b , , ,

”
Th e C l o d an d th e P e bbl e w e m ay p os s ibly S h a r e S w in ,

b u rn e s e n th u s ia s m C e r ta i n ly in th e s e th re e v ol u m e s w e
’
.
,

h av e s om e of th e m o s t p e r f e c ta n d th e m os t or i g i n a l s on g s i n
o u r l an g u a e
g .

O f B l ak e s l on g e r p o e m s h is ti tan ic p ro p h e ci e s a n d a p o c a
’

ly p tic s pl e n d or s iti s im p o s s ibl e to w r i te j u s tly in s u c h a b r i e f

,

w ork as th i s O u tw ardly th e y s u gg e s ta h u g e c h aff pil e an d

.
,

1 S wi n b urn e s
’
Wi lli a m B la k e .
3 32 E NG LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
th e s a t c
te re d g ra i n s of w h e at h ar dly w arran t th e l a bor of w in
n o w i n g .T h e c u r i ou s r ea d e r will g e t a n id e a o f B l a k e s a m az
’

in g m y s tici s m by d ippi n g i n to a n
y o f th e w or k s o f h i s m iddl e

li f e U m e e n Ga te s of P a ra d i s e M a r r i ag e of H e a v e n a n d
’

, ,
,

He ll A m e r ic a Tb e F re nc h R e v olu ti on o r Tb e Vi s i on of
, , ,
be
t

D a ug /zte rs of Alb i on Hi s l a te s t w o rk s l ik e j e r u s a le m
. ,
an d

I ll i lton , a reb s c u re to h a v e an y li te ra ry v al u e To r e ad
too o .

an y of t h e s e w or k s c as ua lly i s to ca ll th e a u th or a m ad m an ;
to s tu dy th e m re m e mb e r i n g B l a k e s s on g s an d h is g e n i u s i s
’

, ,

to q uote s of tly h is ow n a n s w e r to th e c h ild w h o a s k e d a bo u t

th e l a n d of d r e am s

0 w h a t l a n d i s th e l an d o f d re am s ,

Wh a ta re i ts m o u n ta i n s a n d w h a t a re i ts stre a m s ?

fath e r I s a w m y m o th e r th e re
O , ,

A m o n g th e l i l i e s b y w a te rs fa i r .
”

D e ar c h i ld , I al
b y p l e as an ts tre a m s
so

Ha v e w a n d e re d a ll n i gh ti n th e l a n d o f d re a m s ;
B u t th o u g h c a l m a n d w a r m t h e w a te rs w i d e ,
I c ou ld n o tg e tto th e other s ide .
”

M I N O R P O E TS OF THE R E V I VA L

We h av e c h ose n th e fiv e p r e c e di n g p oe ts G ray G old s m i th , , ,

C o wp e r B u rn s a n d B l ak e as th e m o s t typic a l a n d th e m o s t
, , ,

i n te re sti n g of th e w r i te rs w h o p ro cl a i m e d th e d a w n o f R om an
tic is m i n th e e i gh te e n th c e n tu ry Wi th th e m w e as sociate .

a
grou p of m i n or w r i te rs w h o s e w ork s w e r e i m m e n s e ly po p u
,

la r in th e ir ow n d ay Th e o rdi n a ry re a d e r will p as s th e m by
.
,

b u t to th e s tu d e n t th e y are all s i g n ifi c a n t as e xp re s s i on s of
v e ry d i ff e r e n t p h as e s of th e rom a n tic re viv al .

J am e s Th om s on ( I 7 0 0 T h om s on b e l on g s a m on g
th e pi on e e rs o f R o m an tici s m L ik e G ra y a n d G o ld s m i th h e
.
,

wa v e re d b e tw e e n p s e ud o cl as s ic a n d th e n e w r om an tic id e al s
-
,

a n d for t h i s r ea s on i f for n o oth e r h is e ar ly w o r k is i n te re s t

, ,

in g lik e th e u n c e rta i n ty o f a c h ild w h o h e s i tate s w h e th e r to

,

c re e p s af e ly on all f ours or r i s k a f all by w alki n g He is .

3 34 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
in its coar s e vi go r an d a ga i n lik e D ryd e n in its p re ci s e v e r s i
,

fic a tion Th e p oe m w a s n ot s u cc e s s f u l at fi rs t a n d C rabb e
. ,

a ba n d on e d h i s li t e ra r y d r ea m s F or ov e r tw e n ty y e ar s h e
.

se t tl e d d o w n as a cl e rgy m a n in a c o u n try p ar i s h o b s e r vi n g ,

k e e n ly th e c om m on l i f e a b o u t h im T h e n h e p u bli s h e d m ore .

p oe m s e x ac tly lik e Tb e Vi llag e w h ic h im m e dia te ly b rou g h t

, ,

h im fam e a n d m o n e y Th e y b r ou g h t h im a l s o th e f ri e n d s h ip
.

o f Wa l t e r S c ott w h o lik e o th e rs r e g a r d e d C rabb e a s on e of

, , ,

th e fi rs t p oe ts of th e ag e T h e s e l ate r p oe m s Tb e P a r i s /z
.
,

R eg i s te r T/te B or oug /i Ta le s i n Ve r s e
an d Ta le s f
o tb e [f all
( I a re in th e sa me stra n i . T h e y a re
w r i tte n i n c ou pl e ts ; th e y
a r e re fl e c t i on s of n atu re an d of
c ou n try li f e ; th e y c on tai n m u c h th at is s ord id an d d u ll b u t ,

ar e n e v e r t h e l e s s re al pic tu re s of re a l m e n a n d w om e n j us ta s ,

C ra bb e sa w th e m an d as s u c h t
, h e y a re s till i n te r e s ti n g .

G old s m i th an d B u rn s l3 d id ea liz gd th e p oor an d w e adm i r e ,

th e m for th e i r s y m p a th y an d i n s i g h t I t l iW C m b b e .

to S h o w th a t in w re tc h e d fi s h i n g v ill ag e s in th e liv e s o f h ar d ,

w orki n g m e n a n d w om e n c h ild r e n l a b or e rs s m ugg l e r s pau

, , , ,

p e r s — a ll s o rts an d c on di ti on s of c om m on m e n
, th e re is ,
—

a b u n d an tro m a n t ic i n te re s t wi th o u t e x ag g eratin g
th e i r vic e s a n d v i rtu e s .

J am e s Mac p h e rs on ( 1 7 3 6 I n M a cp h e rs on w e h av e
an u n u s u a l fi ure w h o c ate r e d to th e n e w ro m a n tic i n te r e s t
g ,

in th e old e pic h e r oe s a n d w on i m m e n s e th ou h m o m e n tar y

,
g
f am e by a s e r i e s of li te ra ry f org e r i e s M a cp h e rs on w as a
, .

S c otc h s c h o ol m as te r an e d u c ate d m an b u t e vid e n tly n ot

, ,

o ve r t
-
e n d e r o f c o n s ci e n c e w h o s e i m a i n a t i on h ad b e e n s ti rr e d
g ,

by c e rtai n old poe m s w h ic h h e m ay h av e h e ard in G ae lic

am on
g th e H i g h l an d e rs I n 1 7 60 h e p u bli s h e d h i s F rag m e n t
. s

of A n c i e n t P oe try c olle c te d i n tb e H igh la n d s an d a ll e g e d ,

th at h is w o rk w as b u t a tran s l ati on o f G ae lic m an u s c r ip ts .

Wh e th e r th e w ork of i tse l f w ou ld h av e attrac te d atte n ti on i s

d o u b tf u l ; b u t th e f a c t th at an ab u n d an c e of li te ra ry m ate r ia l
m i g h t b e a wa i ti n
g di s c ov e ry le d to an i n te re s t s u c h a s n o w
 E IGHT E E NTH C E NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 335

atte n d s th e o p e n i n g of an E gyp tian tom b an d a s u b s c r ip ti on ,

w a s p r om p tly ra i s e d i n E di n b u rg h to s e n d M a cp h e r s on th rou g h
”
th e H i g h l a n d s to c oll e c tm or e m an u s c r ip ts Th e re s u l tw a s .

"
th e e pic F i ng a l ( I 7 6 2 ) th at l a n k a n d l am e n ta bl e c o u n te r fe it
,

”
of p o e t ry a s S wi n b u r n e c a ll s it w h ic h t
,
h e au th or p rof e s s e d ,

to h av e tran s l ate d f r om th e G a e l ic of th e p oe t O s s i an I ts .

s u cc e s s w a s as t on i s h i n g a n d M a cp h e rso n f oll o w e d it u p wi t h ,

Te m or a ( 1 7 6 a n ot h e r e pic in th e sam e s tra i n I n b oth th e s e .

w or k s M acp h e rs on s u cc e e d s i n g ivi n g an air of p r i m al gr an d e u r

to h is h e roe s ; th e c h ar a c te r s ar e b ig a n d s h ad owy ; th e
i m ag e r y i s at ti m e s m ag n i fic e n t; th e l an g uag e i s a ki n d of
c h an ti n g b om bas tic p r os e :,

N w Fi g l a o e i
o h i m i gh t
n a d th i c e h e
r s ed h i n v oi c e s an r re ar s .

C om l
r w d o d
a an s d th o
e re of t h e d e e t tood s ti l l
ar un Th y
, an e s ns s r s . e

b e t th e i r e d f c e to e a t
n h as h a m e d t th e p e e c e f F i g l
r a s He
r , a r s n o n a .

c am e li k e a c l ou d o f ra i n i n th e d a y s o f th e s u n w h e n s l o w i t ro l l s o n ,

t h e h i l l an d fi e l d s e x p e c tth e s h ow e r S w a ran b e h e l d th e te r ri b l e ki n g
, .

o f M or v e n a n d s t op p e d i n t
, h e m i d s tof h i s c o u rs e D ar k h e l e a n e d on .

'

h i s s p e ar ro l l i n g h i s re d e y e s a rou n d S i l e n t a n d ta l l h e s e e m e d a s a n .

o a k on t h e b an k s o f L u b a r w h i c h h a d i ts b ran c h e s b l a s te d o f old b y t
,
he
l i gh tn i n g o f h e a v e n Hi s th ou s an d s p ou r a rou n d th e h e ro a n d th e
.
,

d a r k n e s s o f b a ttl e g a th e rs on t h e h ill .
1

Th e p u blicati on o f th i s g l oom y im ag i n ativ e w ork p rod u c e d a ,

li te rary s torm A fe w c r i tic s le d by D r J oh n s on d e m an d e d

.
, .
,

to s e e th e o r i g i n a l m an u s c r ip ts a n d w h e n Ma h e r s on r e f u s e d ,

to p rod u c e th e m 2
th e Os s i an ic p oe m s w e r e b ra n d e d as a
,

f orge ry ; n e v e rth e l e s s th e y h a d e n orm ou s s u cc e s s Ma c p h e r .

s on w as h on or e d a s a li te rary e xpl ore r ; h e w as g iv e n a n

offi ci a l p os i ti on c ar ryi n g a sa l ary fo r l if e ; an d at h is d e ath

, ,

i n 1 7 9 6 h e w as b u r i e d in We s tmi n s te r A bb e y B l a k e B urn s
,
.
, ,

an d i n d e e d m os t o f t h e p oe ts of th e ag e w e r e i n fl u e n c e d by

1 v l i i
Th e re a re se e ra o m s s on s ro m th e te ti n th s f rag m e n t rom F i n g a l f x i f .

v
2 S e e ra f ra m e n t
g l
s of G ae c p oe t r , at li y
tr b u te d to Os s a n or O s n , a re n o w n ow n i i ii k
v i i l
to h a e e xi s te d a tth a ttm e i n th e H gh a n d s Mac p h e rs o n u s e d th e s e a s a b as s f or h i s . i
i
e p c , b u t m os t o f th e de t
a s e re u rn s h e d b y h i s o w n il w
m a g na to n f i
Th e a e ge d te t i i i . ll x
of i li lv
Oss a n w a s p u b sh e d i n 1 8 0 7 , s o m e e e e n e a rs a te r Ma c p h e r s on ’ s d e ath I to n y f . ly
a d d e d a n ot
h er m yst
er y t th f
o e org e r y ; for, wh il e it m b d i d f w
e o e a e o ld a n d
p rob a b ge n u ly i ne

f ragm e n ts, th e b u lk of i tse e m s to b e M a c p h e rs on w kt l ’

s or ra n s ate d b ac nt ki
o G ae c li .
3 36 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
th i s S h a m p oe try E v e n th e s c h ol ar ly G ray w as d e c e iv e d an d
.

d e li g h te d wi th O s s i an ; a n d m e n as far a pa r t as G oe th e
" "

a n d N ap o l e on p ra i s e d it i m m o d e ra t e ly
" ”
Th om as Ch atte rton ( 1 7 5 2 T h i s m ar v e l o u s b oy ,

" "
to w h om K e ats d e dic a te d h is E n dy m i on an d w h o i s c e l e ,

" "
b ra te d i n S h e ll e y s A d on ai s is on e of th e s add e s ta n d m os t
’

i n te re s ti n g fi g u r e s of th e rom an ti c re v iva l D u r i n g h is c h ild .

h ood h e h a u n te d th e old c h u rc h of S t M ar y R e d cl i ff e in .
,

B r i s tol w h e r e h e w as f as ci n a te d by th e m e d i ae va l a ir of th e
,

pla c e a n d e s p e ci ally by on e old c h e s t k n o w n as C an y n g e s

, ,
’

c o ff e r co n ta i n i n g m u s ty d oc u m e n ts w h ic h h ad b e e n p re s e r v e d
,

for th r e e h u n d re d y e a rs Wi th s tra n g e u n c a n n y i n te n tn e s s
.
,

th e c h ild p o r e d ov e r th e s e re lic s of th e p a s t c o pyi n g th e m ,

i n s te ad of h i s w ri ti n g b ook u n til h e c ou ld i m i tate n ot on ly

,

th e s p e lli n g an d l an g uag e b u t e v e n th e h a n dw r i ti n g of
" "
th e or i g i n al . S o on a f te r th e O s s i an f o rg e r i e s app ea r e d ,

C ha tte rton b e gan to p rod u c e d o c u m e n ts a pp ar e n tly v e ry old , ,

c on tai n i n g m e di ae v a l p oe m s l e g e n d s a n d f am ily h i s tor i e s c e n

, , ,

te r i n g a ro u n d tw o c h a ra c te r s — T h om a s R o wl e y p r i e s t an d
, ,

p oe t a n d William C a n y n g e m e r ch an t of B r i s to l in th e d ay s
, ,

of H e n r y V I I t s e e m s i n c re dibl e th at th e w h ol e d e s i g n of
.

th e se m e di ae v a l rom an c e s s h o u ld h a v e b e e n w ork e d ou t by a
c h ild of e l e v e n an d th at h e c ou ld r e p rod u c e th e s tyl e an d th e
,

w r i ti n g o f C a xton s d ay s o w e ll th at th e p r i n te rs w e r e d e
’

c e ive d ; b u t s u c h is t h e f a c t M ore a n d m or e R ow ley P ap e rs

.
,

as t h e y w e r e call e d w e r e p r od u c e d by C h atte rton — appar

, ,

ent ly f ro m th e arc h iv e s of th e old c h u r c h in re a li ty f rom h is

o w n i m a i n at i o — d e li gh ti n g a l arg e ci rcl e of re a d e r s an d
g n , ,

d e c e ivi n g all b u t G ray an d a fe w s c h o l ar s w h o re cog n i z e d th e

o cc a s i o n a l m i su s e o f fift ee nt h c e n tur y E n g l i s h w or d s-
A ll .

th i s w o r k w as c ar e f u lly fi n i s h e d a n d b or e th e u n m i s t a k abl e
,

" "
st a m p o f li t e r ary g e n i u s R e a d i n g n ow h is f E lla
. or t he ,
" ”
B a ll ad of C h ar i te or t h e l o n g p oe m in b a ll a d s tyl e c a ll e d
,
" ”
B r i s to w e T rage di e it i s h ar d to re a li z e th a t it is a b oy s
,
’

w ork A tse v e n te e n y ea rs o f ag e C h atte rton w e n tfor a li te rary

.
3 38 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
u pon th e s e ly ba ll ad s an d h is M i n s tre lsy of th e S c otti s h
e ar ,

B or d e r i s d u e c h i e fly to th e i n fl u e n c e of P e r cy s w ork
’
.

B e s id e s th e R e li q u e s P e r cy h as g iv e n u s a n oth e r good
,

w or k in h is N or th e r n An ti q u i ti e s tra n s l ate d f ro m th e

F re n c h of M all e ts H i s tory of D e n m a r k T h i s a l s o w as of
’
.

i m m e n s e i n fl u e n c e s i n c e it i n trod u c e d to E n g li s h r e ad e r s a
,

n e w an d f a s ci n a t i n g m y th ol og y m ore r u gg e d an d p r i m i tiv e ,

th an th a t of th e G r e e k s ; a n d w e a re s till in m u s ic a s in ,

l e tte r s u n d e r th e s p e ll o f T h or an d O di n of F r e a an d th e
, ,

Va lky r m a id e n s an d o f th ats tu p e n d ou s d ram a of p a ss i on an d

,
" ”
trag e dy w h ic h e n d e d in th e Twilig h t of th e G od s Th e lit .

c rary w o rld owe s a d e b t of g rati tu d e to P e r cy w h o w r ote ,

n ot h i n g of imp ortan c e h i m s e l f b u t w h o by c oll e c ti n g an d , ,

tra n s l a ti n g th e w ork s o f o th e r m e n d id m u c h to h a s te n th e ,

tr i u mp h of R om an tici s m in th e n i n e te e n th c e n tu ry .

III . T HE FIR ST E N G L I S H N OV E L I S T S
Th e ch i e f li te rary p h e n om e n a of th e c ompl e x e i g h te e n th
c e n tu ry are th e re i g n of s o c all e d C l a s s ici s m th e r e viva l of -
,

ro m an t ic p oe try an d th e d i s c ov e ry of th e m od e rn n ov e l Of
, .

th e s e th re e th e l as t is p ro b a bly th e m os t i m p or tan t A s id e
, .

f rom th e fa c tth at th e n ov e l is th e m o s t m od e rn a n d at p re s ,

e nt t h e m os t wid e ly re a d an d i n fl u e n ti al typ e o f l i te ratu re ,

w e h a v e a c e rt a i n p r id e i n r e g ar di n g it a s E n g l a n d s o r i g i n a l
’

con tr ib u ti on to th e w or ld of l e tte r s O th e r g re at typ e s of .

li te ratu r e l ik e th e e pic th e r om an c e an d th e d ram a w e re

, , , ,

fi rs t p rod u c e d by o th e r n ati on s ; b u t th e id e a of th e m od e rn
n ov e l s e e m s t o h av e b e e n w or k e d o u tl ar e ly on E n li s h s o il
1
g g
an d in t h e n u m b e r an d th e fin e q u al i ty of h e r n ov e li s ts E n g ,

l an d h as h ardly b e e n riv al e d by an y o th e r n a ti on B e f ore w e .

st u dy t h e w r i te r s w h o d e v e l op e d th i s n e w typ e of li te rature ,

it i s w e ll to c on s id e r b r i e fly its m e an i n a n d h i s tory
g .

1 Th e fir s t b oo k w i s t
o h ch th e t
e rm
“
no vl
e ,
”
i n th e m od e rn se n se , m ay be ap p li ed
,
a pp e a re d a lm ost i m lt
s ly i E g l
u a n e ou s n n a nd, F ra n ce ,
an d G e rm an y . Th e ra p id d e vl
e op
m e n to f th e E n g li h v l h d imm
s no e a an e n se i fl
n ue n c e in a ll E u ro
pe a n i
n a ton s .
 E IGHT E E NTH —
CE NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 3 39

Me an in g of th e Nov e l . P ro b ably
m os ts i g n ifi can tr e m ark
th e
m a d e by th e o rdi n ary r e ad e r c on c e rn i n g a w ork of fi c ti on
Th S t y
e or t a k e s th e f o r m o f a q u e s t i on : I s i t a
g
o o d s to r
y
?

El m t
e en
F or th e r e a d e r o f to d a y i s m u c h lik e th e c h ild an d
th e p r i m i tiv e m an in th i s r e s p e c t th at h e m u s t b e a t , trac te d
an d h e ld by t h e s tory e l e m e n t o f a n arr ativ e b e f ore h e le arn s '

to app re ci ate i ts s tyl e o r m ora l s i g n ifi c an c e T h e s tor y e le .

m e n t i s th e r e f ore e s se n ti al to th e n ov e l b u t w h e r e th e s tory
o r i g i n ate s i s i m p o s s ibl e t o sa
y A s w e ll m i g h t w e s e e k f or
.

th e o r i g i n o f th e r a c e f or w h e r e v e r p r i m i tiv e m e n a re f ou n d ,

th e r e w e s e e th e m g a th e r i n g e age r ly a b ou t th e s tor y te ll e r -
.

I n th e h all s o f o u r S a x on a n c e s tor s th e S c Op a n d th e ta l e
b r i n g e r w e re e v e r th e m os t w e lc om e g u e s ts an d in th e b ark
wi g w a m s of th e A m e r ic an I n di an s th e m an w h o told th e ~

l e g e n d s of H iaw ath a h ad a n au di e n c e q u i te a s a tte n tiv e a s

th at w h ic h ga th e r e d a t th e G re e k f e s tiv a l s to h e ar th e s tory
of U ly s s e s s w a n d e r i n g s To m an s i n s ti n c t or i n n ate l o v e for
’ ’
.

a st ory w e ar e i n d e b t e d for all o u r li t e rat u re ; a n d t h e n ov e l

m u s tin s om e d e g r e e S ati s f y th i s i n s ti n c t or f a il of a pp r e ci a ti on , .

Th e s e c o n d q ue s ti on w h ic h w e ask c on c e r n i n g a w or k of
fi c ti on is H ow f ar d oe s th e e l e m e n t o f im a gi n ati on ente r i n to
, _ _

it? F or u p on th e e l e m e n t of im ag i n ati o n d e p e n d s ,
Th R m
e o an c e
l ar ge ly ou r cl a s s ifi ca ti on of w ork s of fi c ti on i n to
,

n ov e l s ,
r o m an c e s an d m e r e a dv e n t
,
u re s t o ri e s Th e divi s i on s .

h e re are a s i n d e fi n i te as th e b ord e r l a n d b e tw e e n c h ild h ood

an d yout h b e tw e e n i n s ti n c ta n d re as on
, b u tth e re ar e c e rta i n
p r i n cipl e s to gu id e u s We n ote in th e d e v e l o p m e n t of an y
.
,

n o r m a l c h ild t h a tth e r e c o m e s a tim e w h e n for h i s s tor i e s h e

,

d e s i r e s k n i gh ts g i an ts e lv e s fai r i e s wi tc h e s m a g ic an d
, , , , , ,

m a r v e l ou s adv e n tu r e s w h ic h h av e n o b as i s i n e xp e r i e n c e .

He te ll s e x tra ordi n ar y tal e s a b o u t h i m s e l f w h ic h m ay b e on ly ,

th e v ag u e re m e m b ran c e s o f a d r e am o r th e c re ati o n s o f a
d aw n i n g im ag i n a tion — b oth of w h ic h a re a s r e al to h im as
,

an y o t h e r p a r t of l i f e Wh e n w e sa y th at s u c h a c h ild
.

" "
r om a n c e s w e g iv e e x a c t
,
ly th e r i g h t n a m e to it; for th i s
34o E N GLISH L IT E R ATU R E
su dd e n i n te re s t in e x tra ord i n ary b e i n g s an d e v e n ts m ark s
th e d e v e l op m e n t of th e h u m a n i m agi n ati on r u n n i n g r i ot a t ,

fi rs t b e c a u s e it is n ot g u id e d by r e a s o n w h ic h i s a l ate r
, ,

d e v e l op m e n t a n d to s ati s f y t i s
—
,
h n e w i n te r e s t t h e ro m a ce
n
1

w as i n v e n t ed T h e ro m a n c e i s . fi c ti on ,

i n w h i ch th e i m ag i n a ti on i s g iv e n f u ll pl ay wi th ou t b e i n g ,

li m i te d by fa c ts or p robabili ti e s I t d e al s wi th e x traordi n ary .

e ve n t s wi t h h e ro e s w h o se p o w e r s a re e x agg e ra te d and of te n
, ,

add s t h e e l e m e n t o f s u p e rh u m an or s u p e rn a tu r a l c h ara c te r s .

—
I tT s i ni p os s i b le t o d ra w th e l i n e w h e r e r om a n c e e n d s ; b ut

th i s e l e m e n t o f e xc e s s iv e i m ag i n a ti on a n d o f im p o s s ibl e h e roe s
a n d i n cid e n t s is it s di s ti n g u i s h i n g m a r k in e v e r y li te ratu re .

Wh e r e th e n ov e l b e g i n s itis lik e wi s e i m p os s ibl e to say b ut

a g a i n w e h av e a s u gg e s t i on in th e e xp e r i e n c e of e v e ry r e ad e r .

T h e re c om e s a ti m e n atu ra lly an d i n e vi ta bly in th e , ,

Th N v l
e o e
li fe of e v e ry y ou th w h e n th e rom an c e n o l on g e r e n
th ra ll s h im He l iv e s i n a w orld o f m g ; g e ts a cq u a i n te d wi th
.

m e n a n d w o m e n s om e g oo d s om e b ad b u t , an d h e
, ,

d e m an d s th at li te ratu r e s h a ll e xp re s s li f e a s h e k n o w s itby e x
p e rie n c e T h i s i s th e s tage of th e a w ak e n e d i n te ll e c t an d i n o u r
.
,

st ori e s t h e i n te ll e c t a s w e ll as th e i m ag i n ati o n m u s t n ow b e
s at i s fi e d A t th e b e g i n n i n g o f thi s stag e w e d e li g h ti n R obi n
.

’
’

s on Cr u s oe ; w e r e a d e ag e rly a m u l ti tu d e o f adv e n t u r e n ar ra

tiv e s an d a fe w s o c a ll e d h i s tor ic a l n ov e l s ; b u t in e a c h c as e
-

"
w e m u s t b e l u re d by a s tor y m u s t fin d h e roe s an d m ovi n g
,

”
a ccid e n t s by fl oo d an d fi e ld to a pp e al to o u r i m a g i n ati on ;
an d t h o u g h th e h e ro an d th e a dv e n tu re m ay b e e x agg e ra te d ,

th e y m u s t b ot h b e n a tu ra l a n d wi th i n th e b ou n d s o f p r ob a b i l
ity G rad ua lly th e e l e m e n t o f adv e n tu re or s u rp r i s i n g i n ci
.

d e n tg ro w s l e s s an d l e s s i m p or tan t as w e l e arn th at tr u e li f e ,

is n ot adv e n tu ro u s b u t a pl a i n h e ro ic m atte r of w or k a n d
, ,

1 Th e nam e ro m a n c e
”
w as g iv e n at fi rs t to an y stor yi n on e o f th e R o m a n c e la n
g uage s ,lk i e th e F re n c h m e tr i l
ca rom a n c e s, wh i ch we h v
a e c on s id Be c a u s e th e se
e re d .
st
i w
or e s e re b ro ugh tto E n g l a n d at a i
tm e wh en th e c h il d i h
s i
m n d of th e M d d e i l A
ge s
l
d e i gh te d i n th e m o s t m o s s b e stor
p i i l i e s, th e n am e ro m a n c e
”
a ne d t
w a s re t i
o c o e r an yv
w k
or of t h e u n b r i d e d m a g n a ton l i i i .
34 2 E N GLIS H L IT E R ATU R E

f c te d
af e ro m an c e wr i ti n g for th e n e x tth ou s an d y e ar s A s e c on d .

g r o u p o f p r e d e c e s s ors i s f o u n d i n t h e It ali an a n d S p an i s h p a s

tora l ro m a n c e s w h ic h w e r e i n s pi re d by th e E c log u e s o f V i r g il
,
.

T h e se w e re e x tre m e ly p op u l ar in th e f our te e n th an d fi fte e n th

c e n tur i e s an d th e i r i n fl u e n c e is s e e n l ate r in S id n e y s Arca d i a
,
’

w h ic h is th e b e s t of th i s typ e in E n g l i s h .

Th e th i r d a n d m os t i n fl u e n tia l g rou p of p re d e c e s s ors of th e

n ov e l i s m ad e r o m a n c e s o f c h iv al ry s u c h a s a re ,

f ou n d in —M al ory s M or te d A r th u r I t is n otic e a bl e i n r e a d
’ ’
.
,

in g T E R Be a u ti f u l old rom a n c e s i n d iffe re n t lan g u ag e s th at

I

'

ea c h n at i on c h an g e s th e m s om e w h at s o as to m a k e th e m ,

m o r e e xp re s s iv e o f n a ti o n al tra i ts an d id e a l s I n a w ord th e .
,

old r o m an c e t e n d s i n e vi a bly t o w a§ d re al i s m e s p e ci a lly in

t s T
_ _ ,

E n gl an d w h e r e th e e xc e s s iv e i mag in a tIon I S c ur b e d a n d th e
,

h e roe s b e c om e m ore h u m an I n M al ory i n th e u n k n o wn .

,

au th or o f S i r Ga w a i n and h e Gre e n K
t ni
ght
, an d e s p e c I ally

i n C h au c e r, w e se e th e ef ef c t of
p ra c tic a l E n gl i s h m i n d
th e
in g ivi n g th e s e old r om an c e s a m or e n atu ra l s e tti n g an d in ,

m aki n g th e h e roe s s u gg e s t th ou g h fa i n tly th e m e n a n d

, ,

wo m e n o f th e i r ow n d ay Th e Ca n te r b u ry Ta le s wi th th e i r
.
,

st or y i n t e re s t a n d th e i r c h ara c te r s d e li g h tf u lly tru e to n atu r e ,

h a v e in th e m th e s u g g e s ti on a t l e as t of a c on n e c te d s tor y
, ,

w h o se c h i e f a im is to re fl e c t li f e a s it is .

I n th e E l iz a b e th an A g e th e id ea of th e n ov e l g row s m ore
d e fi n i te I n S id n e y s A rc a d i a
.
’
a rom an c e of c h iv a l ry ,

th e pa s to ra l s e tti n g a t l e a s t i s g e n e ra lly tru e to n atu r e ; o u r

c re d u li ty is n ot ta x e d as in th e old rom an c e s by th e c on ti n ua l
, ,

a pp e a ra n c e o f m a ic or m i ra cl e s
g ; a n d th e c h ar a c te rs th ou g h ,

id e ali z e d till th e y b e c om e ti re s om e o cc as i on ally g ive th e im ,

p re s s i o n of b e i n g r e al m e n a n d w om e n I n B ac on s Th e N w .
’
1

A tla n ti s ( 1 6 2 7 ) w e h av e th e s tory o f th e d i s c ov e r y by m ar i
n e r s of a n u n k n o w n c o u n t r y i n h a bi te d by a s u p e r i o r ra c e of
,

m e n m o r e civil i z e d th an O
, u rs e lv e s — an id ea w h ic h h a d b e e n
,

u se d by M or e in h is U t op i a i n 1 5 16 T h e s e tw o b ook s a re
.

n eit h e r rom an c e s n or n ov e l s in th e s tr ic t S e n s e b u t s tu d i e s
, ,
’
 E I GHT E E NTH —
C E NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 34 3

of so ci a l i n s ti tu ti on s T h e y u s e th e c on n e c te d s tory a s a
.

m e a n s o f te a c h i n g m or a l l e s s o n s a n d of b r i n g i n g a b o u tn e e d e d
,

r e f o rm s ; a n d t h i s va l ua bl e s u gg e s ti on h as b e e n ad op te d by
m a n y of o ur m o d e rn w r i te r s in th e s o ca ll e d p r obl e m n ov e l s
-

an d n o v e l s of p u r p o se .

N e are r to th e true n o v e l i s L od g e s rom an ti c s tory of ’

R os a ly n d e w h ic h w as u s e d by S h a k e s p e are i n As You L i k e I t
, .

T h i s w a s m od e l e d u p on th e I tali an n ov e ll a or s h ort s tor y , ,

w h ic h b e ca m e v e r y p o p u l ar in E n g l a n d d u r i n g th e E li z a b e th a n
A g e I n th e s a m e a g e w e h a v e i n trod u c e d i n to E n gl a n d th e
.

S p an is h p ic ar e s q u e n o v e l ( f r o m p i ca r o a k n av e or ras c a l )
, ,

w h ic h a t fi r s t w as a ki n d o f b u r l e s q u e on th e m e d iae v a l ro
m an c e a n d w h ic h to ok for its h e r o s om e low s c ou n d r e l or
,

ou t cas t i n s te ad of a k n i g h t a n d f ol l o w e d h im th r oug h a l on g
, ,

c are e r o f s c an d al s a n d vill a i n i e s O n e o f th e e a rl i e s t typ e s of

.

th i s pi car e s q u e n o v e l in E n g li s h i s N a s h s Th e U nf or tu n a t
’
e

Tra v e lle r o r th e L if e of j a c k Wi lton

, w h ic h is al s o a
f ore r un n e r of th e h i s tor ic a l n ov e l s i n c e its a c ti on tak e s pl ac e
,

d u r i n g th atg org e ou s i n te r vi e w b e tw e e n H e n r y V I I I an d th e
ki n g of F ran c e on th e F i e ld of th e C l oth of G old I n a ll .

th e se s h or t s tor i e s an d pi c ar e s q u e n ov e l s th e e mp h a s i s w a s
l a id n ot s o m u c h on li f e an d c h arac te r a s on th e a dv e n tur e s
of t h e h e ro ; an d th e i n te re s t c o n s i s te d l a r g e ly in w on d e ri n g
w h at w o u ld h a pp e n n e x t a n d h o w t
~

, h e pl ot w ou ld e n d Th e .

s am e m e t h od i s e m pl oy e d i n all tra sh y n ov e l s an d it i s e s
p e c ially th e b an e o f m an y m od e rn s tor y w r i te r s T h is e xe cs
-
.

s iv e i n t e r e s t i n a dv e n t u r e s o r i n cid e n ts f or t h e i r ow n s a k e ,

an d n ot for t h e i r e ff e c t on c h ara c te r is w h at di s ti n g u i s h e s
,

th e m od e rn ad v e n tu r e s tory f rom th e tr u e n ov e l .

I n th e P u r i tan A g e w e app roa c h s till n e ar e r to th e m od e r n

n ov e l e s p e ci a lly i n t
, h e w or k of B u n y a n ; a n d a s th e P u r i tan
a lw a y s l a id e m p h a s i s on c h ar a c t er st or i e s a pp e ar e d h a vi n g
,

a de fi n it e m o ra l p ur p ose B u n y an s Th e P i lg r i m s P r og r e s s
’ ’
.

( 1 6 7 8 ) di ff e r s f r om th e F a e ry Qu e e n an d from all oth e r ,

m e d i ae v al a ll e g or i e s in th i s i m p or tan t r e s p e c t — th at th e
, ,
3 44 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
c h ara c te rs far f rom b e i n g bl oodl e s s ab s trac ti on s a re b u tth i n ly
, ,

di s g u i s e d m e n an d w om e n I n d e e d m an y a m od e rn m an .
, ,

re a di n g t h e s to ry o f C h r i s ti an h a s f oun d in it th e r e fl e c ti o n
,

of h is o w n l if e a n d e xp e r i e n c e I n Th e L if e a n d D e a t
. h of
M r B a d m a n ( 1 6 8 2 ) w e h av e a n o th e r a n d e v e n m o re re a li s tic
.

u dy of a m an a s h e w a s in B u n y an s da y T h e s e tw o s trik ’

st .

i n g fi g u re s C h r i s ti an a n d Mr B ad m an b e l on g am o n g th e
,
.
,

g rea t c h a ra c te rs o f E n g li s h fi c t i on B u n y an s g o od w o r k . h i s
’

,
—

k e e n i n s i gh t h i s d e li n e a ti on of c h ara c te r a n d h is e m p h as i s
, ,

u p on t h e m ora l e ffe c ts of i n d ivid ua l a c ti on w as c ar r i e d o n by ,

—

A ddi s on a n d S te el e s o m e th i r ty y e a r s l ate r Th e c h ara c te r .

of S i r R o g e r d e C o v e rl e y i s a re a l r e fl e c t i on of E n g li s h c ou n try
li f e in th e e i gh te e n th c e n tu ry ; a n d wi th S te e l e s d om e s tic ’

ske t c h e s in Th e Ta tle r Th e Sp e c ta tor an d Th e G u a r d i a n

, ,

( 7 9
1 0 w e d e fi n i te ly c r o s s th e b or d e r l an d t h a t li e s o u t

s id e o f r o m a n c e an d e n t er t
,
h e r e g i on of c h ara c te r s tu dy
wh e re th e n ov e l h a s its b e g i n n i n g .

Th e Di scov e ry of th e Mod e rn Nov e l N otwi th s tan di n g th i s .

l on g h i s tory of fi c ti on to w h ic h w e h a v e c a ll e d atte n ti on it
, ,

is s af e to s ay th a t u n til th e p u bl i ca ti on of R ic h ard s o n s
’

PM in 1 7 4 0 n o tru e n o v e l h ad app e ar e d in an y li te ra
, ,

ture . B y a tru e n o v e l w e m e an S i m ply a w o rk of fi c ti on

w h ic h r e l ate s th e s to ry o f a pl ai n h u m an li f e u n dg stre s s of ,

e m ot i on w h ic h d e p e n d s fo r its i n te re s t n ot on i n cid e n t or
,

adv e n t u r e b u t o n it
, s t ru th to n a tu re A n u m b e r of E n gl i s h .

n ov e li s t s G old s m i th R ic h ard son F i e ldi n g S m oll e tt S te rn e

—
, , ,
,

— all s e e m t o h a v e s e i z e d u p on t h e id e a of re fl e c ti n g l i f e a s
it i s in th e f or m of a s tory a n d to h a v e d e v e l op e d it s im u lta
, ,

n e ou s l
y T h e r e s u l t w as a n e x t rao r di n ar y a w a k e n i n o f i n
.

g
te re s t e s p e ci ally am o n
,
g p e o pl e w h o h ad n e v e r b e f ore b e e n
g rea tly c on c e r n e d wi th li te ratu r e We are to re m e m b e r th a t
.
,

i n p re vi o u s p e ri od s th e n u mb e r o f r e a d e rs w a s c o m p arativ e ly
,

s m a ll ; an d t h at wi th th e e x c e p ti on of a fe w w r i te r s lik e
,

L a n g l an d an d B un y an a u th ors w ro te l ar e ly for th e u pp e r
,
g
clas se s I n th e e i g h te e n th c e n tu ry th e s p rea d of e d u ca ti on
.
346 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
w h ic h g e n e ra lly h e ad s th el i s t of m o d e rn fic ti on ,

s h o ws t h at th i s e xci ti n g ta l e is l a rg e ly an a dv e n tu r e s tory ,

rat h e r th a n th e s tu dy of h u m a n c h ara c te r w h ic h D e f oe p rob

a bly i n t e n d e d it t o be Y ou n g p e opl e s till re ad it as th e y
.

m i g h t a d i m e n ov e l s kippi n g i t
, s m ora l i z i n g p as sa e s a n d
g
h urryi n g on to m ore adv e n tu re s b ut th e y s e ld om a pp re ci ate
th e e xc e ll e n t m a tu re r ea son s w h ic h b a n i s h th e di m e n ov e l to
a s e c r e t pl a c e i n th e h ay m o w w h il e Cr u s oe h an g s p r o u dly o n
,

th e C h ri s tm a s tre e or
h o ld s an h on ore d pl a c e
on t h e f a m i l y b oo k
she lf D e f oe s App a r i
’
.

ti o n of M rs . Ve a l,
M e m oi rs of a Ca v a li e r ,

a n d j o u r n a l of th e
P lag u e Ye a r a re s u c h
m ix tu r e s of f a c t fic ,

ti on , c r e d u l i ty
an d
th at th e y d e f y cl as s i
fic ation ; w h il e oth e r
" "
so cal le d
-
n ov e l s ,

l i k e Cap ta i n S i n g le
t
on , M o ll F la n d e r s ,
an d R ox a n a , ar e b ut

D ANI E L D E F O E
li ttl e b e tte r
pic a th an
r e sq u e s tor i e s wi th a ,

d e al of u n n atu ral m orali z i n g an d r e p e n tan c e add e d for p u r i

tan ic al e ff e c t I n Cr u s oe D e f o e b rou h t th e re a li s tic a d v e n
.
,g
tu r e s tory to a v e ry h i h s ta e of i ts d e v e l opm e n t; b u t h is
g g
work s h a rdly d e s e rv e to b e cl as s e d a s true n ov e l s w h ich m u s t ,

s u b o rdi n a te i n cid e n tto t h e f a i th f u l p o rtray al of h u m an lif e a n d

ch a rac te r .

Lif e D e foe w as th e s on of a L on d o n b u tc h e r n am e d F oe , an d
:
k e p th is fam ily i l h e w as f o rty y e ars
n am e u n t o f age , wh e n he a dd e d
th e a ri s t
oc ratic p re fix w i th w h i c h w e h ave g ro wn fam i l i ar . Th e
 E I GHT E E NTH —
C E NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 34 7

e v e n ts of h is bu sy s e v e n ty y e ars of l if e in w h i c h h e p a sse d th rough ,

all e x t re m e s f o m p o v e rty to we a l th f rom p rosp e rou s b ri c km ake r

,
r ,

to s t ar v e l i n g j ou rn a l i s t f ro m N e w ga t e p r i s on t
,
o i m m e n s e p o p u l a ri t
y
a n d roya l fav o r a r e ob sc u re e n o gh in d e t
,
ai l s b u t f o u r fac ts s t
u an d

o u t c l e a rl y w h i c h h e l p t
,
h e r e ad e r to u n d e rs t an d t h e c h a rac te r of
h is w o rk F i st D e f o e w as a j ac k a tall trad e s a s w e l l a s a w ri te r ;
. r ,
- - -
,

h is i n te re s tw as l a rg e l y w i th th e w o k in g c l as se s a n d n o tw ith sta n d r ,

in g m an y q u e s ti on ab l e p rac ti c e s h e s e e m s to h a v e h ad s om e c on ,

tin u e d p u rp o s e o f e d uc a ti n g an d u p l if ti n g th e c o m m on p e op l e .

T h i s p a rti a l ly ac c oun ts fo r th e e n orm ou s p o p u l ari ty of h is w orks ,

an d fo r t h e fa c t th at th e y w e e c r i ti c i se d b y l i te rary m e n as b e i n g
r

fiton l y for th e ki tc h e n S e c on d h e w as a radic a l N on c on fo rm ist

"
.
,

in re l i gi o n an d w as i n te n d e d by h is f a th e r for th e i n d e p e n d e n t
,

m in i st ry Th e P u r i ta n z e a l fo r re fo rm p osse ss e d h im an d h e tri e d
.
,

t o d o by h is p e n w h a t We s l e y w a s d o i n g by h i s p r e ac h i n g w i t h ou t , ,

h o w e v e r h avi n g a n y gre a tm e asu r e of th e l a tte r s s i n c e ri t y or si n gl e ’

,

n e s s of p u rp os e T h i s e a l for re fo rm m ark s a ll h is n u m e rou s w ork s

. z ,

an d ac c o u n t s fo r t h e m o ra li z i n g to b e f ou n d e v e ry w h e re
,
T h i rd .
,

D e f o e w as a j o u rn a l i st an d p a m p h l e te e r w i th a re p o rte r s e y e for
’
,

th e p i c t u r e sq u e an d a n e w sp a p e r m an s i n s t i n c tfor m ak in g a good ’

st o ry .
”
H e w rote an i m m e n s e n u m b e r o f p am p h l e ts p o e m s an d , ,

m a ga i n e a rt
z i c l e s ; c on d u c te d se ve ra l p ap e rs o n e of t h e m ost ,
—

p o p u l ar th e R e vi e w b e i n g i s su e d f ro m p r i son an d t h e fac t th at —
, , ,

th e y o f te n b l e w h o t an d c o l d u p on th e s a m e q u e s ti on w as h ard l y
n ot i c e d I n d e e d so e x traordi n a ri l y i n te r e stin g an d p l au sib l e w e re
.
,

D e fo e s a rtic l e s th ath e ge n e ra l l y m an age d to k e e p e m p l o y e d by th e

’

p a rt y in p o w e r w h e th e r Wh i g or T o ry T h i s l on g j o urn a l i sti c c are e r

, .
,

l as ti n g h a lf a c e n tu ry ac c ou n ts fo r h is di re c t s i m p l e n arra tive s ty l e
, , , ,

w h i c h h o l d s u s e v e n n o w by its i n te n se re a l i ty To D e foe s ge n i u s .
’

"
w e a re a l s o i n d e b t w o di sc ov e ri e s t i n te rvi e w a n d th e "
e d for t he ,

l e a d i n g e d i to ri a l bo th o f w h i c h are stil l in d a ily u se in ou r b e st

,

ne w s p a p e rs .

Th e f ou rth fac tto r e m e m b e r i s th a t D e foe k n e w p ri son l if e ; an d

th e re by h an gs a t al e I n 1 7 0 2 D e fo e p u b l i sh e d a re m a rk ab l e p am
.

Th e S h o rte s t Wa y w i th th e D i ss e n te rs
"
p h l e t c al l e d
"
su p p o rtin g ,

th e c l a i m s o f th e f re e c h u rc h e s a ga i n s tth e H i gh F l i e rs i e Tori e s
”
,
. .

an d An l i c an s I n a v e i n of gri m h u m o r w h ic h re c a l l s S w i f ts
’
g .

M od e s tPrOp osal D e f o e ad voc ate d h an gin g all d i ss e n ti n g m in i s

”
,

te rs an d se n d i n g all m e m b e rs o f t
, h e f re e c h u rc h e s i n to e xi l e ; an d
so f e roc i ou s ly r e a l i s ti c w a s th e sa ti re th a tboth D i sse n te rs an d T or i e s
34 8 E N G L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

too k th e h or
au t li te ra l l y . D e foe w a s tr i e d f ou n d
, gu i l t
y of s e d i ti ous
l i be l ,
an d se n tenc e d o be
t fin e d , t
o an d
st th re e d a y s in th e p il l o ry ,
an d o b e im p r
t i son e d H a rd ly h ad th e se n te n c e b e e n
.
p ron o un c e d
" ”
wh e n D e foe w rote h is Hym n to th e P i l l ory ,

Ha i l h i e r o g l y p h i c at
st e m ac h ine ,

C o n tri v e d to p u n i s h fa n c y in ,

a se t o f v e rs e s ri d i c u l i ng h is p ro se c u to rs w h ic h D e foe
d ogge re l , ,

w i th a k e e n e ye fo r ad v e rti s i n g sc atte re d all ove r L on d on C ro wd s ,

.

fl oc ke d to c h e e r h im in th e p i ll ory an d se e i n g th atD e foe w as m ak .

in g p o p u l ar i ty ou t of p e rs e c u ti on h is e n e m i e s b u n d l e d h im o ff to ,

N e wgate p ri son H e tu rn e d th i s e x p e ri e n c e a l so to ac c oun tby p u b

.

lish in g a p o p u l ar n e w s p a p e r an d b y ge tti n g ac qu a i n te d wi th rogu e s

, ,

p i ra t e s s m u ggl e rs
,
a n d m i sc e l l an e ous o u t
,
c as t s e ac h o n e wi t h a ,
"
g o o d s to ry t o b e
”
u se d l a t er Af t
e r h is re l e as e f ro m p ri s on
. i n ,

1 70 4 h e tu rn e d h is k n o w l e d ge o f c rim i n a l s to f u rth e r ac c ou n t an d
, ,

en t e re d t h e gov e rn m e n t e m p l oy as a ki n d o f s py o r s e c re ts e rvi c e -

age n t H is p r i so n e x p e r i e n c e
. an d t h e fu rth e r k n o wl e d ge o f c r i m
,

in als ga i n e d in ove r twe n t y ye ars as a spy ac c o u n ts for h is n u m e rou s ,

st o ri e s of t h i e v e s a n d p i rate s l i k e j on a t h a n I Vi ld a n d C ap t a i n A ve r
, y ,

an d a l so fo r h is la t e r n ov e l s w h ic h d e a l a l m ost e xc l u s ive ly w i th
,

vi l l a in s an d ou tc asts .

Wh e n D e fo e w as n e arl y S ix ty y e a rs of age h e tu rn e d to fi c tio n

a n d w ro t e t h e gre at work by w h i c h h e is re m e m b e re d R obi n s on .

C u s oe w a s an i n s tan t s u c c e ss an d th e au th o r b e c a m e fa m o u s all
r ,

ov e r E u ro p e O th e r s to ri e s fo l l o w e d rap i d l y an d D e fo e e a rn e d
.
,

m o n e y e n ou gh t o re t i re to N e w in gton an d l i v e in c om f ort; b u t n o t
id l y fo r h is ac tiv i ty in p rod uc i n g fi c ti o n is r iva l e d on l y by th a t of
,

Wa l te r Sc o tt T h u s in 1 7 2 0 app e a re d Cap ta i n S ing le ton D u n ca n

.
, ,

Ca mp b e ll, an d M e m oi r s of a C a va li e r ; in 7 2 2 , Colon e l j a c k , fil o/l

1

F la n d e rs , an d th e am az n
g i l y re a l i s ti c j ou r n a l of th e P lag u e Ye a r .

S o th e l i s t grow s wi th aston i sh i n g rap id i t

y , end ng i w i th th e H i s to r r
f
o h e D e vi l in
t 1 7 26 .

I n th e l a tte r y e ar c on n e c tion w i th th e gove rn m e n t

D e foe
’
s s e c re t

be cam e k n own an d a gre a t h o wl of in di gn ati on ros e aga i n sth im in

,

th e p ublic p r i n t d e stro y in i n an h ou r th e o u lari ty w h ic h h e h ad

g ,
p p
gai n e d by a l ife ti m e of i n t igu e an d l abo r H e fl ed f ro m h is h o m e
r .

o Lo n d o n w h e re h e d i e d o b sc u re ly in I
7 3 1 w h i l e h idi n g f rom r e a l
t , , ,

o r im a i n a ry e n e m i e s
g .
3 50 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

w e ary f e v e r i s h m on th s of b u ildi n g a h u g e b oat w h ic h w a s

, ,

too b ig to b e l au n c h e d by o n e m a n wi th o u t r e c a ll i n g s o m e ,

b oy w h o S p e n t m an y s tor m y d ay s in S h e d o r c e ll ar b u ild i n g
a b oat or d og h o u s e an d w h o w h e n t h e th i n g w as pa i n te d
, ,

a n d fi n i s h e d f ou n d i t a f oo t wid e r t
,
h an th e d oor a n d h ad to ,

k n ock i t to pi e ce s ? T h i s a b s ol u te n a tura l n e s s c h arac te r i z e s

th e w h ol e s to ry I t i s a s tu dy of th e h u m a n will a l s o — of
.
,

p ati e n c e f orti tu d e an d th e i n d o m i ta bl e S ax on s pi r i tov e r c om

, ,

i n g all ob s ta cl e s ; an d i t w a s th i s e l e m e n t w h ic h m ad e R ou s
s e a u r e c om m e n d R ob i n s on Cr u s oe a s a b e tte r tre ati s e o n
e d u c at i on th an an y th i n g w h ic h A r i s to tl e o r th e m od e rn s h ad
e v e r w ri t te n A n d th i s s u gg e s ts th e m os t s i g n ific an t th i n g
.

a b ou t D e f oe s m a s t e rpi e c e n a m e ly t h at th e h e ro r e p re s e n ts
’

, ,

th e w h ol e of h u m a n s oci e ty d o i n g wi th h is o w n h a n d s all th e
,

th i n g s w h ic h by th e divi s i on of l a b or an d th e d e m a n d s o f
,

m od e rn civili z ati on a r e n o w d on e by m an y d i ff e r e n t w ork e r s

, .

He is th e re f ore th e typ e o f th e w h o l e c ivili z e d ra c e of m e n .

I n th e re m a i n i n g w ork s o f D e f o e m or e th an tw o h u n d re d ,

in n u m b e r th e re i s an as ton i s h i n g v a r i e ty b u ta ll a re m a rk e d
,

by th e s am e s i m pl e n arrativ e s tyl e an d th e s am e i n te n s e
, ,

r e al i s m Th e b e s t k n o w n of th e s e are th e j ou r n a l of th e
.

P lag u e Ye a r in w h ic h th e h orr o rs of a f r i g h tf u l pl ag u e are

,

m in ut e ly r e c or d e d ; t h e M e m oi rs of a Ca v a li e r s o r e a li s tic ,

th at C h at h am q u ote d ita s h i s tory in Pa r li a m e n t an d s e v e ra l

picar e s q ue n ov e l s l ik e Cap ta i n S i ng le ton Colon e l j a c k M oll
, , ,

F la n d e rs a n d R ox a n a
, Th e l as t w or k is by s o m e c r i tic s
.

g iv e n a v e ry h i g h pl ac e in r e a li s tic fi c ti on b u t lik e th e oth e r ,

th r e e a n d lik e D e f oe s m i n or n a rr ativ e s o f J a ck S h e pp ar d an d
’

C ar to u c h e i t i s a di sag r e e abl e s tu dy o f vic e e n di n g wi th a

, ,

f or c e d a n d u n n atura l r e p e n tan c e .

S AMU E L R I C H A R D S O N ( 1 68 9 — 1 7 6 1 )
To R ic h ard s on b e l on g s
c re di t of w r i ti n g th e fi rs t m od
th e
e r n n ov e l H e w as th e s o n of a L o n d on j o i n e r w h o for
.

, ,

e c o n o m y s s ak e r e s id e d i n s om e u n k n o w n t
’

, o w n in D e rby s h i r e ,
 E IGHT E E N TH — CE N TU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 35 1

w h e re S am u e l w as b orn in 1 6 8 9 Th e b oy re c e iv e d v e ry .

li ttl e e d u cati on b u t h e h ad a n atu r al tal e n t for w r i ti n g le t

,

te r s an d e v e n a s a b oy w e fin d h im f r e q u e n tly e m pl oy e d
,

by w orki n g g i rl s to w r i te th e i r l ov e l e tte rs for th e m T h i s

-
.

e a r ly e xp e r i e n c e tog e th e r w i th h is f on d n e s s f or th e so ci e ty
,

" ”
of h i s d e ar e s t l ad i e s ra t h e r th an of m e n ga v e h im th at ,

in ti m a te k n o wl e d g e of th e h e a rts of s e n tim e n ta l an d u n e d u
c at e d w om e n w h ic h i s m an i f e s t in a ll h is w ork M o r e ov e r h e .
,

w a s a k e e n o b se rv e r o f m a n n e rs a n d h i s s u r p r i s i n g ly a cc u rate ,

d e s c rip ti on s of te n c om p e l u s to li s te n e v e n w h e n h e i s m os t ,

te d i ou s A t s e v e n te e n y e ar s o f ag e h e w e n t to L on d on an d
.

l e arn e d th e p r i n te r s trad e w h ic h h e f oll ow e d to th e e n d of

’

h is l if e Wh e n fi f ty y e ar s of ag e h e h ad a s m a ll r e p u ta ti on
.

a s a wr i t e r of e l e a n t e pi s t l e s an d th i s re p u tati on le d c e rta in
g ,

p u bli s h e r s to app r oa c h h im wi th a p ro p o s a l th at h e w r i te a
s e r i e s of F a m i li a r L e t t e rs w h ic h c o u ld b e u s e d as m od e l s by
,

p e opl e u n us e d to w r i ti n g R ic h ard s on gl adly a cc e p te d th e .

p pr O o s a l a n d h a d ,th e h a ppy i n s pi r a ti on to m a k e th e s e l e tte r s

te ll th e c on n e c te d s to ry of a g i r l s li f e D e f oe h ad told an
’
.

a dv e n t u re s t or y o f h u m a n l i f e o n a d e s e rt i s l a n d b u t R ic h ,

ar d s on w ou ld t e ll t h e s to ry of a g i r l s i n n e r li f e in th e m id s t
’

o f E n g li s h n e i g h b or s T h at s ou n d s s i m pl e e n ou g h n ow b u t
.
,

i t m ark e d an e p o c h in th e h i s to ry of li te ra tu r e L ik e e v e r y .

ot h e r g re at an d s impl e d i s c ov e r y it m ak e s u s w on d e r w h y ,

s o m e on e h a d n o tt h ou g h t o f i t b e f o r e .

R i ch ar d s on s N ov e ls Th e re s u l t of R ic h ar d s on s i n s pi ra
’ ’
.

ti on w as P a m e la or Vi r tu e R e w a rd e d a n e n dl e s s s e r i e s of
, ,

l e tte r s te lli n g of th e tr i al s tr ib u l ati on s a n d th e fi n a l h appy

1
, ,

m ar r ia ge of a too s w e e t y ou n g m a id e n p u bli s h e d in f o u r v ol ,

um e s e x t e n di n g o v e r t h e y e ar s 1 7 4 0 an d 1 7 4 1 I ts c h i e f .

f am e li e s in th e f ac t th a t i t is ou r fi rs t n ov e l i n th e m od e rn
se n s e A s id e f ro m th i s i m p ortan t f a c t an d vi e w e d s ol e ly a s
.
,

1 Th e s e w e re n ot w h at t
he b oo k ll se e rs e xpe cte d Th e y ed a
wan t h an d y l etter

iq
.

w itr e r,
”
s om e th n i g lik e a boo k of e t ue tte ; an d i tw a s p u b li sh e d in 1 74 1 , a fe w m on th s
aft P er a m e la .
35 2 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
a no ve l ,
it is se ntg im e n tal w ,
e ar i s o m e
r an dil oq u e n t
I ts , an d .

s u cc e s s a t t h e ti m e w a s e n orm ou s an d R ic h ar d s on b e g an ,

a n ot h e r s e r i e s o f l e tte rs (h e c o u ld te ll a s tor y i n n o oth e r

w ay ) w h ic h o cc u pi e d h i s l e i s u r e h ou rs f o r th e n e x t s ix y e ar s .

T h e r e s u l t w as Cla r i s s a or Th e H i s tory of a You ng L a dy

, ,

p u bli s h e d in e i gh t v ol u m e s i n 1 7 4 7 1 7 4 8 T h i s w as an oth e r —
.
,

a n d som e w h at be t te r s e n ti m e n ta l n o v e l ; a n d it w a s r e c e iv e d
,

wi th i m m e n s e e n th u s i a s m Of a ll R i c h ar d s on s h e r o i n e s
.
’

C l ar i s s a i s th e m os t h u m a n I n h e r d o u b ts a n d s c r u pl e s o f
.

c on s c i e n ce an d e s p e ci ally in h e r bi tte r g ri e f a n d h u m iliati on

, ,

s h e i s a r e a l w o m a n i n m a r k e d c on t ,
ra s t wi th th e m e c h an ic a l
h e ro L ov e l a c e w h o s i m ply ill u s trate s th e au th or s i n abili ty to
, ,
’

p or tray a m an s c h ara c te r Th e d ram atic e l e m e n tin th i s n ov e l

’
.

is s tron g a n d i s i n c r e a s e d by m e a n s of th e l e tte rs w h ic h
, ,

e n abl e t h e re ad e r to k e e p cl o s e to th e c h ara c te r s o f th e s to ry
an d t o s e e li f e f rom t h e i r di ffe r e n tvi e w p o i n ts M a c a u l ay w h o .
,

w as d e e ply i m p re sse d by Cla r i s s a i s s a id to h av e m ad e th e ,

re m ar k t h a t w e re th e n ov e l l os t h e c ou ld r e s tore a l m os tth e
, ,

w h ol e of it f ro m m e m ory .

R ich ar d s on n o w tu r n e d f ro m h i s m iddl e cl a s s h e ro i n e s an d -
,

in fiv e or s ix y e a rs c om pl e te d an o th e r s e r i e s of l e tte rs i n ,

w h ic h h e a tte mp te d to te ll th e s tory of a m an an d a n ar i s to
e ra t Th e r e s u l t w as S i r Ch a r le s G r a n d is on a n ov e l
.

( I 7

in s e v e n v ol u m e s w h os e h e r o w as i n te n d e d to b e a m o d e l of
,

ar i s to c ra tic m an n e rs an d vi rtue s for th e m iddl e cl as s p e opl e -

,

w h o l arg e ly c o n s ti tu te d th e n ov e li s ts r ea d e rs F o r R ic h a rd
’
.

son w h o b e a n in P a m e la wi t h th e p u r p os e of te ac h i n g h is
, g
h e ar e r s h o w to w ri te e n d e d wi th th e d e lib e ra te p ur p os e of
,

tea c h i n g th e m h ow to liv e ; an d in m os t of h i s w ork h is c h i e f

obj e c t w a s i n h i s ow n w or d s
, to i n c u lc a te vi rtu e an d g oo d
,

d e p ortm e n t His n o v e l s th e re f or e s u ffe r as m u c h f rom h is

.
, ,

p u rp os e a s f rom h is o w n l im i tati on s N otwi th s tan di n g h is .

te di ou s m orali z i n
g a n d h i s oth e r d e f e c ts R ic h a rd s on in th e s e ,

th r e e b ook s ga v e s o m e th i n
g e n ti r e ly n e w to th e li te ra ry w or ld ,

an d t h e w orld a pp r e ci a te d th e
g i f t T h i s w as th e s tory of .
3 54 E N G LI S H L I TE R AT URE
vi r tu e s of R ic h a rd s on s h e r oi n e He took for h is h e ro th e
’
.

a ll e g e d b rot h e r of P a m e l a w h o w a s e xp os e d to th e sam e ki n d
,

of t e m pt at i on s b u t w h o i n s te a d o f b e i n g r e ward e d for h is
, ,

v i rtue w as u n c e re m on i ous ly tu rn e d ou t of d oo rs by h is m is
,

tr e s s . T h e r e th e b u r l e s q u e e n d s th e h e ro ta k e s to th e op e n
road , a n d F i e ld i n g f org e t s all a b o u t P a m e l a i n te lli n g th e
a dv e n t u re s o f J os e p h a n d h is c o mp an i on P ars on A d am s , .

U n l ik e R ic h ard s on w h o h as n o h u m or w h o mi n c e s w ord s
, , ,

a n d m o ra li z e s an d d o t
, e s on t h e s e n ti m e n ta l w oe s o f h is h e ro
i n e s F i e ldi n g i s di re c t vi g oro u s h ilar i ou s an d c oars e to th e
, , , ,

p oi n t of v u l gar i ty H e is f u ll of an i m a l S pi r i ts a n d h e te ll s
.
,

th e s tory of a v ag a bo n d li f e n ot f o r th e s ak e of m o ra li z i n g
, ,

l ik e R ic h ard s on o r for e m p h as i z i n g a f or c e d r e p e n ta n c e l ik e
, ,

D e f oe b u t s i m ply b e c a u s e i t i n te re s ts h im a n d h i s on ly c on
, ,
”
c e rn i s “ to l aug h m e n ou t of th e i r f oll i e s S o h is s tory .
,

th o u g h it a b ou n d s in u n pl e a san t i n cid e n ts g e n e rally l ea v e s ,

th e re ad e r wi th th e s tron g i m p r e s s i on o f re a l i ty .

Fi e ld i n g s l ate r n ov e l s a re j on a th a n Wi ld th e s tory of a
’

r og u e w h ic h s u gg e s t
,
s D e f o e s n ar ra t iv e Th e H i s tory of Tom
’

j on e s a F ou n d /i ng
, h is b e s t w or k ; a n d A m e li a
th e s to ry of a g oo d wi f e i n c on tra s t wi th a n u n w orth y h u s
b an d His s tre n g th in all th e s e w or k s is in th e v i g o rou s b u t
.

c oar s e fi g u r e s lik e th os e of J an S te e n s pic tu r e s w h ic h fi ll

,
’

m o s t of h is p ag e s ; h is w e ak n e s s i s i n l a ck of tas te an d in ,

b ar re n n e s s of i m ag i n ati on or i n v e n ti on w h ic h l e ad s h im to ,

r e p ea t h i s pl ot s a n d i n cid e n t s wi th S l i h t v a r i a ti on s I n all
g .

h is w or k s i n c e r i ty is p e rh a p s th e m o s t m ark e d c h ara c te r i s tic .

F i e ld i n g lik e s vi ril e m e n j u s t as th e y ar e g oo d an d b ad b ut
, , ,

d e te s ts s h a m s o f e v e ry s or t His s ati re h a s n on e o f S wi fts

.
’

bi tte rn e s s b ut i s s u b tl e a s th at of C h au c e r an d g ood n atu re d

, ,
-

as t h at of S te e l e He n e v e r m orali z e s th o u g h s om e of h is
.
,

p ow e r f u lly d raw n s c e n e s s u gg e s t a d e e p e r m ora l l e s s on th an

an y t h i n g in D e f o e or R ic h a rd s on ; an d h e n e v e r j u d e s e v e n
g
th e w or s tof h is c h a ra c te r s wi th ou tr e m e m b e r i n h is o w n f ra il ty
g
an d t e m p e ri n
g j us tic e wi th m e r cy On th e w h o l e th ou gh m u c h
.
,
 E I GHT E E NTH C E NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 355

of h is w or k is p e rh ap s in b ad ta s te an d i s too c oar se for pl e a s

an t or p r o fi t a bl e r e adi n g F i e ldi n g m u s t b e r e g ar d e d a s an
,

ar ti s t a v e ry g re at a rti s t in re ali sti c fi c ti on an d th e advan c e d

, ,

st u d e n t w h o re a d s h im will p ro b ably c on c u r i n t h e j ud g m e n t
o f a m od e r n c r i t ic th at by g ivi n g u s ge n u i n e pic tu r e s of m e n
,

a n d w om e n of h is ow n ag e wi t h ou t m ora li z i n g ov e r th e i r V ic e s
,

a n d vi r tu e s h e b e c am e t,
h e re a l f o u n d e r of th e m od e rn n o v e l .

S M O L L E TT AN D S TE R N E

T obi as S m oll e tt ( 1 7 2 1 1 7 7 1 ) a pp ar e n tly tri e d to c arr y on

—

F i e ldi n g s w ork ; b u t h e l a ck e d F i e ldi n g s g e n i u s as w e ll a s

’ ’

h is h u m o r a n d i n h e r e n t ki n d n e s s a n d s o c r owd e d h i s p ag e s
,

wi th th e h orr ors a n d b r u tal i ti e s w h ic h ar e som e ti m e s m i s ta k e n

f or r e ali s m S m oll e tt w as a p h y s ici an of e cc e n tr ic m an n e rs
.
,

a n d f e r oci ou s i n s ti n c ts w h o d e v e l op e d h is u n n atu ra l p e c u liar i

,

ti e s by g o i n g a s a s urg e on o n a b a ttl e s h ip w h e r e h e s e e m s to ,

h av e pick e d u p all th e e vil s of th e n avy an d o f th e m e dic a l

p rof e s s i on to u s e late r in h is n ov e l s .

H is th r e e b e s t k n o w n w ork s are R od e r i c k R a n d om
a se rI e s of a dv e n t u r e s r e l at e d by t h e h e ro ; P e r eg r i n e P i c k le

Sm u t
o t
e
, 1 7
s
in w h ic h h e r e fl e c ts wi th b ru ta l di re c tn e s s
N v l
o e s
th e w ors to f h is e xp e r i e n c e s a ts e a a n d Hu mp h r ey

Cli n k e r h i s l a st w or k re c ou n ti n g th e m ild a dv e n tu r e s
,

of a We l s h f a m ily i n a j ou rn e y t h rou g h E n g l an d an d S c ot
l an d T h i s l as t a l on e c an b e g e n e rally re ad wi th ou t arou s i n g
.

th e r e ad e r s p rof o u n d d i s g u s t Wi th o u tan y p artic u l ar a bili ty

’
.
,

h e m od e l s h i s n ov e l s on D on Qu ix ote an d th e r e s u l t is S i m ply ,

a s e r i e s o f c oars e a dv e n t u r e s w h ic h ar e c h a ra c te r i s tic of t he
p ica r e s q u e n ov e l of h is ag e We r e it n ot for th e f ac t th at h e
.

u n c on s ci ou s ly i m i t e s J on s on s E v e ry M a n i n H i s H u m ou r
’
at ,

h e w ou ld h ardly b e n am e d a m o n g o u r w r i te r s of fi c ti on ; b u t
in s e i z i n g u p on s o m e g rote s q u e h a bi t or p e c u l i ar i ty an d m ak
in g a c h ara c te r ou t o f i t s u c h as C o m m od o re T r un n i on in
—

P e reg r i n e P i c k le M atth e w B ra m bl e in H u mp h r ey Cli n k e r

, ,

a n d B o wli n g in R od e r i c k R a n d om — h e l aid th e f ou nd ati on

356 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
for th at e x agge ra ti on in p or trayi n g h u m an e cc e n tr ici ti e s w h ic h
fi n d s a cli m a x i n D ick e n s s c a rica tu r e s ’
.

L aw re n c e S te rn e ( 1 7 1 3 — 1 7 6 8 ) h as b e e n c omp a re d to a
"
li ttl e b ron ze s aty r of a n tiq u i ty in w h o s e h oll o w b ody e xq u i
sit e o d or s w e r e s t o re d T h at is tr u e s o far as th e saty r is
”
.
,

c on c e rn e d ; for a m ore w e az e n e d u n l ov e ly p e rs on ali ty w ou ld ,

b e h a rd to fin d Th e o n ly q ue s ti on in th e c o m p ar i s on is in
.

r e g ar d t o t h e c h ara c te r o f th e od o r s a n d th at i s a m a tte r o f ,

tas te I n h i s w or k h e i s th e r e v e rse o f S m o ll e tt th e l atte r

.
,

b e i n g g iv e n ov e r to c oars e v u l gar i ti e s w h ic h ar e o f te n m is ,
‘

ta k e n f or r e a li s m ; th e f o rm e r to w h i m s an d v ag ar i e s a n d
se n t i m e n ta l te ars w h ic h f r e q u e n tly on ly d i s g u i s e a s n e e r at
,

h u m a n g ri e f a n d pi ty .

Th e tw o b ook s by w h ic h S te rn e i s re m e m b e r e d are Tr i s
ra m S h a n d
t y
~
an d A S e n ti m e n ta l j ou r n ey h r oug h F
t ra n c e a n d

S te m e s
v T h e s e a re te rm e d n ov e l s for th e s i m pl e re as on
a ly
It .

W “ 0
th a tw e k n o w n otw h a te l s e to c all th e m T h e f or m e r .

w as b e g un i n h is o w n w or d s
,
wi th n o r e al id e a of h owit w as
,

to tu rn o u t i ts n i n e v ol u m e s p u bli s h e d a ti n te rv a l s f ro m 1 7 6 0
,

to 1 7 6 7 p ro c e e d e d i n th e m os t a iml e s s w ay r e c ordi n g th e
, ,

e xp e r i e n c e s o f t h e e c c e n tr ic S h an dy f a m ily ; a n d th e b ook
w as n e ve r fi n i s h e d I ts s tre n gth li e s c h i e fly i n its b r illi an t
.

st yl e th e m os t r e m ar k abl e o f th e ag e a n d in its odd c h arac

, ,

te r s lik e U n cl e T oby a n d C o rp o ra l T r i m w h ic h wi th all th e i r

, , ,

e cc e n t r ici t i e s a re s o h u m an i z e d by th e a uth or s g e n i u s th a t ’

"
th e y b e l on g a m on g th e g r e at c re ati on s of ou r l i t
"
e ra tu re .

Th e S e n ti m e n ta l j ou r n ey is a c u r i o u S c om bi n ati on of fi c ti on ,

s ke t c h e s of trav e l m i s c e ll an e o u s e s s ay s on od d s u bj e c ts
, ,

all m a rk e d by t h e sa m e b r illi an cy of s tyl e a n d all s tam p e d ,

wi th S te rn e s f al s e a tti tu d e to w ard s e v e ry th i n g in li f e M an y
’

o f it s b e s t p as sa e s w e re e i t h e r ad ap te d or tak e n b odily f rom

g
B u rto n R a b e l a i s a n d a s c ore of oth e r w r i te r s ; s o th at in
, , ,

re a di n
g S te r n e on e is n e v e r q u i te s ure h ow m u c h is h is own
,

w ork th ou g h th e m a rk o f h is g rote s q u e g e n i u s is on e v e ry
,

p age .
358 E N GLISH L IT E R ATU R E
vi c t ri o v th F
es o h i Ca
er d an d t
e h e M i i s i p p i V ll e y d i g th e
re n c n na a ss s a , ur n

S v e Ye
en Fa rs ch
’
d I di
, or \V P li ti c a lly th e c t y w as
re n an n an , a rs . o ,
ou n r

d ivi d d i t Wh ig se n o d T i th f m ki g g t lib rty f th e

an or e s : e or er see n re a e r e or

p e o p l ; th
e e l t t p h o ld i g t
a h k i g
er g i t
u p p l g ove m e t Th c o
n e n a a ns o u ar rn n . e n

ti ed
nn t ife b t s r w e e th s tw p li tic l p ti h ad a d i e c t ( a d ge e ra l ly a
e n e e o o a ar es r n n

h m f l) i fl
ar u e n li te tue n c as m y f th e g e at w i t w e
on ra u re d by , an o r r e rs er use

th e W h i g o T ry p a t y t d va
r o it w i t r s t a d t s ti i i ts e
r o a nc e s o n n e e s n o a r ze en

mi esN twi th s t n d i g th i p rp t l trife of p rti th e ge i

. o a n s m a k b lee e ua s a es, a s re r a

fo th r ap i d s o c i l d v e l p m
e r t w h ic h a xp s e d i t lf i l i t t
e o en ,
soon e re s se n e ra u re .

Cl bs u d an ff h e m l ti p li d a d th o c i a l lif e f th s e c l b e s l te d
co ee ous s u e , n e s o e u s r u

i b e tt m
n er
i a ge e l fe li g f to l e ti o
a n n e rs , n a d e p c i lly i
n a ki d
ra e n o ra n, n s e a n n

o f pe fi i l e l g
su r c a c w h i h h ws i ts lf in m t f th e p
e an e a d p e ty
c s f o e os o ros e n o r o

th e p ri o d e O th . th h a d th e m o l ta d d f th
n e o er at i w as v ry n , ra s n ar O e n on e

l w ; ba d
o f o w d i s i fe s te d th e c i ty t e t af t
n s o r e igh tf ll ; b i b y a d
n s r e s er n a r er n

c o rru p ti w e re th e l e i p li ti c ; a d d k e s s w a f i gh tf lly p e a
on ru n o s n ru n enn s r u r v

l e t m g ll c l a s e s S w ift d g d d c f Y ah
n a on a s . i fl e c ti f th e
’
s e ra e ra e o oo s s a re on o

d e g ra d ati t b s
on i m l ti t d e
o f L o d o sa l
e een s Th i s l w s ta d a d
n u u s o n n oon . o n r

o f m l e m ph a i
o ra s th e i m p o rta c e f th e g e t Me th o d i t e viv a l
s ze s de r n o -
r a s r un

\Vh i t fie ld a d We l y w h i c h b g
e n i th e s e s e d q t
, f th e e i gh te e n th e an n c on uar e r o

c e t ry
n u .

Th li te a t e f th
e r t ry i r m a k b ly
ur o m p l e x b tw e m a y c l as s if y i t
e cen u s e r a co , u

a ll d
un th er g lh d
re e th e R e i gn
e n e ra f o c ll d Cl i i s m th e R viv l
ea s ,
— o s -
a e as s c , e a

o f R m o ti c P an try d th B e g i oe i g f th e M d , an N v l Th fi t h lf e nn n o o e rn o e . e rs a

o f th t ry e s p
e cen i lly i
u ag
, f p se wi g l g ly t th e fa tth a tth e
ec a , s an e o ro , o n ar e o c

p ra c ti l d ca i l i t t f th ge d e m a d e d e x p e s i o M d e
an soc a n e re s s oew e a n r s n . o rn n s

p p a l ik th Ch i l P t d Ti m a n d li te y m ga i
e rs , e e r on c e , lik th e
os , an es , ra r a z n e s, e

T tl a d Sp t t
e r an w h i c h b g i th is age g e a tly i fl
e c a or , d t h d e v l op
e an n , r n ue n c e e e

m t f
en o vi c b l e p e s tyl T h p e t y f th fi t h lf f th e c e t ry
a se r ea ro s e . e o r o e rs a o n u ,

as t yp ifi e d i P p e w as p li h d i m g i a tiv e fo m a l ; d th c l s d c o p
n o , o s e , un a n , r an e o e u

l tw
e i ge e al s
as n s pp l a t
n i g ll th f rm s of v e e B th p s e a d
r u e , u n n a o er o rs . o ro n

p oe try we t f e q tly ti i c a d s a ti e d o e s n o t te d t p d c e a h i gh
re oo r ue n sa r , n r n o ro u

typ e f li te a t e Th s e t d
o r ur i s i p o e t y w e e m d ifi e d i th l a tte
. e en enc e n r r o , n e r

p t f th
ar o ce t y e b y th e viv a l f m a ti c p e try
n ur , re o ro n o .

I t dy we h v
n o ur s u te d ( ) th e A g t a C l as i c Ag e ; th e m e a
e no : I u u s an or s n

i g f C l as i c i m ; th e lif a d w o k f A l x d
n o s s P o p e th e g e a t t p t f
e n r o e an er , r es oe o

f J th a S w if t th e s a ti ri t; o f J o
ph Addi ayi t;
th e a
ge ; o on a n th , f s se s on , e e ss s o

R i c h d S te l e w h w
ar eth i g i l g i o f th e T t/
, o as d th Sp t t ;
e or na e n us il er an e e c a or

o f S m a l J h o wh f
ue o ly h lf c t ry w s th e d i c t to r f E g l is h
ns n, o o r n e ar a a en u a a o n

l tt s ; f J m B w ll w h g v e s th i m m t l L if of j /
e er o a es os e , ; f o a u e or a e o zn s on o

E dm d B k e th g
un ur t t f E g li h , t e ; d f E d wa d G ib b
re a e s th e
o n s o ra o rs an o r on ,

h is to ri f man , f h i D li
a ous d F ll f t h R m
or E mp i
s ec n e an a o e o an re .

( ) Th R viv l f R m ti c P t y ; th e m
2 e e a o i g f R m a ti c i s m ; th e
o an oe r e an n o o n

li fe d w k f Th m G y ; f O liv G l d m i th f m s
an or o o as
p ratd m o er o s , a ou as oe , ra a
ti t s , d an v li t; f \Villi m C o w p ; f R b e t B
no e s o th e g e t t f a er o o r u rn s , r a es o

S o tti h p
c s t ; f W illi m B l k e th
oe s om y ti c ; d th mi a t f th e a e s an e n or oe s o
p ,

e ar ly m tic m v m t J m s Th m s W illi m C lli G g C b b e

ro an o e en , a e o on , a o ns, eor e ra ,
 E IG HT E E NTH —
C E NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 3 59

J am e s M a c p h e rs o n , au th o r of th e O s s i
p o e m s , T h o m a s C h a tte rto n , th e b o y
an

wh o or igi n ate wl y P ap e d th e R o P y w k li e rs , a n d Th o m a s e rc , h o s e w o r f o r te ra
tu r e w a s to ll c t th ld b ll d w h i h h
co e ll d th R li q f A i t e o a a s, c e ca e e e u es o n c en

E g lis h
n oe r , P ty a d t t l t th e s t i e s f N se m y th l gy i h i s [V th
n o ra n s a e or o or o o n or

er n An t i q u i tie s .

( 3) Th e F i li s h N v e li ts ; th e m e an i g a d h i t y f th e m d
rs t E n
g o s n n s or o o e rn

no v l; e th e lif d w k f D
e an i l D f e th r f R bi
or C o wh an e e o , au o o o n s on r u s oe , o is
h a d ly r to b e c ll d a o v li t b
e tw h m w p l c d m
a n
g th e p i
e ee s ; as , u o e a e a on on r n d
th e no v lse o f R ic h a dso F i e l d i g S m l l tt S t
r e a d G old m it
n , h n , o e , e rn , n s .

S l
e e cti on s li h P try a d M ly s E g li h
f or R e a d i n g . Man ly s ’
E ng s oe n an
’
n s

P ro s e
( G i d C m p y )
n n an tw e x c e ll e n t v o l m oc t i i g se l c t
an i a re o u es on a n n e ons

f om ll th
r a st d ie d auWa d s E n g li h P ts (4
o rs C a ik s E gli h
u . r
’
s oe r
’
n s

P ro S e l c ti o s ( 5 a d C tts E g li h P s e f o m E li
’
se e n b e th t n a rn e n s ro r za o

V i c to i a r ae f l f or s p p l e m e t y
re us d i g A l l i m p o ta tw k s h
u u ld b e n ar re a n . r n or s ou

re d a ti e i o e o f th e f l l wi g i
en r ,
n x p s iv e d i ti s p b li s h e d f s c h l
n o o n ne en e on , u or oo

u se (F . ti tl e s d p b li h s
or G e e l B i b l i g ap h y a te d o f th i s b o k )
an u s er , see n ra o r n o .

P p R p e f th L o c k
o e . d O th e r P o e m s e d i te d b y P a o tt i S t d d
a o e an , rr , n an ar

E g li h C l s i c s
n s V a i o s o th c h oo l e d i t
as i o s f th e E s s y o M a a d
. r u er s n o a n n, n

R p e o f th e L c k i
a R iv e i d e L i t a t e S e i o P o c k e t C l as s i c tc ;
, n rs er ur r es, s, e .

P o p s I li ad I V I XXII XXI V i S t d d E gli h C l as s i c s e tc S l c

e
’
, , , , , n an ar n s , . e e

ti o f om P p d i t d b y R e d i H o l ts E g li h R d i g
ns r o e, e e e , n
’
n s ea n s .

S w if t G lliv T v l s c h o l e d i ti o b y G i
. u er s
’
d C om p a y ; a l s o i
ra e s, o n nn an n n

T m p l C l as i s
e e tc S e l ti s f o m S w ift
s c d i t d b y W i c h e s te
,
e . i A th e ec on r , e e n r, n

n ae m P e ss (
u r d ) th e s am e d ited b
y C ik i C l re d o P
an n o u n c e ; the e, ra , n a n n re s s

dit d b y P tt i H l ts E g li s h R a d i g B a ttl f th B k i ’
s mea , e e re s c o , n o n e n s. e o e oo s, n

K i g C l i B h L i b ry tc
n
’
s as s c s , o u s
’
ra , e .

A dd i d St ls on Si R g d e C o v e l e y P ap e s i S t d d E gli h
an ee e . r o er r r , n an ar n s

C l s s i c s R iv e i d e L i t a t
a , tc ; S l ct rs io s f m A d d i d it d b y W
er u re , e , e e n ro s on , e e en

d e ll a d G e e n
gh a d S l e ti o r f m S te l e d i t d b y C p e t r b o th i
n ou , n e c ns ro e , e e ar n e , n

A th e ae m P e ; v in u th s l ct i s i G l d e T e as y S i e C a m e
r ss ar o u s o er e e on , n o n r ur er s,

lo t S e i e s H l t E g li h R e d i n g e t
’
r , o s n s a s, c .

L iv e s f th e P e ts i C s e l l s N ati l L i b a y ; S e l e c te d E s ’
j h o n s on . o o , n as on a r r

s y a d i t d b y G B H il l ( D
s, e e t) ; S l c ti s i L i ttl
. M t rp i c s S e i e s ;
. en e e on , n e as e e e r

R l i H l ts E g li s h R d i g d i M l y U iv e s a l L i b ry
’ ’
a ss e as , n o n ea n s , an n or e s n r ra .

B w ll L ife f J h s (2 i E v e y m n s L i b ary ; th e m e (3
’
os e . o o n on n r a r sa

i L i b ry f E g li h C l ic s ; al i T m p l C l i s d B oh L i b ry
’
n ra o n s as s so n e e as s c , an u s ra .

B k A m i Ta x ati C il i ti wi th A m i c L tte t a N b l
ur e . e r c an on , onc a on er a, e r o o e

Lo d i r S t d d E g li h C l
, n i ; v i s s p c h e s i P oc k e t C l s ic s
an ar n s ass c s ar o u ee , n a s ,

R iv e i d e L i te t e S i s
rs tc ; S l e c ti o ra u r e d it d b
y B P ry ( H l t) ; er e , e . e ns, e . er o

Spee h es c A m i c a ( H th on er ea ,

Th S t d e t G ib b ab i d g d ( M y ) ; M m o i s e d i te d b y ’
Gi bb on . e u n s on , r e u rra e r ,

E m e rs o n , i n A th e n ae u m P re s s .

Gr ay . Se l e c ti o n s, e d it d e by W . L .Ph lp e s, in A th e n ae u m P re s s ; Se l e c ti on s
f ro m G ra y an d Co wp e r, in C a n te r b y Pur oe ts, R iv e rs id e i
L te ra tu re , e tc ; .

G ray
’
s E l gye ,
in S e l e ti c on s f ro m F iv e E n
g li sh P oets
( G in n an d C o m p an y) .
3 60 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
Golds m i th l l g e i S ta d d E n g li h C l ass i c s e tc ; V i c a f
. D e s e rte d V i a , n n ar s , . r o

W k fi l d i S ta d d E g li h C l as s i cs E v e ry m
a e e ,
n L ib y K i g s C l s ic
n ar n s ,
an s
’
ra r , n
’
a s s,

et c ; She St. oop t Co q i P c k e t C l as i c s B l l s L e tt e s S ri s e tc

s o n u e r, n o s , e e r e e , .

C wp S l c ti
o edit
er e d b y M rr y i
.
A th e m P re s ; S l ti o s i
e e ons, u a , n na
e u s e ec n , n

C ll N ti o a l L i b a ry C a t b y P o e t tc ; Th e T s k i T m p l e
as s e
’
s a n r ,
n er ur s, e . a , n e

C l as i s cs .

ta tiv e P wi th C a lyl E s y B e d it d b
’
B R ep e
urns .m r se n s
y oe s, r e s sa on u rn , e

C L H. . i S t d a d E g li h C l
an s o n , i c ; S l e c ti
n i P oc k e t C l an i s r n s as s s e on s , n as s c ,

R iv e i d e L i te at
rs tc r u re , e .

Bl k P m d i te d b y \V B Y e ats i M s e s L ib a y ; S l e c ti o in
a e . oe s, e . .
,
n u
’
r r e n s,

C ante rb y P e t e tc ur o s, .

Mi P t Th m o n C lli s C a b b e S e l c ti s i Ma ly s E g ’
n or oe s tc . o s , o n ,
r , e . e on , n n n

li h P e try Th m
s o Th Sea .
d C as tl o f I d o l e c e i
o M d
so n s
’
e s on s , an e n n , n o e rn

C l s i c ; th e
a s m e poe m
s i Cl d P e s s a d in Te m p l e C l as s i c s ; S l e c
sa s n a re n on r , n e

ti f m Th m s n i C s ll N ti o a l L ib ra y C h tt t n p m i ’ ’
on s ro o o , n a se s a n r . a er o s oe s, n

t b ry P o e t M ph e Os s i a i C a te b y P P ry R l ’ ’
C an e r u s .ts ac rs o n s n, n n r ur oe . e c s e

iq ue s, i E v e ym s L ib
n y C h a d o C l as s ic s B h
r L i b ry e tc
an
’
(M ra r , n s , o u s
’
ra , . o re

re c e n ta d li b l e c ll c ti s f p p l a b a ll ad s f s c h l s
n re a G m
o e on o o u r ,
or oo u e, a re u

e s O ld E g li h B ll ad i A th e ae m P e s s ; Th e B a ll a d B k e d i te d b y
’
m er n s a s, n n u r oo ,

A ll i gh m i G ld e m T e y S e ri e s ; C yl e y d F l ah e ty P oe t y f th
n a , n o r as u r a an r
’
s r o e

P e op l e ( G i d C o m pa y) tc Sn n anB ib li gra p h y p 64 n , e . ee o on . .

D f R bi o C
e oe o . ch l d i ti b y G i
o ns d C mp n y ; th e s a m e ru s e , s oo e on , n n an o an

i P c k tC l s i c
n o t ; J e a l of th e P lag e Y e
as d i t d b y H l b t( G i
s, e c . o u rn u a r, e e ur u nn

an d C mp y ) ; th e s am e i E v e y m n s L ib r ry e tc ; E s s ay o n P r j e ts
o an , n r a
’
a , . o c ,

i C s e ll N ati o l L i b a y ’
n as s na r r .

Th A l t M e ly E g li h P e ; C ik E g li h P
'

ov e zs s . S e l e c ti s
an
’
s n s ro s ra
’
s n s ro s e on ,

l 4 ; G l d m i th Vi o f Wak fi l d ( s e b v e ) ; S l c te d E ys f F ie l d
’
vo . o s s c ar e e e a o e e ssa o

i g d i te d b y G o l d i A th
n , e m P s er u , n e n ae u re s .

B i b i ograp h y 1 His t l ory Te x tb ook , Mo n tgo m e r , p p 2 8 0 —3 2 2 ; C h e n e ,

. .
-
y . y y
pp 5 1 6
.
—
5 74 G e n e r a l /V
l or k s G re e n e , c h 9 , s e c 7 , to c h 1 0 , s e c 4 ; T ra ,
. . . . . . il l
G a rd n e r , M ac a u ai Sp e c i a l Wor ks l y
Le c k y s H s to ry o f E n g an d i n th e i l
’
etc , . .

i
E gh te e n th C e n u r , s t y v ol
1 3 ; M o r r s s T h e A ge o f Q u e e n n n e an d t he .
-
i ’
A
E ar ly v i
H a n o e r an s ( E p o c h s o f Mo d e rn H s to r ) ; S e e e s T h e E p a n s o n o f
’
i y l y x i
E n g an d ; Ma c a u a s C
l k l y liv y
’
e , an d C h a th a m ; Th a c e ra s T h e F o u r G e o rge s ,
’

d th E gli h H m ; A sh t s S o i l L if i th R i gn i t ’
an e n s f Q ee u or s s on c a e n e e o u n

A ; Snne H le M a d M u sa n
e rs f th E i gh t e th C e n t ry ; S y d n y
a
’
s en n an n o e e n u e
’
s

E gl n d d th E gli h i th E i gh t e th C e t y
an an e n s n e e n n ur .

L itera t ure G l lV h T h C m b i d ge L i t t re Ta i e S a i t b ry
. en era or s . e a r e ra u , n , n s u ,

et Sp i l l V k
c .
P ry E g li s h L i t t i th E i gh t th C t ry ;
ec a or s . er
’
s n e ra u re n e een en u

L S t ph E g li h L i t i th e E i gh te e n th C e n t ry ; S c c o m b
’
t Th
’
. e en s n s e ra u re n u e e s e

Ag f J h ; D i T h e A ge f P o p e ; G os s e s H i to ry o f E g li h
’ ’
e o o n son enn s s o s n s

L i te t i th e E i g h te th C t ry ; W h i tw ll S m e E i gh te e th C e n t ry
’
ra u re n en en u e s o n u

Me f Le tte
n
( C wp e S te e F i e l d i g G o l d m i th G ra y J h n s o a d
o rs o r, rn , n , s , , o n, n

1 F ti tl d p b li h
or f g l f es an w k d f i x pe iv t xt u s e rs o e n e ra r e e re n ce or s , an o ne ns e e s , se e
G l B ib li g p h y t d f th i b k
e n e ra o ra a en o s oo .
362 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
v a ri ou s s c h oo l e d i ti o
in C a m e b y lot se ie R as s e l as , n s,
D t) ; th e sam e r s ;
( en ,

G i nn a d C m p
n y H o l t tc ;
o S e l e c ti n an m L iv ,
f t h e P t Wl th
, e . o s f ro es o oe s,

l y if J h d i d by M tth w A l d ( M ac m ill a ) L if
M ca L f t a e rn o n e :
’
a u a e o son e o ns ,
e .

Bo ws e ll L if e f ’
J sh n i E v e y m o L i b ra ry T o empl nso C l as i c L i b
,
ra y n r an s
’
,
e s s, r

f E lins h C l i c t c ; b y L S te p h e
as s ( E g li h M
s, e en f L et t e rs ) ; b y G a t n n s o r n .

o g
. .

Cr c i ti i m G s B H ill : D J o h .
h i s F .
i e d s a d C ri t
’
s i cs ; E ay b
r y . n son ,
r n n ss s,

L St p
. h e n
e i n H rs i L i,
b y ; b y M c l ay B i
ou ll etc n a ra r a au , rre , .

Te x t L if f J oh o d i t d b y G B H il l ( L o d
s : e o ns n, e e . . n on ,

va i r o us th e d i ti o ( se ab v ) r L i fe
e b y F i t ge l d ( Lo d
ons e o e . : z ra n on ,

R og B w e lli
er s
’
a ( Lo d os W h itfie ld s S m E i gh te e n th C e t ry
an n on ,
’
o e n u

Me n of Le tte rs .

x Wo rk s vols 6 v ol s
’
re p ri n te d, in B oh n
B u r ke . Te ts : , 1 2 .
( B o s to n , .
, s

i
L b ra ry ; S e le c t d e d it d b y P y i Cl d e Wo rk s
P s s ; O th e S b , e a ne , n are n on re n u

li m a d B e tif l i Te m p l C l as i c F v a i s s p e e c h s e e S l e c ti s
e n au u , n e s s . or r ou e s, e on

for R d i g ab v e L ife
ea by P i n ; by M,
l y ( E gli s h Me o f L e tt )
o . : r or or e n n e rs .

C ri ti c i m E s y b y B i e ll i Ob i te r D i ta S e e l D o wd e s F e n c h ’
s : sa rr ,
n c . a so n r
,

R v l ti d E g li s h L i te t e a d W d ro w W il s s Me e L i t
’
e o u on an n e ra t ra u r , n oo on r u re .

Gi b b Te x t D e c li
on d F a l l f th e R o m
.
E m p i e e d i te d b y B ry
s : ne an o an r ,
u ,

7 v o l ( L s d o. 1 896— 1 90 0 ) v ri o s o t
on h d i ti s ; T h e S t d e ts G i b b
n ,
a u er e on u n
’
on ,

a b idg d ( M
r eay ) Me m i e d it d b y E m e s
u rr i n A th e at m P e s s ( G i o rs , e r on , n u r nn

a d C m p a y)
n o L if e b y M i ( E g li h Me o f L tt ) C ri ti c i m E
n . y
: o r s on n s n e e rs . s : ssa s,

b y Bi ll i C o ll t d E y a d R e s J d i tm ; b y S te p h e i S t d i e s f a
r re , n ec e ssa s n u ca n, n u o

B i og p h ra; b y R ob e t er i Pi e H m a i ts ; b y F e d e ri c k Ha rri s o in r s on , n on er u n s r n,

R uski d O th n L i te a y E ti m t s ; b y B ag h o t i n L i te ra ry S t d i e s ; b y
an er r r s a e e , u

S i te B e v e i E g li h P tra i ts S e e a l s A to n s Ma te s i n H i t ry ’
a n -
u , n n s or . o n s r s o .

S h id erT xt S p e c h e s 5 vo ls ( Lo d n
an . e P l ays d i te d b y
s : e , . n o , ,
e

\V F R e ( L o d
. . a th m e di t d b
y R D i k i C a m l t S ri e ;
n on , e sa e , e . rc s, n e o e s

M j D ra m as i A th e n aa m P e s ; P l ay l i M l e y s U iv e s a l L ib ra ry ’
a or , n u r s s a so n or n r ,

Mac m ill E g li h C l an s ic e tc L ife b y R a ; b y M O li p h an t ( E g li h

’
n s as s s, . : e . n s

Me n L e tte rs ) ; b y L
of . S a n d e rs ( G re a t W ri te rs ) .

Gr ay xTe ts : Wo r k d i t d b y G o s ( Mac m ill a ) P o e m s in R o tle d ge s ’

. s, e e s e n , u

Po k t L i b a y C h a d o C l i c s tc ; S e l ti s i A th e az m P e s s tc ;
c e r r , n s as s , e . ec on , n n u r , e .

L tte
e e dit d b y
rs , L if e b y G s s ( E g li s h M e o f L e tte rs ) e : o e n n .

C i ti c i s m
r E y b y L we ll i La te s t L i te ry E s s ay s ; b y M A o l d i
: ssa s, o , n ra . rn , n

E s y s i C i ti c i m ; b y L S t p h e n i H
s a n rrs i a L i b ra ry ; b
y A D ob s
s in . e , n ou n . on ,

E i gh t th C e t ry V i g e tt
een n u n es .

G ld m xl lo T x ts s e d it d b
y Mas s r G l b e e d i ti o ; W k s e d i t d b y
. e : e on , o n or , e

A ik d T c k n n a ( C w e ll ) ; th e s a m
en an d i te d b y A D b o
u e
( D e n t) ; n ro e , e . o s n

Mo l y U iv a l L i b ry ; A b
r e
’
s T h G l d m i th A th l gy ( F
n e rs wd ) S e ra r er s
’
e o s n o o ro e . e

a l s S l c ti f R d i g b o v e L if b y Was h i gto I vi g ; b y A D b s o
o e e on s or ea n , a . e n n r n . o n

(G t W it S ri e ) ; b y B l c k ( E g li h M
‘
re a r ers f L e tte rs ) ; b y J F rs te r ;
e s a n s en o . o

b y P ri o C ri ti c i m E ay
r .
b y M c a l a y ; b y Th ac k e a y ; b y D e Q i c e y ;
s : ss s, a u r u n

b y A D ob . i Mi sc e ll i son , n an e s .

C wp o Te x t Wo k G l b e a d A l d i
er .
e d iti s ; a l i C h a d os
s : r s, o n ne on so n n

Cl ic ; S e l e c ti
as s s i A th ae m P ss C a te rb y P o e t tc Th e C
on s , e n en u re , n ur s, e . o rr
s
po d e c e f W il lia m C o w p e r e d i te d b y T W ri gh t 4 v o l
n n o
( D o d d Me d , .
, s .
, a
 E I GHT E E NTH -
C E N T U R Y L IT E R ATU R E
‘

363

C o m p an y ) . L ife : b y G o l d wi n S m i th ( E n g li s h M e n L e tte rs ) ; b y W r g h t;
of i
b y S o u th e i i i m E ys b y L S t p h y . C r tc i s : ssa , . e en ; b y B ag e h o t; b y S a n te
B v ; b y B i l l ; b y S t pf d B k e ; b y A
eu e rre v o or ro o . D o b s o n ( s e e ab o e ) See .

l W d b ry Mak of L i te t
a so oo er
’
s e rs ra u re .

B T x ts W k C am b i dge P t E d i ti (c t i i g H l y
’
urns . e : or s, r oe s on on a n n en e s

S t dy f B
u
) G l obo d A l d i e e d i ti
u rn ss Cl d P e ss C a t b y
, e an n on , a re n on r , n er ur

P o t e t ; S l c ti
e s, i A th c . m P et c ; L t t i C m el t S i
e e on s , n e n ae u re s s , . e e rs , n a o er es .

L if e b y C i gh m ; b y H l y ; b y S t ; b y B l ki ( G e a t W ri te ) ;
: un n n a en e e oun ac e r rs

b y S h i p ( E gli h M
a r f L tt ) C i ti i m E s s y b y C lyl e ; b y R L
n s en o e e rs . r c s : a s, ar . .

S te v s i F m ili
en S t d i e s ; b y H a li tt i L e c t e s o th e E g li s h P e t ;
on , n a ar u z , n ur n n o s

b y S t pf d B k e i Th e l ogy i th e E g li h P o e ts ; b y J F o s t i
o or ro o , n o n n s . r e r, n

G r e a t T e a c h e rs .

B la k e . T e ts x : P
y P ts ; C m
oe m s , A ldi ne ed i ti o n ; a sol i n C a n te rb u r oe o

p le te W o k s e d i te d b y E lli a d Y
r
,
t (L d S l e c ti dit d s n ea s on on , e on s , e e

b y \V B Y th e M s L i b a y ( D tto n ) ; L e tte wi th L ife b y ’

. t i . e a s, n u es r r u rs ,

F T th m e d i t d b y A G B R s s e ll ( S c ib e L ife b y G il c h i s t;
’
. a a , e . . . u r n r s, : r

b y S to y ; b y S y m r s C i ti c i m S wi b s Will i am B l k e a C i ti a l
on . r s : n u rn e
’
a , r c

S t d y ; E l li s Th l B l k e ( Mc C l e E l i ab e th C a y Th e A t
’ ’
u R s e ea a ur , z r s r

o f W illi m B l a k ( M ff t Y d
a C om pa y E ss y b y A C B e s
e o a , ar n ,
a , . . n on ,

i E s ay
n s s .

Ti m / o T x ts W k s A l d i e e d i ti o ; T h e S e a o
s on . e d C a tl
: f I dor , n n s n s , an s e o n o

le c e i C la e d P
n , n et c L if e b y B y
r n; b y G B Mac a l a y ( E g li s h
on re s s , . : a ne . . u n

Me nf L tt s ) E a y b y H li tt i L e c t
o e er th e E g li h P
. ss ts , az , n u re s o n n s oe .

C lli o Wo k nsd it d b y B
. o i A th ae m P e s ; a l s i A l d i e
r s, e e ro n s n , n en u r s o n n

e d iti L if
on b y J oh
. i L iv e : f th P t E s s y b y S wi b e i n s on , n es o e oe s . a , n u rn , n

M i s e ll a i s S e e a l o B e
c n e E g li h R m. ti i m i th e E i gh te e th C s t ry e rs s
’
n s o an c s n n en u .

C oo raW k s wi th m m i b y h i s s
e . or G C ab b ,8 v l (L d e o r on , . r e, o s . on on ,

1 8 4
3 P m d i t d b y A W W d 3 v o l i C am b i d g E g li h
oe s, e e . . ar , s .
, n r e n s

Cl i ( C am b i d g
as s c s S e l e c ti o i T m pl C l s i s C t b y Po t
r e, n s, n e e a s c ,
an er ur e s,

e tc L if
. b y K b b e l (Ge : t \V i t ) ; b y A i g ( E g li h Me
e f L e tte ) re a r e rs n er n s n o rs .

E y s b y L S te p h i H s i a L ib ry ; b y W d b e ry i Ma k e s f
s sa , . en , n our n ra oo r , n r o

L it t ; b y S i t b ry i
e ra u re E y i E g li h L i t a t ; b y C o th o p
a n s u , n ssa s n n s er u re ur e,

i Wa d E g li s h P o t ; b y E d w d F i t g l d i M is c e ll i s ; b y Ha li tt
’
n r s n e s ar z e ra , n an e z ,

i n S p i i t f th Ag r o e e .

[li m p /E m T xt O i an i
a C t b
on y P t ; P em s t l t d by
. e s : ss , n an er ur oe s o , ran s a e

M ac p h s o n dit d b y T dd ( L
er d, e L if a d L tte
e d i te d b y o on on ,
e n e rs , e

Sa d e s ( Lo do C i ti i m J S S m t J m M c p h so ( N tt ’
un r n n, r c s : . . ar s a es a er n u ,

S e e al B e s E g li h R m ti i mso F l a ti n f M p h e s o s
e r
’
s n s o an c s . o r re o o ac r n
’

w k t th e o ri g i a l O s i n s e D
or o f Li m o e s B k e dit d b y M c
n s a , e e an o s r
’
oo , e a

L auchl ( E d i b gh
an ls P m f O s i n ta
ur l ate d b y C l k
, a o oe s o s an ,
r ns er

( d i b gh
E n ur ,

C/ t t t za W k s dit d b y S k t ( L do
e r on . P m i C t
or , e e ea on n, oe s, n an er

b y P t L if b y R s ll ; b y Wil Ma s B i og p h y ’
ur oe s . s Ch t
e te t u se s on s on a r on , a ra .

C ri ti i s m C E R e l l s Th m C h tte to ( M ff tt Y d C om p a y ) ; ’
c : . . us s o as a r n o a , ar n

E y b y W tt D t i Wa rd E n g li h P t ; b y M
s sa s, a s -
i
un E ys on , n
’
s s oe s ass on , n ss a

B i g ap h i l d C i ti c a l S e l E gli h R m ti i m
’
o r ca B an r . e a so e e rs s n s o an c s .
 6
3 4 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
P ye rc
li q e.
e d i t
Re
e d b y W h u t l y (s,L o d th e a m e i E v y ea e n on , s , n er

m an s L
’
i b y C h d s
ra r C l i,
t Ean y b y J o\ V H l R e v iv l
as s c s , f e c . s sa ,
. . a es, a o

B a
ll d
a P e t y i F
o li L i t
r ra ,
i S
n e e l oB e e s Ea g li h R m an ti i s m e tc
e r a . a so r
’
s n s o c ,
.

S
( p e i l
c aw o rk b ov e ) s, a .

T x R m d N t iv es d i te d b y A it k ( D e n t) P oe m s e en
D f e e o e t . a c e s a o n s an a rr ,

d P am p h l t i A b s E g li h G l 8; h l d i ti o s f R b i
’
n e r er n s a rn r, v o sc oo e n o o n s on
an e s, .

C ru s o d J
e , an l f th e P l a g
o u rn ae Y e ( G i o d C m p a y C p ti u ar nn an o n , a a n

S gi n l e t n a d oM e m ,
i fn C a v li i E v e ry m a
o rs o L i b a ry ; E ly
a W ri ti g a e r, n n s
’
r ar n s,

in C i b ar s k e L i b y ( R o tl e d ge ) L if b y \V Le e ; b y M i t ( E g li s h
ro o ra r u . e : . n o n

M en f L tt ) ; b y Wri g h t; a l s i n W e tm i s t B i g a p h i e ( S m a ll Ma y
o e e rs o s n er o r s ,

n ar d ) E ay b y . S t ph e
ss ,
i H i a L i b a ry e n, n o u rs n r .

Ri l m d e W k e d i t d b y L S te p h e ( L d o
r s on . or s : e d it d b y
e . n on n ,
e

P h ili p wi th lif ( N w Y k
s, e Cor e p ed c d i te d b y A B b
or ,
ld r s on en e , e ,
ar au ,

6 v l o s ( L o d . L n if e on ,b y T h m ; b y A D b E ays :by L o s on . o son . ss , .

S t ph ee i H rs i
n, na L i b a ry ; b y A ou D ob s o n i E i gh te e n th C e t ry r . n, n n u

V i g tt s ne e .

F ld g \V k
ie in T e m p l E d i ti
. or e d it
s :ed b
y S ai t s b ry ( D e n t ) ; eS el ted on , n u ec

E ssa y i A th ae m Ps, n ; J en l f a V y g to L i b
u re s s i C s e ll s o u rn a o o a e s on , n as
’

N ti a l L i b ry L ife b y D ob on ( E g li h M
a on ra . f L e tt ) ; L a w e c e s
: s n s en o e rs r n
’

L if e and Ti m s f F i l d i g E e y b y Lo w e ll b y Th c k y b y L S te p h e n
o e n . ss a s, a e ra .

b y A D ob o ( b v ) ; b y G B S m i th i P e ts a d N o v e li s ts
-

. s n se e a o e . .
, n o n .

S m ll t t W o k s e d i t d b y S a i ts b ry ( L n d o
o e . r , e \Y k s e d i te d b y n u o n , or ,

He l y ( S ib e ) L if
n e cr by H n h ( G e t W i te ) b y S m e a t ; b y C h a m
r . e : an n a r a r rs on

b rs E ss y b y Th a k
e . a y ; by H l y ; by D b
s, c i E i gh te e th C
e ra tu y en e o son , n n en r

V i g tt s ne e .

St Wo k s e d i t d b y S i t b y ( D e t) ; T i s tra m S h an d y a d A
er n e . r : e a n s ur n r , n

S ti m tl J y i T m p l C l i M l e y s U iv e l L i b ra y e t ’
en en a o u rn e , n e e as s c s , or n rs a r , c .

L if e :b y F i t ge l d ; b y T aill ( E g l i h Mz ra f L tt ) ; L if e a d T i m r by n s en o e e rs n e s,

W L C . .
( Mac m ill ) E
ro s s
y b y Th ac k e y ; b y B g h t i L i t a ry an .
‘
ssa s, ra a e o ,
n er

S t d ie s
u .

H W lp l T x t C a tl
or a c e a o e f Ot a t i Ki g
. e C l ss i c s C s s e l l s
s : s e o r n o, n n
’
s a , a
’

N ti l L i b ry tc Le tte s d i te d b y C D Y ge M l y s \Valp ol i
a ona ra , e . r , e . . on . or e
’
e, n

Tw lv e E g li h S ta te m
e n
( Mac m ill ) E
s y b y L S te p h i H
s en in an . ss a , . en , n o u rs a

L ib y S e al B
ra r . e E g li h R m so ti c i m e e rs s
’
n s o an s .

F B y ( M d m e d A b lay) Te x t E v li T m p l C la s ic
'
m ra e: ar ne a i
a r . s : e na, n e e s s,
a
v l ( M c m ill ) D i y d L tte e d i t d b y S C W o o l s e y S e l y
o s . a an . ar an e rs , e . . . e e
’
s

F an n y B e y d h F ie d E s y b y M c a l y
u rn an er r n s . sa , a u a .

S u gge s tive Que s ti on s i fly

. 1 . D e sc r b e b r i e he
t s oc a i l d e v e l o p m e n t o f th e
ei
gh te e n th c e n tu ry . Wh te ffe td id th i s h v e
a c a on li t e ra tu re ? Wh a tac c o u n ts
fo r th e p re a e n c e v l o f p W h t i fl e c
ro s e ? a n u n e d i d th e fi rs tne w s
p ap e rs e x e rt
on lif e an d li t e ra tu re ? Ho w d o th e re a d e rs of th i s a
ge c om p a re wi th th o s e o f
th e Age o f E li za b e th ?

2 H o w d o yo u e x p l ai n th e f
ac t th a t s a tre w as i l ar ly
u s e d in b o th p ro s e
ge
.

an d
po e tr y ?
N m th e a e
pr i ip l
nc a i
s a t re s o f th e a
ge . W h a t is th e c h e o b j e c t i f
o f sati re
?
f li te t e ?
Ho w d o th e j e c ts fli c t
o ra u r tw o ob c on ?
 3 66 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
12 . Gold s m i th l i f e Wh a t a e h i s c h i e f
. Te ll th e st
or y of l
G o d s m th i ’
s . r

w k Sh w f m
or s ? D t d V ll g th e
o m roti a d th e o c a ll e d c l s e se r e i a e ro an c n s -
a

i
s c e l e m t i h i w k Wh t g a t w k d id h e d f o th e e a ly v e l i
en s n s or . a re or o r r no , n

H ld ? C e x p lai th e p p l a i ty f S i S t p t C
l efi
/a
of
o ze
T/t Vi y e an ou n o u r oo s o on
'
e ca r

q ?
u er N m e m f G o l d m i th
a cha te w h o h v e fo
so e d a p m an
o t s
’
s ra c rs a un er en

p
l ca i oe li t t e n W h tp ur l m i i enc e ra u rh a v e yo te d i n Th e
. a e rs o n a re n sc es u no

an d oop s t
S /I e S t 7
o Co nq u e r .
Tr a v e lle r , T/ze e d Vi l lag e ,
D es e r t
1
3 . Cowp e r w p . D e sc r b e C o i w th e m ti c er s
’
T/ze Ta s k H o w d o e s i t s h o . ro an

s
p
i ri t G iv p
? ag f om e J oh G
as sil p i t ill est a te C o w pr h mo n n o us r
'
er s
’
u r .

T ll th e t y o f B l if e S m e e h s s i d Th e m as ’
14 B . ur ns . e s or u rn s s . o on a a , e

i i s th e d iff w w h th e i d w h th e m i gh tb ”
ce b t
’
u re o f a m an s s n e re n e een a s an a e .

Com m e t p th i
n wi th e f
u onc to B \Vh t is th e g e e l h ra c te
s, r e re n e u rn s . a n ra c a r

y W ll W h at s b j e c ts
‘

o f h i po s t ? h y i e h e c r e d th e p e t f c o m m s m e ? a o o on n u

d oe s h ch e f
e h i p e try ? C m p e h i m i
o os or th i s s e p c t wi to h P pe o ar , n r s e , o .

Wh t l e m ts i th e p e t c h a c te
a e en n v e l d i s c h p m s as T a
o
’
s ra r a re re a e n u oe
"
o

Mo e a d To a Mo ta i D a i y ? H w d B
us
”
n
"
d G y eg d
un n s
”
o o u rn s an ra r ar

t
n a u re ? \Vh t p e m s h w h i s y m p ath y wi th th e F e c h R e v l ti n a d
a o s o s r n o u o , n

wi th d e m c y ? R d Th e C tte s S a t rd y N i gh t a n d e x p l a i i ts e
o rac ea o r
’
u a ,
”
n n

d i g i te e t C e x p l ai h s e c e t f B m s s g re a tp o p l ari t y? ’
ur n n
y r s t . an ou n e r o u u

15 Bl k
. W h a t a th e h a ac te ri s ti c s of B l k e s p e t y ? C an y u e x
a e . re c r a
’
o r o

p l ai n w h y B l ak e th g h th e g e a te t p o e ti c g e i s o f th e ag e i s s
, ou li ttl e r s n u , o

a pp r
e c i te d ? a

16 P .
y I w h at e s p t d i d P e c y s R l i q
er c . n i n fl e c e th e m ti c
r ec r
’
e u es u n ro an

m ove m t? Wh a t e th e d e f c t
en s i h is o ll e c ti oar f b a ll a d s ? C a y ex e n c n o n ou

pl i wh y
a n ch c de p m su C h e vy C h s e
a ru h o l d b e p op l a r wi th a n
oe as a s u u

h td e li gh t d i P p e s E a y Man ’
ag e t a e n o ss on

17 M p/
. Wh a t i m e a t b y Mac p h e rs on s O s s i a
ae ze r s ou .
” ?
C s
y u n
’ “
n an o

ac oc tf
un t h e m k b le or c c e s s of t
e r h O i n i c fo ge ri e s ?
ar a su e ss a r

18 C/ t
. t t T ll th e s t ry f C h tt to a d th e R o wl y P o e m s R ad
Ia e r ou . e o o a er n n e . e

C h tte to B i t w e T ge d i yl e n d i te re s t wi th ”
’
a r n s a d c mp
r s o e it i st ra e , n o ar , n a n ,

th e old b ll ad lik Th B ttl e f O tt b

a s, e Th e H n ti g o f th e
e a o er u rn
”
or u n

C h e vi t ( a ll i M ly E g li / P ty )
” ’
o n an s u s z oe r .

19 T/ F
. tN l st W h a tis m
ze i rs tb y t he m d
ov e i ve l ? H w d es
s . e an o e rn no o o

i t d i ffe r fr m th e ly m a c
o d f o m th e a d v n t e s t ry ? W h at are
e ar ro n e an r e ur o

s om of t
e h p e c rs rs f th e e rv e l Wh tw as th p rp s o f s to ri s m d
u o o no ?
a e u o e e o

cl de fte r D Q ix t Wh tis th s i g ifi c a c f P m l Wh a te l e m e t
a on u o e a e n n e o a e a n s

d id F i l d i g add t th e e n v e l ? Wh t go d w o rk d id G l d s m i th s Vic of
o no a o o
’
ar
l V ke/i ld c c m li h ? C o m a e G o l d s m i th i n th i s r
p e c t wi th S te e l e d
a e a o s
p p r , es ,
an

A d d is o n .
 E IGHT E E N TH —
C E NTU R Y L IT E R ATU R E 3 67

C H R ON O L O G Y
E n d o
f S ez e u te e u t/z
'
an d fil e E z
gfite e n t/z Ce ut
ur
y

H I STO R Y L I T E R AT U R E
1 68 3 -
1 719 . De fo e ’
s e ar ly w i ti r n
gs
1 68 9 . W illi a m an d Ma ry
B ill of i
R g h ts . To l i
e ra ton Ac t
1 69 5 . P re s s m ad e fre e
1 70 0 Be g i nn n i g of L on d o n l
c ub s

1 70 2 . A nne
(d .
7 1 4) 1

Wa r o f S p an s h S u c c e ss i i on

1 70 2 . F i rs t d a ily ne ws p ap e r

1 70 4 . B a tte l of B l enh e im I 70 4 . Addi Th e C a m p a gn

son s
’
i
S wif ts Ta e o f a T u b l
’

1 70 7 . Un io n of E ng l an d an d S c tl a o nd

1 70 9 . Th e Ta te r l
J oh n s on b o rn 1 7 84 )
1 7 1 0- 1 713 . wifti
S n L on d o n . Jo u rn a l
to S te ll a
1 71 1 . Th e S p e c ta to r
1 71 2 . P
o e s R a e of t
p
’

p h e L oc k
1 714 . G e o rg e I (d . 1 7 27)
1 719 . R ob i n son C ru s o e
1 721 . C ab i ne t go ve rn m ent, Wa l p o l e
fi rs t i
pr m e m i n i s te r

1 7 26 G u . lliv e r s
’
T v l ra e s

6 Th o m s o n T h e S e as o n s
’
—1
1 7 2 730 . s

1 7 27 . G e o rg e I I (d . 1 7 60 )
1 73 2— 1
73 4 . E ssa y on Ma n
1 73 8 . R is e of Me th o di s m
1 74 0 . R ic h a rd s o n s
’
P am e a l
1 7 40 . Wa r o f A u str an i S uc c e ss i on

1 742 . F ie l d i n
g
’
s J os e p h A n d re w s

1 746 . J ac ob i te R eb e l li on

1 74 9 . F i ldi
e ng s
’
To m J on e s

1 75 0—1 752 . J oh n s o n s
’
Th e R am b l er

1 75 0—1 757 . C on q u e s to f I din a 1 75 1 . G ra y ’

s El e gy
1 75 5 . J oh n so n s D ic t
’
io n ar y
1 756 . W a r wi th F ran c e
1 759 . W o lf a t Q u e b e c
1 7 60 . G e o rg e II I 1 8 20 ) 1 7 60 — 1 7 67 S te rn e s Tr s tram S h an d
.
’
i y
I 7 64 . J ’
o h n son s L te ra r C ub i y l
1 765 . S ta m p A c t 1 7 65 . P e rc ys ’
Re li q ue s

1 7 66 . G o d s m th l i ’
s V i c ar o f Wa k e fi e l d
 3 68 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

H I S TO R Y L I T E R AT U R E
I 7 70 . l
G o d s m th i ’
s D e s e rte d V ill a
ge
1 77 1 . Beg i i nn n
g of g re a tn e w s p ap e rs

1 7 73 . B o s to n Te a P ty
ar

1 774 . H o wa rd ’
s f
p ri s o n re o rm s 1 77 4 1 7 7 5 B u rk e s A m e ri c a n s p e e c h e s
— .
’

1 775 . Am i e r c an v l i
R e o u to n 1 7 7 6 1 7 88
—
G bb on s R om e
’
. i
1 7 76 . D ec l i
a ra to n of I nde pe nde n c e 1 779 . Co wp e O l y H y m n r s
’
ne s

8 1 J oh L iv e f th P e ts
— ’
1 7 79 . n nso s s o e o

1 78 3 . T re a t y of P is
at 1 7 83 . B l k s P o ti c l S k e t
a e
’
che e a s

785 C o wp e s Th e T s k
’
1 . r a

Th e L o d Ti m e s n on

1 7 86 . Tr ial of Wa rre n H as ti n gs 1 786 . B n s fi rs tp o e m s ( th e K ilm a

ur s
’
r

o k B rn )
n c u s

B ke
ur Wa e n H as ti gs
’
s rr n

1 8 —1
7 9 7 99 . F re n c h Re v o l ti
u on

1 7 90 . Bur ke s ’
F re n c h R e v o l ti
u on

1 79 1 . Bos w e ll ’
s L ife of J o h n s on

1 7 93 . Wa r wi th F ra n c e
 3 70 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
T h om as P ai n e s P ty/ as of Al a n a ll re a d
’

P oe m s an d
’
B urn s s ,

e ag e rly by th e c o mm o n p e opl e all p ro cl a im i n g t h e di gn i ty of,

c om m on li f e a n d all u tte ri n g th e s am e p as s i on ate c ry ag a i n s t

,

e v e ry f orm o f cl ass o r c a s t e o pp r e s s i on .

F i r s t th e d re a m th e ide al i n s o m e h u m an s ou l ; th e n th e
,

w r i tte n w ord w h ic h p rocl a i m s it a n d i m p re s s e s oth e r m i n d s ,

w i th its tru th an d b e au ty ; th e n t h e u n i te d a n d d e te r m i n e d
e ff ort of m e n t o m ak e t h d m li y
t th a t s e e m s to
—
e r e a a r e a ,

b e a fa i r e s ti m ate o f th e p art th at li te ra tu r e pl ay s e v e n in o u r ,

p oli tic al p rog re s s .

Hi s tori cal S u m m ary . Th e p e ri od w e a re c on s id e ri n g b e g i n s in th e

H 99 l atte r h a lf of th e i gn of G e o e I I I an d e n d s w i th th e ac c e ss i on of
re
rg
V ic to r ia
83 7in 1 o n a f ogg
. Wh e n
m o rn n g in o e m e r, 1 7 8 3 , y i N v b
H
K i n g Ge orge e n te re d th e ous e of L ord s an d in a tre m l n g o c e bi v i
re c ogn z ei d d
th e i n d e p e n e n c e of th e n t e U i d
S ta te s of Am e r c a , h e i
u n c on sc i o us l y p ro c l a i m e d t h e tri u m p h of th at f re e gove rn m e n t by
f re e m e n w h i c h h ad be e n th e id e a l of E n gl i sh l i te ratu re fo r m ore
t h an a th ou san d y e ars ; th ou gh i twas n o tti l l 1 8 3 2 w h e n th e R e fo rm ,

B il l b e c a m e th e law of th e l an d th a t E n gl an d h e rse lf l e arn e d th e

,

l e sson tau gh t h e r by Am e r i c a an d b e c am e th e d e m oc rac y of wh ic h

,

h e r w ri te rs h ad a l w ay s d re a m e d .

Th e h a lf c e n tu ry b e tw e e n th e s e tw o e ve n ts is on e o f gre a t tu rm o i l ,

y e t of ste ady ad van c e in e v e ry d e p artm e n t o f E n gl i sh l ife Th e .

Th p e n nc h st orm c e n t e r of t h e p o l i tic a l u n re st w as th e F re n c h
R I fi
e VO U on R e v o l u ti o n th a t f r i gh tfu l u p ri si n g w h i c h p roc l ai m e d th e
,

n at
g s of m an an d th e ab o l i ti on o f c l as s di sti n c ti on s
u ra l r i h t I ts .

e fl e c ton t h e w h o l e c ivi l i e d w o rl d is b e y on d c o m p u ta ti on
z Patri oti c .

c l u b s a n d soc i e t i e s m u l ti p l ie d in E n gl an d all asse rti n g th e d oc ,

t i n e of L ib e rty E q u a l i ty F ra t
r
, e rn i ty th e w atc h w o rd s of th e R e v o
, ,

lu tio n . Y o un g E n gl an d le d by Pi tt th e youn ge r h ai l e d th e n e w
, ,

F re n c h re p ub l i c an d o ff e re d it f ri e n d sh i p ; old E n gl an d w h ic h p ar ,

d on s n o r e vol u ti on s b u t h e r o wn lo ok e d wi th h o rror on th e tu rm o il
,

in F ran c e an d m isl e d by B urke an d th e n ob l e s of th e re a l m fo rc e d

, ,

th e two n a ti on s i n t o w ar E v e n Pi tt saw a b l e ss i n g in th i s a t fi rs t;
.

be c aus e th e sud d e n z e a l for fi gh ti n g a fo re i gn n ati on — w h i c h by

so m e h o rrib l e
p e rv e rs i on i s ge n e ra ll y c a l le d p a tri o ti s m m igh tt u rn -

h
t ou gh ts from th e i r o w n to th e i r n e i h bo rs a ffa i rs an d so re ’

g p ,

a t h re a te n ed re v o l u ti o n a th o m e .
 TH E AG E O F R O M ANTI C I S M 371

Th e c au s e s i s th re ate n e d re v o l u tion w e re n ot p o l i tic a l b u t

of th
e c on o m i c By h e r i n v e n ti on s in s te e l a n d m ac h i n e ry an d by h e r
.
,

E c on o mi c m on op o l y o f th e c arryi n g t rad e E n g l an d h ad b e c o m e ,

h e w o rk sh op of th e wo rl d H e r w e a l th h ad i n c re ase d
”
C di t
on i on s t .

be yon d h e r wi l d e st d re am s ; b u t th e un e q u al di s tribu ti on of th at
w e a l th w as a s p e c tac l e to m ak e an ge l s w e e p Th e i n v e n ti on o f .

m ac h i n e ry a t fi rs t t h re w th o u san d s of ski l l e d h an d w o rk e rs o u t o f
e m p l oy m e n t; in ord e r t o p ro t e c t a fe w a gr i c u l t u r i st s h e avy d u ti e s ,

w e re i m p ose d on c orn an d w h e at an d b re ad ro se to fam i n e p ric e s ,

j u st w h e n l ab ori n g m e n h ad th e l e a st m on e y to pay for i t T h e re

. .

fol l o w e d a c u ri ou s s p e c ta c l e Wh i l e E n gl an d i n c r e ase d in w e a l th
.
,

an d s p e n tv as tsu m s t o su p p o rth e r a rm y an d s u b s idi e h e r a l l i e s in z

E u ro p e an d w h i l e n ob l e s l an d own e rs m an u fac tu r e rs a n d m e rc h an ts
, , , ,

l iv e d in i n c re asi n g l u xu ry a m u l ti tu d e of sk il l e d l ab ore rs we re c l am
,

o r i n g fo r w o rk F ath e rs se n t th e i r w iv e s an d l i ttl e c h i l d re n in to th e
.

m in e s an d f ac t o ri e s wh e r e s ix t e e n h o u rs l ab o r w o u l d h ard l y p ay for
’
,

th e d a i l y b re a d a n d in e v e ry l a rge c i t y w e re ri otou s m ob s m ad e u p
c h i e fl y o f h u n gry m e n an d wo m e n I tw a s th i s u n b e a rab le e c on om i c
.

c on di t i on an d n ot an y p o l i ti c al th e ory as B u rk e su ppo se d w h i c h
, , ,

o c c as i on e d t h e d a n ge r o f an oth e r E n gl i sh re vo l u ti o n .

I t is on l y w h e n w e r e m e m b e r th e se c o n di ti on s th atw e c a n u n d e r
an d t w o b ook s Ad a m S m i t h s I Ve a lt /z of N a t i on s a n d T h om as
’
st ,

Pa i n e s R ig/ ts of M a n wh i c h c an h ard l y b e c on s id e re d a s li te ra tu re
’
i , ,

b u tw h i c h e x e rc i s e d an e n o rm o u s i n fl u e n c e in E n gl an d S m i th w as .

an O xf o rd sc h o l ar w h o w ro t , e t o u ph ol d t h e d oc tr i n e th at l ab or i s
th e o n l y s ou rc e of a n a ti on s w e a l t h an d th a t a n y atte m p t to f orc e
’
,

l abo r i n to un n atu ra l c h an n e l s o r to p re ve n t it by p ro te c tiv e d u ti e s

,

fro m f re e ly ob ta i n i n g th e raw m ate ri a l s for i ts i n d u stry is un j u stan d ,

d e stru c tive Pa i n e was a c u ri ou s c o m bi n ati on of J e kyl l an d Hyd e

.
,

sh a l l o w an d u n t rus t w orth y p e rs on al ly b u tw i th a p ass io n ate d e voti on

,

to p o p u l a r l ib e rt y H is R ig/i ts of M a n pu b l i sh e d in L on d on in
.
,

w a s l ik e o n e o f B u rn s s l y ri c ou t c ri e s a ga i n sti n s ti tu ti on s wh i c h
’
I 79 1 ,

o re s s e d h u m a n i t y C o i f t th e d e s tru c ti on o f th e
pp rn n
g so s.oon a e r

B asti l l e it a dd e d f u e l to th e fl am e s ki n d l e d in E n gl an d by th e
,

F re n c h R e vo l u ti on Th e au th o r w as d rive n ou t of th e c o un try on
.
,

th e c u ri ou s grou n d t h a th e e n d an ge re d th e E n gl i sh c on s ti tu ti on b u t ,

n o tu n t i l h is boo k h ad ga in e d a w id e sal e an d in fl rie n c e .

All th e s e d an ge rs re a l an d i m agi n ary p asse d a w ay w h

, ,

t u rn e d f ro m t h e a fl a irs of F ran c e to re m e dy h e r o wn e c o
d ition s Th e l on g C on ti n e n t
. a l w ar c am e t o an e n d w i t h
 v h ro
o e rt w at Wa te rl oo in 1 8 1 5
,
an d E n gl an d , h avin g ga i n e d e n or

m o usly in re s ti e ab road n ow w ork of re form at

tu rn e d to th e
p g ,

h o m e Th e d e s tru c ti o n o f th e Af ri c an s l a v e trad e ; th e
.

R e fo m s
r
m it igation of h o rribly u n j u s t l aw s w h ic h i n c l ud e d p oor ,

d e bt o rs an d p e t ty c ri m i n a l s in t h e sa m e c lass ; th e p re v e n t i on of :

c h i l d l ab o r ; t h e f re e d om of th e p re ss ; th e e x te n s i on of m an h o od
‘

suff rage th e a bo l i tio n of re s t r ic tion s aga i n stCa th ol i c s in Pa rl iam e n t

th e e s t ab l i s h m e n to f h u n d re d s of p o p u l a r s c h oo l s u n d e r t h e l e ad e r ,

i
s h p of A d re n w B e l l a n d J o s e p h L a n c a s te r — th e s e a re b u ta fe w of ,

th e re fo rm s w h i c h m ar k th e p rogre ss of c i v i l i z a ti on in a s i n gl e h a lf .

c e nt u ry .Wh e n E n gl a n d in 1 8 3 3 p roc l a i m e d th e e m an c i p a tion of

, ,

a ll s l a v e s i n all h e r c o l on i e s s h e u n c on sc i o us l y p ro c l a i m e d h e r fi n a l
,

e m an c i p a t i on f ro m barbari sm .

Li te rar y Ch ar ac te ri s tic s of i n te n se ly i n te r
th e Age . I t is
e st i n g to n ote h o w li te ra tur e at fi rs t re fl e c te d th e p o li tica l
tu rm o il o f th e age an d t h e n w h e n th e tu rm oil w a s ov e r a n d
,

E n g l an d b e ga n h e r m i g h ty w o rk o f r e form h ow l i te ra tur e ‘

s u dd e n ly d e v e l o p e d a n e w c r e a t iv e s pi r i t w h ic h s h ow s i ts e lf ,

in th e p oe try o f Word s w orth C ol e r id g e B y r on S h e ll e y

, , , ,

K e a ts an d in th e p ro s e o f S c ott J an e A u s te n L am b an d
, , , ,

D e Q u i n c e y — a won d e r f u l g rou p of w r i te r s w h os e p a tr i oti c

, ,

e nt h u s i as m s u gg e s ts th e E li zab e th an d a y s an d w h os e g e n i u s ,

h a s c a u s e d th e i r ag e to b e k n o w n a s th e s e c on d c re ativ e
p e ri od of o ur li te rature T h u s in th e e arly d ay s w h e n old
.
,

i n s ti tu tion s se e m e d c ru m bli n g wi th th e Bas till e C ol e rid g e an d ,

S ou th e y f or m e d th e i r y ou th f u l s c h e m e o f a Pa n ti s o c ra c y on '

”
R m t
o an i c th e b an k s of th e S u s q u e h an n a a n id ea l Com ,
— a
.

E t h m m
n u s
m on w e alt h in w h ic h th e p r i n cipl e s of M or e s
’

s h ou ld b e
p u t in p rac tic e E v e n Wor d s w orth fi re d wi th
.
,

li ti c al e n th u s i as m c ou ld w r i te
, ,

B l i ss w as i ti n th a td a w n to b e a l i v e ,
B u tto b e y ou n g w a s v e r y h e a v e n .

Th e e s se n c e of R om an tici s m w as mb e red th at itm u stb e re m e

, ,

li te ratu re m u st re fl e ct all th a t i s
sp on ta a n d u n a ff e c t ed
neou s
e a n d in m an a n d b e f re e to f o ll o w its ow n f a n cy in
, .

w a
y W e h a v e a l re ady n ot
.
e d th i s c h ara c t i
e r is t c i n th e
3 74 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

re a s on i s i n t
for
e r e s ti n th
g p h e n o m e n o n li e s in t h e f a c t t h a t
wom an w as for th e fi rs t ti m e g iv e n s om e s li g h t ch an c e of
W m no e
e d u c at
as
i on of e n t e ri n g i n t o t h e i n te ll e c tu a l l i f e of
,

“v n ”
O e
th e ra c e
s a n d a s i s a lw ay s t h e c as e w h e n w om an is ,

iv y h
t i n l ik e a f a i r o pp o r tu n i ty s h e re s p o n d e d m a g n i fi
g e n an g ,

cent ly A s e c o n d ary re as o n m ay b e f ou n d in th e n a tu r e of
.

th e ag e i ts e l f w h ic h w as i n te n s e ly e m oti on a l
,
Th e F r e n c h .

R e v ol uti o n s ti rre d all E u r op e to its d e p th s an d d u r i n g th e .

,

f oll owi n g h al f c e n tu ry e v e ry g re a t m ov e m e n t in li te ratu re as ,

in p oli tic s a n d r e li g ion w a s c h ara c te ri z e d by Stron g e m oti on ,

wh ic h is all th e m ore n otic e abl e by c on tra s t wi th th e c old ,

f orm al sa ti r ic s pi ri t of th e e ar ly e i gh te e n th c e n tu ry A s
,
.

wom an is n atu ra lly m o re e m oti o n a l th an m an it m ay w e ll b e ,

th at th e s pi r i t of th i s e m oti o n a l ag e a ttra c te d h e r an d gav e ,

h e r th e o ppo rtu n i ty to e xp re ss h e rs e l f i n li te r atu re .

A s a ll s tron g e m o ti on s te n d to e x tre m e s th e ag e p rod u c e d ,

a new t ype o f n ov e l w h ic h s e e m s rath e r h y s te ric a l n o w b u t ,

w h ic h i n its o w n d ay d e li g h te d m u l ti tu d e s of re ad e r s w h os e
n e r v e s w e r e s o m e w h a t e xci t ed an d w h o r e v e l e d i n b og e y ,

st o r i e s of s u p e rn at u ral t e rr or Mrs A n n e R a dcl i ff e ( 1 7 6 4 . .

1 8 2 3 ) w a s on e o f t h e m os t s u cc e s s f u l w r i te rs of th i s s c h oo l
o f e x a g e rat
g e d r om an c e H e r n o v e l s wi t h t h e i r a zu re — e y .e d ,

h e ro i n e s h au n te d c as tl e s trapd oors b an d i ts a bd u c ti o n s r e s
, , , , ,

c u e s i n th e n ick o f ti m e a n d a g e n e ra l m e dl e y o f o v e rw rou gh t ,

j oy s an d h orrors 1 we re i m m e n se ly p op u l ar n ot on ly wi th th e
, ,

1 M rs R a dc ll fl ew k i th tlly t i f U d /‘ I Th i i th t y f t d
’
b e st
i h t p i gl m y tl Ov h b d th:t i b l h d w f
. s or s e s er es o o to . s s e s or o a en er
‘

h e ro n e s u u n a oo ca s t e . er er ro o s e rr e s a o o a n a n ce s o r s
’

cr i m Th e . th l g
e re a re fl h mp i m t f h ted
e us ua
"
m t oose -
es
”
ac c o an en s o au n roo s, se c re

d li d i g p l m y t i fig
oo rs , s n b h i d ld p i t
a ne s , d bt
s e r ou s
p g u re s e n o c u re s , a n a su e rra n e a n as sa e

l di g t v l t d k d
ea n o a
py au t mb , H th h
ar i fi d
an h t wi th
c r ee as a o . e re e e ro n e n s a c es
b l od t i d p p
o -
s a ne B y th ligh t f fli k i g
a e rs dl
.
h d wi th h i ll
e d o a c er n ca n e s e re a s, c s an
s h iv i g ther n d f l g b i ed
, i m Atth p y h l g i m m tth li ttl
e re c o r o on ur dl cr es . e s c o o c o en e e ca n e
d d ly g t Th t f th d k ld l m m y h d li h
gh ! F
su en oe s o u . en ou o e ar ne ss a co c a an — u oo s
,

as s uc h t i m t w th y h w fi t
s o r e s se e w il d ti f m th k ep tigismy f
o us n o ,
e s o , rs a re a c on ro e s
,
th p e d g g ;
rec e d ln d d v l pm
a e t f th m d i
an l ms e c onf dv t , ;a e e o en o e e azv a ro an ce o a en u re
on ly th d v t i h i w d th th
e a e n u re tw d I tfs e re
gh t i t d f
n ar ra er an ou ar . ac e s a os n s ea o a
d g ra ; on d f th i w k
an with h h d i b tt th
or s ork i gh t i m
a n un S er ea s s e er an a n n ar or . o
h i
e ro n es ab d i t d f h ou n Th ,
g w t
n s ea d ted f m di
o lm t e roe s . e a e as oo e u ca or e e va on s e rs
an d m g b t t d
a ic,td gh t
u j tgh t d th b g y
no e u ca e e n ou o re e c os s a n o er o e s .
x
 T H E AG E O F RO M ANTI C I S M 37S

c rowd of n ov e l re ad e r s b u t a l s o wi th m e n of u n q u e s ti on e d
,

l ite rary g e n i u s lik e S c ottan d B y ron

, .

I n m ar k e d c on tra s t to th e s e e x tra v ag an t s tor i e s is th e

e n d u r i n g w o r k of J a n e A u s t en wi th h e r c h arm i n g d e s c rip
,

ife a n d of M a r i a E d g e w o r th w h os e w on
t
i , ,

d e rf u l pic tu r e s of I r i s h li f e Wa l te r S c ott th e
id e a of w ri ti n g h is S cotti s h ro m an c e s Tw o oth e r w om e n w h o .

at ta i ne d a m o re or l e s s l a s ti ng f am e w e re H a n n a h M or e p o e t , ,

d ram a ti s t an d n ov e l i s t a n d J a n e P o r te r w h os e S eottis /t C/zi ef s

, , ,

an d T/za a a e u s of I Vars a zv a re s t
’ ’
ill i n d e m a n d in ou r lib ra ri e s
/
.

B e s id e th e s e w e re F an n y B u rn e y ( M ad a m e D A r b lay ) a n d
’

s e v e ra l o th e r w r i te r s w h os e w or k s in th e e a r ly p a rt of th e ,

n in e t ee n th c e nt u ry ra i s e d w om an t , o t h e h i g h pl a c e i n li te r
at ur e w h ic h s h e h as e v e r s i n c e m a i n t ain e d .

I n th i s ag e li te ra ry c r i tici s m b e c a m e fi r m ly e s tabli s h e d by
th e a pp e a ran c e of s u c h m ag az i n e s as th e E d i n b u rg /i R e v i e w
T/zZ Qn a r te r ly
’

Th e M od e m R ev ew i B la c k w ood s

ma gn i fies
M ag a z i n e th e We s tm i n s te r R e v ie w
T/ze Sp e c ta to r T/ze A t/ze n ee u n z an d F ra s e r
’
s

M ag a z i n e T h e s e m agaz i n e s e d i te d by s u c h m e n a s ,

F ran ci s J e ff re y J oh n Wil s on (w h o is k n o w n to u s as C h r i s
,

top h e r N o rth ) a n d J oh n G ib s on L o ck h ar t w h o g a v e u s th e
, ,

L ife of S c ott e x e r c i s e d an i m m e n s e i n fl u e n c e on all s u b se

,

q u e n t l i te ratu re
st ru ct
.

W
iv e a s w h e n J e ffr e y h am m e r e d S c ott Word s w orth an d
,
de
W , ,

B y ron m os t u n m e rci f u lly ; an d L o ck h art c ou ld fin d n o g oo d

i n e i th e r K e ats o r T e n n y s on ; b u t wi th a dd e d wi s d om c ri ti ,

c is m a s s u m e d it s t ru e f u n ct i on of c on stru c ti on A n d w h e n .

th e se m ag az i n e s b e g an to s e e k a n d to p u bli s h th e w or k s of
u n k n ow n w ri t e rs lik e H az li t t L a m b an d L e i gh H u n t th e y
, , , ,

di s c ov e re d th e c h i e f m i s s i on of th e m od e rn m ag az i n e w h ic h ,

i s to g iv e e v e r y w r i te r o f a bili ty th e Opp or tun i ty to m ak e h is

w or k k n ow n to th e w or ld .
3 7 6 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
I . THE P OE TS OF R O MA NTIC IS M
WI L L I A M WO R D S WO R TH ( 1 7 7 0 — 1 85 0 )
I t w as i n 7 97
1 th at t h e n ew m an tic m ov e m e n t in ou r
ro

l i te ratu re ass u m e d d e fi n i te f o rmWo rd s w orth an d C ol e r id g e

.

re t i re d to th e Q uan to ck H ill s S om e rs e t a n d th e re f orm e d

, ,

th e d e lib e ra te p u r po s e to m ak e li te ratu r e a d ap ted t o in t e re s t

”
m an ki n d p e rm a n e n tly ,

l ar e d ,

c l a s s i c p o e tr y c o u l d
n e ve r d o H e lpi n g th e .

tw o p oe ts w as Word s
w or th s s i s te r D oroth y ’

wi th a w om a n s l o v e for ’

fl o w e r s an d a ll b e auti f u l
th i n g s a n d a w om an s
’

d iv i n e s y m p a th y f o r
h u m an li f e e ve n i n its
l o wl i e s tf o rm s T h ou gh .

a s il e n t p ar t n er sh e ,

f u rn i s h e d p e r h ap s th e
l arg e s t s h are of th e i n
s pi rat i on w h ic h r e sul te d
W I L L I A M WO R D S WO R T H
i n th e fa m ou s Ly r i c a l
B a lla d s of 1 7 9 8 I n th e i r p ar tn e rs h ip C ol e r id ge w as to tak e u p
.

th e s u p e r n at u ra l o r at l ea s t rom a n t
, ic w h il e Word s w o rth”

"
w as to g iv e th e c h arm o f n o v e l ty to th in g s of e v e ry d ay ,

by awak e n i n g th e m i n d s atte n ti on f ro m th e l e th arg y of c u s to m

’

a n d d i re c ti n g itto th e l ov e li n e s s an d th e w on d e rs of th e w o rld
”
be f o re u s Th e w h o l e s pi r i t of th e i r w o rk i s re fl e c te d i n tw o
.

p oe m s of th i s r e m a rk a bl e li ttl e v ol u m e Th e R i m e of th e A n ,

ci e n t MaLin e r w h ic h is C ol e r id ge s m as te r pi e c e an d L i n e s
,
” ’

Wri tte n a F e w Mil e s a b ov e Ti n te rIL Ab b e y w h ic h e xp re s s e s ,

”

Wo rd s worth s p oe tic al c re e d an d w h ic h is on e of th e n obl e s t

’

an d m os t s i n ific an t of o u r p oe m s T h at th e Ly r i ca l B a lla d s
g .
 3 78 E N G L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

e xe rte d an i n fl ue n c e w h ic h l aste d all h is l ife so th at h e c ou l d re ,

m e m be r h e r as th e h e arto f a ll o u r l e arn i n gs an d o u r l ov e s
”
Th e .

fa th e r di e d som e six y e ars l ate r an d th e or p h an w as tak e n in c h arge ,

b y re l ative s w h o s e n th im to sc h oo l a t H a wk s h e ad in th e b e au ti ful
, ,

l ake re gi on H e re ap pare n tly th e u n ro ofe d sc h oo l of n ature

.
, ,

at trac te d h i m m o re th an th e d i sc i p l i n e o f t h e c l ass i c s an d h e ,

l e a n ed m ore e age ly f ro m fl o w e rs an d h il l s an d s ta rs th an f ro m h is
r r

books b u ton e m u stre ad Wo rd s wo rth s own re c o rd in T/ e P r e lu d e ’

,
z ,

t o a p p re c i at e t h is T h re e th i n gs in th i s p oe m m u st i m p re s s e ve n
.

t h e c asu a l re ad e r fi rs t Wo rd s w o rth lov e s to b e a l on e an d is n e v e r

, ,

l on e l y w i th n atu re s e c on d l ik e e ve ry o th e r c h i l d w h o sp e n d s m u c h
, ,

ti m e a l on e in th e w ood s an d fi e l d s h e f e e l s th e p re s e n c e o f so m e ,

livi n g s p i ri t re a l t
,
h ou gh u n s e e n an d c om p an i on abl e th ou gh s i l e n t;
,

th i rd h is im re ss ion s a re e x ac tl y l ik e ou r ow n
,
an d d e l i gh t
fu l ly ,

f J aQ ilii trJ Wh e n h e te l l s of th e on g su m m e r d ay s p e n tin s w i m m i n g

/
,

baski n g in th e sun an d q u e sti n g ov e r th e h i l l s ; o r of th e w i n te r

,

n i gh t w h e n on h is ska t
, e s h e c h a se d t h e re fl e c ti o n o f a s tar in th e
,

b l ac k ic e ; o r of h is e x p l orin g th e l ake in a b oat an d ge tti n g sud ,

d e n ly f ri gh te n e d w h e n th e w o rl d gre w b ig an d s tran ge — in all th i s ,

h e is s im p l y re c al l in g a m u l ti tud e o f o u r ow n vagu e h app y m e m o ,

r i e s of c h il d h ood He goe s ou t i n to th e w ood s a tn i gh t to te n d h is

.

wood c oc k sn are s h e run s ac ross an o th e r bo y s sn are s fo l l ow s th e m ’

, ,

fi n d s a wo od c oc k c augh t tak e s it h u rri e s away th rough th e n igh t

, , .

An d th e n ,
I h e a rd am o n
g l i tar y h il l s
he
t so

L ow b re a t h i n gs c o m i n g a ft er me , an d sou n d s

O f u n d i s ti n g u i s h a b l e m o ti o n .

T h at is l ike a m ent
a l p h otogra p h . An y b oy wh o h as c om e h om e
th rou gh t
h e w o od s a tn i gh tw il l r e c ogn z e i i
i t n st
an tl y . Aga in h e te l l s
u s of go in g bi rd ’
s n e stn g on
-
i th e c l iff s
wh e n I h av e h u n g
Oh ,
A b o v e th e ra v e n s n e s t b y k n ots o f g ra s s
’
,

An d h a l f i n c h fi s s u re s i n th e s l i p p e r y r oc k
-

B u ti l l s u s t a i n e d a n d a l m o s t s o i ts e e m e d
( )
-
,

S u s p e n d e d b y th e b l as tt h atb l e w a m a i n ,

S h ou l d e r i n g th e n a k e d c ra — oh a tt h a t ti m e
g , , ,

Wh i l e on th e p e ri l o u s ri d g e I h u n g a l on e ,

Wi th w h a ts tra n g e u tte ran c e d id th e l ou d d ry wi n d

B l ow th ro u g h m e a r ! Th e s k s e e m e d n o ta s k
y y y
O f e ar t h a n d wi t
, h w h atm oti o n m o v e d t h e c l o uds !
 TH E AG E O F R O M ANTI C I S M 3 79

N o m an c an re a d su c h re c ord s wi th ou tfi n d i n g h is ow n b oy h ood aga i n ,

an d h is o w n a b o un d i n g joy o f l i f e in t h e p oe ts e a r l y i m p re ss i on s
’

, .

Th e s e c on d e rio d of Word s w orth s l if e b e gi n s w i th h is u n iv e rs i t y

’

I n th e th i rd b ook of Th e P r e lu d e w e
c ou rse a t a m b
fld g e in 1 7 8 7
,
.

fin d a di sp a ss i on a te a c c oun t o f s tu d e n t l i fe w i th its tri v i a l o c c u p a ,

ti on s its p l e asu re s a n d ge n e ra l a i m l e s sn e ss Wo rd s w o rt
,
h p rov e d to .

b e a v e ry o rdi n a ry sc h o l ar fo l l ow i n g h is o w n ge n i u s ra th e r th an th e
,

c u rri c u l u m
, a n d l ooki n g fo rw ard m o re e age r l y t o h is v a c a ti on am on g
th e h i l l s t h an to h is e x am i n a ti o n s P e rh ap s th e m ost i n te re sti n g
.

t h i n g in h is l i f e at C a m b rid ge w as h is f e l l ow sh i p w i th th e youn g
p o l i ti c al e n th u s i a sts wh o s e S p i ri t is e x p re ssm
, b le
p oe m o n t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u ti on — a p o e m w h ic h is b e t
, ter t h an a
vo l u m e o f h i sto ry to S h ow th e h op e s an d am bi ti on s th a t s ti rre d all
E u ro p e in th e fi rs td ay s o f th a tm i gh ty u p h e ava l Wo rd sw orth m ad e .

t wo t p o F ra n c e in 1 7 9 0 a n d 1 7 9 1 s e e i n g th i n gs c h i e fl y th rou gh
ri s t , , .

th e ro sy s p e c t ac l e s of t h e yo un g Ox fo rd R e p u b l i c an s On h is s e c on d .

vi s i t h e j o i n e d th e Gi ron di s ts or th e m od e rate R e p u b l i c an s an d
, ,

on ly t h e d e c i s i on of h is re l ative s w h o c u t o ff h is a l l o w an c e an d
,

h u rri e d h im ba c k to E n gl an d p re v e n te d h is go i n g h e ad l on g to th e
,

gu i l lo ti n e wi th th e l e ad e rs of h is p art y Tw o th i n gs rap i d ly c oo l e d
.

Word s w orth s re vo l u ti on ary e n th u si asm an d e n d e d th e o n ly d ram atic

’
,

i n te re st o f h is p l ac id l i fe O n e w as th e e xc e ss e s of th e R e vo l u ti on
.

i tse lf an d e sp e c i all y th e e x e c u tion of Lo u i s X VI th e o th e r w as th e

,

ri s e of N a o l e on an d t h e s l a v i s h ad u l a ti on a c c ord e d by F ran c e t o
p ,

th i s m os tyg lg a r gy d d ag ge rou s of tyran t s H is c oo l n e ss soon gre w to

.

di sgu stan d o pp os i ti on as s h o w n b y h is su b se qu e n tp oe m s ; an d th i s
,

brough t u p on h im th e c e n su re o f S h e l l e y B y ron an d oth e r e x tre m , ,

is ts th ou gh itga i n e d th e f ri e n d sh i p of S c ott w h o f rom th e fi rsth ad n o

, ,

sy m p a t h y w i th th e R e v o l u ti on o r w i th th e you n g E n gl i s h e n th u s i a sts .

O f th e d e c i s iv e p e ri o d o f Wo rd sw o rth s l if e wh e n h e w a s l ivi n g
“ H
’
,

w i th h is s i ste r D oroth y an d w i th C ol e r id ge a t Alfoxd e n w e h ave ,

a l re ad y s ok e n Th e i m p orta n c e of th i s d e c i s i on to giv e h i m se l f to
p .

p oe try i s e v id e n tw h e n w e re m e m b e r th a t a t th i rty y e a rs o f age h e , ,

w as wi t h o u t m on e y o r an y d e fi n i te a im o r o c c u p a ti on in l i f e He .

c on s id e re d t h e law ,b u t c o n f e s se d h e h ad n o sy m p a th y for its c on

trad ic to ry p r e c e p ts an d p ra c tic e s ; h e c on s id e re d t h e m i n i s try b u t ,

th o u gh s tron gl y i n c l i n e d t o t h e C h u rc h h e f e l t h i m s e l f n ot goo d
,

e n ou gh fo r t h e s a c re d o ffi c e ; o n c e h e h ad w a n te d to b e a so l di e r
a n d s e rv e h is c ou n t ry b u t h a d w a v e re d a t t h e p ros pe c t of d y i n g of
,

d i s e as e in a f o re i gn l an d an d th row i n g a w ay h is l i f e wi th o u tgl ory or

3 80 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

p r fi
o tt o an yb o dy . A n a pp a r e n t ac c i d e n t w h i c h l o ok s m o re t
,
o u s

l ike a sp e i a l P rovid e n c e d e te rm i n e d h is c ou rse H e h ad take n

c ,
.

y f i d R i l C l v t w h di e d o f c on su m p t i on
c a re o f a o u n g r e n ,
a s e y a e r o ,

an d e l f t W o rd s w o rt h h e i r t o a f e w h u n d re d p o un d s an d t o t h e re ,

q ue stth ath e s h ou l d giv e h is l i fe to p oe try I t w as th is u n e xp e c te d .

if t w h i c h e n ab l e d Wo rd s wo rt h to re ti e f ro m th e w o r l d a n d fo l l ow
r
g
h S ge n i u s All h is l i f e h e w a s p oor an d l iv e d in an a tm o s p h e re of
I . ,

p
l a in l iv i n g a n d h i gh th i n ki n g H .is p o e try b ro u gh t h im a l m o st
n ot h i n g in th e w ay o f m on e y re w a rd s an d i t w as on l y by a s e ri e s of
,

h appy ac ci d e n ts th at h e w as e n ab l e d to c on ti n u e h is w ork On e of .

th e s e ac c id e n t s w as t h a t h e b e c am e a T_9 ry an d so on a c c e p te d ,

th e o ffi c e o f a d i s ti b u t r or o f st am ps an d w as l a t
,
e r ap poin t e d p oe t

l u re ate by th e gove rn m e n t w h i c h oc c as i on e d B rown i n g s fam ou s

a ,
—
’

b u t i l l c on s i d e re d p oe m o f
”
-
Th e L o s t L e ad e r

J u s t for a h a n d fu l o f s i l v e r h e l e ftu s ,

J u s tfo r a r i b a n d to s ti c k i n h is c oa t .

Th e l as th alf c e n tu ry of Wo rd s wo rth s l ife in w h i c h h e re ti re d to ’

,

h is b e l ove d l ak e d i str i c t a n d l ive d suc c e s s iv e l y at G ras m e re an d

R y d a l M oun t re m i n d on e s tro n gly of B ro w n i n g s l on g s truggl e fo r
’

l i te ra ry re c ogn i ti on I t w as m a rk e d by th e sam e s te ad fas t p u rpose

.
,

t h e sa m e tru ste d i d e a l th e sa m e c on ti n u ous w o rk an d th e sa m e

, ,

t a rd y re c o n i t
g i on b y th e p u b l i c H is p oe try w as m e rc i l e ss ly ridi
.

c ule d by n e a rl y all t h e m agaz i n e c ri ti c s w h o s e i z e d u p on th e worst ,

o f h is w o rk as a s t a n d a rd of j u d m e n t; an d b oo k a f t e r b ook of
g
p oe m s a pp e a re d w i th ou t m e e ti n g an y s u c c e ss sav e th e a p p rova l of
a fe w l o y a l f r i e n d s Wi th ou td ou b t o r im p ati e n c e h e c on ti n u e d h is
.

wo rk tru s t
, i n g to th e f u tu re to re c o gn i z e an d a p p rov e it H is a tti .

tud e h e re re m i n d s o n e s tro n gl y o f th e
p o or o ld s o l d i e r w h o m h e m e t
in th e h ill s 1 w h o re fu s e d to b e g o r to m e n ti on h is l on se rvi c e o r
,
g
th e n e gl e c to f h is c o u n try say i n
g w i th n o b l e s i m p l i c i ty
, ,

My ru s ti s i n t
t h e G od of He a v e n
A n d i n th e e ye o f h i m w h o p as s e s m e .

Suc h w o rk an d pa ti e n c e a re c e rta i n of th e i r re ward a n d l on g b e fore ,

Word s w o rth s d e a th h e fe l tth e w a rm s u n sh i n e of ge n e ra l a pp rova l

’
.

Th e w ave o f p o p u l ar e n th u s i asm fo r Sc o tt an d B y ro n
p a sse d by as ,

th e ir li m i tat i on s w e re re c ogn i z e d ; a n d Word s w o rth w as h a i l e d by

c ri ti c s as th e fi rs t l i v i n g p o e t an d o n e of th e gre ate st th at E n gl an d
,

1 Th e P r e lu d e , B oo k IV .
382 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

Word s w orth se t h i m se l f to th e tas k of f re e i n g poe try f rom all

i ts con c e i ts of s p e aki n g
"
,
"
th e l an g u a e of S i m le tru th an d

of o r tra i n g m an an d n atu re as th e ar e ; an d in th i s g ood

p
w o rk w e are ap tto m bea u ty th e p as s i on
IS s th e , , th e i n te n s i ty ,

th at h id e th e m s e lv e s u n d e r h is s impl e s t l i n e s Th e s e c on d .

d iffi c u l ty is in th e p oe t n ot in th e r e ad e r I t m u s t b e c on
,
.

f e s s e d th a t \Vord s w or th is n o t al way s m e l od i ou s ; th at h e is
M
s e ld o m g ra c e f u l a n d on ly o c c a sig rl a
, flL g i s p i ne d Wh e n h e is .

i n s pi re d fe w p oe ts c an b e c om pare d wi th h im atoth e r ti m e s
,

th e b u lk o f h is v e r s e is s o w oo d e n an d p ros y th at w e w on d e r
h ow a p oe t c ou ld h av e w ri tte n it M or e ov e r h e i s ab s o l u te ly .
,

wi th out h u m or an d so h e o f te n fail s to s e e th e s m all s te p

,

th at s e p ara te s th e s ubli m e f r o m th e r id ic u l ou s I n n o oth e r .

”
w ay c an w e e xpl ai n Th e Idi ot B oy or p ar d o n t h e s e r i ou s
,
”
a b s ur di t y o f P e te r B e ll a n d h is g r i e v in g j a ck as s .

On acc ou n t of th e s e di ffi c u l ti e s it i s w e ll to a v oid a t fi r s t
th e l o n ge r w ork s an d b e g i n wi th a g o od b oo k of s e l e c ti on s 1 .

p m
oe f s o Wh e n w e re a d th e s e e xq u i s i te s h orte r p oe m s wi th ,

N m"
a
th e i r n o bl e li n es th at l iv e f ore v e r i n o u r m e m ory ,

w e re a li z e t h at Word s w o rth i s th e g r e ate s t oe t o f n a tu r e

p
th at our li te ratu re h a s p r od u c e d I f w e g o f u rth e r a n d s tu dy
'

.
,

th e p oe m s th at i m p re s s u s w e s h all fin d f ou r r e m ar bl
, k ea
c h ar a
gggr is tic s : ( I ) Word s w orth i s s e n s i tiv e as a b a rom e te r
to e v e r y s u b tl e c h a n ge in th e w or ld a b ou t h im I n M e P re .

lu d e h e c o m p are s h i m se l f to an ae o li an h arp w h ic h an s w e rs ,

wi th h ar m on y to e v e ry tou c h of th e wi n d ; an d th e fi gu re is
st riki n ly a cc u ra t a s w e l l as i n t i n g for th e re is h ardly
g e e re st
, ,

a s ig h t or a s oun d f rom a vi ol e t to a m o u n ta i n an d f rom a

,

bi rd n ote to th e th u n d e r of th e catarac t th ati s n ot re fl e c te d ,

in s om e b e au ti f u l w a in Wor d s w o rth s p o e tr y ’

y .

( ) Of all th e p oe ts w h o h av e w ri tte n of n atu r e th e r e is

2

n on e t h at c om par e s wi th h im i n th e tr u th f u l n e
ss o f h is r e p re
se n t at i on B urn s lik e G ray 1 5 a t to re a d h is o w n e m o ti on s
p
.
, ,

1 w
D o d e n ’ s S e le ti on s r om Wor d s
f y l i
Se ec t
c
i o n s for R e a d i n
wo r th i s th e b e s t o f m a n s u c h c ol ec to n s . 5 83
l l y
g , a n d B i b i ogra ph , a tth e e n d o f th s c h a p t
er i .
 TH E AG E O F RO M ANTI C I S M 383

in to n atu ra l obj e c ts , so p oe t th an of
th at th e r e i s m or e o f th e
n ature ve n
e i n h is m o u se an d m o u n ta i n d a i s y ; b u t Wor d s
w orth g iv e s
y ou t h e bi rd an d t h e fl ow e r t h e wi n d a n d t h e ,

tre e an d th e r iv e r j u s t as t
, h e y ar e a n d is c on te n t to le tth e m
,

s p e ak th e i r ow n m e s sag e .

( 3 ) N o h
ot e r p oe t e v e r W
fo nL h e auty In th e
c om m on w or ld He h a d n o ton ly S i g h t b u ti n s i g h t th at is h e
.
, , ,

n ot on ly s e e s cl e a r ly an d d e s c r ib e s a cc u ra t e ly b u t p e n e t rat es ,

to th e h e a r tof th i n g s a n d alway s fi n d s s o m e e xq u i s i te m e an i n g
th a t i s n ot w r i tte n on th e s u rf a c e I ti s idl e to s p e ci f y or to
.

q uote li n e s on fl ow e rs or s tars o n s n ow or v a p or N oth i n g is , .

u g ly o r c om m on pl a c e i n h i s w or ld ; on t h e c on trary th e re ,

is h a rdly on e n atu ra l p h e n om e n on w h ic h h e h as n ot gl ori fi e d

by p o i n ti n g ou t s om e b e a uty th atw a s h idd e n f rom ou r e y e s .

( 4 ) I t i s th e l f
i e o f h e re re c og n i z e d
n ot m e re g r ow t h an d c e ll c h a ti e n t p e rs on a l ,

nd t h e re c og n i t i on of t h i s p e r s on ali t y i u r e c h ara c
lif e a n n at

te r iz e s all th e w orld s g re a t p oe tr y I n h i s c h ild h oo d Wor d s

’
.

w orth re gard e d n atu ra l obj e c ts th e s tr e am s th e h i ll s th e , , ,

fl o w e r s e v e n th e wi n d s as h i s c omp g n ion s an d wi th h is
, ,

s m a tu re b e li e f th at all n atu r e i s th e r e fl e c ti on o f th e livi n g

G od it w as i n e vi ta bl e th at h is p o e try s h ou l d th r ill wi th th e
,
”
s e n se o f a S pi r i t t h at ro ll s th rou gh all th i n g s C o wp e r .
,

B urn s K e ats
, e n n y son —
,
a ll t h e s e p oe ts g iv e y ou th e o u t
,

w ard a s p e c ts of n atu r e in v a ryi n g d e gr e e s ; b u t Wor d s w or th

g iv e s
y o u h e r v e ry l i f e a n d t h e i m p r e s s i on of s o m e p e rs on al
,

livi n g s pi r i t th at m e e ts an d a cc om pan i e s th e m an w h o go e s
a l on e t h ro ug h th e w ood s an d fi e ld s We s h all h ardly fin d .
,

e v e n in t h e p h il os op h y of L e ib n i tz or in th e n a tu re m y th s o f ,

O u r I n d i an s a n s u c h imp r e s s i on o f livi n g n at u re a s t h i s p oe t
.

y ,

a w a k e n s in u s An d th at s u g g e s ts an oth e r d e li gh tf u l c h a ra c
.

te r i s tic of Word s w orth s p oe tr y n a m e ly th at h e s e e m s to

’

, ,

a w a k e n rat h e r th an c r e ate a n i m p re s s i o n ; h e s ti rs o u r m e m
or y d e e ply s o t , h at in r e adi n g h im w e liv e o n c e m or e in th e
v ag u e b e au ti f u l w on d e r la n d of ou r o w n c h ild h ood
, .
3 84 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

S uch is p h il os o ph y o f Word s w orth s n atu re p oe try I f

th e
’
.

w e se a r h c n o w f o r h i s p h il os o p h y o f h u m an l i f e w e s h a ll fi n d ,

f o u r m o re d o c t r i n e s w h ic h r e s t u p on h is b asa l c on
p oe m s of a n . ,

m an W e
c ept ion th at m an is n ot a p ar t f ro m n atu re b u t i s ,

th e v e r y li f "
e o f h e r li f e
( )
I I n .c h
”
ild h o o d m a n i s s e n s itiv e

a s a wi n d h a r p t o a ll n a t u ra l i n fl u e n c e s ; h e is an e pi t om e of

th e gl ad n e s s a n d b e au ty o f th e w or ld Word s w orth e xpl ai n s

.

th i s g l ad n e s s a n d th i s s e n s i tiv e n e s s to n a tu r e by th e d o c tr i n e
th a t th e c h ild c om e s s tr a i h t f rom th e C re ato r of n a u re

O ur b i rt
h i s b u ta l forg e tti ng :
s e e p an d a

Th e S o u l th a t r i s e s w i t h u s o u r l i fe s S t
’
,
ar ,

H a th h a d e l s e w h e re i ts s e tti n g ,

An d c o m e th f rom a far :
N o ti n e n ti re fo rg e tf u l n e s s
A n d n o ti n u tte r n a k e d n e s s ,

B u t tra il i n g c l o u d s o f g l o r y d o w e c o m e
F ro m G od , w h o i s ou r h om e .

I n th i s xq u i s i te od e w h ic h h e c all s I n ti m ati on s of I m m ortali ty

e ,

f r o m R e coll e c ti on s of E ar ly C h ild h ood Word s w o rth ”

s u m s u p h i s p h il o s op h y o f c h ild h oo d ; a n d h e m a p o s s ibly
y .

b e i n d e b te d h e re to th e p oe t Va u g h a n w h o m ore th an a , ,

"
c e n tu ry b e f ore h ad p ro cl a i m e d in Th e R e tre at th e s am e
,

d oc tr i n e T h i s ki n s h ip wi th n atu re a n d wi th G od w h ic h
.
,

g lor ifie s c h ild h ood o u gh t to e x te n d th ro u g h a m an s w h ol e

’

li f e an d e n n obl e it T h i s wh e te ac h in of Ti n te r n A b y
.
,
”

i n w h ic h th e b e s t p ar t o f o u r li f e i s s h o w n to b e th e r e s u l t of
—
o w Ords w
- -

A cc ordi n g t
T

o rt h s o ci e ty a n d ,

th e c rowd e d u n n atu ra l l i fe o f ci ti e s te n d to w e ak e n an d
pe r
ve rt h u m an i ty ; a n d a re tu rn to n a tu ra l an d s i m pl e livi n g is
th e on ly r e m e dy fo r h u m a n w re tc h e d n e s s .

( 2 ) Th e n atu ra l i n s ti n c ts an d pl e as u re s o f c h ild h ood ar e th e

tr u e s tan d ar d s o f a m a n s h a i i s l i fe A ifici al
’
n e s s in th l l a rt
pp .

pl e as u re s soon grow ti re som e Th e n atu ra l pl e as u re s w h ic h

.
,

a m an s o e as ily n e l e c t s in h i s w ork ar e t h e c h i e f m e an s by
g ,

wh ic h w e m ay e xp e c t p e rm an e n t an d i n c re a s i n g joy I n .

T1 n te_rp A bb e y ,
”
T h e R a i n b ow
"
O d e £ D u ty ,
”
an d
" ”
,
3 8 6 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
Word s worth s l on g e r p o e m s s i n c e th e y c on ta i n mu c h th at
’ ’

is p r o s y an d un i n te re s ti n g m a
y w e ll b e,l e f ttill a fte r w e h ave

r e ad t h e o d e s s on n e ts a n d s h o rt d e s c r ip tiv e p o e m s
, ,

Th R l
e e c us e
th at h a v e m a d e h i m f am o u s A s s h o wi n g a c e rta i n .

h e roic c a s t of Wor d s w or th s m i n d i t i s i n te r e s ti n g to l e a rn
’

th at th e g r e ate r p a rt o f h i s w or k i n cl u di n g Th e P r e lu d e a n d ,

l e E x c u rs i on w as i n te n d e d for a pl a c e in a s i n g l e g re at
,

p oe m to b e c all e d T/te R e c lu s e w h ic h s h ou ld tre at of n a ture

, , ,

m an an d s o ci e t
,
y H e P re lu d e tre ati n g of th e grow th o f a
.
,

p oe ts m i n d w as to i n trod u c e th e w or k Th e H om e a t Gra s
’

,
.
-

m e r e w h ic h i s th e fi rs tb ook o f T/ze R e c lu s e w as n o tp u bli s h e d

, ,

till 1 8 8 8 l on g a f te r th e p oe ts d e a th T/ze E x c u rs i on ( 1 8 1 4 )
’
.
,

is th e se c o n d b ook o f m e R e c lu s e ; a n d th e th i r d w a s n e v e r
c om pl e te d th oug h Word s wor th i n te n d e d to i n cl u d e m os t of
,

h is s h orte r p oe m s in th i s th i rd pa r t a n d s o m a k e an i m m e n s e ,

p e rs on a l e pic of a p oe ts li f e an d w or k I t i s p e r h ap s j us t as
’
.

we ll th at th e w or k r e m a i n e d u n fim s h e d Th e b e s t of h is w o r k .

a ppe are d i n t h e Ly r i c a l B a lla d s ( 1 7 9 8 ) a n d in th e so n n e ts ,

o d e s an d ly r ic s of t
, h e n e x t te n y e ars ; th o u g h Th e D u dd on
” ”
S on n e ts To a S kyl ar k an d Y a rr ow R e
”
vi s i te d ( 1 8 3 1 ) s h o w th ath e re tai n e d till p as t s ix ty m u c h of
h is y ou thf u l e n th u s i as m I n h i s l ate r y e ars h o w e v e r h e p e r
.
, ,

h a p s w rote too m u c h ; h is p oe try lik e h i s p ro s e b e c om e s d u l l , ,

an d un i m a i n at iv e ; a n d w e m i s s th e fl as h e s o f i n s ig h t th e
g ,

te n d e r m e m ori e s of c h ild h oo d a n d th e r e c u r re n c e of n o bl e
,

li n e s — ea c h on e a po e m th at c o n s ti tu te s th e s u rp r i s e an d
—

th e d e li gh to f re a di n g Word s w o r th .

Th e w
o u t ard s h o w s o f s k y a n d e a r th ,

O f h i l l a n d v a l l e y h e h as v i e w e d ;
,

A n d i m p u l s e s o f d e e p e r b i rth
Ha v e c o m e to h i m i n s ol i tu d e .

In c om m o n th i n gs h a t ro u n d
t us li e
S om e ra n d o m tru th s h e c an i m p a rt
Th e h a rv e s t o f a q i u e te y e
Th a tb r o o d s a n d s e e s o n
p l h is ow n h e a rt
.
 TH E AG E O F RO M AN TI CI S M 387

S A MU E L TA Y L O R C OL E R I D GE ( 1 77 2 —
1 834)

A g ri e f
w i th o u ta p a n g v o i d d a r k a n d d re a r , , ,

fl e d d row s y u n i m p as s i o n e d g r i e f
A s ti , , ,

Wh i c h fi n d s n o n a tu ra l ou tl e t n o re l i e f , ,

I n w ord o r s i g h o r te ar , , .

”
In th ew o n d e r f u l O d e to D e j e c ti on f rom w h ic h th e ,

a b o v e f rag m e n t i s t ak e n w e h a v e a s i n g l e s tr on g imp r e s si on
_ ,

of C o l e r id g e s w h ol e li f e a s a d b r ok e n t ra ic l i fe in m a r k e d
’
—
g ,
A
,
W
, ,

c o n tra stwi th th e p e a c e f u l e x i ste n c e of h is f r i e n d Word s w or th .

F or h i m s e l f d ur i n g th e g re ate r p ar t of h i s li f e th e p o e t h ad
, ,

o n ly g r i e f a n d r e m or s e as h is p or t i on b u t f or e v e ryb ody e l s e ,

f or th e au di e n c e s th at w e re c h ar m e d by th e b r illi an cy o f h i s
li te rar y l e c tu re s for th e f r i e n d s w h o g ath e re d a b out h im to
,

b e i n s pi r e d by h is id ea l s an d c on v e r sa ti on a n d for all h is ,

r e a d e r s w h o f ou n d u n e n d i n g d e li g h t in th e li ttl e v ol u m e w h i c h
h old s h is p oe try h e h ad an d s till h a s a c h e e r i n g m e s s ag e f u ll
, ,

of b e a u t y a n d h o p e an d i n s pi rati on S u c h is C ol er id g e a m an .
,

o f gr i e f w h o m a k e s t h e w o rld g l ad .

1
Li f e . In 7 7 2 th e re l e in O tte r
1 iv d
y S t Mary D e von sh i re a qu e e r .
, ,

l i ttl e m an , th e R e vJ oh n C o l e rid v i ca r o f th e p ari sh c h u rc h an d

.
ge ,
m ast e r of t h e l oc a l gra m m ar s c h oo l I n th e fo rm e r c a p ac i t
y he .

p re ac h e d p ro fou n d se rm on s q u oti n g to o p e n m ou th e d ru sti c s l on g

-
,

p assage s f ro m th e H e b re w w h i c h h e to l d th e m w as th e v e ry ton gu e
,

of t h e H o l y G h o st I n th e l a tte r c a p ac i t
. y h e w rote for h is b oys a
n e w La t i n gram m ar to m i ti ga te s om e of th e di ffi c u l ti e s of trave rs in g
,

th atte rr ib l e j u n gl e b y m e an s o f i n ge n i ou s b y p a th s a n d s h o rt c u t s .

F o r i n stan c e w h e n h is b oys f oun d th e ab l a tiv e a so m e w h a tdi ffi c u l t

,

c as e t o un d e rs t an d h e t ol d t h e m to t
, h i n k of itas th e q ua le q u a r e -

q u idd i t i ve c ase w h i c h of c ou rse m ak e s i ts m e an i n g p e rf e c tl y c l e ar

,
.

I n b oth th e se c a p a c i ti e s th e e l d e r C o l e ri d ge w as a s i n c e re m an ,

ge n tl e an d ki n d l y w h os e m e m ory w as
,
l ik e a re l i gi on to h is son s
an d d au gh t e rs I n th a ts am e ye ar w as b o rn S a m u e l T a y l or C o l e r id g e
.
,

th e youn ge s tof t h i rte e n c h i l d re n H e w a s an e x trao rdi n a ri ly p r e c o

.

c io u s c h i l d w h o c ou l d r e ad a t t
, h re e y e a rs o f a ge an d w h o b e fo re , ,

h e w as fi e h ad re ad th e B ib l e a n d th e Ara bi an N i gh ts a n d c ou l d
v , ,

r e m e m b e r an as t on i sh i n g a m o u n t f ro m b o t h b oo k s F rom th re e to .
388 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
te n d e d d am e h oo l ; a n d f ro m s ix til l n n e ( w h e n h is i
"
s ix he at a sc

fath e r d i e d an d l e ftth e fam i ly d e s ti tu te ) h e w a s in h is f a th e r s sc h ool,

’

l e a rn i n g th e c l assi c s r e ad i n g ,
q y
a n e n o r m ous u an t i b k
i t o f E n gl s h o o s ,
v i
a o d in g n o v e l s a n,
d d e l i g h t i n g i n c u m b r o us t h e o l og i c a l an d m e t a

y i l i A t t h w s e n t to th e C h a ri ty S c h oo l o f
p h s c a te t
r a s e s .e n e a s

i
C h r s ts
’
H o p
s i ta l L o n d o ,
n w h e r e ,
h e m e t C h a r l e s L a m b w h o re ,

c o rd s h is i m p r e s s i on o f th e p l ac e a n d o f C o l e r i d g e i n o n e o f h is

fa m o u s e s say s l C o l e ri d ge s e e m s to h ave r e m a i n e d in th i s sc h o o l
.

v i
for se e n o r e gh t e a rs y w i h
t o u t vi s i ti n g h i s h o m e — a p oo r n e gl e c t ed , ,

b oy w h ose c o m forts an d e n te rta i n m e n ts w e re a ll w i th i n h i m se lf

,
.

J u s t as w h e n a l i ttl e c h i l d h e use d to w an d e r ove r th e fi e l d s w i th

, ,

a st i c k in h is h an d s l ash i n g th e to p s f rom w e e d s an d th i stl e s

, ,

an d t h i n ki n g h i m s e l f to b e th e m i gh t y
c h am p i on of C h ri s te n d o m i
a ga n st the
in fid e ls, so n ow he w ou l d lie on he
t
roo f 0f th e sc h oo l fo rge tti n g th e p l ay of
,

h is f e l l ow s a n d th e roa r of th e L o n d on
st re e ts w at ,
c h in g th e w h i te c l o u d s d ri f t
in g ov e r an d fo l l o w i n g th e m i n s p i ri t
i n to all sorts of ro m an ti c ad v e n tu re s .

At n i n e te e n th i s h op e l e ss d re a m e r ,

w h o h ad re ad m o re book s th an an

old p ro fe sso r, ente re d C am b rid ge as

d e n t H e re m a i n e d fo r
a c h ar t st iy
u .

n e arl y t h re e y e a rs t h e n ra n away b e
S A M U E L TAY L O R C O L E R I D G E ,

c au se of a t ri fl i n g d e b tan d e n l i st
e d in

th e D ragoo n s w h e re h e se rve d s e ve ra l m on th s b e fo re h e w a s d isc ov

,

e re d an d b ro u gh t b ac k t o th e un iv e rs i ty H e l e f t in 1 7 9 4 w i th ou t .

tak i n g h is d e re e ; an d p e se n tly w e fin d h im w i th th e y ou th fu l
g r

S o u th e y a k i n d r e d S iri t w h o h ad b e e n fi re d t
—
o wild e n t h u s i as m
, p ,

b y th e F re n c h R e vo l u ti on — fou n d i n g h is fam ou s P an ti soc rac y fo r

,
"
th e re ge n e ra ti on o f h u m an so c i e ty Th e Fa l l o f R o b e s p i e rre . a ,
”

p oe m c o m p o se d b y th e two e n th us i as t s is f u l l of th e n e w re olu ,
v

tion a ry s p i rit Th e Pan ti soc rac y on th e ban k s o f th e S u sq u e h an n a

.
, ,

as t o b e a n i d e a l c om m u n i t y in w h i c h th e c i ti z e n s c o m bi n e d farm
,

in g a n d l i te ra tu re ; an d w o rk w as to b e l i m i te d to tw o h ou rs e ac h
d ay .
More ove r e ac h m e m be r of th e c om m u n i ty w a s to m arry
,

a good w o m an an d t ak e h e r w i t
, h h im Th e tw o p o e ts o be ye d .

th e l att e r i n j un c tio n firs t m a rry i n g tw o s i ste rs an d th e n foun d

, ,

S1 C h i t H p i t l F iv d T h i ty Y
’
”
ee r s s os Ag
a i E e any f E li r ea rs o, n ss a s o a.
 3 90 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

£ 40 0 ,
he iv e d a l m ostn o t
re c e h i n g fo r h is p o e t ry I n de e d h e se e m s .
,
"
n o tt o h av e d e s i re d i t fo r h e s ay s : Poe try h as b e e n to m e its ow n
e x c e e di n g gre a tre w a rd ; i t h a s so o t h e d m y a fll ic tion s ; i t h as m u l ti
‘

l i e d an d re fi n e d m y e n j o y m e n t s ; i t h a s e n d e are d so l i t ud e an d i t
p ,

h as giv e n m e th e h abi t o f w i sh i n g t o d isc o v e r t h e good an d th e

be au tifu l in all th atm e e ts an d su rrou n d s m e On e c an b e tte r n u .
”

d e rs tan d h is e xq u i si te v e rse a f te r suc h a d e c l a rati on A th i rd ray of .

sun l igh tc a m e f ro m t h e ad m i rati on of h is c on te m p o rar i e s fo r th ough

h e w rote c om p arativ e ly l i ttl e h e w a s by h is t al e n ts an d l e arn i n g a
,

l e ad e r am on g l i te ra ry m e n an d h is c on ve rsa ti on s w e re as e age rly

,

l i s te n e d to as w e re th o se of D r J oh n son Wo rd sw orth say s of h im . .

th at th ou gh o t
,
h e r m e n of th e a ge h ad d on e s om e won d e rfu l th i n gs ,

C o l e rid ge was th e on l y w on d e rfu l m an h e h ad e v e r kn ow n O f h is .

"
l e c tu re s on l i te ra tu re a c on te m p ora ry say s : H is word s se e m to
flow as f ro m a p e rson re p e a ti n g w i th gra c e an d e n e rgy so m e d e l i gh t
An d of h is c on v e sa ti o n i t is re c o rd e d : T h rou gh ou t a
”
ful p oe m . r

l on g d rawn su m m e r s d ay w ou l d th i s m an ta l k to y ou in low e qu ab l e
-
’
,

b u t c l e ar an d m u s i c a l ton e s c on c e rn i n g th i n gs h u m an an d divi n e ;
,

m arsh a l l i n g all h i s t o ry h arm o n i z i n g a ll e x p e ri m e n t p ro bi n g th e

, ,

d e p th s of you r c on sc i ousn e ss an d re v e a l i n g vi s ion s of gl ory an d ,

te rro r to th e i m agi n a ti on
”
.

Th e l ast b righ t ray of sun l i gh t c om e s f ro m C o l e rid ge s own sou l ’

,

f ro m th e ge n tl e k i n d ly n atu re w h i c h m ad e m e n l ove an d re s p e c th im
,

in s p i t e of h is w e ak n e s se s an d w h i c h c au s e d L a m b t
, o s p e a k o f h im
"
h u m orou sl y as a n a rc h an e l a l i t l e d a m age d Th e u n i v
”
g t e rsal la w .

o f suff e r in
g se e m s to b e th a t it re fi n es an d sof te n s h u m an i t y ; an d
C ol e ri d ge w a s n o e x c e p ti on to th e law I n h i s oe try w e fin d a n o te
p .

o f h u m an sym a t
p h y m o re te n d e r an d p ro fou n d th an c an b e f oun d
,

in Wo rd sw o rth o r i n d e e d in an o t h e r of th e gre a t E n gl i sh p oe ts
,
y , .

E ve n in h is la te r p oe m s w h e n h e h as l o s t h is fi rs t i n s i rati on a n d
,
p
so m e t h in g o f th e sp l e n d i d i m a i n ati v e w th t m k h i w k
g p o e r a a e s s o r

e q ua l t o t h e b e st of B l ak e s w e fin d a sou l te n d e r tri u m h an t
’

"
,
p , ,

q uie t in th e stil l n e ss of a gre atp e ac e H e d i e d in 1 8 3 4 an d w as

, .
”
,

bu rie d in Hi gh gate C h u rc h Th e l as tstan z a of th e b oatm an s son g

.
’
,

n Rem o s
I s e rv e s b e t
r e, ter t o e x p re s s t h e wo rl d s j u d gm e n tth an an y
’

e p uap h :

H a r k ! th e c ad e n c e d ie s a way
O n th e q i tm oo n li t s e a ;
u e -

Th e b o a tm e n re s t th e r o a rs i an d s a
y,
Al is e r e r e D om i n i
 T H E AG E O F R OM A NTI C I S M 39 1

Work s of Cole ri dge Th e w ork s o f C ol e r id g e n atu rally

.

d ivid e th e m s e lv e s i n to th re e cl as s e s th e p oe tic th e c r i tic a l , , ,

an d t h e p h il os op h ic al c or r e s p on di n g to th e e ar ly th e m iddl e
, , ,

an d t h e l a te r p e r i od s of h is c a r e e r O f h is p oe tr y S top f ord .

"
B r o ok e w e ll s ay s : A ll th at h e d id e x c e ll e n tly mi g h t b e
b ou n d u p in tw e n ty p ag e s b u t i t s h ou ld b e b ou n d in p u re ,

H
”
g o ld. i s e ar ly p oe m s S h o w th e i n fl u e n c e o f G ray a n d B l a k e ,

e s p e ci a lly of t h e l atte r Wh e n C ol e r id ge b e g i n s h is D ay
.
"

”
D re am wi th th e li n e My e y e s m a k e pic tu r e s w h e n th e y re
,
’

”
w e r e c al l i n s t ly B l ak e s h aun ti n g S ong s of I n n oc e n c e ’
s h ut ,
an t .

B u tth e re i s th i s di ffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e tw o p oe ts in B l a k e ,

w e h av e o n ly a d r e am e r ; i n C ole r id e w e h a v e th e r ar e

bi n a ti on o f th e d re am e r an d th e p r o f ou n d s c h o l ar Th e q ua l .

I S e a r ly
ity 0 p oe r y wi th i ts s tron g s u g g e s ti on of B l a k e
, ,
”
m ay b e s e e n i n s u c h p o e m s a s A D ay D re a m Th e D e vil s
’

Th e Wan d e r
” " " ”
T h ou g h ts ,
Th e S u icid e s A rg u m e n t an d
’

”
i n g s o f C ai n H is l ate r p oe m s w h e r e i n w e s e e h is i m ag i n ati on
.
,

b r idl e d by th o u g h tan d s tu dy b u ts till ru n n i n g v e r y f re e ly m ay

, ,

” ”
b e s tb e a pp r e ci ate d in K u b la K h an C h r i s tab e l a n d Th e , ,

”
R i m e o f th e A n ci e n tM ar i n e r I t i s di ffi c u l tto c r i tici s e s u c h
.

p o_e) n s ; on e c an o n ly re a d th e m an d w o n d e r at th e i r m e l ody ,

an d a tt h e v a g u e s u g g e s ti on s w h ic h th e y c on j u re u p i n th e m i n d .

" ”
K u b la K h an is a f ra gm e n t p a i n ti n g a g o rg e ou s O r i e n tal
d re am pic tu re s u c h as o n e m i g h t s e e in a n O c tob e r s u n s e t
, .

Th e w h ol e p oe m c am e to C ol e r id g e on e m o rn i n g w h e n h e h ad
f all e n a s l e e p o v e r P u r c h as a n d u p on a wa k e n i n g h e b e gan to
,

w r i te h a s tily
I X d d id K b l K h
n an a u u a an

A stat
el y p l e a s u r e d om e d e c re e : -
’

Wh e re A l p h th e s a c re d r iv e r ra n
’

, ,

T h rou gh c a v e rn s m e as u re l e s s to m a n
D ow n t o a s u n l e ss s e a .

He w as i n te r ru p te d af te r fifty fo u r l i n e s w e re w r i tte n an d h e-
,

n e v e r fi n i sh e d t h e poe m .

C h r i s ta b e l i s a l s o a f rag m e n t w h ic h se e m s to h av e b e e n ,

pl an n e d a s th e s tory of a p u re y o u n g g i rl w h o f e ll u n d e r th e
3 92 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

s p e ll of a s or e r e r, c w om an G e rald i n e I t
in th e s h ap e of th e .

f ll f t m l dy d c t i n s m an y p assa e s o f
is u o a s ra n g e e o a n o n a , g
e xq u i s i te p oe t r y ; b ut i t t re m bl e s wi t h a s tran ge u n k n ow n ,
.

h orror an d s o s ugg e s ts th e s u p e rn atu ra l te rror s of th e p Op u

,

lar h y s te r ic a l n ov e l s to wh ic h w e h av e r e f e rre d ,
O n th i s .

a cc o u n t i t is n o t w h ol e s om e r e adi n g ; t h o u g h o n e fl i e s in th e
f ac e o f S wi n b u rn e an d of oth e r c r i tic s by v e n tu r i n g to s u gg e st
s uc h a t h ing .

”
Th e R i m e of th e A n ci e n t M ar i n e r i s C ol e r id g e s c h i e f
" ’

c on tr ib u ti on to th e Ly ri c a l B a lla d s of 1 7 9 8 and i s on e of th e ,

Th R i m
e f
w orld s m a s t
o
e rpi e c e s
’
T h ou g h i t i n t rod u c e s t .he
th A i t r e ad e r t
e n c en o a s u p e rn a t u ra l r e a l m wi th a p h an tom ,

mar i n r e
s h ip a c r e w of d e a d m e n
,
th e ov e rh an g i n g c u r s e of ,

th e albatr os s th e p ol ar s pi ri t a nd th e m ag ic b re e z e it n e v e r
, , ,

th e le s s m an a e s to c r e ate a s e n s e o f ab s ol u te re alit c c e rn
'
o

i n g th e s e m an i f e s t a b s u rd i ti e s A ll th e m e c h an i s m s of th e .

p oe m its m e te r r i m e a n d m e l ody ar e p e r f e c t; an d s om e o f
, , ,

its d e s c r ip ti o n s o f th e l on e ly s e a h a v e n e v e r b e e n e q u al e d .

P e rh a p s w e s h ou ld s ay s u g ge s ti on s ra th e r th an d e s c rip ti on s ,

fo r C o le fldga ne v e r d e s c ri b e s —th mt io n ,

a l w ay s b r i e f an d a lw ay s e x a c t ly r i g h t a n d ou r ow n i m ag i n a ,

ti on i n s tan tly s u ppl i e s th e d e t a il s I t i s u s e l e s s to q u ote f rag .

m e n ts ; on e m u s tre a d th e e n ti re p o e m if h e re ad s n oth i n g ,

e l s e of t h e r om a n tic s c h oo l of p oe tr y .

A m o n g C ol e rid g e s s h o r te r p oe m s th e re is a wid e v a r i e ty
'

an d e a c h re a d e r m u s t b e l e f t l a r e ly t o f ll w h is o w n ta s te
g o o .

Th e b e g i n n e r will d o w e ll to re ad a fe w o f th e e a r ly p o e m s to ,

” "
w h ic h w e h av e re f e rr e d a n d th e n try th e O d e to F ran c e , ,

Ym M
"
" "
A ge , L ov e P oe m s F e ars i n ,
”

Wor k Wi th ou t H o p e a n d
”
S o li tu d e R e li g i o u s M u s i n g s
, ,
”
,
”

th e g l o ri o u s Hy m n B e f ore S un r i s e i n th e Va l e o f C h am ou n i .
”

O n e e xq u i s i te li ttl e p o e m f r om th e L ati n Th e V i rg i n s C radl e ,

'

H y m n an d h is v e rs i on of S c h ill e r s Wa lle n s te i n s h ow C ol e
” ’
,
,
’
r id e s r e m a r ka bl e p ow e r a s a t ra n s l a t Th e l a tte r is o n e o f
g or .

th e b e s t p o e tic a l tran s l ati o n s in o u r l i te ra tu re .

3 94 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
c on s id e r an
yoth er o cc u pa ti on . H e c o n s id e r e d h im s e l f s e r i

o u s ly a s o n e o f t h e gr e ate s t w r i te rs of th e d ay an d a re ad i n g
,

o f h is b all a d s — w h ic h c on n e c te d h im a t on c e wi th th e ro
m an tic s c h o ol l e ad s u s to th i n k th at h ad h e w r i tte n l e s s
, ,

h e m i gh t p o s s ibly h av e j u s tifi e d h is o w n Opi n i on o f h im s e l f .

U n fo rtu n a te ly h e c o u ld n o tw a i t for i n s pi ra ti on b e i n g o bli g e d

,

to s u pp or t n ot on ly h is ow n f a mily b u t a l s o in l arg e m e a s u r e
, ,

th at of h is f ri e n d C ol e r id g e .

S ou th e y g rad ua lly s u rrou n d e d h i m se l f wi th o n e of th e m os t

e xt e n s iv e lib ra r i e s in E n g l an d a n d se t h i m s e l f t
, o th e ta s k of

W rk f
o s o
w r i ti n g s om e th i n g e v e ry w orki n g d ay Th e r e s u l ts.

So t
u h y
e
o f h is i n d us t r y w e re on e h u n d re d an d n i n e v o l u m e s ,

b e s id e s s om e h un d re d an d fi f ty articl e s for th e m agaz i n e s ,

m o s t o f w h ic h are n o w u tte rly f or g otte n H is m os ta mbi ti o u s

.

p oe m s are T/za la ba a tal e of ,

A ra bi a n e n c h an tm e n t Tli e
Cu rs e of K e /za m a a m e dl e y o f ,

H i n d oo m y th ol ogy M a d oc a ,

l e g e n d o f a We l s h p r i n c e w h o
d i s c ov e re d th e we s te rn w o r ld
an d R od e r i c k a tal e of th e
,

las t of th e G oth s A ll th e s e .
,

an d m a n y m o r e a l th o u g h ,

c on ta i n i n g s om e e x c e ll e n tp a s
sa e s a r e o n t
g , h e w h o l e e xa g
g e rate d an d u n r e a l b oth in ,

man n e r an d in matte r S outh e y .

w rote far b e tte r p ros e tha n

R O B E R T S O U T HE Y
p oe t ry an d h i s adm i ra bl e L i e
, f
of N e ls on i s s ti ll o f te n re ad .

B e s id e s th e s e are h is L i ve s o B r i tts /z Ad m i ra ls h is liv e s of

f
'

C owp e r an d We s l e y an d h is h i s to r i e s of B raz il a n d of th e
,

Pe n i n s u l a r War .

S ou th e y w a s m ad e P oe t L a ur e ate i n 1 8 1
3 an d w a s th e
,

fi rs tto rai se th at offi c e f rom th e lo w e s tate i n to w h ic h it h ad

 TH E AG E O F R O M ANTI C I S M 395

fall e n s i n c e th e d e ath of D r yd e n . Th e o pen ing l in e s of

T h a laba b e g i n n i n g
, ,

H o w b e a u ti f u l i s n i g h t!
A de w y f re s h n e s s fi l l s th e s i l e n ta i r ,

are still m e ti m e s q u ote d

so b e s tk n o w n S h ort
an d a fe w of h is
Th e We ll of S t
" ” ”
p oe m s , lik e Th e S c h o la r A u ld C l o ots , , .

” " ” ”
K e yn e Th e I n c h c ap e R o ck
, an d L od ore will re pay th e
, ,

c u r i ou s re ad e r Th e b e au ty of S ou th e y s c h a ra c te r h is p a
.
’

tie n c e a n d h e lp f u l n e s s m a k e h im a w o r th y a s so ci ate of th e
,

tw o g re ate r p oe ts wi th w h o m h e is g e n e ra lly n am e d .

WA L T E R S C OTT ( 77
1 1 — 1 8 3 2)

We h av e al re a dy ca ll e d i to tw o s i gn i fican t m ov e
atte n ton
m e n ts of th e e i gh te e n th c e n tu r y w h ic h w e m u s t f o r a m om e n t
,

re c a ll i f w e ar e t o app re ci at e S c ot t no t s i m ply a s a d e li g h tf u l
,

te ll e r o f tal e s b u t as a tre m e n d o u s f orc e in m o d e rn li te ra tu re

, .

Th e fi rs t i s th e tri u m p h of rom an tic p oe tr y in Word s w orth

an d C o l e r id g e ; t h e s e c on d i s th e s u cc e s s of ou r fi rs t E n g li s h
n ov e l i s ts an d t h e p op u l a r i z ati on of li te ratur e by taki n g itf r om
,

th e c on tro l of a f e w p atr on s a n d c r i tic s an d p u tti n g it i n to

th e h an d s o f th e p e opl e a s on e o f th e f orc e s w h ic h m old
o u r m o d e rn l i f e S c ott is a n e pi tom e o f b o th th e s e m ov e
.

m e n ts T h e p oe try o f Wor d s w o r th a n d C o l e r id g e w a s r e a d by
.

a s e l e c t fe w b u t S c otts M a r m i on a n d h is L a dy of tlze L a k e
’

a r ou s e d a w h o l e n a t i on to e n th u s i a s m a n d fo r th e fi r s t tim e ,

r o m an t ic p oe try b e c am e re ally po p u l ar S o a l so th e n ov e l h ad .

b e e n c on te n t to p a i n t m e n a n d w om e n o f th e p r e se n t u n til ,

th e w on d e r f u l s er i e s of Wa v e r l e y n ov e l s a pp e are d w h e n s u d ,

d e n ly by th e m ag ic of th i s Wi z ar d o f th e N or th
”
,
a ll h i s to ry ,

s e e m e d cha n e d Th e p a s t w h ic h h ad h i th e rto app e ar e d as

g .
,

a d re ar y r e g i on o f d ea d h e r o e s b e c a m e a liv e a ga i n an d fi ll e d
, ,
i

wi th a m u l ti tu d e of m e n a n d w om e n w h o h ad th e s urp r i s i n g
c h a rm of reali ty I t is of s m all c on s e q u e n c e th at S c o tts
.
’

p oe try an d p ros e are b oth faulty ; th at h is p oe m s a re re ad

3 96 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
c h i e fly fo r th e stor y , ra t th an fo r th e i r
p oe tic e xc e l l e n c e ;
her
a n d th at m u c h o f t h e e vid e n t c ru d i ty an d b a r b a r i s m of th e
’

M iddl e A ge s is i g n o re d or forg otte n in S c otts w r i ti n g s B y .

th e i r vi g o r th e i r f re s h n e s s
,
th e i r ra pid a c ti on an d t heir
, ,

b re e zy ou tof d oor atm os p h e re S cotts n o v e l s attrac te d th ou

,
- -
,
’

s an d s of r e ad e r s w h o e l s e h ad k n o w n n o t h i n g of th e d e li g h ts
o f li te ra t u re He i s th e re f ore th e gr eate s t k n o w n f a c tor i n
.
, ,

e stabl i s h i n g an d i n p op ul a ri z i n g th a t rom an tic e l e m e n t in

p ros e an d p oe try w h ic h h a s b e e n for a h u n d re d y e ars th e
ch i e f c h ara c te r i s tic of ou r li te ratu re .

Life . Sc o tt w as b o rn
di n bu rgh on Au gu st 1 5 1 7 7 1 On
in E , ,
.

bo th h is m oth e r s an d fa th e r s si d e h e w as d e sc e n d e d fro m old

’ ’

Bo rd e r fa m i l i e s d i sti n gu i sh e d m o re fo r th e ir f e u d s an d fi gh ti n g th an
,

for th e i r i n te ll e c tu a l a ttai n m e n ts H is f ath e r w a s a ba rri ste r a j u s t

.
,

m an w h o o f t
, e n l o s tc l i e n t
s by a d v i s in g th e m to b e fi rs tof all h on , ,

e s t in t h e i r l a w s u i ts H is m o th e r w as a w om an o f c h ara c te r a n d
.

e d u c ati on s tron gl y i m agi n ati v e a te l l e r of ta l e s w h i c h s ti rre d y oun g

, ,

Wal te s e n th us i asm by re v e ali n g th e p astas a w o r l d of l ivi n g h e roe s

r
’
.

As a c h il d Sc o ttw as l a m e an d d e l i c a te an d w as th e re fo re se n t
, ,

a w a y f ro m t h e it y to b e w i th h is gran d m o th e r in th e op e n c oun try

c

a t S an d y K n o w e in R o x b u rgh sh i re n e ar th e T w e e d
, T h i s gran d , .

h e r was
m ot a pe r e c f t tre as u re h ou s e
-
of l e ge n d s c on c e rn n g i th e old

Bo rd e r F rom h e r w o n d e rfu l ta l e s S c ott d e ve l op e d th at ia

f e ud s .

te n s e l o v e o f Sc o t ti sh h i sto ry an d t radi t i on wh ic h c h arac te ri e s all z

h is w o rk .

By th e ti m e h e w as e i gh tye ars old wh e n h e r e t u rn e d t o E di n ,

burgh Sc otts tas te s w e re fix e d fo r l ife At th e h igh sc h o o l h e w a s

,
’
.

a fa i r s c h o l a r b u t w i th ou t e n th u s i as m b e i n g m ore i n te re ste d in
, ,

Bo rd e r s t o ri e s t h an in th e te x tbo ok s H e re m a i n e d at sc h oo l on ly
-
.

s ix o r s e v e n y e a rs a n d t h e n e n te re d h is fa th e r s o fli c e to stu d y law
,
’
,

at t h e sa m e ti m e a tte n d i n g l e c tu re s at th e u n iv e rs i t y H e k e p tth is .

u p fo r so m e s ix ye a rs w i t
n o te v e n w h e n h e
S IO n ,
h ou td e v e l op i n g an y i n te re s t in h is p rot
es
p as se d h is e xa m i n a ti on s an d w as ad m i tte d

to th e Ba r in 1 7 2
9
, Afte r n in e te e n y e a rs of d e su l to ry wo rk in
.
,

u h ic h h e sh owe d fa r m o re z e a l in a th e in H i h l an d l e e n d s th an
g g g g r

In
gain i n g c l i e n ts h e h ad w on two sm a l l l e ga l o fli c e s wh i c h gav e h im
,
‘

e n ou gh in c o m e t o su
w as a tAsh e s tie l on t
pp ort h im c o m f o rt ab ly H is h om e m e an w h i l e .
, ,
h e T w e e d w h e re all h is b e st o e try w as w ri tte n
p , .
398 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
th e ge n e ro u s h os p t
a l t o f a S c o t
c h l a rdi iy
,
o f w h c h h e h ad e e n i i b
d re a m i n g fo r e ars I n 1 8 2 0 h y
e w as m a d e.
a a ro net an d h is n e w b
ttl e o f S ir Wa l te r c a m e n e a re r t
i o t u rn n g h is h o n e st h e a th an h a d i d
a ll h isl i te rary su c c e ss H is b u s i n e ss p artn e rsh ip w as k e p tse c re t an d
. ,

d u ri n g all th e y e ars w h e n th e Wav e rl e y n ov e l s we re th e m o s tp op u l ar

book s in th e w orl d th e i r au th o rsh i p r e m a i n e d un kn ow n ; fo r S c o tt
,

d e e m e d itb e n e ath th e d i gn i t y of h is ti tl e to e arn m on e y by b u s i n e ss

or l i te ra t u re a n d so u gh t t o giv e t
,
h e i m p re ss i on th at th e e n orm o u s
s u m s s p e n ta tAbb o t sfo rd in i m p rovi n g t h e e sta te an d in e n te rt ai n

in g l a v i s h l y w e re p a rtof th e d i gn i ty of th e p os i ti on an d c am e f rom
an c e s tra l sou rc e s .

I tw a s th e suc c e ss o f yron
B
’
s C/zild e H a r old , an d he
t c om p a ra t e iv
fa i l u re of S c o tts l ate r p oe m s , R oke o y , l e B r id a l of Tr i e r i n a i n , an d
’

Th e L or d o f lze I s les,
t i
w h i c h le d ou r au th or n to th e n e w e l , w h e re fi d
h e w as to b e w i th ou ta ri v a l bi n e ton e d ay
. R u m m ag in g th rou gh a ca

in e a rc h of so m e fi s h i n g tac k l e S c o
S tt foun d th e m an u sc r i p t o f a ,

sto r y w h i c h h e h ad b e gu n an d l a id a s id e n i n e y e a rs b e f or e H e r e ad .

th i s o ld s t o ry e a ge rl y a s i f it h a d b e e n an o t h e r s w o rk ; fi n i sh e d
’
,

it w i th i n th re e w e e k s an d p u b l i sh e d it w i th ou t s i gn i n g h is n am e
,
.

T h e su c c e ss of th i s fi s tn o v e l Wa ve ley w as i m m e d i at
r e an d
,
r

u n e x pe c ted I ts gre a t sa le s a n d th e ge n e ral c h o rus of p ra i s e fo r i t

. s

un k n o w n au t h or w e e w i th ou t p re c e d e n t; an d w h e n G uy M a n n e
r r

i ng , Th e A n t
i q u a ry , B la c k D w a rf , Old fl i a li t
or t y, R ol) R oy , an d

Th e H e a r t of M idlot/i i a n a
pp e are d w i th i n th e n e x tf ou r y e a rs , E n g
l a n d s d e l i gh tan d w o n d e r k n e w n o bou n d s N ot o n l y a th o m e , b u t
’
.

a l so on t h e C on ti n e n t l a rge n u m b e rs o f th e s e f re sh a n d fasc i n a ti n
,
g
st o ri e s w e re s o l d a s f a s ta s th e y c o ul d b e p ri n te d .

D u ri n g th e s e ve n te e n y e a rs w h i c h f o l l ow e d th e ap ea ran c e of
p
Wa ve r ley Sc ott w rote o n an ave rage n e arl y tw o n ove l s p e r ye ar
, ,

c re at in g an un u su a l n u m b e r of c h a rac te rs an d i l l ustra ti n g m an y
p e riod s of S c otc h E n gl i sh an d F re n c h h i s tory f ro m th e ti m e o f th e
, , ,

C rusad e s to th e fa l l of th e S tu a rts I n ad d i ti on to th e s e h i s to ri c a l .

n ov e l s h e w ro te Ta le s of a G r a n d a t
,
f h e r D e m on ology a n d Wi tc h ,

c r af t bi o ra h i e s o f D ry d e n an d o f S w i f t
g p , th e L if e of N ap ole on in , ,

n i n e vol u m e s an d a la r e n u m b e r o f art i c l e s fo r th e re v i e w s an d
g ,

m agaz i n e s I t w a s an e x traord i n a ry a m ou n t o f l i te ra ry wo rk b u t i t
.

w as n o tq u i t a n e o u s as i t s e e m e d
e so ra p i d an d s o n t
p H e h ad b e e n .

v e ry d i l i ge n t in l ooki n g u p old re c ord s an d w e m u st re m e m b e r ,

th at in n e a rly a ll h is o e m s an d n ov e l s S c o tt w as d rawi n p
,
p g u on a ,

u n d 0 f le e n
f g d t rad it ion h i story an d p oe try w h i c h h e h ad b e e n
: , , ,
 TH E AG E O F RO M ANTI C I S M 3 99

gath e r n gi fo rty y e ars a n d w h i c h h is m e m ory e n ab l e d h im to p ro

f or ,

d u c e a t w i l l w i th a l m o s tth e ac c u rac y o f a n e n c yc l o p e d i a .

F o r th e fi rst s ix y e a rs S c o tt h e l d h i m s e l f to S c o tti sh h i story giv ,

in g u s in n i n e re m arka b l e n ove l s th e w h o l e o f S c o tl an d i ts h e ro i sm , ,

i ts s u p e rb f a i th an d e n th u s iasm a n d e sp e c i all y i ts c l an n i s h l oya l t

y to
‘

its h e re d i ta ry c h i e f s ; givi n g u s a l so a ll p ar ti e s an d c h arac te rs f rom ,

C ov e n an te rs to R o y a l i s ts an d f rom ki n gs to b e ggars Af te r re adi n g

,
.

th e s e n i n e v o l u m e s w e k n o w S c o tl an d a n d S c o t c h m e n a s w e c an
k n ow th e m i n n o oth e r w ay I n 1 8 1 9 h e tu rn e d ab ru p tl y f rom
.

Sc otl a n d a n d in I va n / we th e m os tp op u l ar o f h is w o rk s S h o w e d w h at
, , ,

a m i n e o f n e gl e c t e d we al t h lay j u st b e n e ath th e s u rf a c e o f E n gl i sh

A B B O TS F O R D
h i story I tis h ard to re a l iz e n ow as w e re ad its rap id m e l od ram atic
.
, ,

ac t ion i ts vivi d p ortra y a l o f S a xon an d N o rm an c h arac te r an d a ll i ts

, ,

p i c tu re s q u e d e ta il s th a t it w as w r i tte n ra p id l y a t a ti m e w h e n th e
, ,

au t h or w as su ffe rin g fro m di s e as e an d c ou ld h ard l y re p re s s a n o c c a

O

s i ou a l gro an f rom fi n d in g i t s w ay i n t o t h e ra p id di c t ati on I t stan d s .

to d ay a s th e b e ste x a m p l e of th e au t h o r s o wn th e o ry th a t th e w i l l
’
-

of a m an i s e n o u gh t o h o l d h im s t e a di l y a ga i n s t all o b s t
,
ac l e s t
o ,
"
ask of d o in g w h ath e h as a m i n d to d o K e n ilw or th N ige l ”
th e t .
, ,

P eve r i l an d Wood s t
,
ock all w r i t
, te n in t h e n e x t f e w y e a r s S h ow h i s ,

g rasp of t h e ro m an t i c S i d e o f E n gl i sh an n a l s Cou n tR ooe tan d T/ze r

Ta li s m a n S h ow h is e n th u s ia sm fo r th e h e ro i c s id e o f th e C r u sad e rs
’

na t
u re ; an d Qu e n tin D u r w a r d an d An n e f
o ein
Ge ie rs t s u gge s t an

her m
ot in e of ro m an c e wh ic h he di sc ov e re d in F re n c h h is tory .
 40 0 E NG L I S H L IT E RATU R E
F o r twe n t y ye ars Sc ott l abo red s te ad ily at l i te ra tu re wi th th e ,

d ouble obj e c to f giv i n g w h at w as in h im an d o f e a rn i n g l a rge su m s ,

t o su p p o r t t h e l av i s h d i s p l ay w h i c h h e d e e m e d e sse n ti a l to a la i rd
o f Sc ot l an d I n 1 8 2 6 w h i l e h e w as b l i th e ly a t w o rk o n Wood s toc k
.
, ,

th e c rash c am e N o t e v e n th e va st e arn i n gs of a ll th e se p o p u l a r
.

n o v e l s c ou l d l on g e r k e e p t h e w e tc h e d b u s i n e ss of B a l l an t yn e o n its
‘

fe e t an d th e firm fa il e d a f te r y e ars o f m i s m an age m e n t Th ou gh a

, ,
.

s il e n t p a rt n er Sc o tt as s u m e d f u l l re s po n s ibi l i t
,
y an d at fifty fiv e ,
-

y e ars of age s i c k s u ff e ri n g an d w i th all h is b e stwork b e h i n d h im

, , , ,

h e foun d h i m se lf fac i n g a d e b t of ov e r h a lf a m i l l i on d o l l ars Th e .

firm c o l d e as i l y h av e c o m p ro m i s e d w i th i ts c re d i to rs ; b u t S c ott
u

re f us e d t o h e a r o f b a n k ru p t c y l a w s un d e r w h i c h h e c o u l d h av e t ak e n

r e f u ge H e assu m e d th e e n ti re d e b t as a p e rson a l on e an d s e t
.
,

r e so l u t ely t o w o rk t o p ay e v e ry p e n n y Ti m e s w e re i n d e e d c h an ge d .

i n E n gl a n d w h e n i n s te ad o f a l i te rary ge n i u s s ta rvi n g u n ti l so m e
,

w e a l th y p atron gav e h im a p e n s i on th i s m an a i d e d b y h is p e n a l on e , , ,

c ou l d c o n fid e n t ly be gi n to e arn th at e n orm ou s a m ou n t of m on e y .

An d th i s is on e o f th e un n o ti c e d re s u l ts of th e p o p u l ar i z a ti on o f lit
'

e ra t u re Wi th ou ta d oub t S c o tt w ou l d h ave ac c om p l i sh e d th e task

.
,

h ad h e b e e n gran te d o n ly a fe w y e ars o f h e a l th H e s ti l l l iv e d a t .

Abbots ford w h i c h h e h ad off e re d to h is c r e di to rs b u t w h i c h th e y

, ,

ge n e rou s ly re fus e d to ac c e p t; an d in tw o y e a rs by m i sc e ll an e o u s ,

w o k h ad p aid som e two h un d re d th ou sa n d d o l l ars of h is d e bt

r , ,

n e a rl y h a lf o f t h is s u m c o m i n g f rom h is L ife of N ap ole on A n e w .

e d it i on of th e Wave rl e y n ove l s a p p e a e d w h i c h w as v e ry suc c e ssf u l r ,

fi n an c ia l l y an d Sc otth ad e ve ry re ason to h o pe th at h e w ou l d s oon

,

fac e th e w orl d ow i n g n o m an a p e n n y w h e n h e su d d e n l y b roke ,

un d e r t h e s tra i n I n 8 3 0 o c c u rre d a s troke of p a ra l y s i s f rom w h i c h

. 1

h e n e v e r fu l l y re c ov e re d th o u gh af t e r a li ttl e ti m e h e w a s aga i n a t
w ork d i c ta ti n g w i th s p l e n d id p ati e n c e an d re so l uti on He w ri te s in
, .

h is d i a ry a t th i s ti m e Th e b l o w is a stu n n i n g on e I su p po s e fo r I , ,

s c a c e ly fe e l it I t is s i n u l a r b u t i t c o m e s w i t
r h as l i ttl e su rp ri se as
g .
,

i f I h ad a re m e d y re ad y y e t G od k n o ws I a m at se a in th e d ark, ,

an d t h e v e ss e l le ak v .
”

I t is good to re m e m b e th at ov e rn m e n ts are n o ta l w ay s un rate

r
g g
fu l a n d to r e c o rd th a t w h e n i t b e c a m e kn own th a t a voya e to
,
,
g
I ta l y m i gh t i m p o v e Sc otts h e a l th th e B ri ti sh gove rn m e n tp ro m p tl y
r
’

p l a c e d a n ava l v e s e l a t th e d i s p osa l o f a m an w h o h ad le d n o
s

a m ie s t b u t h ad o n l y g iv e n p l e a su re to m u l ti t
o th e s l au gh te u d e s of
r r,

pe a c e able m e n a n d wom e n by h is s to r i e s H e vi s i te d M a l t a N ap l e s .
, ,
40 2 E N GLI SH L IT E R ATU R E
ra pid ac ti on a n d s u cc e s s i on of a dv e n tu r e s w h i c h h old an d d e ,

li g h t u s s till as th e y h e ld a n d d e li g h te d th e fi rs t w on d e ri n g
,

r e ad e rs A n d o n e fi n d s h e re a n d th e re te rs e d e s c rip ti on s o r
. ,

s n at c h e s o f s on g a n d b all ad l ik e th e B oat S on g an d L oc h ,

i n var w h ic h a re am on g th e b e s t k n ow n in o u r l i te ratu re
,
”
.

I n h is n ov e l s S c ott pl a i n ly w rote too rapidly a n d too m u c h .

Wh il e a g e n i us of th e fi rs tm ag n i tu d e th e d e fi n i ti on of ge n i us ,

" ”
S t
co t ’
s
a s t h e i n fi n it e ca p a ci t y for t a ki n g p a i n s h a r dly .

b e l on g s to h im F or d e tail s of l if e an d h i s tory for

.
,

fi n e ly d raw n c h ara c te r s an d for tra ci n g th e l og ic al c on s e

,

q u e n c e s of h u m a n a c t i on h e h as u s ua lly n o i n cli n ati on

,
H e .

s ke t c h e s a c h ara c te r r ough ly pl u n g e s h im i n to th e mid s t of ,

st i rri n g i n cid e n ts an d th e ac ti o n of th e s tor y c ar r i e s u s

,

o n b r e at h l e s s ly to th e e n d S o h is s tori e s a re l arg e ly ad v e n.

tu re s tor i e s a t th e b e s t; an d it is th i s e l e m e n t of adv e n tu r e
,

an d g l or i ou s a c t i on rath e r th an th e s tu dy o f c h ara c te r w h ic h
, ,

m ak e s S c ott a p e re n n i a l f a v or i te of th e y o u n g Th e sam e e le .

m e n t o f e xci te m e n t i s w h a t c a u se s m atu re r e a d e rs to tu rn

f rom S c ottto b e tte r n ov e li s ts w h o h av e m or e p ow e r to d e lin ,

e at e h u m an c h a ra c t e r an d t o c r e at e or d i sc ov e r a r om an t
, ic , ,

i n te re s t in th e i n cid e n ts of e v e ryd ay li f e rath e r th an in s ti r s

r i n g adv e n t
1
u re .

N otw i th s tan di n g th e s e l im i tati on s it is w e ll e s p e ci a lly i n ,

th e s e d ay s w h e n w e h e ar th atS c ott i s o u tg ro w n
,
—t o e m ph a

S t
co t w n S i z e f o u r n ote w orth y t
’
s o , h i n g s th at h e a cc o m pli s h e d .

L it t
‘0‘ e ra ure
( )
1 H e c r e a te d the h i stor ic l
a no e v l 2
; an d a ll n ov
e lis t s of t h e l as t c e n tu r y w h o d ra w u p on h i s tory f or th e i r
c h arac te rs a n d e v e n ts are f oll ow e rs of S c ottan d a ck n owl e d g e
m s m as te ry .

( ) His n ov e l s are on a v as t s c al e c o v e r i n g a v e r y wid e

2
,

ran e of a c t i on an d are c on c e rn e d wi th p u bl ic rath e r th an

g ,

1
9
S e e S c ott’ s i ti i
cr c s m of h i s own or , i nw k c om p ar son i with J A t p
an e us e n s,
’
.
439 .

S c ot
t’ s vl w
no e s e re n ott fi
h e rs tto h a e v an h i stor c a i l ba i F th i ty y
s s . or r e a rs p re
ce d i ng th e a p pe ara nc e o f Wa ve r ley , h i st i l
or c a ro m a n c e s w p p l ; b titw
e re o u ar u as d u e to
S co t i i i l vl tty pe f li t
’
ts ge n u s th atth e h s to r ca n o e b e ca m e a pe r m a n e n o e t S ra u re . ee C ross ,
Th e D e ve lop m e n tof th e E n li sh N ov e l
g .
 T H E AG E O F R O M AN TI C I S M 40 3

wi th p rivate i n te re s ts S o wi th th e e x c e p ti on of Tlze B r id e of
.
,

L a m m e r m oor th e l ov e s tor y in h is n ov e l s is g e n e ra lly p a l e

,

a n d f e e bl e b u tth e s tr if e an d p as s i on s of b ig p ar ti e s ar e m ag
n ific e n t ly p or tray e d A g l a n c e ov e r e v e n th e ti tl e s of h is
.

n ov e l s s h ow s h ow t h e h e ro i c s id e of h i s tor y f or o v e r s ix h u n
d re d y e ars fi n d s e xp r e s s i on in h is p ag e s ; an d a ll th e p arti e s
of t h e s e s ix c e n tur i e s — C r u sa d e r s C o v e n an te r s C av ali e rs
, , ,

R o un d h e a d s Pa p i s ts J e w s Gyp s i e s R e b e l s — s tar t i n to li f e
, , , ,

a ga i n a n d fi g h t o r g iv e a r e a s on f o r t
,
h e f a i th th at i s in th e m .

N o o th e r n ov e li s t i n E n g l an d a n d on ly B a l z a c in F ran c e
, ,

app r oa c h e s S c o t t in th e s c o p e o f h i s n ar rativ e s .

(3 ) S c o tt w a s th e fi rs t n o v e li s t i n an
y l a n g g
ua e t o m a k e

th e s c e n e a n e s s e n ti a l e l e m e n t i n th e a c ti on H e k n e w S c ot
.

l a n d a n d l ov e d it an d th e re i s h ardly an e v e n t in an y of h is
,

S c otti s h n ov e l s i n w h ic h w e d o n ot b re ath e th e v e r y a tm o s
p h e r e o f th e p l a c e a n d f e e l th e p r e s e n c e o f its m o ors an d
,

m ou n ta i n s Th e pl a c e m o re v e r is u s u a lly s o w e ll c h os e n an d
.
, ,

d e s c r ib e d th at th e a c ti on s e e m s a lm o s t to b e th e r e s u l t of
n at ura l e n vi ron m e n t P e r h ap s th e m o s t s tr iki n g ill u s trati on
.

of t h i s h ar m on y b e tw e e n s c e n e an d i n cid e n t is f ou n d in Old
M or ta li t y w, h e r e M o rt o n a pp roa c h e s t h e c a v e o f th e o ld C o v e

e r a n d w h e re t h e s pi r i tua l te rr or i n s pi re d by th e f an atic s
’
h an t ,

st ru g l e wi t h i m a i n ar y fi e n d s i s p a rall e l e d by t h e p h y ic l
g g s a

te r ro r o f a g u lf an d a r oa r i n g fl o o d s p an n e d by a s lipp e r y tre e
tru n k . A s e c on d ill u s trati on o f th e s am e h ar m on y of s c e n e
a n d i n cid e n t i s f ou n d in t h e m e e ti n g of th e a rm s a n d id e a l s
of t h e E a s t an d We s t w h e n th e tw o c h a m pi on s fi g h t in th e
,

b u rn i n g d e s e rt a n d th e n e at b re a d tog e th e r in th e c ool s h ad e
,

of t h e oa s i s a s d e s c r ib e d in th e o p e n i n g c h a p te r of l e Ta lis
,

m an . A th i r d ill u s tra ti on i s f ou n d in th at fas ci n a ti n g l ov e

s c e n e w h e r e I v a n h o e li e s w o u n d e d r a i n g a t h is h e lpl e s s n e s s
, g , ,

w h il e th e g e n tl e R e b e cc a al te rn ate ly h id e s an d r e v eal s h e r
l ov e a s s h e d e s c r ib e s th e te rrifi c a s s au l t on th e c a stl e w h ic h ,

g o e s on b e n e a th h e r wi n d ow H is th ou g h ts a re all on th e
.

fi g h t; h e r s on th e m an s h e l ov e s ; an d b oth are n atu ral an d ,

40 4 E N GLI SH L IT E R ATU R E
b oth x ac tly wh at w e e xp e c t u n d e r th e c i r c u m s tan c e s
ar e e .

T h e s e a re b ut s tri ki n g e x am pl e s of th e f ac t th at in all h is ,

work S c ott tr i e s to p re s e r v e p e r f e c t h ar m on y b e tw e e n th e
,

s c e n e an d t h e ac ti on .

(4 ) S c ott s c h i e f cl a i m t
’
o g re a tn e s s li e s i n t h e f a c tt h at h e

w as t h e fi r s t n o v e li s t to re c re ate th e p as t; th at h e c h an g e d
our w h o l e c on c e p t i on of h i s tor y by m a ki n g it to b e n ot a ,

r e c or d o f d ry f a c t s b u t a s tag e on w h ic h livi n g m e n an d
,

w om e n pl ay e d th e i r p ar ts C ar lyl e s c r i tici s m is h e re m os t .
’

"
p e rti n e n t: T h e s e h i s tor ic al n ov e l s h av e tau g h t th i s tru th
u n k n ow n t o w ri t e rs of h i s tor y : t h a t th e by g on e a g e s o f
th e w o rld w e r e a c tua lly fill e d by livi n g m e n n ot by p roto c ol s , ,
”
st at e pa p e rs c on trov e rs i e s an d a b s trac ti o n s of m e n
,
N ot , .

on ly t h e p age s o f h i s tor y b u t a ll th e h ill s an d v a l e s of h is b e,

l ov e d S c otl an d are fi ll e d wi th livi n g c h ara c te rs — l or d s an d ,

ladi e s s oldi e rs pi rate s gyp s i e s p r e ac h e rs s c h oolm as te r s

, , , , , ,

cl an s m e n b a ili ff s d e p e n d e n ts
, a ll S c o t
, l an d is here b e f or e ,
—

our e y e s i n t h e re a li ty of l i f e i ts e l f
, I t i s a s ton i s h i n g wi th .
,

h is l a r ge n u mb e r s o f c h a ra c te rs th a tS c ottn e v e r re p e ats h im ,

se l f . N atu rally h e is m os t at h om e in S c otl an d a n d wi th ,

h u m bl e p e 0 p 1e S c otts o w n ro m an tic in te re s t i n f e u d a li s m
’
.

c au se d h i m to m ak e h is l ord s a l tog e th e r too l ordly ; h is a ri s

toc ratic m aid e n s ar e u s ua lly bl oo dl e s s c o n v e n ti on al e x as p e r , ,

at i n g c re atu re s w h o talk lik e b ook s an d p os e lik e fi g u re s in

,

a n old t ap e s try B u tw h e n h e d e s c r ib e s c h ara c te r s lik e J e an i e

.

D e an s i n T/l e H e a r t of M i d /ot/zi a n an d th e old cl an s m an

,
’

, ,

E v an D h u in Wa v e r ley w e k n o w th e v e ry s ou l of S c otc h
, ,

w om an h ood an d m an h ood .

Pe rh ap s on e th i n g m ore s h o u ld b e sa id or rath e r r e p e ate d , ,

o f S c ot ts e n d ur i n g w or k He is a lway s sa n e w h ol e s om e
’

.
, ,

m an ly i n s pi ri n, g We k n ow th e e s s e n ti a l n o bili ty of h u m an
.

li fe b e tte r an d w e are b e tte r m e n a n d w om e n ou r se lv e s

,
,

b e cau s e of w hat h e h as w r i tte n .

46 6 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

ha e v d v
e o te d s o m u c h o f h is ta l e n t t o d e s c r ibi n g tr ivi a l or

un
w h l
o e so m e i n tr i gu e s a n d p os i n g a s th e h e r o o f h i s o w n

v e rs e s Th e re al trag e dy of B y ron s li f e is th at h e di e d j u s t
.
’

a s h e w as b e g i n n i n g t o fin d h im s e l f .

Li fe . Byro n w as b o rn in Lo n d on in 1 7 8 8 th e y e a r p re c e di n g th e ,

F e n c h R e vo l uti on We sh a l l un d e rstan d h im b e tte r an d j u d ge

r . ,

h im m ore c h ari t a b ly i f w e re m e m b e r th e tai n te d s toc k f rom w h i c h

,

h e s p ran g H is fa th e r wa s a d i ss i p a te d sp e n d th rif t of u n s p e akab l e

.

m ora l s h is m oth e r w as a Sc o tc h h e i re ss p ass i on ate an d u n b a l a n c e d ,

.

Th e fa th e r d e se rte d h is w if e a f te r sq u an d e ri n g h e r f o rtu n e an d t he
“

"
b oy w as b rough t u p by th e m oth e r w h o al te rn at e ly p e t te d an d
ab u s e d I n h is e l e ve n th y e ar th e d e a th of a gran d u n c l e l e ft
”
h im .

h im h e i r to N e w ste a d Abb e y an d to th e ba ron i al ti tl e o f o n e of th e

o l d e s t h ous e s i n E n gl an d H e w as s i n gu l arl y h a n d so m e ; an d a
.

l am e n e ss re su l tin g f ro m a d e fo rm e d footl e n ta su gge sti on of p ath os

t o h is m ak e u p All th i s w i th h is soc ia l p o s i ti on h is p s e u d o h e roi c
- -
.
, ,

oe t ry a n d h is d i ss i p a t e d l i fe — ov e r w h i c h h e c o n t ri v e d t o t h row
p , ,

a v e il o f ro m a n t ic s e c re c y — m ad e h im a m agn e t of a ttrac tion to

,

m an y th o u gh tl e s s y o un g m e n an d foo l i sh w o m e n w h o m ad e th e ,

d ow n h i l l p ath b oth e asy an d ra p id to on e w h o s e i n c l i n a ti on s le d h i m

in th at d i re c ti on N a tu ral ly h e w as ge n e rou s an d e as i l y le d by
.
,

aff e c t i on He is th e re fo re large ly a vi c ti m of h is own w e ak n e ss

.
, ,

an d of u n fo rt u n at e s u rro un d i n gs .

At c h oo l a t H arrow an d in th e u n iv e rs i t
s , y a t C am brid ge Byron ,

le d an u n b a l an c e d l ife an d w a s m ore give n to c e r t , a i n s o rt

p s f rom

w h ic h h e w as n ot d e ba rre d by l am e n e ss th an to book s an d s tu d y , .

H is sc h oo l l ife l ik e h is i n fan c y is sa d ly m ark e d b y va n i ty vi o l e n c e

, , , ,

an d re b e l l ion a a i n s t e v e ry fo rm of au t h o ri ty ; y e t it w a s n o twi th
g
ou t it s h o u rs o f n o b il i t y an d ge n e ro s ity Sc ott d e sc ribe s h im as a .

m a n o f re al good n e s s of h e art a n d t h e ki n d e st a n d b e st f e e l i n gs
, ,

m i se ra b ly th ro w n a w ay by h is foo l ish c on te m t o f b l i O i n i on
”
p p u c p .

Wh i l e at C am bri d ge By ron p ub l i sh e d h is fi rst v ol u m e o f p o e m s

, ,

Hou s of I d le n e ss in 1 8 0 7 A s e ve re c r i ti c i sm of th e v o l u m e in th e
r
, .

E di n ou glz R e vi e w w oun d e d B y ron s va n i ty an d th re w h im i n to a

r
’

v i o l e n t p ass i on th e re su l tof w h ic h w as th e n ow fam ou s sati re c all e d

,

E ng li h B a r d s a n d S c ot
s c lz R e v i ew e r s in w h i c h n o ton l y h is e n e m i e s , ,

b u ta l so S c o tt Word sw o rth an d n e a rl y a ll th e l i te ra ry m e n o f h is
, ,

d ay w e re sa ti ri z e d in h e ro i c c ou l e ts a fte r th e m an n e r of P o e s ’
,
p p
D u n c i a d I tis on l y j ustto sa th at h e af te rw a rd s m ad e f ri e n d s w i th
y
.
 TH E AG E O F R OM ANTI C I S M 40 7

S c ott an d w i th oth e rs w h om bu se d w i th ou t p rovoc ati on ;

h e h ad a

an d iti s i n t e re s t i n g to n ote in v i e w o f h is own rom an ti c p oe ty th a t

, r ,

h e d e n ou n c e d all m aste rs of rom an c e an d ac c e p te d th e a rtifi c i al

st an d a rd s o f P o p e an d D ryd e n H is tw o f avo r i te b ook s w e re th e Old
.

T e s ta m e n tan d a vo l u m e o f P op e s p o e try Of th e latte r h e sa y s ’

.
,

H is is th e gre a te s tn a m e in p oe try a ll th e r e sta re b a rb a ri an s .

”

I n 1 8 0 9 By ron w h e n o n l y tw e n ty on e ye a rs of ag e s ta rte d o n a
,
-
,

tou r of E urop e a n d th e O ri e n t Th e p o e tic re s u l ts of th i s tri p w e re

.

th e fi rs tt o s of C/zi ld e H a r old s P i lg r i m ag e w i t h th e i r fa m ou s
’
w o c an t ,

d e sc r i p ti on s of rom an tic sc e n e ry Th e wo rk m ad e h im in s tan tly

.

u l a r a n d h is f a m e o v e rsh ad o w e d S c ot ts c om p l e te l y As h e says
’

p p o , .

"
h i m se l f , I a w ok e on e m o rn
in g to fin d m y se lf fam ou s
”
an d ,
"
p re S e nt ly h e s ty l e s h i m se lf t h e

gran d N a p o l e on of th e r e a l m s
of rh y m e
”
. Th e w o r ste l e m e n t
in B y ron at th i s ti m e w a s h is
i n si n c e ri ty h is c on tin u a l p os
,

in g a s th e h e r o of h is p o e try .

H is b e stw ork s w e re tran s l a te d ,

an d h is fa m e s p re ad a l m os ta s

ra p id l y on t h e C on ti n e n t a s
in E n gl an d E v e n G o e th e w as
.

d e c e iv e d an d d e c l a e d th ata
, r

m an s o wo n d e rf u l in c h a rac t er

h ad n e ve r b e fo re app e are d in
l i te ratu re an d w ou l d n e v e r ap
, G E O R G E G O R D ON L O R D B Y R O N ,

p e ar a gai n N ow th a tth e ti n s e l
.

h a s w o rn o ff an d w e c an j u d ge th e m an an d h is wo rk di sp a ss i on
,

at e l y w e se e h ow e a s i l y e v e n t
, h e c r i ti c s of th e age we re gov e rn e d by
rom an t ic i m p u l s e s .

Th e ad u l a ti on o f B y ron l aste d on l y a f e w y e ars in E n gl an d I n .

1 8 1 5 h e m a rr i e d Mi s s M il ban k e an E n g l i s h h e i re ss
,
w h o a b ru p tl y ,

l e f th im a y e ar l ate r Wi th w o m an ly re s e rve sh e k e p t s i l e n c e ; b u t
.
,

th e p u b l ic w a s n o t s l ow t o i m a gi n e p l e n t y of r e ason s for th e se p ara

ti on . T h i s toge th e r wi th th e fac t th atm e n h ad b e gu n to p e n e trate
,

t h e v e il of ro m an ti c s e c re c y w i th w h i c h Byro n su rrou n d e d h i m se lf
a n d f oun d a ra t h e r b ra s sy id o l b e n e a th tu rn e d th e ti d e o f p u bli c ,

o p i n i on aga i n sth im H e l e f tE n glan d un d e r a cl ou d of di s tru s tan d

.

di sap p oin tm e n t in 1 8 6 an d n e ve r re tu rn e d E i gh t ye ars w e re

, 1 ,
.
40 8 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
s p e n ta b road l arge ly ,
in I taly w h e re
,
h e w as i
a ss oc ated w i th S h e l l ey
un tli he
t l atte r s ’
tragi c d e a th in 1 822 . H is h ous e w as e ve r th e
v
m e e tin g p l ac e for R e o l u ton s ts an d m a l c on te n t i i
s c al l i n g th e m se l e s v
p a t
r o i
s , w h om h e t
t ed t
rus t o o gre a tl , ayn d wi t h w
h om h e s h a re d h is
m o n e y m ost ge n e ro u s l y C u i ou s ly e n o u gh w h i l e h e tru ste d m e n
. r ,

to o e as il y h e h ad n o fa i th in h u m an soc i e t
,
y or gov e rn m e n t an d ,

w rote in 8 1 7 1 I h ave s i m p l i fi e d m y p ol i tic s to an u tte r d e te sta

"

ti on o f all e x i s ti n g gov e rn m e n t D u ri n g h is e x i l e h e fi n i sh e d
”
s .

Cli ilde H a r old , Tli e P r i s on e r f

o C/zi llon , h is d ra m as Ca i n an d Man
f r ed ,
her
an d n u m e rous o t w or ks ,
in so m e of w h ic h , as in D on j ua n ,

he d e l i gh te d i n re ve n gi n g h i m s e lf u p on h is c oun trym e n by h o l di n g
up t o r i d i c u l e a ll t h at th e y h e l d m o stsac re d .

I n 1 8 2 4 Byro n w e n t to G re e c e to giv e h i m se lf a n d a l a rge p a rt ,

of h is f o rt un e t o h e lp t h at c ou n try in its struggl e for l ib e rt y aga in st

th e T u rk s H ow far h e w a s le d by h is d e s i re fo r p os i n g a s a h e ro
.
,

an d h o w fa r by a c e rt a i n vi go rou s V i ki n g s p i ri t th atw as c e rt a i n l y in

h im w i l l n e v e r b e k n ow n
,
Th e G re e k s w e l c om e d h im an d m ad e
.

h i m a l e ad e r an d for a f e w m on th s h e f oun d h i m s e lf in th e m id st
'

of a w re t c h e d sq u abb l e of l i e s se l fi sh n e ss i n sin c e r i ty c o wardi c e

, , , ,

an d i n t ri gu e i n ste ad of th e h e ro i c s tru ggl e for l ib e rty wh i c h h e h ad

,

an t i c ip ate d H e d i e d o f f e ve r in Mi sso l on gh i in 1 8 2 4 On e of h is
.
, , .

l astpo e m s wri tte n th e e on h is th i rty six th bi rth d ay a fe w m on th s

, r -
,

be fore h e di e d e x p re sse s h is o wn vi e w of h is di sapp oi n ti n g l ife

,

My d a y s y e l l o w l e af
a re i n th e ,

T h e fl o w e rs a n d f r u i t
s o f l o v e a re
gon e :

T h e w o rm th e c a n k e r a n d th e g r i e f
, ,

A re m i n e a l on e .

Work s of di n g B y ron iti s w e ll to r e m e mb e r

B y ron . In re a

th at h e w as a di sa oi n te d a n d e mbite r e d m an n ot on ly in
pp t ,

h is p e r son a l li f e b u tal s o i n h is e xp e c t
, at i on of a g e n e ral tra n s
f orm ati on of h u m an s oci e ty A s h e p our s ou th is ow n f e e li n g s
.
,

c h i e fly in h i s p oe try h e is th e m os t e xp re s s ive w r i te r of h i s
,

ag e in v o ici n
g th e di s c on te n to f a m u l ti tu d e of E u r op e an s w h o
w e r e di sa pp oi n te d atth e f a il u re of th e F r e n c h R e v ol u ti on tO ‘
4 16 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
will d o w e ll to c on fi n e h im se l f to a s m all v ol u m e of w e ll
1
c h os e n s e l e cti on s .

B y r o n i s o f t
e n c o m p ar e d wi th S c o tt as h avi n g g iv e n t o ,

us E u r o p e a n d th e O r i e n t j u s t a s S c o tt g a v
,
e u s S c o tl a n d
an d i t s p e 0 p 1e ; b u t w h il e t h e re is a c e r ta i n r e s e m bl a n c e in
th e s wi n g an d d as h of th e v e rs e s th e re s e m bl an c e is all on ,

th e s u r fa c e an d th e u n d e rlyi n g di ff e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e tw o
,

po e ts is as gre ata s th atb e tw e e n T h ack e ray an d B u lw e r L ytto n -

.

c
S ott k n e w h is c o u n t r y w e ll — it s h ill s a n d va ll e y s w h ic h a re
,

i n te re s ti n g as th e ab od e o f l ivi n g a n d l ov abl e m e n an d w om e n .

B y ron p r e te n d e d to k n ow th e s e c re t u n w h ol e s om e s id e o f ,

E u rop e w h ic h g e n e ra lly h id e s i ts e l f in th e d ar k ; b u t i n s te a d
,

of g ivi n g u s a v ar i e t y of livi n g m e n h e n e v e r g e ts a way f rom ,

h is ow n u n b al a n c e d an d e g oti s tic al s e l f A ll h is c h ara c te r s .

,

in Ca i n , M a nf re d , Tli e Co rs a i r , Tlze Gi a ou r , C/zi ld e Ha r old ,

D on j uan , a re p eti r e s om e
ti ti o n s of h i m s e l f — a
re d i s ,

a pp oi n t e d cy n ic a l m an
,
w h o fi n d s n o g ood in l i f e or l o v e or
,

an y t h i n g N atu rally wi th s u c h a di s p os i ti on h e is e n ti re ly
.
, ,

in z b le of p or trayi n g a tr u e w o m an T n at a l on e
p
p re
pi pg .
,

e s p e ci ally in h e r m a g n ifi c e n t m oo d s B y ron re m a i n s f a i t h ful ; ,

an d h is p o rt r ay a l o f t h e n i g h t a n d th e s tor m an d th e o c e an
in Cli i ld e Ha rold ar e u n s ur p a sse d in our l an g u ag e .

PE R c v B Y S S H E S HE L L E Y ( 1 79 2 — 1 8 2 2)

Ma k e l y re e v e n as th e f or e s tis :
m e th y ,

W if
h at m y l e a v e s a re f a l l i n g l i k e i ts ow n !
T h e tu m u l tof th y m i g h ty h arm o n i e s
W ill ta k e fro m b o th a d e e p au tu m n a l to n e , ,

S w e e tth ou gh i n s a d n e s s B e th ou s p i ri t fi e r c e
.
, ,

My s p i ri t! B e th o u m e i m p e tu o u s o n e ! ,

I n th i s f ragm e n t f rom , he
t O d e to th e We s tWi n d ,
”
we
h av e a
gg e s ti on o f S h e ll e y s ow n s pi ri t, a s r e fl e c te d in a ll
su
’

h is p oe try Th e v e ry s pi r i t of n ature w h ic h appe al s to u s in

.
,

th e wi n d an d th e cl ou d , th e s u n s e t an d th e m oon r i se s ee ms
,

I Se e Se lec ti on s for R e a d i n
g, an d i i
B b l ogra p h y , atth e e n d of th i s c ha pter .
 TH E AG E O F R OM AN TI C I S M 4 1 1

to h a ve p os s e s s e d h im im e s an d m ad e h im a c h os e n in
,
at t ,

st r u m e n t o f m e l ody A t s u c h ti m e s h e is a tr ue p oe t an d h is
.
,

w or k i s u n r iv al e d A t oth e r ti m e s u n f ortu n ate ly S h e ll e y

.
, ,

j o i n s wi th B y ron in v o ici n g a vai n re b e lli on ag ai n s t so ci e ty .

PE R C Y B Y S S HE S HE L L E Y

Hi s p oe tr y lik e
, h is li f e divid e s i ts e l f i n to tw o di s ti n c tm ood s
, .

I n on e h e is th e vi o l e n t r e f o rm e r s e e ki n g to ov e rth ro w ou r
,

p re se n ti n s ti tuti on s an d to h u rry th e m ill e n n i u m outof its S l ow

walk i n to a g all o p O u t of th i s m ood c om e m o s t of h is l on ge r
.

p oe m s l ik e Qu e e n M a o R e v olt of I s la m H e lla s an d T/ze

, , , ,
4 1 2 E N GLI S H L IT E R ATU R E

Wi tc /z of A tla s , w h ic h
w h at vi ol e n t di atri b e s aga i n s tar e s o m e

g o v e rn m e n t m arr iag e ,
p r i e s ts
re li g i on e ve n G od as m e n
, , ,

s u pp o se d h im t o be I n a di ff e r e n t m ood w h ic h fi n d s e x
.
,
.

p re s s i o n in A la s tor Ad on a i s a n d h is w o n d e r f u l ly ric s S h e ll e y
, , ,

is lik e a wan d e re r f o ll owi n g a v ag u e b ea u tif u l v i s i on f or e v e r , ,

sad a n d f o re v e r u n sa t i s fi e d I n th e l atte r m ood h e app e al s .

p rofou n dly to all m e n w h o h a v e k n o w n w h at it is to f oll ow

aft e r a n u n at t a i n abl e id e a l .

S h elle y
’
s . Lif e . T h e re
l m e n w h o s e e vi s i on s
a re h re e
t c a sse s of , ,

an d a ll t h re e a re re p re s e n te d i n ou r l i te ra tu re T h e fi rs tis th e m e re .

d re am e r l i k e B l ak e w h o stu m b l e s th rou gh a w o rl d o f re a l i t
, ,
y w i th o u t
n ot ic i n g it an d is h app y in h is vi s i on s Th e se c on d is th e s e e r th e
,
.
,

p rop h e t l i ke L an g l an d o r Wy c l i f w h o se e s a vi si on a n d q u i e tly
, , ,

oe s t o w o rk in w ay s t h a t m e n u nd e rs t an d t
o m ak e t h e p re s e n t
g , ,

w o rl d a l i ttl e m ore l ike th e id e a l on e w h i c h h e se e s in h is vi si on .

Th e th i rd w h o app e a rs in m an y for m s
, as vi s i on a r y ent h u s i as t ,
—
, ,

rad i c a l , a n a rc h i s t r e vo l u ti o n a ry c all h im w h a t y ou w il l
, se e s a , ,
—

vi s ion an d s tra igh tway be gi n s to te a r d ow n all h u m an i n s ti tu tion s ,

w h i c h h ave b e e n bu i l t u p by th e s l ow to i l of c e n tu ri e s s i m p l y b e ,

c ause t h e y se e m to s tan d in th e w ay o f h is d re am To th e l a tte r .

c l ass b e l on gs S h e l l e y a m an
p e rp e tu a l l y a t w a r w i th th e p re se n t
,

w o rl d a m arty r an d e x il e s i m p ly b e c au se of h is i n abi l i ty to s y m p a
, ,

th iz e wi th m e n an d soc i e t y a s th e y are an d b e c au se of h is ow n m is ,

tak e n j ud m e n ta s t o th e v a l u e a n d p u rp os e o f a vi s i on
g .

S h e l l e y w a s born in Fi e l d Pl ac e n e a r H o rsh am S u ss e x i n 1 7 9 2 , , , .

O n bo th h is fa th e r s an d h is m o th e r s s id e h e w a s d e sc e n d e d f ro m
’ ’

n ob l e o ld f a m il i e s fam ous in th e p o l i ti c a l an d l i te ra ry h i sto ry of

,

E n glan d F rom c h i l d h ood h e l i v e d l i ke B l ak e i n a w orl d of fan c y

.
, , ,

so re a l t h a tc e rtai n i m agi n a ry d ragon s an d h e ad l e s s c re a tu re s o f th e

n e i h bo ri n
g g w o o d k e p t h im an d h is s i s te rs in a s ta te o f f e a rf u l e x
pe c t an c
y He l e a rn e d ra p i d ly ab so rb e d th e c l a ss i c s a s i f by i n tu i
.
,

ti on an d d i s sati sfi e d w i t
, , h o rd i n ary p roc e sse s of l e a rn i n g s e e m s to ,

h ave sough t l ike F au s tu s th e a c q u a in tan c e o f s i ri t s a s s h o w n in h i s

,
p , ,

Hy m n to I n te l l e c tual Be au ty : ”

Wh il e y e ta b o y , I s ou
g h t fo r gh os ts , a n d s p e d
T h ro u g h m an y a l i s te n i n g c h a m b e r, c a v e a n d ru n , i
An d stl i g h tw ood w i th fe a rf u l s te p s p u rs u i n g
ar ,

HOp e s o f h i gh t al k w i t
h th e d e p a r t
e d d e ad .
4 14 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

th e or i e s b y e l o p i n g w i th h is d au gh te r M ary I tis a sad sto ry an d th e .

,

de t a i l s w e re p e rh a p s b e t te r f o rgo tte n We sh o u l d re m e m be r th atin .

S h e l l e y w e a re d e a l i n g w i th a tragic b l e n d of h i gh m in d e d n e ss an d -

"
l i gh t h e ad e d n e ss Byron w ro te of h im Th e m ostge n tl e th e m ost
-
.
, ,

a m i ab l e an d t h e le as t w o rl d ly m i n d e d p e rs on I e v e r m e t -
,

L ed p artly b y th e ge n e ra l h osti l i t y aga i n st h im an d p artl y by h is ,

o wn d e l i c a t e h e al t h S h e l l e y w e n t to I ta ly i n 1 8 1 8 an d n e v e r r e
, ,

tu rn e d t o E n gl a n d Afte r w a n d e ri n g o v e r I ta ly h e fi n a l l y s e ttl e d in
.

P isa be l ove d o f so m an y E n gl i sh p oe ts — b e au ti f u l s l e e py P i sa
, , , ,

w h e re on e l ook s ou tof h is w i n d o w on th e m ai n s tre e ta tth e b us i e st

h ou r of th e d ay an d th e on l y l ivi n g th i n g in s i gh t is a d on k e y d oz
, ,

in g l az ily wi th h is h e ad in th e s h ad e an d h is b ody in th e su n sh i n e
, .

H e re h is be s tp oe try w as w ri tte n an d h e re h e foun d c om f ortin th e ,

f ri e n d sh ip of B y ron H u n t an d T re l aw n e y w h o are f ore v e r as soci

, , ,

e d w it h S h e l l e y s I ta l i an l i fe H e sti l l re m a i n e d h o stil e to E n gl i sh
’
at .

soc i a l i n s t i tu ti on s b u t l i fe is a good te ac h e r an d th atS h e l l e y d im l y ,

r e c ogn i z e d t h e e rror of h is r e b e l l i on is sh own in th e in c re as in g sad

n e ss of h is l ate r poe m s :

0 w orl d 0 l i fe 0 ti m e !
, ,

O n w h os e l as ts te p s I c l i m b ,

T re m b l i n g a tth a tw h e re I h a d s to od b e fore
Wh e n wi ll re tur n th e g l o ry o f y ou r p r i m e ?
N o m o re oh n e v e r m or e —
,

O u to f th e d a y an d n i g h t
A joy h as ta k e n i g h t; fl
F re s h s p ri n g , a n d s u m m e r, w i n te r
an d h oar ,
Mo v e my fa i n th e a rtw i th g r i e f b u tw i t
, h d e l igh t
No m o re — oh n e v e r m o re ,

In 1 8 2 2, l y th i rty y e ars of age S h e l l ey w as d row n e d

wh e n on ,

w h i l e sai l i n g in a s m al l boa t off th e I ta l i an c oast H is body w as .

w as h e d a sh ore s e v e ra l d a y s l ate r an d w as c re m a t ed n e a r V ia re ggi o , , ,

b y h is f ri e n d s B y ron H u n t an d T re l awn e y H is as h e s m i h t wi th
, , , g .
,

a ll re v e re n c e h av e b e e n
, gi v e n to th e w i n d s th a t h e l ove d an d th at
w e re a sy m bo l of h is re stl e ss s p i ri t; in ste ad th e y foun d a re sti n g ,

p l ac e n e ar th e grav e o f K e a ts in th e E n gl i sh c e m e te ry a t R o m e , .

O n e rare ly v is i ts th e S otn o w w i th o u t fi n d i n E n l i s h a n d Am e ri c an
p g g
v isi to rs sta n d i n g in s i l e n c e b e fo re th e s i gn ific an t i n sc ri p ti on Cor ,
 T H E AG E O F RO M AN TI C I S M 415

Work s of S h e lle y A S a ly r ic p o e t S h e ll e y is on e of th e
.
,

s u p r e m e g e n i u s e s of o u r l i t e r at u r e ; an d t h e r e a d e r will d o
w e ll to b e g i n wi th th e p oe m s w h ich S h o w h im at h is v e ry
Od e to th e We s t
" ” " ” "
b e st Th e C l o u d To a S kyl a r k
, ,

Wi n d ,
” " ”
To N i gh t — p o e m s l ik e th e s e m u s t s u re ly s e t th e
,

r e ad e r t o s e a rc h i n g a m on g S h e ll e y s m i s c e ll an e o u s w or k s t
’
o ,

”
fin d f or h i m s e l f th e th i n g s w or th y to b e r e m e m b e re d .

I n r e adi n g S h e ll e y s l o n g e r p oe m s on e m u s t r e m e m b e r
’

th at th e re are i n th i s p oe t tw o d i s ti n c t m e n : on e th e w an ,

! le r s e e ki n g i d e a l b e au t y a n d f or e v e r u n sat i sfi e d
Al t
as or
_ pe ,

th e O th e r th e u n b a l an c e d r e f orm e r s e e ki n g th e
, ,

o v e rt h r ow o f p r e s e n t in s titfi tio n s an d th e e s ta bli s h m e n t o f

u n iv e r s a l h a ppi n e s s A la s tor or t/ze Sp i r i tof S oli tu d e ( 1 8 1 6 )
.
,

i s by far th e b e s t e xp r e s s i on o f S h e ll e y s g re ate r m o od H e re’

.

w e s e e h i m w an d e r i n g r e s tl e s s ly th r ou g h th e v a s t s il e n c e s o f
n at u re ,
in s e ar ch of a l o v e d d r e am m a id e n w h o s h all s ati s f y -

h i s l ov e of b e au ty H e r e S h e ll e y is th e p oe tof th e m oon r i s e
.
,

an d o f t h e te n d e r e xq u i s i te f an ci e s th atc an n e v e r b e e xp r e s s e d .

Th e c h ar m of th e p oe m li e s i n its s u cc e s s i on o f d re a mlik e
pic tu re s ; b u tit g iv e s a b s ol ute ly n o i m p re s s i on s of re ali ty I t .

w as w r i tte n w h e n S h e ll e y a f te r h is l on g s tr u g g l e h ad b e g u n
, ,

to r e a l i z e th a t th e w orld w as too s tron g f or h i m A la s tor is .

th e re f ore th e p oe ts c on f e s s i on n ot s i m ply of f a il u r e b u t of
’

, ,

u n dyi n g h op e in s om e b e t te r th i n g th at i s to c o m e .

P rom e t /ze u s U n b ou n d ( 1 8 1 8 a ly r ic a l d r am a i s th e ,

b e s t w ork o f S h e ll e y s r e v ol u ti on a ry e n th u s i a s m an d th e
’

m os t c h ar a c te r i s ti c o f all h is p oe m s S h e ll e y s
’

P m th
.

ro e e us
p h il osop h y ( if on e m ay d i g n i f y a h op e l e s s d re am ,

by s u c h a n am e ) w as a c ur i ou s a f te rg row th o f th e F re n c h !
R e v ol u ti on n a m e ly th a t it i s on ly th e e xi s ti n g ty ran n y o f
, ,

S ta te C h u r c h a n d s o ci e ty w h ic h k e e p s m an f ro m g r ow th i n to
, ,

p e r f e c t h appi n e s s N atu rally S h e ll e y f org ot lik e m a n y o th e r

.
,

ent h u s i as ts th at C h u r c h an d S tate an d s o ci a l l aw s w e r e n ot)

,

i m p os e d u p on m an f ro m wi th ou t b u t w e re c r e a te d by h i m s e lf
,

to mi n i s te r to h is n e c e s s iti e s I n S h e ll e y s p oe m th e h e ro
’
.
,
4 6
1 E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
P rom e th e u s re p re s e n ts m an ki n d i t se l f a j u s t an d n o bl e ,
-

h u m an i ty c h a i n e d a n d tortu re d by J o v e w h o i s h e re th e p e r
,
,

io n o f h u m an i n s ti tu ti o n s I n d u e ti m e D e m ogorg on
1
s o n ific a t .

w h ic h i s S h e ll e y s n am e fo r N e c e s s i t
’
y ) ov e r th ro w s th e ty ran t
(
J ov e an d re l e as e s P rom e th e u s ( M an ki n d ) w h o i s p re s e n tly ,

un it ed t o A s ia th e s pi r i t of l ov e an d g ood n e s s in n a tu re
, ,

w h il e th e ea rth a n d th e m oon j o i n in a w e ddi n g son g an d ,

e v e ry t h i n g g iv e s p rom i s e th at th e y s h all liv e tog e th e r h a ppy

e ve r aft e r w ard s .

S h e ll e y h e re l oo k s f or w ard n ot b a ck to th e G old e n A g e , , ,

a n d is t h e p ro p h e t o f s ci e n c e a n d e v ol u ti on I f w e c o mp are .

h is Ti ta n wi th s i m il ar c h ara c te r s i n F a u s t a n d Ca i n w e s h all ,

fin d th i s i n te re s ti n g di ff e r e n c e h at w h il e G o e th e s Ti tan
’
—t
,

is c u l ture d a n d s e l f re li an t a n d B y ron s s to i c a n d h o p e l e ss
’
-
, ,

S h e ll e y s h e ro is p a ti e n t u n d e r tortu r e s e e i n g h e lp an d h o pe
’

b e y on d h is s u ff e r i n g A n d h e m arr i e s L o v e th at th e e arth.
‘

m a y b e p e opl e d wi th s u p e r i o r b e i n g s w h o s h a l l s u b s ti tu te
b roth e rly l ov e for th e p re se n t l aw s a n d c on v e n ti o n s of s oci e ty .

S u c h i s h is p h il osop h y ; b u t th e b e g i n n e r will r e a d th i s p oe m ,

n o tc h i e fly for it s th o u g h t b u t fo r its y ou th f u l e n th u s i as m fo r , ,

its m arv e l ou s i m ag e ry a n d e s p e ci a lly for its e th e r e al m u s i c , .

P e rh ap s w e s h o u ld ad d h e re th atP r om e t/ze u s i s an d p rob ably ,

a lway s will b e a p oe m fo r t , h e c h os e n fe w w h o c an app r e ci ate

its p e c u li ar s pi r i tlik e b e au ty I n its p u re ly p ag an c on c e p ti on .

of t h e w or ld it s u g g e s ts by c on tra s t M il ton s C h r i s ti an p h il
’

, , ,

os op h y i n P a r a d i s e R e a i n e d
g .

S h e ll e y s re v ol u ti on a r y w ork s Qu e e n M a b
’

T/ze ,

R e v olt f
o I s la m He lla s an d l e Wi tc /c of
A tla s j u d ge d in m u c h th e s am e w ay a s is
a re to b e
P r o m e t/ze u s U n b ou n d T h e y are l arg e ly i n v e c tiv e s a ga i n st
.

r e li i on m arr i ag e k i n c ra f t an d p r i e s tc ra f t m o s t i m p ra c tic a l
g ,
g , , ,

w h e n c on s id e re d as s c h e m e s for r e f orm b u t a b o u n di n g in ,

1 She ll y
e u n d ou b t
ed ly t k h i i d f oo s ea ro m a l o s t dr a m a o f Ai sc h y lu s , a se q lt ue o P ro
h eu s B ou n d , i n
m et wh i h th g c tf i d e rea r en of m an k n di w as u n c h a n ed i f
ro m i i
a pr e c p c e,
wh e re h e h a d be e n pl d b y th ty
a ce tZ e ra n e us .
4 8 1 E N GLISH L IT E R ATU R E
W
”
m os t lik e o r d s w o rth ; b u t i n h i s S e n s i tiv e P lan t wi th i ts ,

fin e s y m b o li s m an d i m a g e ry h e i s l ik e n o b o dy
,
i n th e w o r ld

b u t h im se l f . C o m par i s on i s s om e ti m e s an e xc e ll e n t th i n g ;
”
a n d if w e c om p are S h e ll e y s e xq u i s i t L am e n t b e g i n n i n g
’
e ,

"
0 w o rld 0,
li f e O ti m,
e wi th W o,
r
”
d s w or th s I n ti m a ti on s
’

of I m m or t al i t y w e s h all p e rh ap s u n d e r s tan d b oth p oe ts

”
,

be tte r B oth p oe m s re c all m a n y h appy m e m or i e s o f y ou th ;

.

b oth e xp re s s a v e ry rea l m ood o f a m om e n t; b u t w h il e th e

be au ty o f on e m e re ly s add e n s an d di s h e ar te n s u s th e b e au ty ,

h e oth e r i n s pi re s u s wi th som e th i n g of th e p oe ts ow n
’

of t

f ai th an d h ope f u l n e s s I n a word Wo rd s w or th f ou n d an d
.
,

S h e ll e y l o s t h i m s e l f i n n atu re .

J OHN K E A TS ( 1 7 9 5 — 1 8 2 1 )
K e ats w as ly th e l as t b ut a l s o th e m os e rfe c t of
n ot o n

th e R om an tici s ts Wh il e S c ottw as m e re ly te ll i n g s tor i e s an d

.
,

Word s w orth r e f orm i n g p oe try or u p h oldi n g th e m ora l law ,

an d S h e ll e y a dv o c at i n g i m p os s ibl e re f or m s an d B y ron v oici n g ,

h is ow n e g oi s m a n d th e p oli tic a l di s c on te n t of th e tim e s ,

K e a ts liv e d
w f rom m e n an d f r om all p ol i tica l m e as u re s
w ors h ipi n g b e au ty lik e a d e v ote e p e r fe c tly con te n t to w r i te ,
,

wh at w as in h is o w n h e ar t or to re fl e c t s om e s pl e n d or of th e
,

n at u ra l w o rld a s h e sa w or d r e a m e d itt o be He h ad m or e o v e r .
, ,

th e n ov e l id e a th at p oe try e xi s ts for i ts ow n s ak e a n d s u ff e rs
_ ,

l os s b y b e i n g d e v o te d to p h il o s o p h y or p ol i tic s or i n d e e d to , ,

an
y c a u s e h owe v e r
, gr e at o r s m all A s h e say s i n L am i a .

Do n o ta ll c h ar m s fly
Atth e m e re to u c h of c o ld
p h il os o p h y ?
Th e re w as a n wf u l a ra i n b o w o n c e i n h e a v e n
:

We k n o w h e r w o o f h e r te x tu re ; s h e i s g i v e n
,

I n th e d u l l c a ta l o g u e o f c o m m o n th i n g s .

P h i l o s o p h y w i l l c l i p a n A n ge l s w i n g s ’
,

C o n q ue r a ll m y s te r i e s b y r u l e a n d li n e ,

E m p ty th e h a u t e d ai r a n d
n
g n om e d m i n e ,

U n w e a v e a r a i n b o w as i te re w h il e m a d e ,

Th e te n d e r pe rs on d L a m i a m e l t i n to a s h a d e
e
’
.
 TH E AG E O F RO M AN TI C I S M 4 19

P artly b e ca u s e of h is
t h i g h id e a l
p oe try p a rtly b e c au s e h e of ,

st u di e d an d u n c on s c i ou s ly i m i tat ed t h e G re e k cl a s s ic s an d
th e b e s t w ork s of th e E l i z ab e th an s K e a ts s l as t li ttl e v ol u m e
’

o f p oe t ry i s u n e q u al e d by t
h e w or k of an y of h i s c on te m p o
r ar i e s Wh e n w e r e m e m b e r th at all h is w o rk w a s p u bli s h e d
. .

i n th re e s h ort y e ar s f rom 1 8 I 7 to 1 8 2 0 a n d th ath e di e d w h e n

, ,

o n ly t w e n ty fiv e y e ar s old w e m us t j u d g e h im to b e th e m os t
-
,

p r om i s i n g fi g u re of th e e ar ly n i n e te e n th c e n tur y an d on e of ,

th e m os t r e m a r k a bl e in th e h i s to ry of li te ra tu r e .

Li f e K e ats s l i fe of d e vo ti on to b e au ty an d to p oe try is all th e

.
’

m o r e re m a rkab l e in vi e w of h is l o wl y o ri g i n H e w a s th e son of a .

h os tl e r an d s t a b l e k e e p e r an d w as bo r n in t h e s tab l e o f th e S w an
,

an d H oo p I n n L o n d on i n 1 7 9 5 , On e h as o n ly to re a d th e rou gh
, .

st ab l e sc e n e s f ro m o u r fi rst n ov e l i s t s o r e v e n f rom D i c k e n s t o un , ,

d e rstan d h ow l i ttl e th e re w as i n su c h an a tm osp h e re to d e ve l op

p o e tic g i f t
s B e f o re K e a t .s w as fi f te e n ye ars o ld b o t h p are n ts di e d ,

a n d h e w a s p l ac ed w i t h h is b roth e rs a n d s i s te rs in c h arge of guardi

an s T h e i r fi rst ac t s e e m s to h ave b e e n to tak e K e ats f rom s c h oo l
.

a t E n fie ld , an d to bi n d h im a s an a p p r e n tc e i to a s u rge on at E d

m on t
on . F or fiv e ye ars h e v e d h is a pp re n ti c e sh i p an d for tw o
se r ,

y e ars m ore h e w as su rge o n s h e l p e r in t

’
h e h os pi tals ; b u t th ou gh
ski l lfu l e n ou gh t
o w in a p p rova l h e di s l ik e d h is w o rk an d h is
, ,
"
Th e o th e r d ay d u ri n g a l e c tu re
”
th ou gh ts w e re o n o th e r th in gs .
, ,
"
h e s aid to a f ri e n d th e re c a m e a su n b e a m in to th e room a n d w i t
, h ,

i ta w h ole troo p o f c r e a tu re s fl oa ti n g in th e ray an d I w a s o ff w i t

h
h e m to O b e ron an d fa i ry l an d A c opy of S p e n se r s F a e ry Que e n
” ’
t .
,

wh i c h h ad b e e n giv e n h im by C h arl e s C o w d e n C l a rk w as th e p ri m e ,

c au s e o f h is ab st ra c ti on H e aba n d on e d h is p ro fe ss ion in 1 8 1 7 an d
.
,

e a r l y in t h e sam e y e ar p u b l i sh e d h is fi rs t v o l u m e of P oe m s I tw as .

m od e s t e n ou gh in s p i r i t as w as a l so h is s e c on d v olu m e E n dy m i on
, ,

a t did n o t e v e n t b ru t al a t ac ks u on t
( 1 81 8
) b ut t h p r t p h e a uth or
an d h is w o rk by t h e s e lf c on sti tu te d c ri ti c s o f B la c k w ood s M ag a zi n e
’
-

an d t h e Qu a r t e r ly I t i s of te n a l l e ge d th at th e p oe ts sp i ri t an d
’
.

a m bi t i on w e re b rok e n by th e se a ttac k s ; b u t K e a ts w as a m an of
1

st ron g c h a rac t er an d in s t e a d of q u a rr e l i n g w i t
, h h is re vi e we rs or ,

b e in g c rus h e d by th e i r c ri tic i s m h e w e n t q u i e tly to w o rk w i th th e ,

1 Th i i s d ea i s s u pp po rt
ed by She e ll y ’
poe m A
s d on a i s , a n d b y B yr on ’
s pa rod y i
a ga n s t

th e re vi w
e e rs, beg i i
nn n
g, Wh o ed kill J oh n eats ? K I ,
sa y s th e Q ua rte r ly .
”
4 20 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
id e a of p ro d uc i n g p oe tr y th a t s h ou l d l ive fore v e r . M atth e w
As
Arn ol d y
sa s , K e ats h ad fl in t an d iron in h im
”
; an d in h is n e x t
v o lu m e he c
a c om p l i s h ed h is o wn p u rp ose an d s i l e n c e d u n f ri e n d l y

c ri tic i sm .

F or th e th re e ye ars d uri n g wh i c h K e a ts wr o te h is po e try h e l ive d

c h i e fly in L o n d o n a n d in H a m p st e ad , b u t wan d e re d at t i m e s ov e r
E n l an d an d Sc o tl an d , l ivi n g fo r b ri e f s p ac e s in th e I s l e o f Wi gh t,
g
in De von sh i re ,
k e di stri c t se e ki n g to re c ove r h is own
an d in th e L a ,

h e al t h an d e s p e c i a l l y to re sto re th at o f h is b roth e r H is i l l n e ss b e
,
.

an w i th a se v e re c o l d b u t s oon d e v e l o p e d i n t o c on su m p t i on ; an d
g ,

ad d e d t o t h i s so rro w w as a n o th e r h is l ov e fo r Fan n i e B rawn e to

,
-
,

w h om h e was e n gage d b u t w h om h e c ou l d n otm arry on ac c oun tof

,

h is p o v e rty an d gro w i n g i l l n e ss Wh e n w e r e m e m b e r a ll th i s p e r .

so n a l grie f an d t h e h a rs h c ri ti c i sm o f l i te rary m e n th e l as t s m a l l ,

vo l u m e L a m i a I s a b e l/a Th e E m of S t Ag n es a n d Oi lze r P oe m s
, , ,
.
,

is m os t s i gn ifi c an t as sh o wi n g n o t on l y K e a ts s w on d e rf u l
’
,

p o e ti c gif t s b u t a l so h is b e au t
,
if u l an d i n d o m it ab l e s pi ri t S h e l l e y .
,
“
ru c k by t h e be a t y an d p ro m i se o f Hyp e ri on s e n t a ge n e rou s ”
st u ,

i n vi ta tion to th e au th o r to c o m e to P isa an d l ive wi th h im ; b u t

K e ats re fu s e d h av i n g l i ttl e s y m p ath y w i th S h e l l e y s re vo l t aga i n st
,
’

s oc i e t y Th e i n vi ta ti on h ad th is e ff e c t h ow e ve r th at it tu rn e d
.
, ,

K e ats s th ou gh ts to I taly w h i th e r h e s oon we n t in th e e ffortto save

’

h is l ife H e se ttl e d in R o m e w ith h is f r i e n d S e v e rn th e arti s t b u t

.
, ,

d ie d soon afte r h is a rri v al in F e b ru ary 1 8 2 1 H is grave in th e , ,

.
,

P rote s ta n t c e m e te ry a t R o m e is sti l l an obj e c t of p i l gri m age to ,

th ou san d s of t o u ri s t
s ; fo r am on g all ou r p o e ts t h e re is h ard l y
an ot h e r w h ose h e ro ic l i fe an d trag i c d e a th h ave so a p p e a l e d to th e
h e a rts of p o e t s an d y ou n
g e n th u s i as ts .

Th e Work of K e ats N on e b u t th e m as te r s h a ll p ra i se
.

h e m a s te r s h all bl am e m i gh t w e ll b e "
u s ; an d n on e b u t t

w ri tte n o n th e fly l ea f of e v e ry v ol u m e of K e ats s p oe try for ’

n e v e r w as t h e r e a p oe t m or e d e v ote d to h i s id e a l e n ti re ly ,

i n d e p e n d e n t of s u cc e s s or f a il u re I n s tron g c on tras t wi th .

h is c on te m p orary B yr on w h o p ro f e s s e d to d e s pi s e th e ar t
, ,

th at m ad e h im fa m ou s K e ats liv e d for p oe try a l on e an d as

, , ,

L owe ll p oi n te d ou t a v i rtu e w e n tou to f h im i n to e v e ry th i n h e

,
g
w rote I n all h is w o rk w e h av e th e im p re s s i on of th i s i n te n s e
.

l oy al ty to h is a rt w e h av e th e i m p r e s s i on al so of a p ro f ou n d
4 22 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
pa s sag e s an d its Hy m n to Pan s h ou ld b e re ad in c on n e c ti on
,

wi th Word s wo r th s fa m o us s on n e tb e g i n n i n g T h e w orld is too

’
,

m u c h wi th u s Th e p o e m g iv e s s pl e n did p r omi s e b uta s a w h o l e

”
. ,

it is ra th e r c h aotic wi th too m u c h orn am e n t an d too l i ttl e d e

,

s i g n lik e a
,
m od e rn h o u s e T h a tK ea ts f e l tth i s d e f e c t s tr on g ly
.

is e vid e n tf ro m h i s m od e s tp re f a c e w h e r e i n h e s p e a k s of E n dy ,

m i on n o ta s a d e e d a cc om pli s h e d b u t on ly a s an u n s u cc e s s f u l
, ,

at te m p t to s u gge s tth e u n d e r lyi n g b e au ty of G re e k my th ol og y .

K e a ts s th i rd a n d l a s t v o l u m e L a m i a [ s a ée l/a T/ze E v e of
’

, , ,

S t Ag n e s a n d OZ/ze r P oe m s
.
,
is th e on e wi th w h ic h th e
L am i a d an
r e a d e r s h ou ld b e gi n h i s a cq u a i n ta n c e wi th th i s m a s
Oth “ P te r of E n gli s h v e r s e
0 9 11 1 3
I t h as on ly tw o s u bj e c ts .
,
”
G re e k m y th ol og y an d m e di ae v a l r om an c e H yp e ri on is a .

m ag n i fic e n t f rag m e n t s u gge s ti n g th e fi r s t ar c h o f a c ath e d ra l

,

th at w as n e v e r fi n i s h e d I ts th e m e i s th e ov e rth ro w of th e
.

Ti tan s by th e y ou n g s u n g od A p oll o R e a li z i n g h is ow n im -
.

m a tu r i ty a n d l a ck o f k n o wl e d g e K e ats l a id a s id e th i s w or k , ,

an d on ly t h e pl ea di n g s o f h is p u bli s h e r i n d u c e d h im to p r i n t
th e f rag m e n t wi t h h i s c o m pl e te d p oe m s .

”
T h roug h ou tth i s l as tv ol um e an d e s p e ci ally in H yp e r i on , ,

th e i n fl ue n c e o f M il ton i s a ppa re n t w h il e S p e n se r i s m o r e ,

f r e q u e n tly s ugg e s te d in r e adi n g E n dy m i on .

O f th e l on ge r p oe m s in th e v ol u m e L am i a is th e m os t ,
”

s u ge s t
g ive I t i s th e s tory o f a b e a u ti f u l e n c h an tre s s w h o
.
,

tu r n s f rom a s e rp e n t i n to a g l or i ou s w om an a n d fi ll s e v e ry
h u m an s e n se wi th d e l i gh t u n til a s a re s u l t of th e f ooli s h , ,

p h il os op h y o f old A p o ll o n i u s s h e v an i s h e s f ore v e r f ro m h e r ,
’

l ov e r s s igh t Th e E v e of S t A g n e s th e m os t p e r f e c t of
.
.
,
”

K e a ts s m e di ae v a l p o e m s is n o t a s tory a f te r th e m an n e r of
’

th e m e tr ic a l r om a n c e s b u t r ath e r a vivid p a i n ti n o f a ro m an
,
g
tic m ood s u c h a s c om e s to a ll m e n at ti m e s to l o r ify a
,
g , ,

work ad ay w orld L ik e all th e w ork o f K e ats a n d S h e ll e y it

.

h as a n e l e m e n t of u n re ali ty a n d w h e n w e r e a d at th e e n d
; ,

A n d th e y a re
gon e a e , a e s lon
y g g ag o
Th e se l o v e rs fl e d a w a y i n to th e s to rm ,
 TH E AG E O F R O M AN TI C I S M 4 23

it i s as if we w e re w aki n g f rom
d re am w h ic h is th e on ly a ,

p oss ibl e e n di n g to all of K e ats s G r e e k an d m e di ae v a l f a n ci e s ’

We a re to re m e m b e r h o we v e r th atn o b e au ti f u l th i n g th ou gh
, , ,

i t b e i n tan g ibl e a s a d r e am c an e n te r a m an s li f e a n d l e a v e
’

h im q u i te th e s am e a f te r w ard s K e ats s ow n w or d i s h e r e s u g
’
.

”
g e s ti ve T h. e i m a i n at
g i on h e s a id m a
y b e lik e n e d t o , ,

”
A d a m s d re am h e a w o k e an d f ou n d ittr u e
’
.

I t i s by h is s h ort p oe m s th at K e ats i s k n o w n to th e m a j or
ity o f p re s e n td ay r e a d e r s A m on g th e s e e xq u i s i te s h orte r
-
.

”
p oe m s w e m e n ti on o n ly th e f ou r od e s On a G r e ci an U rn , ,

” ” ”
To a N i g h ti n g a l e To A u tu m n an d ,
To P s yc h e T h e se , .

a r e lik e an i n vi t at i on to a f e ast; on e w h o r ea d s th e m will

h ar dly b e sati s fi e d u n til h e k n ow s m or e o f s u c h d e li g h tf u l
" ”
p oe try T h os e w h o s tu dy on l y th e O d e to a N i g h ti n g al e
.

m ay fin d f o u r th i n g s — a l ov e of s e n s u ou s b e au ty a to u c h of
, ,

p e s s i m i s m a pu re ly pa gan c on c e p ti on of n atu re a n d a s tron g

, ,

i n divid u al i s m —w h ich a r e c h ara c te r i s tic of th i s l a st of th e

,

r om an t ic p oe ts .

A s Word s w o r th s w ork i s too o f te n m arr e d by th e m or a l

’

iz e r a n d B y r on s by th e d e m a g o g u e an d S h e ll e y s by th e
’ ’

, ,

re f or m e r s o K e at s s w or k s u ff e rs by t h e o pp o s i te
’

K t
ea s s pl
’
ac e ,

i L i t tm
e xt r e m e o f a l o o f n e s s f ro m e v e r y h u m an i n t e re s t;
n e ra e

s o m u c h so t h at h e is o f te n a cc u s e d of b e i n g ind i ffe r e n t to
,
—
. u.

h u m an i ty His w or k is al s o c r i tic i s e d a s b e i n g too e ff e m i n ate

.

for ordi n ary r e ad e r s T h re e th i n g s s h ou ld b e re m e m b e r e d in

.

th i s c on n e c ti on Ei rst th at K e a ts s ou gh t to e xp r e s s b e au ty
.
,

for its o w n s ak e ; th at b e au ty i s as e s se n ti a l to n or m a l h u
m an i ty a s i s g ov e rn m e n t o r law ; a n d th at th e h i g h e r m an
cli m b s in civili zati on th e m ore i m p e ra tiv e b e c om e s h is n e e d
of b e au t y as a r e w ar d fo r h is l a b or s S e c on d th at K e a ts s le t ’

,
.

te rs ar e a s m u c h an i n dic ati on o f th e m a n a s is h is p oe try ;

an d i n h is l e t te r s wi th th e i r h u m an s ymp a th y th e i r e ag e r
, ,

i n te re s t in so ci al p ro bl e m s th e i r h u m or an d th e i r k e e n in s i g h t
, ,

i n to l i f e th e re i s n o tra c e of e ff e m i n a cy b u t rath e r e v e r y
, ,

i n d icati on of a s tron g an d n obl e m an h ood Th e thig lj h in g .

4 24 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

to r e m mb e e r i s th a t a ll K ea ts s w or k w as d on e i n t
’
h re e or f ou r

y ea rs wi th s m al l p re parati o n an d th a t dyi n g at tw e n ty fiv e
, , ,
-
,

l f b dy f p t y w h ic h will lw a y s b e o n e o f o ur
he e t u s a o o o e r a

m o s t c h e r i s h e d p o s s e s s i o n s H e i s o f te n .c om p ar e d wi th th e

m a r v e l ou s b o y C h atte rton w h om b e g re a tly a d m i r e d an d

”
, ,

to w h o s e m e m ory h e d e d ic ate d h i s E n dy m i on ; b u t th ou g h
b oth di e d y ou n g C h atte rton w as b u t a c h ild w h il e K e ats w a s
, ,

in all re s p e c ts a m an I t i s idl e to p rop h e s y w h at h e m i g h t

.

h a v e d o n e h ad h e b e e n g ra n te d a T e n n y s on s l on g li f e a n d
’

s c h ol ar ly t ra i n i n g A t tw e n ty fiv e h is w or k w a s a s m atu r e - .
.

a s w as T e n n y s on s at fi f t y th o ugh th e m atu r i ty s u gg e s ts
’

th e to o ra pid g row th of a tropic a l pl an tw h ic h u n d e r th e w ar m

ra i n s a n d t h e fl ood o f s u n li g h t l e a p s i n to li f e g row s bl oom s , ,

in a d ay a n d di e s
, .

A s w e h a v e s tate d K e a ts s w or k w a s bi tte rly a n d u n j u s tly

’

c on d e m n e d by th e c r i tic s of h is da y H e b e l on g e d to w h at .

w as d e r i s iv e ly c a ll e d t h e c o ck n e y s c h oo l o f p oe tr y of w h ic h ,

L e i g h H u n t w as c h i e f an d P roc to r a n d B e dd o e s w e re f e ll ow
,

w ork m e n N ot e v e n f rom Wor d s w orth an d B y ron w h o w e re

.
,

r ea dy e n ou gh t o re c o m m e n d far l e s s
g i f te d w rit e rs did K e a ts ,

re c e iv e t h e s li g h te s t e n c ou ra g e m e n t L ik e y ou n g L o c h i n v ar .
,

”
h e rod e all u n ar m e d an d h e rod e all a l on e S h e ll e y wi th .
,

h i s s i n c e r i ty a n d ge n e ro s i ty w a s th e fi rs t to r e c og n i ze th e
,

y oun g ge n i u s an d in h is n obl e Ad on a is
, w ri tte n a l as lik e —
, ,

m os t of o u r tr ib u te s w h e n t h e s u bj e c t of ou r p ra i s e is d e ad
,

— h e s p ok e th e fi rs t tru e w or d of a pp re ci ati on an d pl a c e d ,

K ea ts w h e re h e u n q u e s ti on a bly b e l on g s a m on g ou r g re ate s t
, ,

poe ts Th e f am e d e n i e d h im in h i s sa d li f e w as gran te d f re e ly
.

aft e r h is d eat h M o st fitly d oe s h e cl o se th e l i s t of p oe ts o f

.

th e ro m an tic r e viv al b e c au s e i n m an y r e s p e c ts h e w a s th e
,

b e s tw ork m a n of th e m all H e s e e m s to h av e s tu di e d w ord s

.

m ore c ar e f u lly th a n did h is c on te m p ora ri e s an d so h i s p oe tic ,

e xp r e s s i o n or t , h e h arm on y o f w or d an d th ou g h t is g e n e r ,

a lly m o re p e r f e c t t h a n th e i r s M ore th an an y oth e r h e liv e d

.

for p oe try as th e n obl e s t o f th e arts M ore th an a n oth e r

,
y .
4 26 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
wh ic h m ark e d J oh n s on an d th e m aga z i n e e di tors an d r ead ,

sy m pa t h e tica lly th e w or k of a n e w a u th or wi th th e sol e id e a ,

o f fi n d i n g w h a t h e h a d c o n tr ib u te d o r t r i e,d to c o ntr ib u te ,

to th e m agn ifi c e n t tota l o f ou r li te ra tu re C o l e r id g e H u n t
.
, ,

H az li tt L am b an d D e Q u i n c e y w e re th e l e ad e r s in th i s n e w
, ,

an d imm e n se ly i m p o r t an t d e v e l o p m e n t a n d w e m u s t n otf or

e t th e imp or t an c e oi t h e n e w p e r i o dic al s l ik e t h e L on d on
g ,

fl i ng a z i n e f o u n d e d in 1 8 2 0 in w h ic h L am b D e Q u i n c e y an d
, , , ,

C a r lyl e f o u n d th e i r fi rs t r e a l e n c o u rag e m e n t .

O f C ol e r id ge s B i og rap /zi a L i te ra r i a a n d h is L e c tu r e s on
’ ‘

S h a k e sp e a re w e h a v e a l re ady s p o k e n L e ig h H u n t ( 1 7 8 4
.

H t
un an d 1 8 5 9) w ro te c o nt i n u ou s ly f or m or e t h a n t h i rty
H li tt
az
y e a rs as e di tor an d e s s ayi s t; an d h is c h i e f o bj e c t
,

see m s t o h av e be e n t o m a k e g oo d li t e ra tu r e k n o w n an d a p p r e

c iat ed . Willi am H az l i tt ( 1 7 7 8 in a l on g se r i e s o f le c
tu re s a n d e s say s tre a te d a ll r e adi n g as a ki n d of rom an tic
,

j ou rn e y i n to n e w a n d pl e as an t c ou n tr i e s To h is w or k l arg e ly.
,

wi th th atof L am b w as d u e th e n e w i n te r e s t in E li zab e th an
,

li te ratu re w h ic h s o s tron gly i n fl u e n c e d K eats s l as t an d b e s t

,
’

v ol u m e of p oe try F or th ose i n te re s te d i n th e ar t of c r i tici s m

.
,

an d in t h e a pp re ci ati on of l i te ra tu r e b oth H u n t a n d H az li tt
,

will w e ll re pay s tu dy ; b u t w e m u s t p as s o v e r th e i r w or k to
con s id e r th e l arge r l i te rary i n te re s t of L am b an d D e Q u i n c e y ,

w h o w e re n ot s i m ply c r i tic s o f o t h e r m e n s l ab or b u t w h o ’

al s o p r od u c e d s o m e d e li h t
g f u l w or k o f th e i r ow n w h ic h th e ,

"
w orld h as c ar e f u lly p u t a way am on g th e th i n g s w or th y to
b e re m e mb e re d
”
.

C HA R L E S L A M B ( 77 5
1 — 1 8 3 4)

I n La m b Wo rd s worth w e h av e tw o wid e ly d i ff e r e n t
an d

vi e w s o f th e rom an tic m o v e m e n t on e S h ow s th e i n flu e n c e o f

n at u re a n d s o li tude th e oth e r of so ci e ty L a m b w a s a li f e l on g
, .

f r i e n d of C ol e r id ge an d an ad m i r e r a n d d e f e n d e r of th e p oe tic
,

c re e d of Word s w or th ; b u t w h il e th e l atte r live d ap art f rom

m en , con te n t wi th n atu re an d wi th r e a di n g an o cc a s ion al
 TH E AG E O F R O M AN TI C I S M 427

m ora l l e s s on to s oci e ty L am b w as b orn a n d liv e d in th e m id s t

,

of t h e L on d on s tre e ts Th e ci ty c ro wd wi th its pl e a s u re s an d
.
,

o cc up a ti on s it s e n dl e s s li t
, tl e c om e di e s a n d trage d i e s a l on e in ,

te re s te d h i m A cc ord i n g to h is o w n a cc ou n t w h e n h e p au se d
.
,

in th e c r o wd e d s tre e tte ars w o u ld s p r i n g to h is e y e s — te ar s ,

of p ur e pl e as ur e a t th e a b un d an c e of s o m u c h g oo d l i f e ; an d

w h e n h e w rote h e s i m ply i n te r p re te d that c ro wd e d h u m an l if e

,

o f jo an d so r ro w a s Word s w or t h i n
y ,

te rp re te d th e w ood s an d w a te r s wi th ,

o u t an y d e s i re t o c h an g e o r t o r e f orm

th e m He h a s g iv e n u s th e b e s t pic
.

tu re s w e p os s e s s of C ole r id g e H az ,

li tt L a n d or H ood C owd e n C l ar k e
, , , ,

an d m a n y m or e of t h e i n te r e s ti n g m e n
an d w om e n of h i s a e ; a n d it i s d u e
g
to h is i n s i g h t a n d s y m p ath y th at th e
l i f e of th os e far off d ay s S e e m s a lm os t
-

a s re a l t o u s as i f w e ou r se lv e s r e m e m

b e re d it O f all our E n gl i s h e s sayi s ts

.

C HA R L E S L A M B
h e i s th e m os tl ov abl e p artly b e cau s e
of h i s d e l ic a te old f a s h i on e d s t
, yl e a n d h u m or b u t m ore b e
-
,

c au s e of th a t c h e e ry an d h e r o ic s tru g gl e aga i n s t m i s f ortun e

w h ic h s h i n e s lik e a s u bd u e d li gh t in all h is w r i ti n g s .

Lif e . v e ry h e art of L on d on th e re is a c u ri ou s old

In he
t ,

fash i on e d p l ac e kn o w n as th e T e m p l e — an e n orm o u s ram b l i n g , , ,

a p a re n t
p l y fo rgo tte n stru c tu re d u sty an d sti l l in th e m id st of th e
, ,

e n d l e ss roar of t h e ci t
y s tre e ts Ori gin a l l y i t w as a c h ap te r h ou se
.

of t h e K n i gh ts T e m p l ars a n d so su gge sts to u s th e s p i ri t of th e

,

C ru sad e s an d of th e Mid d l e Age s ; b u t n ow th e b u i l d i n g i s give n

o v e r a l m o st e n ti re ly to th e o ffic e s an d l od gin gs o f L on d on l awye rs .

I t i s th i s q u e e r old p l ac e w h i c h m ore th an all o th e rs is as soc i ate d

, ,
"
wi th th e n am e of C h a rle s L am b I was b orn h e says an d .
,
”
,

p asse d th e fi rst s e ve n ye ars of m y l i fe in th e T e m p l e I t s gard e n s .

,

i ts h a l l s i ts f oun tai n i ts r iv e r
, ,
h e se a re m y o l d e st r e c olle c
t
ti on s H e was th e son of a p oo r c l e rk or rath e r se rv an t of on e of
”
.
, ,
.
th e barri ste rs an d w as t , h e y ou n ge stof s e v e n c h i l d r e n o nl y th re e of ,
 428 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
w h o m s u rvive d i n fan c y . Of th e se th re e , J oh n ,
he
t e ld e r ,
w as ap p ar

ent ly a se l fi sh c re a ture k n o p art in th e h e roic s truggl e of

,
wh o too

h is b ro th e r an d s i s te Ats e v e n y e a rs C h arl e s w as s e n tto th e fa m o u s

r .
,

B l u e c oat c h ar i ty s c h oo l of C h ri s ts H os p i t H e e h e re m ai n e d
”
al
’
. r

s e v e n y e a rs ; an d h e re h e f o rm e d h is l if e l on g f ri e n d s h i p fo r a n oth er
e w orld re m e m b e rs a s C o l e rid ge
1
o or n e gl e c te d b o y w h om t h
p , ,
.

Wh e n on ly fou rte e n y e a rs old L am b l e f t th e c h ari ty sc h oo l an d ,

w a s s o o n a t w o rk a s a c l e rk in t h e S ou th S e a H ou se Tw o y e ars .

l ate r h e b e c a m e a c l e rk in th e fa m ou s I n d i a H ou se w h e re h e work e d ,

5 5 ‘ W I -
D I I ’
.

C HR S T S I ’
HO S P T I AL , LO N D ON
ste ad il y for th i rt
y th re e -
y e ars wi th
x c e p ti on of s ix w e e k s in th e e
, ,

th e wi n te r o f 1 7
9 5 1 7 9 6 sp e n t w i t h i n th e wa l l s o f an asy l u m
-

, .

I n 1 7 9 6 La m b s s i s te r M ary w h o w a s as ta l e n te d a n d re m ark ab l e
’

a s La m b h i m s e lf w e n t v i o l e n ly i
t n s an e an d ki l l e d h e r ow n m o t
, h er .

p p a l l i n g trage dy s h e w a s in an asy l u ma t
F o r a l on g ti m e af te r th i s a

H oxton ; th e n La m b in 1 7 9 7 b rou gh t h e r to h is ow n l i ttl e h ou se

, , ,

an d fo r t h e re m a i n d e r o f h is l if e c a re d fo r h e r w i th a te n d e rn e ss an d
d e vo ti o n w h i c h f u rn i sh e s o n e o f th e m os t b au if l
e t u p age s in our
l e rarjg h i s o ry At ti m e s th e m a l ad y w ou l d r
0

‘
g C
t .
et u rn to M a ry givi n g ,

0 1 S ee C
h i r s ts
’
Ho s p ta F i l iv e and Th i ty Y
r e a rs A go , ” i n E s s a y s of E li a .

o
O
4 3o E N GLIS H L IT E R ATU R E

Th e b oo k w as w r i tt e n p r i m a r ily f or c h ild r e n ; b u t s o th o r

ly h d b t h d i t t e p e d th e m s e lv e s i n t h e li te ra
o ug h a r o e r a n s s e r s e

f h E li b t h p i d th t y ou n an d old al ik e w e r e
tu re o t e z a e a n e r o a g
’

d e lig hte d wi th th i s n e w v e r s i on of S h ak e s p e a r e s s tor i e s an d ,

th e Ta le s a re s till r e gard e d a s th e b e s t of th e i r ki n d in o ur
li te ratu re I n 1 8 0 8 app ea re d h is Sp e c i m e n s of E ng lis /i D ra
.

m at i c P oe t s Con te mp ora ry w i t/z S h a k e sp e a re T h i s carr i e d .

o ut t h e s pl e n did c r i tica l w or k o f C o l e r id g e a n d w a s th e m os t ,

n ot ic e a bl e i n fl ue n c e in d e v e l opi n g th e p oe tic q uali ti e s of

K e ats as s h ow n in h i s l as t v o l u m e
,
.

Th e th i r d p e ri o d i n cl u d e s L amb s c r i tici s m s o f li f e w h ic h
’

ar e g at h e r e d tog e th e r in h is E s s ay s of E li a ( I 8 2 an d h is

E s sa
y f
s o L a s t E s s ay s f
o E li a w h ic h w e re p u bl i s h e d t
,
en

Em y ears l ate r T h e s e fa m ou s e s s ay s b e gan in 1 8 20

.

wi th th e app ea ran c e of th e n e w L on d on Mag a z i n e a n d .

,
1

w e re c on ti n u e d for m a n y y e ars s u c h s u bj e cts as th e D i s s e r ,

” ”
ta tion on R oas t P ig O ld C h i n a , P ra i s e of C h i m n e y ,

" ” ”
S w e e p e rs I m p e r f e c t S y m path i e s A C h ap te r on E ar s
”
, , ,

Mac k e r y E n d
”
Mrs B attl e s O pi n i on s on VVh is t
”
.
’
G ra c e
, ,

" ” ”
B e fore M e at D r e a m C h ild r e n
,
an d m a n y o t h e rs be in g ,

c h ose n a ppa re n tly at ra n d om b u t all l e adi n g to a d e li gh tf u l ,

i n te r p re ta ti on of th e l i f e of L on d on a s it app e are d to a q u i e t ,

li ttl e m an w h o w alk e d u n n otic e d th rou g h its c rowd e d s tre e ts .

I n th e fi r s t an d l a s t e s s ay s w h ic h w e h av e m e n ti on e d D is ,

” ”
s e rt at ion on R oas t Pig an d D re am C h ild re n w e h av e th e ,

e xt re m e s of L am b s h u m or a n d p at
’
h os .

Th e s tyl e of all th e s e e s say s is g e n tl e old f a s h i on e d i rr e ,

-
,

s is tib ly attra c tiv e L a m b w as e s p e c ia lly f on d of old w r i te r s

.
,

an d b o rro w e d u n c o n s ci o u s ly f ro m t h e s tyl e of B u r
L mb St yl
'
a s e
ton s A n a t M w
’ ’
e la ne /zol d B
omy o
f y a n f ro m ro ne s

R e ligi o Me d i e i an d f ro m th e e arly E n g li s h d ra m ati s ts B u t

. .

th i s s tyl e h ad b e c o m e a p ar t o f L amb by l on
g re a di n g a n d ,

1 I n th e fi rs tessa y , Th e S o u th S ea Hou se ,” L a m b a s su m e d a s a j ke th e m f
o na e o 3.

her es sa y f ll w d
s o o e , an d he
t n am e was t i d wh
re a n e se v ls
en e ra uc

b li s h e d i b n kf m oo or , in 1 823 . I n th e see ssa y E li ” i L m b

s a s a

B ri dge t” i s hi s s is t
er Mary .
 T HE AG E O F R OM ANTI C I S M 43 1

h e w as ppare n tly u n abl e to e xp re s s h is n e w th ou gh t wi th ou t

a

u sin g t h e i r old q u a i n t e xp r e s s i on s T h o u g h th e s e e s s ay s ar e
.

a ll c r i tici s m s or app re ci ati on s o f th e li f e of h is ag e th e y ar e ,

a ll i n t e n s e ly p e r son al I n o th e r w ord s th e y are a n e xc e ll e n t

.
,

pic tu r e of Lam b an d of h u m an i ty Wi th o u t a tr ac e of van i ty

.

or s e l f ass e r t
-
i on L am b b e g i n s wi th h i m se l f wi th s om e p u re ly
, ,

p e rs on a l m ood or e xp e r i e n c e an d from th i s h e l e ad s th e re ad e r
,

to s e e li f e a n d l i te ratu r e a s h e saw it I t i s th i s w o n d e r f u l .

c om bi n ati on of p e r s on al an d u n iv e rsa l i n te r e s ts tog e th e r wi th ,

L a m b s r a re old s tyl e an d q u a i n t h u m or w h ic h m a k e th e
’

e s sa y s r e m a r k a bl e T h e y c on ti n u e th e b e s ttrad i ti on of A dd i
.

s on a n d S t e e l e o u r fi r s tg re a t e s s a yi s t
, s b u tth e i r s y m p ath i e s
ar e b r oad e r a n d d e e p e r an d t h e ir h u m or m or e d e lici o u s th an
, ,

an
y w h ic h p re c e d e d th em .

T HO MA S Q U I NC E Y ( 1 7 8 5 1 8 5 9)
DE —

I n D e Q u i n c e y th e ro m an tic e l e m e n tis e v e n m or e s tr on g ly
d e v e l op e d th an i n L am b n ot on ly in h i s c r i tica l w ork b u t
, ,

a l s o i n h i s e r rat i c an d i m a g i n ativ e li f e H e w a s p r o f o u n dly .

e d u c at ed e v e n m o re s o t
, h an C ol e r id g e an d w as on e of th e ,

k e e n e s t i n te ll e c ts of th e ag e ; y e t h is w on d e rf u l i n te ll e c t
s e e m s a lwa y s s u b ord i n at e t o h i s p as s i o n for d r e a m i n g
,
L ik e .

L am b h e w a s a f r i e n d a n d a s s oci a te of th e L a k e p oe ts m ak
, ,

in g h is h e a dq uar te rs in Wor d s w or th s old c ottag e a t G ra s

’

m e r e f or n e arly tw e n ty y e ars H e r e th e r e se m bl an c e c e as e s
.
,

a n d a m ar k e d c o n t r a st b e g i n s A s a m an L am b i s th e m o s t
.
,

h u m an a n d l ov abl e of all ou r e s s ayi s ts ; w h il e D e Q u i n c e y i s

th e m o s t u n ca n n y an d i n c om p r e h e n s ibl e L am b s m o d e s t
’
.

w or k s b r e ath e th e tw o e s se n ti al q u a li ti e s of s y m p a th y a n d
h u m or ; th e gre ate r n u m b e r of D e Q u i n c e y s e s say s w h il e '

p os s e s s i n g m ore or l e s s of b o th th e se q u ali ti e s a re c h arac te r ,

iz e d c h i e fly by th e i r b rilli an t s tyl e L i f e a s s e e n th ro u gh

.
,

D e Q u i n c e y s e y e s is n e b u l ou s an d c h a otic a n d th e r e i s a
’

, ,

s u s pici on o f t h e f a b u l ou s in all th at h e w ro te E v e n in Th e .

R e v oltof t /ze Ta r ta r s th e r o m an tic e l e m e n t i s u pp e r m os t an d ,

432 E N GLI S H L IT E R ATU R E

m uc h Q u in ce y
p h e l e m e n t o f u n r ea l i t y i
’

in of De ros e t e s s

m o re n otic e abl e th an i n S h e ll e y s p o e try O f h is s u bj e c t

’
.

m atte r h is f ac ts id e as a n d c r i tici s m s w e a re g e n e r ally s u s

, , , ,

i b t f h i tyl m t i m t t ly d o m e t i m e s
p ic o o s s e s o e e s s a e a n s
u s ; u ,

h e adl on g n ow g orge ou s a s an O r i e n tal d r e a m n o w m u s ic a l

, ,

s s E n dy m i on a n d a lwa y s e v e n i n t h e m ost vi ol e n t
’

a s K e at , ,

c on tra s ts s h owi n g a h ar m o n y b e tw e e n th e id e a an d th e e x
,

p re s s i on s u c h a s n o oth e r E n g l i s h w r i te r wi th th e p os s ibl e ,

e xc e p t i on of N e wm an h as e v e r r ival e d w h at o u will —
sa
, y y ,

h e m ar v e l o us b r illi a n cy of D e Q u i n c e y s s tyl e y ou h av e
’

of t ,

st ill on ly h a l f e xp r e s s e d th e tru th I t is th e s tyl e a l on e w h ic h .

m ak e s th e s e e s s a y s i m m or t al .

Li f e . D e Q u i n c e y w as b o rn in M an c h e s t e r in 1 7 8 5 I n n e i th e r .

h is fath e r w h o w as a p ros p e rou s me rc h an t n o r h is m o th e r w h o w as

, , ,

a q u i e t u n sy m p a t h e ti c w o m an d o w e s e e an y su gge sti on of th e s on s
’

, ,

a l m os t u n c an n y ge n i u s As a c h i l d h e w as giv e n to d re a m s m ore
.
,

vi v id an d i n te n se b u t l e s s b e au tifu l th an th ose of th e you n g B l ak e ,

to w h o m h e b e a rs a s tro n g r e s e m b l an c e I n th e gra m m a r s c h o o l a t .

B a th h e d i sp l a y e d aston i s h i n g abi l i t y an d ac q u i re d G re e k an d L a ti n
,

w ith a ra p i d i ty th at fri gh te n e d h is s l ow tu to rs At fi fte e n h e n ot .

on l y re ad G re e k b u t s p ok e i t fl u e n tly ; a n d on e o f h is as t
,
o un d e d

te ac h e rs re m ark e d T h at b oy c ou l d h aran gu e an Ath e n i an m ob

,

be tte r th a n you or I c ou l d add re ss an E n gl i sh on e F ro m th e gra m .

”

m a r sc h oo l a tM an c h e s t e r wh it h e r h e w as se n tin 1 8 0 0 h e soon ran

, ,

a w ay , fi n d i n g th e i n struc ti on fa r b e l o w h is ab il i ti e s an d th e rough ,

l i fe ab sol u te l y i n tol e rab l e to h is se n si tive n atu re An u n c l e j u st .

,

h om e f ro m I n d i a i n te rc e d e d fo r th e b oy l e s th e b e s e n tba c k to th e
,

sc h o o l w h i c h h e h a t
, e d ; an d w i t h an a l l o w a n c e of a gu i n e a a w e e k
h e s tarte d a c a re e r of v ag a n c y m u c h l ik e th a tof G o l d s m i th l ivi n g
r , ,

on t h e op e n h i l l s in th e h u ts of sh e p h e rd s an d c h a rc oa l b u rn e rs in
, ,

th e te n ts of gy p s i e s w h e re v e r fan c y le d h im
, H is f e ar of th e Man .

c h e st e r sc h o o l fi n a l l y le d h im t o ru n a w ay t o L o n d on w h e e w i th r
, ,

o u t m on e y o r f ri e n d s h is l if e w a s e v e n m o re e x t rao rd i n a y t h a n h is r
,

gy p sy w an d e ri n gs T h e d e t . a il s o f t h i s v a gran cy are b e st l e a rn e d in
h
im
s Conf e s s i ons f
o an E ng li s lz w h e re w e m e e t n o t
Op i u m E -
at
e r,
Si
p l y th e f ac ts o f h is l if e b u t a l so th e c on fu s i on of d re am s a n d
,

fan c i e s in th e m i d st of w h i c h h e w an d e re d l ike a m an l ost on th e

a in s , w t
m ou n t c l ou d s u n d e r h is f e e t h i d i n
g th e fa m i l i ar
h i st
o rm
4 34 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

fam i l y to E d i n bu rgh w h e re h is e rrati c ge n i us an d h is s i n gu l arly

,

c h i l d l i k e w ay s p rod u c e d e n ou gh a m u s i n g a n e c d o t es t o fill a vo l u m e .

He wou l d tak e a roo m in so m e p l ac e u n kn o w n to h is f ri e n d s a n d

fa m ily ; w ou l d l i v e in it fo r a fe w ye ars u n ti l h e h ad fi l l e d it e ve n , ,

to t h e ba th tu b wi th b ooks an d w ith h is ow n c h aoti c m an u s c r i p ts

, ,

a ll o w in g n o on e t o en t e r or d i s t
u rb h is d e n ; an d t h e n w h e n th e ,

p l ac e b e c am e t oo c row d e d h e w ou l d l o c k t h e d oo r an d go a w ay an d
,

t ak e an o t h e r l od gi n g w h e re b e r e p e a te d th e s a m e e x trao rdi n a ry
,

e rf o rm an c e H e d i e d i n E d in b u rgh in 1 8 5 9 L ik e L am b h e w as
p
.
. ,

a sm al l boy i s h fi gu re ge n tl e an d e l ab orate ly c ou rte ou s Th ou gh

, , ,
.

e xc e ss iv e ly S h y an d e sc a p i n g a s o f t
,
e n as p os s ib l e t o s ol itu d e h e w as ,

n e v e rt h e l e s s f o n d of soc i e t y an d h is w id e k n o wl e d ge an d v i vid
,

i m a gi n ati on m ad e h is c on v e rsa ti on s a l m o st as p r i z e d as th ose of h is

f ri e n d C ol e r i d ge .

Work s D e Q u i n c e y s w ork s m ay b e d ivid e d i n to tw o g e n

.
’

e ra l cl a s s e s Th e fi rs t i n cl u d e s h is n u m e r ou s c r i tic a l a rticl e s
.
,

an d t h e s e c o n d h is a u tobi og ra p h ic a l s k e tc h e s A ll h is w o rk s .
,

i t m u s t b e re m e m b e re d w e re c on tr ib u te d to v ar i ou s m aga,

z i n e s an d w e r e h as t
,
ily c oll e c te d j u s t b e f ore h is d e ath H e n c e .

th e g e n e ra l i m p re s s i on of c h ao s w h ic h w e g e t f ro m r e a d i n g
th e m .

F rom li te rary vi e w p oi n t th e m os t il l u m i n ati n g of D e

a

Q u i n ce y s c ri t
’
ic al w o rk s i s h is L i te ra ry R e m i n i s c e n c e s T h i s .

C it
r i l
ca c on tai n s br illi an tapp re ci ati on s of Wo rd s w orth C ol e ,

E
r id e L am b S h e ll e y K e ats H az li tt a n d L an d or
s sa
y s
g , , , , , ,

a s w e ll a s s o m e i n t e re s ti n g s tu di e s of th e li te rary fi g u re s o f
th e ag e p re c e di n g A m o n g th e b e s t of h is b r illi an t c r i tic a l
.

e s s ay s a re On Me K n oc k i n at t l ze Ga te i n M a c be t /z ( 1 8 2
g
w h ic h is ad m i ra bly s u i te d to S h ow th e m an s c ri tica l g e n i u s ’

a n d fli n r d e r Con s i d e re d a s On e o t w h ic h
f /ze F i n e A 7 ts
r e v ea l s h i s
g rote s q u e h u m or O th e r s ugg e s tiv e c r i tic a l w ork s
.
,

i f on e m u s t c h oos e am on g s u c h a m u l ti tu d e ar e h is L e tte rs to ,

You ng Al a n j f A re ( I 8 4 7 ) Th e R e v olt o tlze

a oa n o
, f
Ta r ta r s an d T/ze E ng /i s le M a i l Coa c /i
-
I n th e
l a s tn a m e d
-
e s sa y th e D r e am F ugue ”
is on e of th e m os t
I m agin ative of all c u r i ou s w or k s
'

h is .
 TH E AG E O F R OM ANTI C I S M 435

Of D e Q uin ce y bi og rap h ic al S k e tc h e s
b e s t k n ow n
’
s au to th e
i s h is Conf e s s i on s of a n E ng li s /z Op i u m E a t er
(1 82 T h i s is -

on ly p a r t ly a r e c or d o f O pi u m d r e am s an d i t s c h ie f
C f i
on e ss on s ,

: i n te re s t li e s i n g l i m p s e s itg iv e s u s of D e Q u i n c e y s
Op i m
’
o f an u

B t” t
a e e c
o w n li f e an d w a n d e r i n g s T h i s s h ou ld b e f o ll owe d
'

by S u sp i r i a d e P rof u n d is I 8 4 w h ic h i s c h i e fl y a r e c or d o f
g l oo m y a n d t e r r ibl e d re am s p r od u c e d by O pi at es Th e m os t .

i n te re s ti n g p ar ts of h is S u sp i r ia s h owi n g D e Q u i n c e y s m a r ,
’

v e lou s i n s i g h t i n t o d re a m s a re t h ose in w h ic h w e ar e b rou g h t,

"
f ac e to f a c e wi th th e s tran g e f e m i n i n e c r e a ti on s L e van a ,
"

” ”
M a d on n a O u r L ady of S i g h s
, an d O u r L ady of D a rk ,

n e ss . A se r i e s o f n e ar ly th i rty ar ticl e s w h ic h h e c oll e c te d in

1 8 5 3 c a ll e d A u t
,
ob i o rap /zi c S k e t
g c /ze s c om pl e t es t h e re v e l ati on ,

h e a u th or s ow n l if e A m o n g h i s mi s c e ll an e ou s w or k s m ay
’
of t .

b e m e n ti on e d i n ord e r to S h o w h i s wid e ran g e of s u bj e c ts

, ,

K los te r/ze i m a n o v e l L og i c of P oli ti c a l E c on omy th e E s s ay s

, , ,

on S t le a n d R lze t
y p y of He r od otu s an d h is a rti
or i c P k i los o /z , ,

cl e s o n G oe th e P op e S c h ill e r an d S h ak e s p e ar e w h ic h b e
, , ,

c on tr ib u te d to th e E n cy c lop e d i a B r i ta n n ic a .

D e Q u i n c e y s s tyl e is a r e v e l a ti on of th e b e a u ty o f th e
’

E n g li s h l an g ua g e an d i t p r o f o u n dly i n fl u e n c e d R u s ki n an d
,

Th S tyle f ot h e r p ros e w r i te rs of th e V ic tor i an A ge I th as tw o

e o .

D Q m y
e u
c h i e f fa u l ts — di ff u s e n e s s w h ic h c on ti n ua lly l e ad s
ce
, ,

D e Q u i n c e y a w ay f rom h is obj e c t an d tr ivi ali ty w h i c h o f te n , ,

m ak e s h im h a l t in th e m id s t of a m ar v e l ou s p aragra p h to
m a k e s o m e li gh t j e s t or wi ttici s m th at h as s om e h u m or b u t
n o m i rt h in it N otwi th s tan di n g th e s e f a u l ts D e Q u i n c e y s
’
.
,

p ros e is s till am on g th e fe w s u p re m e e x am pl e s of s tyl e in ou r

l an g uage T h ou g h h e w as p rof o u n dly i n fl u e n c e d by th e s e v e n
.

te e n t h c e n tu ry w r i te rs h e atte m p te d d e fi n i te ly to c re ate a
-
,

n e w st yl e w h ic h s h ou ld c om bi n e th e b e s t e l e m e n ts of p ros e
a n d p oe t ry I n c on s e q u e n c e h is p ro s e w ork s a re o f te n lik e
.
, ,

th o s e of M il to n m ore i m ag i n ativ e a n d m e l o di ou s th an m u c h
,

of ou r p oe t ry He h a s b e e n w e ll c all e d th e p s yc h o l og i s t o f
.

”
st yl e an d as s u c h h is w ork s wil l n e v e r b e p op u lar ; b u t to
,
4 36 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
th e fe w w h o pp re ci ate h im h e will al way s b e an in s p i
c an a

ra t i on to b e tte r w ri ti n g On e h as a d e e p e r r e s p e c t for ou r
E n g li s h l an g uag e a n d l i te ra ture a f te r rea di n g h im .

S e con dary Write rs of R om an tic i s m O n e h as on ly to g l an c e .

back ov e r th e au th ors w e h a v e b e e n s tu dyi n g Word s w orth ,

C o l e r id g e S o u th e y B y ron S h e ll e y K e ats S c o tt L am b D e
, , , , , , ,

Q u i n c e y — to re ali z e th e gr e at c h an g e w h ic h s w e p t o v e r
th e li f e a n d li te ratu r e o f E n g l a n d in a s i n g l e h al f c e n t u ry ,

u n de r t w o i n fl u e n c e s w h ic h w e n ow k n o w a s t h e F re n c h
R e v ol uti on i n h i s tory an d th e R om a n tic M ov e m e n t i n l i te ra
tu re . I n li f e m e n h ad re b e ll e d a ga i n s tth e too s tr ic ta u th o r i ty
'

of s t at e an d s o ci e t y ; in li te ra tu re th e y r e b e ll e d e v e n m ore
vi gorou s ly ag a i n s t th e b o n d s of cl as s i ci s m w h ic h h ad s te rn ly ,

re p re s s e d a w r i t e r s a m bi ti o n t o f o ll ow h i s ow n id e a l s an d t
’
o

e xp r e s s t h e m i n h i s ow n w ay N atu ra lly s u c h an age of re v o .

lu tion w as e s s e n ti ally p oe tic on ly t h e E li za b e th an A g e s u r

,

p as s e s it in th i s r e s p e c t an d it p rod u c e d a l arge n u mb e r of
,
—

m i n or w r i te rs w h o f oll ow e d m o r e or l e s s cl ose ly th e e x am pl e
,

of i t s g r e at l e ad e r s A m o n g n ov e l i s ts w e h av e J a n e A u s te n
.
,

F ra n c e s B u rn e y M ar i a E d ge w or th J a n e P orte r an d S u san
, , ,

F e r ri e r ,all w om e n b e itn ot
—
ed am on g t
, h e p oe ts C a mpb e ll , ,

M oo re H ogg th e E ttrick
, Mr s H e m an s H e b e r .
, ,

K e bl e H ood an d I n g old s by ( R ic h a rd B arh a m ) ; an d am on g

, ,

" ”
m i s c e ll a n e o u s w r i te rs S id n e y S m i th ,C h r i s to p h e r N orth ,

( J oh n Wil s on ) C h a l m e rs L o ck h art L e i g h H u n t H az li tt
, , , , ,

H all am an d L a n d or H e re is an as ton i s h i n g v ar i e ty of
, .

w ri te rs a n d to c on s id e r all th e i r cl ai m s to re m e m b ran c e
,

w o u ld of i tse l f r e q u i re a v ol u m e T h ou g h th e s e are g e n e rally .

cl as se d as s e c on d ary w r i te r s m u c h of th e i r w ork h as cl a i m s ,

to pop u l ar i ty a n d s o m e of i t to p e rm an e n c e
, M oo re s I r i s li .
’

fil e /od i e s C am pb e ll s ly r i c s K e b le s Clzr i s ti a n Ye a r a n d J an e
,
’

,
’

Por te r s T/za d d e u s of Wa rs a w an d S c otti s lz C/zi efs h av e s till

’

a m u lt itud e of re ad e rs w h e re K e ats L am b a n d D e Q u i n c e y
, , ,

are p r iz e d on ly by t h e c u l tu re d fe w ; a n d H a ll a m s h i s tor ic al ’

a n d c ri t i ca l wo r k s ar e p e rh ap s b e tte r k n ow n th an th os e of
438 E N G L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

her in fl ue n c e th ata m u l ti tu d e o f re a d e r s w e r e re ady to app re

ciate M rs G as k e ll s Cra nf ord a n d
.
’

,
th e p ow e r f u l a n d e n d u r i n g

work o f G e orge E l iot .

Li fe .J an e Au ste n s l i fe give s l i ttl e op p ortun ity for th e biograp h e r

’
,

u n l e ss , p e c h an c e
r h e h as so m e t ,
h i n g of h e r o w n p owe r t o s h ow t h e

be au ty a n d c h arm o f c om m on p l ac e th in gs S h e w as th e se v e n th .

c h i l d of R e G e o rge Au s te n re c to r of S te v e n ton an d was bo rn in

v .
, ,

th e p arson age o f th e v il l age in 1 7 7 5 Wi th h e r si ste rs s h e w as e d u .

c at ed at h o m e an d p as s e d h e r l i f e v e ry q u i e t
,
ly c h e e rfu l l y in th e , ,

d o i n g of s m a l l d o m e sti c d u ti e s to w h i c h l ov e l e n t th e m ag i c l a m p
,

t h atm ak e s all th in gs b e a u tifu l S h e b e gan to w ri te at an e arl y age .

,

an d s e e m s t o h av e d o n e h e r w o rk o n a l i t tl e t a b l e in t h e fam i l y s i t
ti n g ro om in t , h e m i d s t of th e fa m i ly l ife Wh e n a vi s i to r e n te re d .
,

sh e w o u l d t h ro w a p a p e r o r a p i e c e of s e wi n g ov e r h e r wo rk an d ,

sh e m o d e st l y re fu se d to b e k n own as th e au th or of n ov e l s wh i c h w e
n o w c o u n t a m on
g ou r tre asu re d p oss e ss i on s Wi th th e p u b l i sh e rs .

s h e h ad l i t tl e su c c e ss P r id a n d P r ej u d i c e w e n t b e ggi n g as w e
. e ,

h a v e sa i d fo r s i x te e n y e a rs ; an d N or t
, /za ng e Abb ey ( 1 7 9 8 ) w as r

ri v i a l su m t
so l d fo r a t o a
p u b l i sh e r w h o l a id it as id e an d fo rgot it , ,

un t i l th e app e aran c e an d m od e rate su c c e ss of S e n se a n d S e n s i ki li t v

in 1 8 1 1 T h e n a fte r k e e p i n g th e m an u sc ri p t som e fi f te e n ye a rs h e
.
, ,

so l d itbac k t o t h e fa m il y w h o f oun d an o th e r p u b l i s h e r
, .

An an o n y m ou s a rti c l e in th e Qu a r t e r /v R e v i e w foll ow i n g th e ,

a p e a ran c e of E m m a in 1 8 1
p 5 f u l l o f ge n e rous ap p re c i a ti on of th e
,

c h a rm of t h e n e w w ri te r w a s th e b e gi n n in g of J an e Au s te n s fa m e
,
’

an d it is on l y w i t h i n a fe w y e ars th at w e h av e l e arn e d th a t th e
f ri e n d ly an d d i sc e rn in g c ri ti c w as Wa l te r Sc o tt H e c on ti n u e d to b e .

h e r ad m i re r u n ti l h e r e a rl y d e ath b u tth e s e tw o th e gre a te s tw ri te rs ,

of fi c t i on in th e i r age w e re n e ve r b rou gh t toge th e r Both we re

, .

h o m e l ov i n g p e op l e an d M i ss Aus te n e s e c i a l l y w a s av e rs e to ub
-
,
p p
lic ity an d p o p u l a i ty S h e di e d q u i e tl y a s S h e h ad l iv e d at Win
r .
, ,

c h e st e r in 1 8 7 an d w as b u ri e d in t
, 1 , h e c a th e d ra l S h e w as a b ri gh t .
,

at tra c tiv e l i ttl e wo m an wh ose s un n y q ua l i t , i e s are u n c on sc io u sly re

fl e c te d in all h e r book s .

Work s Ve ry fe w E n g li s h wr i te r s e v e r h ad s o n arro w a
.

fi e ld o f work as J an e A u s te n L ik e th e F re n ch n o v e l i s ts .
,

w h os e su cc e s s s e e m s to lie in c h oos i n g th e ti n y fi e ld th at
th e y k n ow be s t h e r w o r k s h av e a n e xq u i s i te p e r fe c ti on th at
,
 TH E AG E O F R OM ANTI C I S M 4 39

is la cki n g in m os t of o u r w r i te rs of fi c ti on With th e e xc e p .

ti o n of a n o cc a s i on a l vi s i t to th e w ate r i n g pl a c e of B ath h e r ,

w h o l e l i f e w a s S p e n t in s m all c ou n try p ar i s h e s w h o s e s i m pl e ,

c o u n try p e opl e b e ca m e th e c h ara c te r s of h e r n ov e l s H e r .

b roth e rs w e re in th e n a vy a n d so n a va l offi c e rs f u rn i s h th e
,

on ly e x ci t i n g e l e m e n ts in h e r s tor i e s ; b u t e v e n th e s e all e ge d
h e roe s lay as id e th e i r i m p o s i n g m arti a l w ay s an d ac tl ik e th e m
s e lv e s a n d ot h e r p e 0 p 1e S u c h w as h e r l i te rary fi e ld in w h ic h
.
,

th e c h i e f d u ti e s w e re of th e h ou s e h old th e c h in le a s u r e s in
,

c o un
qm t h e rin g s , an d t h e c h i e f in te r e sts in m at r i m on y .

L i f e wi th its mi gh ty i n te r e s ts i ts p a s s i on s am bi ti on s an d
, , , ,

trag ic s tr u g g l e s s w e p t by l ik e a g re at r iv e r ; w h il e th e se
,

cl u d e d i n te re s ts o f a c ou n try p ar i s h w e n t rou n d an d r ou n d
q u i e tly lik e an e ddy b e h i n d a s h e l te ri n g ro ck We c an e as ily
, .

u n d e rs t an d ,
th e r e f or e th e li m i tati on s o f J an e A u s te n ; b u t
,

wi th i n h e r ow n fi e ld S h e i s u n e q u al e d He r c h ara c te r s are .

a b s ol u t e ly t ru e t o li f e a n d a ll h e r w or k h as t
,
h e p e r f e c ti on o f
a d e lic at e m i n i at u r e p ai n t i n g Th e m os t wid e ly r e a d of h e r
.

n o v e l s is P r i d e a n d P r ej u d i c e ; b u t th r e e oth e r s S e n s e a n d ,

S e n s i b i li ty,
E m m a , a n d M a n s e ld
fi P a r k h a v e s l o
, wly w on

th e i r w a y to th e f ro n t ran k of fi c ti on F r om a li te rar y vi e w
.

p o i n t N or t/za ng e r A b key i s p e rh ap s th e b e s t f o r in it w e fin d
th a t tou c h of h u m o r a n d d e lica te sati re wi th w h ic h th i s g e n tl e
l i ttl e w om an c o m b ate d th e g rote s q u e p op u l ar n ov e l s of th e
Ud olp lzo typ e R e a di n g a n y o f th e s e w o rk s on e is i n cl i n e d to
.
,

a cc e p t t h e h e arty i n d o r s e m e n t of S i r Wa l te r S c ott: T h at
y o u n g l ady h a s a tal e n t for d e s c r ibi n g th e i n v olv e m e n ts an d
f e e li n g s a n d c h ara c te r s of or di n ar y l i f e w h ic h is to m e th e
m os t w on d e r f u l I e v e r m e t wi th The b ig b o ww o w s tra i n I
.

c an d o m s e l i n ow g o i n e xq u i s i t u ch
y l k e an
—
g ; b ut t h e
—‘
e t o

w h ic h r e n d e r s ord i n ary Gdni nirfri pl ac e th i n g s an d c h ara c te rs

'
'

i n te r e s ti n g f rom th e triith of th e d e s c r ip ti on an d th e s e n ti
m e n t is d e n i e d to m e Wh at a pi ty s u c h a g i f te d c re ature
, .

di e d s o e a rly
4 40 E N GLISH L IT E R ATU R E

WA L T E R S A VA G E L AND OR ( 1 775 — 1 8 64 )

Wh il e H az li tt L a m b D e Q ui n c e y an d oth e r ro m an tic c ri t
, , ,

ic s we n t b ack to e ar ly E n g l i s h li te ra tu re fo r th e i r in s pi ra ti on ,

L an d or s h ow s a re a c ti on f r om th e p re v a ili n g R om an tici s m by
h is i m i tati on o f th e an ci e n t cl a s s i c w r i te rs H is lif e w as an .

e xtraor di n a ry o n e an d l ik e h is w ork a b ou n d e d in s h ar p c on, ,

tras ts On th e o n e h an d th e re ar e h is e g o i s m h is u n c on tro l
.
, ,

la bl e an ge r h is p e rp e tual l aw s u i ts a n d th e l as t sad trag e dy

, ,

wi th h is c h ild re n w h ic h s u g ge s ts K i ng L e a r an d h is d aug h
,

te rs ; on th e oth e r h an d th e r e is h is s te ady d e v o ti on to th e
cl as s ic s an d to th e Cu l tiv ati on of th e d e e p wi s d om of th e
an ci e n t s w h ic h s u g e s t
g , s P i n d a r a n d C ic e ro I n h is w or k s w e .

fin d th e wild e x trav aga n c e of Ge bi r f oll o w e d by th e s u p e r b ,

cl as s ic s tyl e a n d c h ar m of P e r i c les a n d Asp a s i a S u c h w as .

La n d o r a m an o f h i g h id e al s p e rp e tu ally a t w ar wi th h im se l f
, ,

an d t h e w orld .

Lif e . La n d o r
’
s st
orm y l ife co v e rs th e w h o l e p e ri o d f rom Word s
w orth ’
s c h i l d h oo d t
o th e m dd l e i of th e V i c to ri a n E ra H e w as th e .

son of a p h y s i c i an , an d w a s o rn a t War b
F ro m h is wi c k ,
in 1 7 75 .

m oth e r i h e n h e r i te d a fo rtun e ; b u t it was

so on sc a t te re d by l a rge
e xpe n d i t u re s an d la w q u a re l s ; an d in h is o ld a e r e fu s e d h e l
r by
g p ,

h is o wn c h i l d re n o n l y B ro w n in g s ge n e ros i t
, y k e p t La n d o r f rom ’

ac t ua l w a n t At R ugb y an d a t Ox fo rd h is e x tre m e R e p u b l i c an
.
, ,

is m b rough t h im in to c on st an t t ro u b l e ; an d h i s fi t ti n g ou t a b an d
of vo l un t e e rs t o a s si s t t
h e S p an ia rd s aga in st N a p o l e on in 1 8 0 8 , ,

al l i e s h im w i t h Byro n an d h is Q u ix oti c fo l l o w e rs Th e re s e m b l an c e .

to B y ro n is e v e n m o re s t ri k in gl y S h own in t h e p oe m Ge b i pub r,

lish e d in 7 9 8 a y e a r m ad e fam ou s by th e Ly r i c a l B a lla d s of

1 ,

Wo rd s wo rth an d C o l e ri d ge .

A re m a rka b l e c h a n ge in L an d o r s l i f e is n o ti c e ab l e in 1 8 2 I w h e n ’

, ,

a tfort y ix y e ars of age af te r h avi n g l ost h is m agn ifi c e n t e s ta te of

-
s
,

Ll an th ony Abbe y in G l a m o r an s h i re an d a fte r a s to rm y e x e r i e n c e

g ,
p ,

in C om o h e se ttl e d d o w n fo r a ti m e a t Fi e so l e n e a r F l o re n c e To
, .

th i s pe ri od of c a l m af te r s to rm w e ow e th e c l ass ic a l rose w o rk s fo r
p
wh ic h h e is fam ous T h e c al m l ik e th at at th e c e n te r of a w h i r l
.
,

w in d l ast
, e d b u t a S h o rt t i m e an d Lan d o r l e avin g h is fam i ly in , ,
44 2 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

lE wi
so p th a y ou n g s l a v e g i r l i n E g yp t H e n r y V I I I wi th ,

A n n e B ol e y n in p r i s on D a n te wi th B e a tr ic e L e o f ric wi th , ,

La dy G o d iv a — a ll th e s e a n d m an y o th e rs f r om E pic te tu s
, ,

to C r om w e ll are b ro ug h ttog e th e r a n d s p e a k of li f e a n d l o v e
,

a n d d e at h ea c h f ro m h is ow n v i e w p o i n t O cc as i on ally a s in
,
.
,

th e m e e ti n g of H e n r y a n d A n n e B ol e y n th e s i tu ati on i s te n s e ,

an d d ra m a t ic ; b u t as a r u l e th e c h ara c te rs s i m ply m e e t an d
c on v e rs e in th e s am e q u i e t s tra i n w h ic h b e c om e s a f te r m u c h , ,

re adi n g s o m e w h a t m on o t
,
on o u s O n th e oth e r h a n d on e w h o .
,

re ad s t h e I m ag i n a ry Con v e rs a ti on s i s li f te d at on c e i n to a
cal m an d n obl e atm os p h e re w h i ch b rac e s an d i n s pi re s h im ,

m aki n g h im f org e t p e tty th i n g s lik e a vi e w f ro m a h ill top , .

B y its c om bi n a ti on of l of ty th o u g h t an d s e v e re ly cl as s ic s tyl e
th e b ook h a s w on an d d e s e rv e s a v e r y h i g h pl a c e a m on g ou r
, ,

li te rary r e c o rd s .

Th e sa m e c ri tici s m a ppli e s to P e r i c le s a n d A sp a s i a w h ic h ,

i s a s e ri e s o f i m ag i n ary l e tte r s te lli n g th e e xp e ri e n c e s o f ,

A s pa s i a a y ou n g l ady f ro m A s i a M i n or w h o vi s i ts A th e n s
, ,

a tt h e su m m i t o f i ts fam e a n d g l ory in th e g r e a t ag e of P e r i ,

cl e s T h i s i s in ou r j u d gm e n t th e b e s t w orth r e adi n g of all

.
, ,

L an d or s w ork s O n e g e ts f ro m i t n ot on ly L a n d or s cl a s s ic
’ ’
.

st yl e b ut— w h at i s w e ll w orth w h il e
, a b et te r pic tur e o f —

G r e e c e in th e d ay s o f its g re atn e s s th an c an b e ob ta i n e d
f rom m an y h i s torica l v ol u m e s .

S u m m ary i
of tT h i s p e ri d e x te d s f m th e w ait
h e Age of R om an tc i s m . o n ro

wi th th o l i fo ll wi g th e D c l ti
e c on e s, f I depe d o ne i 1 7 76 t o the e a ra on o n n e nc , n ,

s io f V i c t i i 1 8 3 7 b th li m i ts b e i
g v e ry i d e fi n i te as will b e s e e
acc es n o or a n , o n n n
,

by gl a c e a tt h e Ch o
an l gy f llo wi g D i g th fi t p t o f th e p e ri d
r no o o n . ur n e rs ar o

es p c i lly E g l
e a d w s i , a c tin l t rm o il p d c e d b y p li tic l n d
an a n on n ua u , ro u o a a

ec o m i c g i t ti o
no th m e ad b y th e l o g w s th tco v e d tw c
a n a o , an ti e ts n ar a er o on n n

an d th wi d eb tw e e th e m T h m i g h ty h a g e s re s l ti g f o m th e e
e se a e n . e c n u n r s

tw oca h v g iv e
us e s th i p i d th e a eam f th e Ag en f R e v l ti
s er o Th n e o o o u on . e

t m c
s or te f ll th t m il a t h m
en r o a d ab o ad w as t
a e h e F nch R e
ur o l o e n r re vo u
ti on wh i c h h d p f d i fl c e
, a tha l ife d li t t e f all E p
ro o u n n ue n on e an e ra u r o u ro e .

O th n C ti e t th e
e v rth w o f N p o l
on n n t W a te r l o
o
(
e 1 8 1 5) p ro
p t ly a e on a o a a re n
ch ck d t
e h e p og
e s f li b e ty w h i h h d s t te d wi th th e F e n c h R e v o l ti on 1
r re s o r , c a ar r u ,

l S ee h i stor e si f or th e C o n g re s s of V i en na ( 1 8 1 4) an d th e Holy A lli a n ce

 TH E AG E O F R O M ANTI C I S M 44 3

b u t i n E n g l a n d th e i ta ti o f p p l lib e ty w h i h
c as e w as ve re rs e d . Th e ag n or o u ar r , c

at e ti m
on th e a t e ed a e w t s te d ily f rw a rd til l i t e l t d i
r n re vol t i u on , en a o r su e n

th e fi l t i m p h of d m
na r u th e R fo m B il l f 1 8 3 2 a d i e mb o c y i
ra c , n e r o , n n a nu er

of x c e d i g ly i m p rt t
e e n h a th e x t i of ma h d s ff ge
an re f m or s , s uc s e e n s on o n oo u ra ,

th e m v l f th e l
re to j t t i c ti o s aga i s tC ath li c th e e t b li h m t
a o as un us re s r n n o s, s a s en

of a ti o a l s y s t m
na f h
n l fo ll o w d b y p id i c
e s e in p p l
o d sc
a oo s, e a ra n re a o u ar e uc

ti on a d t , h e a b li ti
n f l v e ry i a ll E g li h c o l o i s
o on T o th i s w e o s a n n s n e

m us t a d d th ch g p d c d b y th d i
e v ry f s t am a d th e i v ti n
an es ro u e e sc o e o e n n en o

o f m a h i e y w h i c h ra p i d ly h
c n r ge d E gl
, d f m ag i c l t a l t ma c an n an ro an r u ur o a nu

f ac t ri g a tiu ni t o d c e d th e f c to ry y t m a d c e d th i s p e i d t b e
n on , n r u a s s e , n a us r o o

k o w as th e Ag e o f I d t i a l R e v o l ti
n n n us r u on .

T h e li te t f th e ag i s l a g e ly p e ti c l i f m a d l m s t e ti ly
ra u r e o e r o a n or , n a o n re

r om a t i c i S p i i t F as w e h v
n n t d th
r tri m p h
. f d e m c ra c y i g
o r, a e no e ,
e u o o n ov

e rnm ti s gen e lly ac m p i d b y th e tri m p h f m a ti c i m i li te a t

en ra co an e u O ro n s n r u re .

A t fi t th e li te t e
rs s sh w e p i lly i th
ra u r ly w k f Wo d s w o th
, a o n s ec a n e e ar or o r r ,

By ro n a d S h e ll y
, fl te d th t m il f th ag a d th w il d h p e s f
n e , re ec e ur o O e e n e o o an

i d e l d m c c y c c i o d b y th e F
a e o ra h R v l ti
o L a te th e x t v a g
as t ne re n c e o u on . r e ra an

en th i m s b i d d a d E g li h w i t s p d c d s m h x c l l t li t a
u s as u s e , n n s r er ro u e o uc e e en er ;

t u re th t th e a ge i s o f t
a c a ll d t he S c d C e tiv e p i d th fi tb e i g en e e on r a er o , e rs n

th e A g e o f E li b th T h e i x h i f c h a c te i s ti c o f th e g a e
za e . th p e a s c e ra r s a e r e r v

l c e o f m ti c p o t y ; th e c e ti o n o f th h i t i l v e l b y S c tt; th e
en ro an e r r a e s or c a no o

fi s tapp e
r ce f w m v li s ts s c h as M s A e R a d liff e J a e P o rte r
a ra n o o en no e ,
u r . nn c , n ,

M a i a E d g e w o th a d J a e A s te ; th d v e l o p m e t o f li te
r r , ny c i ti c i m i n u n e e n ra r r s , n

th w k o f L am b D e Q i c y C l i d g
e or d H a l i tt; th e p a ti c l a d
, u n e ,
o er e, an z r c a n

e c o om i n b e t f p h il os o p h y s h w i th w k f Ma l th
c n o J m e s Mill , a s o n n e or o us , a ,

an d A d m S m i th ; a d th a e t b l ish m t f g at l i t y m g i e s lik e
n e s a en O re e ra r a az n ,

th e E d i n ou rg lz R th e d th e A t/i e n ceu m
’
e v i ew , Qu a r te r ly B la c k w ood , s , an .

In ou r stud y we im p r ha v e n oted
(1 ) th e P oe ts Of R o m a n tc i i sm : th e o

ta c e
n f th Ly i l B ll d
o f 1 7 98 ; th
e l ife an d w o k o f W d s w th
r ca a a s o e r or or ,

C l ri d g
o e S c o tt B y o Sh ll y
e , d K ts ; ( 2 ) th P o s Wri t s th
, r n, e e , an ea e r e er : e

no v e l s f S c tt; th e d e v e l p m e t o f li t y c i ti i m ; th e l ife d w k o f
o o o n e ra r r c s an or

th yi t L m b D e Q i c e y L a d o a d o f th e o v e li s t J a e A s te
e e ssa s s, a , u n ,
n r, n n n u n .

S e l e c ti on s f or R e a d i n g . Ma n ly ’
s E ng li sh P oe tr y an d Man ly ’
s E ng li s h
P ro s e
(e ac h on e v ol .
) c on t
a n i go o d l
s e e c to n s i f ro m a ll au th o rs s t di d
u e .

Wa rd s ’
E ng li sh P oe ts (4 C ra ik s ’
E ng li sh P ro s e Se l i
e c to n s
(5
B ra th i w i te a
’
s Th e B o o k of G e o rg i an V e rs e , P a
ge
’
s B r ts hii P oe ts of th e Ni ne

te e n th C e n tu r y , li b e th t V i t i a m ay
an d G a rn e tts E
’
n
g li sh P ro s e f ro m E za o c or ,

al s b
o s d to ad v a t
e a ge u I m p o t tw k s h w e v h l d b
e n d e n ti e . r an or , o e r, s ou e re a r

i o e o f th e i
n n x p e iv e s c h l e d i ti s giv e b l w ( F ll ti tl s a d p b
ne ns oo on n e o . u e n u

li s h e s m ay b e f
r d i th G l B ib li o g p h y t th e e d f th i b k )
o un n e e n e ra ra a n o s oo .

W d w t/ I ti m ti
or s o f I m m rt
or a li ty T i te A b b e y b t ly i
z . n nd a on s o , n rn , es r cs a

s on n et s i S l c ti s e d it d b
, n
y D wd ( A th e
e e m P s S on i ) ; s e l c ti o s
, e o en e u
na re s er es e n

a d n h o tp e m
S d it d b y M A old i G ld e n T
r o s, e ry S e ri e s ; S e l c t
e io s . rn , n o re as u e n ,

l i E v e y m a s L ib ra ry R iv e rs i d e L i te rat e S e ri e s C ss l l s N a ti o a l
a so n r n
’
, ur , a e
’
n

L i b a y e tc
r r , .
44 4 E N GLISH L IT E R ATU R E
Cole r i dg e .
A i nc e n t Ma ri n e r it d b y , ed e L . R . i
G b b s , i n S tan d ard E n g s h li
C l as s c s i ; s am e p oe m , in P ke t C l i
oc as s c s , Ec l e c tc E n g s hi C as s c s , e tc ; li l i .

P oe m s, ed it d
e by J . M Ha rt .
, in A th e n ae u m P re s s ( an n o u n c e d , S e le c
i
to n s , G o d e n l B oo k of Co le ri d
g e ,
in E v e ry m an s
’
i
L b ra ry ; S e e c to n sl i f ro m

Co l idger e an d Cam pb e ll , in R iv e rs id e i
L te ra tu re ; P ro s e Se l e c to n s i (G in n an d

Co mp y an , a so l H o l t) ; L e c tu re s on Sha k e s p e a re , in E v e ry m an s
‘
i
L b ra r y ,

B oh n
’
s y tc
S ta n d a rd L b ra r i , e .

S t t La d y f th
co L ke M m i
.
I v h e Th T li s m G y M e
o e a , ar on ,
an o , e a an ,
‘

u an n r

i g Q e ti D rw d N m i e x p iv e e d i ti f S c tts b e s t p
’
n , u n n u ar m . u e ro u s n ens on s o o oe s

a d n v e l s i S t d a d E g li h C l a i c s P oc k e t C l as i C a e ll N a ti a l
no n an r n s ss ,
s cs, ss
’
s on

L ib y E c l e c ti E g li h C l i c E v y m L ib y e tc ; th L a d y of ’
ra r c n s as s s, er an s ra r , . us ,
,

th e L k d i t d b y E d wi G i
a e ,
d I va h e
e d i t d b y W D L e wi b th
e n nn , an n o , e e . . s, o

i S ta d d E g li s h C l a i ; M m i e d it d b
y G B A c to a d Th e
'

n n ar n ss c s ar on , e . . n, n

Ta li m a d i te d b y F T
s n, ed ly i P c k t C l as i c tc . re u , n o e s s, e .

By Ma pp a a d Th e P i
r on . f C h ill e d it
ze ed by S M T c k e in n r son e r o on , . . u r,

S ta d d E g li s h C l s i c ; h
n ar tp m n S l c ti s f m C h il d e H a o l d e tc
as s s or oe s, e e on ro r , .
,

i C a te b y P o e ts R iv s i d L it t H l ts E g li h R e d i gs P c k t
’
n n r ur , er e e ra u re , o n s a n , o e

Cl ic s e tc
as s ,
.

S h ll y T a C l o d T a S kyl k W t \Vi d S
e e . o i tiv e P l a t A d i s u , o ar , es n , ens n , on a ,

e tc ll i S e l e c ti
.
, a f m S h ll e y e d i t d b y A l x a d e i A th e ae m P e ss
n on s ro e , e e n r, n n u r

S i ; S l
er es ti edite d b y \V e ecd b ry i B ll e L e tt e s S ri e s ; S e l e c ti
on s , s oo er , n e s r e on ,

al s in P c k e t C l i H e th E g li h C l as i c s G o l d e n T e ry S e ri e s e tc ’
o o as s c s , a s n s s ,
r as u , .

K t Od ea s G eci . U E e f S t A g e s H y p ri
e on aL am i a T a r an rn , v o . n , e on , , o

Ni gh ti g l tc i S e l ti n a e, ef m K a t i A th e m P e s s ; S e l e c ti on s
.
, n ec ons ro e s, n e u
na r

l o i M s L i b a y R iv e id e L i te t e G l d e T a ry S i e s e tc
a s n u es
’
r r , rs ra u r , o n re su er , .

L mb E a y D m C h il d . O ld C h i a D i s
ssa t ti o
s : o R oas t P ig re a re n , n , se r a n n ,

et c e d it
. e d b y \Va c h p e i
, S t d d E gl i h C l i ; v a ri o s e s y s a l s o
u o , n an ar n s as s c s u sa

in C a m e l o t S ri T m p l e C l as i E v e ry m s L i b a ry
e e s,tc Ta l s f o m e s c s, an
’
r , e . e r

S h ak p i
es H me d S h
e a re , l L i b ra ry ( G i n a d C m p a y ) ; a l s o i n
n o an c oo n n o n

R iv e i d L i te a trs P c k t C l s i c s G o l d T e as y tc
e r u re , o e as , en r ur , e .

D Q i y T h e E g li h Ma il C
e u n ce
h a d J oa f A c i S ta d a d E g li s h n s o ac n n o r n n r n
-
.
,

Cl ic s e tc ; C f i
as s , f E g li h Op i m E te
. i Te m p l C l as s i c s
on e ss on s o an n s u -
a r, n e ,

M l e y s U iv e sa l L i b
or
’
y E v ry m a s L i b ry P k t C l i e tc ; S e l e c
n r ra r , e n
’
ra , oc e as s c s , .

ti on s,e dit d b
y M H T k i A th e n m m P e s ; S l ti
e s e d it
. ed b
y . ur , n u r s e ec on ,

B P e ry ( H o l t)
. r .

L d S l c ti
an d i t d b y W C ly m e
or .
i n A th
e e m P e s ; P ri c l e s
on s, e e . r, en z
e u r s e

an d A p as i a i C a m e l t S i s ; I m gi
s , y C v e ti s s e l e c t d ( G i
n d o er e a n ar on rs a on , e n n an

C om p y) ; th s am 2 v l i D tt
an U iv a l L ib a y ;
e l c te d p e m s
e, o s .
, n u on s
’
n e rs r r se e o ,

in C te b any P o t ; s e l ti o p o an d v e e i G o l d T as ry S e i e s
r ur e s ec n s, r se rs , n en re u r .

j A t an e P i d e d P e j d ic e i E v e y m
us en L i b ra ry Po c k e tC l as s i c s tc
. r an r u , n r an s
’
, , e .

B b i l i ograp h y . l His tory . Te x tb ook , -

M o n tg o m e ry , pp 3 3 57 3 Ch e
. 23 - y ey n ,

5 7 6 —
6
3 2 Ge n e r a l l Vor ks . . G re e n , X , 2— 4 , T ra ill , G a rd n e r, Mac a u a ,i l y e tc .

S p e c i a l H’ or k s C h e n e s .
y y I ’
n d u s tr i al an d So c i l Hi a stor y Of E ng la nd ; Wa m e r s ’

1 F or f ll ti tl u es a n d p b li h u s e rs o f
ge n e ra l f re e re n c e b oo k s , se e G e n e ra l B ib li o gra p h y
a te n d o f th i s b k oo .
44 6 E N G LIS H L IT E R ATU R E
by Wo o db e rry , in M a k e rs of i
L te ra tu r e ; b y J . F o rs te r, i n G re a t T e ac h e rs ;

by Dow d i N e w S
en, t d i ; b y n S wi b i E s s ays d uS t d i ; b yesB ke n u rn e , n an u es ro o ,

i Th
n l g y i th e E gli h P e ts ; b y S i t b y i E ss ay s i E gli h L i te
eo o n n s o a n s ur , n no n s ra

t e ; b y L w ll i
ur D m o ac y e d O th E s s y ; b y H l i tt
n e d b y P a te r
ocr an e r a s az ,
an

( e
se W d w th ab v )
or s S oral s B ,
E g li s h R m a ti c i m ; C lyl e s
o e . ee o e e rs s
’
n o n s ar
’

c h pt a e r onC l i dg i L if o f J h S t li g
o e r e , n e o n er n .

S th y
ou T xt e P m d i te d b y D wd e n ( Mac m ill a ) ; P o e ti c l W k
. e s : oe s, e o n a or s

w ll l i t b ry P t ; L if f N e l s on i E v e ym
’

C ) S ct i C s e O n r an
( ro ; e e e ons n an er u oe s ,

Lib y T m p l C l as s i c M l y s U iv e s l L i b y e t L if b y D w d ’
ra r e e s, or e n r a ra r , c . e o en
,

E
( g li
n h M s o f Le t t ) E
en a y s b y L S te ph i S t d i
e rse s of a B i g ap h e ;
. ss , . en, n u o r r

b y H a li tta d S i t b y ( e
z n b v ) a n s ur s e a o e .

S t t Te x t
co . N m s g d e d i ti o s o f
s : u v l s a d p o e m s F o r S i gl
e ro u oo n no e n . n e

w k e S e l e c ti o f o R e d i g b v e L if b y L o c k h t 5 v o l s ( s v a l
or s, s e ns r a n , a o . e : ar , . e er

e d i ti o ; b
ns t b y P o ll d es b y H tt ( E g li s h M ar of L e t te ) ; b y
, u on n en rs

A La g i L i te ry L iv ; b y C D Y g ( G a t Wri te ) ; b y H d ;
. n ,
n ra es . . on e re rs u s on

b y S i t b ry ( F m
a n s S u ts S e i e ) C i ti c i m
a ous E s s ay s b y S te v coo G ip r s . r s , ens n, oss

on R ma c o i M m ri s a d P t a i ts ; b y S h a i p i A s p c ts f P e t y ; b y
n e, n e o e n or r r ,
n e o o r

S wi b m n u i S t d ie s i
e ,
P s e a d P try ; b y C lyl i M i s c e ll e
n u n ro n oe ar e, n an o us

E ssa y ; b y H a li tt B g h t L S t p h
s z B , ke d S i ts b ry ( e e C l
a e o , . e en, ro o , an a n u s o e

ri d g d Wo d s w th
e an b ov ) r or , a e .

By T xt
r on C m p l t W k s G l ob
. e s : C a m b ri d g
o P o e ts a d O xf d e e or , e, e , n or

e d i ti ; S l
on s ti o dit d b y M A
e ec l d i G l d T as y ( e l o S l
n s, e e . rn o , n o en re ur se a s e ec

ti on s f R e di g
or b v ) ; L tt a n d J , a l f By o e d it d b y M
e e e rs an o u rn a s O ro n , e o o re

( u n reli b l ) L if b y N l ( G t \V i t ) ; b y Ni c h o l ( E g li h M
a e . e : oe f re a r e rs n s en o

L tt ) ; Th R a l L d B y b y J C J ff ; T law y s R e o l l ti
’
e e rs e e or ro n ,
. . ea re s o n re n c ec ons

o f S h e ll e y d By C i ti i m H t L d By a d H is C
’
an ro n . te m p
r c s : un s or ro n n on o

ra ri ; E s y
es by M l y Ms a s, l ay Ha li tt S w i b m e or e d M A , ld ac a u , z , n u , an . rn o .

S h ll y e Te x t e C . te y E d i ti e d i t d b y W o db e ry 4 v o l s ; G l b e
s : en n ar on, e o r , . o

a d C m b idg
n a P t d i ti n s ; E s y a d L tte i C m e l t S i ( e
r e oe s e o s a s n e rs , n a o e r es se

S l ti
e ec f R
ons d i g b v ) L if or b y S ym
ea d ( E g li h Me o f Le tte ) ; b y
n , a o e . e on s n s n rs

D wd o 2 v l
en, ; b y S h arp ( G e t W ri te
o s .
) b y T J H gg 2 v o l s ; b y W M r a rs . . o , . . .

R ti C i ti c i m S l ts A S h ll e y P i m ; E s ay b y D owd e n in T n
’
os s et . r s : a e r er s s, ra
,

sc ri p t d S t di
s an ; by M A o l d Wo d b
u es y B a g h o t F s te r L S t p h e . rn , o e rr , e , or , . e n,

B o o k e D Q i c y a d H tt n
r , e
(
u n C l ri d g an d Wo d s w th a b o v )
e , n u o see o e e r or , e .

t Te x t C m p l t W k e d it 4 v o l s ( Lo d
’
l ed b 1 8 83 )
yF m
i ea s . s : o e e or s, or an , . n on ,

C m b i d ge P
a r ts E d i ti wi th L e tte s d i te d b y H E S c d d e ( H gh t
oe on , r , e . . u r ou on ,

Mifli i ) ; A l d i e E d i ti
n wi th L if e d i t d b y L d H o gh t n ( Mac m ill an ) ;
n on , e , e or u o

S le t d Po m
y A l o B a te s ( G i
e c e w i th i t d e ti a d
s, ot es b n roan d C m uc on n n r nn o

p an y ) ; P m s l i E v e ry m a L ib a ry M s e s L ib ra ry G o l d e n Tr as ry
oe , a so n n s
’
r , u
’
, e u ,

et c ; Le t
. te s d i t d b y S C lvi r , e i Ev l e y E d i ti
e L if by F o m . i o n , n e rs on . e : r an , n
C m p l te W k ; b f L e tt ) ; b y W M R o ss e tti
y C lvi ( E g li s h M e
o e or s o n n n o e rs . .

( G e t \V it s ) ; b y A E H c o c k C i ti c i m H C S h ll e y K e t a d
r a r er . . an . r s : . . e
’
s a s n
Hi C i c l ; M
s r e W d w th S h e ll y K a t a d O th E ay s ; E s s ay
as s o n s
’
or s or , e , e s, n e r ss s,
b y M A o l d i E ay i C i ti c i m
rn n l s i Wa d E g li h P t o l 4 ; b y
ss s n r s a o n r
’
s s, v
n s oe
.
,
, .

H d u

L te a ry E
i
s on , S t di i n I t p t ti n ; b u
y
esL o we l l i A nm g M y
n B o ks o er re a o , n on o ,
r
i r y ol 2 ; b y B o k D e Q i c e y n d S wi n b urn e ( ab o v e )
s sa s, v . r o e , u n , a .
 TH E AG E O F R OM ANTI C I S M 447

L am b . l te Wo k s a d L e tt s e d i te d b y E V L c as 7 v o l
T xt e s : C om p e r n er , . . u , s .

( P t m ) ; th s am e d i te d b y A i ge 6 v o l s ( L o n d o n 1 88 3
u na e e, E s s ay n r, .
, s

o f E li i S t d a d E g li s h C l as i c s e tc ( s e e S e l e c ti o s f or R e ad i g)
a, n an r n D s , . n n ra

m ti c E s y s
a d i t d b y B Ma tth e w s ( D o d d Me a d ) ; S p e c i m e s o f E g li h
s a ,
e e .
, n n s

D a m ti c P o e ts i B h s L i b a ry L ife b y E V L c as 2 v l s ; b y A i g
’
r a , n o n r . : . . u , o . n er

( E gli h Me f L e tte s ) ; b y B ry C w a ll ; T lf d s M e m o i s of C h a l ’
n s n o r ar o rn a ou r r r es

L mba C i ti c i m
. E s sa y s b y D Q i
r ey i s B i g p h i c a l E s sa y s ; b y F H
: , e u nc ,
n o ra . ar

r i s o i Te y s o R ki M ill a d O th L i te y E s ti m a te s ; b y P te
n , n nn n , us n, , n er ra r a r,

a d W db ry ( e W d s w o th d C l i d g ab o v e ) S e e a l s o F i t g ld s ’
n oo er s e or r an o er e , . z e ra

C h l e L m b h i F i e d h is H a
ar s a ts a d h is B o k s
, s r n s, un ,
n o .

D Q i e y T x t C o l l e c t d W i ti g s e d i te d b y M
u n ce . e 1 4 vols
s :
(L e r n , as s o n , . on

do n, 1 88 9 C fe s i s o f a O p i m E a te e tc ( e S e l e c ti s f on s on n u -
r, . se on or

R e a d i g) L ife b y M s s
n .
( E g li h M e of L e t te: ) ; L if a d Wri ti gs b y a on n s n rs e n n ,

H A P ag e 2 v l ; H o gg s D e Q i c y
. .
,
d h is F i
o s ds ; F i d l y s Pe s
. l ’
u n e an r en n a
’
r on a

R e c o ll c ti o f D
e Q i c y ; s e e also D e Q i c y
ns o A t b i g ap h i c l
e u n e u n e
’
s u o o r a

S k t h s a d C o fe s i
e c e , C i ti c i m
n E s ay b y S i tb n y in E s s ys is on s . r s : s s, a n s ur , a n

E g li h L i te a t
n s ; by M i rW d w th S h ll y K e a ts a d O th
u re as s on , n or s or ,
e e , , n er

E ay ; b y L S t p h e
ss s i H i L ib
. y S a l s Mi to s M a l of
e n, n o u rs n a ra r . ee o n
’
an u

E gl i h P o
n sL it t e r se e ra u r .

L d an Te x ts Wo rk s wi th L ife b y F s te r 8 v l ( L o d o
or . : , or , o s . n n ,

W k s e d it d b y C r m p ( L o d o
or , e L tt et c d i t d b y Wh u l n n, e e rs , .
, e e ee er

(L d on 1 89 7 on d , I m g i ry C v s ti an tc ( e e S l c ti f a na on er a on s , e . s e e on s or

R ea d i g ) L ife b y C lvi ( E g li h M
n . of L t t ) ; by F
: t C i ti c i m
o n n s en e e rs o rs e r . r s :

E ay b y D Q i c e y W
ss s, db ry L S te p h e
e S i t b ry S wi b
u n D w
, oo er , . n, a n s u , n u rn e , o

de n ( ab o v )
se e S l S te d m V i c to i
e P t
. ee a so an s
’
r an oe s .

j A t
an e T x ts W k d i t d b y R B J h s ( D t) ; v a i
u s en . e : or s, e e . . o n on en r ous

o th e d i ti o
r e of n o v e l s L e tte s d it d b y W
ns l e y ( R b e t ) L ife A t r , e e oo s o r s . : us e n

L e i gh M m i r o f J a e A t ; H il l
’
s e o J e A s te h H m e a d h e n us e n
’
s an u n, er o n r

F i d ; Mi tt s J e A st d h Ti m e L ife b y G l d wi S m i th ; b y
’
r en s e on an u n an er s .
, o n

Mal d ( F am o s Wo m e S e i e s ) ; b y O F A d m s C i ti c i m P l l c k s
’
en u n r . . a . r s : o o

J a A s te ; P e lle w s J a e A te s N o v e l s ; A A J ac k E y n th
ne u n
’
n us n
’
. .
’
s ss a o e

N o v e l as I ll s t ate d b y S tt d M i s A s te ; H H B
u r ll C h l tt co an s u n . . on n e
’
s ar o e

B ro n te G e o g e E li t, d J A t n ; E y b y H we l l i H e o i e s
r o ,
an an e us e s sa , o s, n r n

o f F i ti c on .

M i E dg w th T x t T l e d N v l gf d E d i ti
'
ar a e N w L
or . 10 e s : a s an o e s, e an or on ,

v l (L d
o s . on v i d i ti
on s f,
v l (D t Th e A b te ar o us e on o no e s en , se n e ,

d C tl e R a k e t i M l e y s U iv l L i b y L ife b y H l Z i m m ’
an as c r n , n or n e rs a ra r . : e en er

m an ; M m i by H e o r, are .

A e s wi t h i t d c ti o b y S tt i B ll ty e
’
’
lk/ rs R d lifl. R om n ne a c e . an c , n ro u n co , n a an n s

N v e l i s ts L ib a y ( L d
o v i o s e d i ti o o f U d olp h e tc ; S i t
r r on on , ar u ns o, . a n s

b ry s T l e s f M y t y E g li s h R o m ti c i m
’
S e B
’
u a l 1 o s er , vo . . e e e rs s n an s .

M P o e ti a l W k i C a t b y P o e t C h d s C l s s i c e tc ;
oor e . c or s, n n er ur s, an o a s, .

S e le c t d p m e i G ld T oe ry ; G i g Th m a s M o P e t a d
s, n o en re a s u un n n
’
s o o re ,
o n

P atri t; S y m i gt s L if a d W o k f Mo o e E y b y S i ts b y
o n on
’
e n r s o r . ssa , a n ur .

C m p b ll P o e m s A l d i n e e d i ti o ; S e l e c ti
a e . s i G lde T ea
, y L ife n on , n o n r sur .
,

b y Ha d d e n .
44 8 E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
x
H l tt T ts : W k
az i d i t d b.y H e l y 1
e
2 v o l ( L o d S
or l ec ted s, e e n e ,
s . n on ,
e

E s y
s ai T mp l C l i
s, C m n l t S ri e e
tc L if e
b y B i e l l ( E g li h
as s c s , a e o e s, e . e : rr n s

Me f Le tt ) ;
n M m oi rs b y W C H a li tt
e rs
E s sa y s b y S ain t s b ry ; b y
e o ,
. . z .
, u

L . S te p h e n .

Le ig h H unt .
y s i C m l
Te ts x
o t S e ri e also i n C v
: S e l e c te d
d sh e s sa , n a e s, a en i

L ib ra r
y ( W m e ); S t iae f m th e I t li a P t ( P t m) orL i f e b y Mo k
s ro a n oe s u na . : n

V i E y b M l y b S a in t b ry ; b y H a li t t s u z
h o us e (G t \ t
re a ) a y a c r; y e rs . ss s, au a .

S ee a so l M F i e l d A S h lf of O ld B k
rs .
’
s e oo s .

S v
ug ge s t
Q i e
u e s t i on s ( N O T E I p e i d l ik e t h A g e
.
f R om a t i c is m . n a r o e o n ,

th p
e m a nd e
oe y s h os e f or p e c i
ssa l t d y v
s ca y wi d e ly t h at n ly f ew s a s u r so on a

g e en l q st
ra i th e
ue l c ti s f
ons on e d i g a e at t m p te d )se e on or r a n r e .

1 Wh y i th i p e i d f R m tic i s m ( 7 8 9— 1 8 3 7 ) c ll d th e Age f R v
. s s r o o o an 1 a e o e o

l ti
u on ? G iv me aso e fo th so i fl e c e of th e F c h R e v l ti
re ns r e n u n re n o u on on

E g li h li te t e a d ill t a t f r m p
n s ra u r ,
m n ay s w h i c h y o
us r h v e e ad o oe s or e ss u a e r .

E x p l i th d iff e c e b e twe
a n e C l as s i c i s m a d R m
er n ti i s m Wh i h f th e s e
en n o an c . c o

tw o ty p s f li t et do y
o p fe e ra u re ou re r ?

2 Wh t a e e g
. t h a l h a
r a c t r i ti s o f t h li t
e n e rat o f th i p e
c r i d ?
r e s c e e ra u re s o

W h a ttw o pp i g t d o i e s e ill s t a t d i th e o v l f S c o tta d J a e

os n en enc ar u r e n n e s o n n

A t i th e p e try f B y a d W d w th ?
us e n
?
n o o ro n n or s or

l l ri fly t t y f W d w rth lif a d
’
l V d w t/ T
or b
s or h z e e e am e e s or o or s o s n n
3 . . ,

som f h i b tp
e o m s W h y d o th Ly i l B ll d ( 1 7 98 ) m a k
es oe s . im po e r ca a a s r an r

t t li te ary p c h ? R
an r d e f lly d m a k e an a a ly s i f th e I ti m a ti n s
o ea c a re u , an n s o n o

of I m m ta li ty Ti t A b b y C yo e x p l i wh at p li ti l c
” ”
; f
or o n e rn e . an u a n o ca on

e fe d to i W d w o th So M il t i n h is F e ch ’
d i ti a e
on s r r r re t n or s r s nne on on r n

R v l ti o
e o u Do h n tt m p t t p a i t es p i c t e in h i s on n e t o
e a e We s t o n a ur s n

mi te
ns B i d ge r h as h e s m e
r th , or o b j e c t in vi e w ? W h a t is th e c t l
o o er en ra

t c h i g f th
ea n O d t D tyo e C m pa W d s w rth s tw S kyl k p o e m s
e o u o re or o
’
o ar

w i th S h ll y Mak b i e f c m p ri s b tw e Wo rd s w o rth s s o s an d
’ ’
e e s . e a r et o a on e e n nn

th oseof S h a k p d f M il t es h a vi g i m i n d th e th o u gh t th e m e l d y
e a re a n o on , n n , o ,

th e vi w f a t e a d th e i m g ry o f th e th e e p o e t
e o n ur , n s Q o te fro m Wo ds a e r . u r

w th s p m s t h w h i b li e f th at n at e is c o s c i o s ; to S h o w th e i fl
or
’
oe o s o s e ur n u n u

en c f
e o t m ; t
n a u re o n h w h i i te e s t i c h il d e ; h is s e
an o s i tiv e e s t
o s n r n r n ns n s o

s o d ; t ill t t th
un s o ch te i g i fl
u s ra e f w Mak e a b ri e f c o m
e as n n n uenc e o s o rro .

pa i b tw th c h a ac t f W d w th s Mi h ae l a d f B ”
’ ’
r s on e een e r e rs s s o or s or c n o u rn

S t d ay Ni g h t C o m p e W d s w o th s p o i t f v i w a n d
”
Th
’
C tt ’
e o er s a ur . ar or r n o e

m th d i th th
e o , p em
n To a D a i y
e re e wi th B o vi w s xp e ss e d i s ,
”
u rn s s
’
e , as e r n

hi f m s ali o us th e m s bject
n e s on sa e u .

4 C l i dg . Wh t a th ge n e a l c h ar ac te ri ti c
o er e . a f C o l e i d g e s life ?
re e r s s o r
’

W h t xp l ai th p of
a e d y m p th y fo h m a i ty th t i
ns e r oun efl ctd i s h is a r u n a s r e e n

p oe m ? F o w h at b e i d e h is p e m
s r i s h e e m a k b l e ? C an y
, s q o te a y o s, r r a ou u n

p as ge f o m h i p oe try wh i c h s h w th
sa s r s i fl c e of W d s w o th ? Wh at o e n ue n or r

a re th c h a ac t e i Th e A c i
r tM i
e rs n? I wh t p e c t is th is po e m n en ar n e r
”
n a re s

m ti c G iv e y ?
f i t p p l a ri ty D e s th e th
w
gh to th e
ro an ea our o n r sons or s o u . o ou r

s tyl f th i p e m i m p e
e o s If y
o h av e d n y o f th e L e t
r ss ou ?
y ou re a a c u

Sh k p a esx p la i w h y C o l i d ge s w k is c a l l e d ro m a tic c ri tic is m

ea r e , e n er
’
or n .
450 E N GLI SH L IT E R ATUR E
C o m p a re K e ats s c h ara c t
’
e rs wi th th o s e of Wo rds wo rth of B y ro n . D oe s K e ats

e ve r r emi nd y o u of Sp e n se r ? In wh a t re s p e c ts ? Is yo ur p e rs on a p re l fe re n c e

f or Wo d s wo rth rBy n S h l l y K e ts Wh y
,
ro ,
e e , or a ? ?

e l l b i e fly th t ry f La m b lif an d a m e h is p ri i l ’
p nc a
9 .L am b T . r e s o o s e n

w k Wh y i h c ll e d th e m o s t h m n f e s s ayi s ts ? H i fri e n d s c a ll d
or s . s e a u a o s e

h im th l t f th E li ab e th a
e as oWh y Wh t is th e g e ra l c h rac t o f
e z ns .
” ? a ne a er

th e E y of
ssa E l ? H
s o w i th p e aiali ty f L a m b S h o wn i a ll t h
s e e rs o n o n es

e ssa y C i t y p as age h wi g La m b s kill i p o tra yin g p e p l e Ma k

s ? e an s s s o n
’
s n r o . e

a b ri e f c o m p ari b tw e L a m b a d A d d i o s on h a vi n g i n m i d th e s b j e c ts
e e n n s n, n u

t a te d t
re h styl th e h um o r a d th i te e t of b o th e ss a yis ts Wh i c h d o
, e e , , n e n r s .

y ou p fe r re nd wh
y
?
, a

10 D .
Q y W
e h t a e th e g e
u i n ce e a l c
. h arac t ri s ti c s o f D e Q in c e y s
a r n r e u
’

e ss ay s ? E xp l i w h y h is c a ll e d th e p s y h l g i s t o f tyl e
a n e W h at ac c n ts c o o s . ou

f ora c rt ai e l e l e m tin ll h is w k R e d p a g f m Th e E g li h
n u n re a en a or . a a ssa e ro n s

Al l C
ar -
h f om j
oa c ,of A or f m Lr O L dy o
oa n f S w a d r c , or ro ev a n a , ur a or r o s, n

c o m m e tf e e ly npo i t wi th r g d to s tyl u i d e as i te re s t a d th e i m p e s
n , re ar e, , n , n r

i o f e li ty o
s on r a li ty w h i h i t l e v r u n re a c a es .

1 1 L . d I w h at
an p td e L a d o S h ow
or . n e ct i f o m R o m an ti
re s ec o s n r a r a on r

ci m ?
s W h at q li ti e s m a k e L an d o s p m ua t d t so l ly i th e r
’
oe s s an ou c e ar n

m e m ry ? Wh y f
o i t c d y th i k L a m b w as s o h a te d b y R e
, or n s an e , o ou n un os

A yl m e ? Q te f m Lan d s p o m s t ill t ate h is te d e h is s e i

r
”
uo ro or
’
e o us r n e rn ss, ns

ti ve n e to b ss ty h is p w f w k e i g e m o ti
e au , h i s d e li c y o f c h a c
o er o a a n n on , ca ra

te ri ti n
za D o
y fi
. d th e s am q
o a l i t i
ou s i h i p n e ? Ca y e x p l a in e u e n s ro s n ou

wh y m c h f h i p o e s m lik e a t
u o s s l at i f m th e G e k ? C m p a re a
r s ee s ra n on ro r e o

p as s ag f m th e I m gi ro
y C t i e wi th p as s ag f m G ib b n o
a n ar on ve r s a on s a e ro o r

J h o to S h w th e d i ff e c b tw e th c l i
o ns n, o d th er n
p d l ic e e en e as s c an e se u o c as s
-

tyl e C mp e o f L d I m gi wi th ’
s . o c h a ra c t
ar e s i ne o
y C an ti or s r , n a nar on v e r s a on s ,

th e sa m e cha ct i h i t y ra er n s or .

1 2 [ . A t one H w d o e s J e A s te n h o w a
us en . ac t
o i o f m R m ti an u S re n ro o an

ci m ?
s W h t i m p t tw k d id s h e d f th e n v e l ? T w h t ki d o f fic
a o r an or o or o o a n

ti on wa h w k p p s e d ? I w h a t d o th h m f h e r n v l s c s i t?
s er or O o n es e c ar o o e on s

M k a eb i e f c o m p ri s o b e tw e
a r J a e A s te n an d S o tt ( s il l s t te d in
a n e n n u c a u ra

P id r d P j d
e an a d I h ) h avi n g i m i d th e
re u i ce n b j e c t th e c h a ac te rs
va n oe , n n su ,
r ,

th e m e f t e a tm e t
an n r d th e i t e t o f b th n rra tiv e s
o r n , D
an J e n er s o a . o an

A t s c h a c t h v t b e x p l a i n e d b y th e a th o r o r d th e y x p l a i
us e n
’
ra e rs a e o e u ,
o e n

th m e lv e se? Wh i c h m e th d c a ll f r th e g e te li te a y kill ? Wh at d o e s
s o s o r a r r r s

J an e A t y b o tM R ad c li ffe i l V th g A bb y 9 D o e s h e m ak e
us e n s a a u rs .
, n or an er e . s

an
y th o b e v a ti er o s e igh t e ts h c e n t ry n o v e l is ts ?
r on on e n - u
 T H E AG E O F RO M ANTI C I S M 45 1

C HR O N O L OG Y
E nd o
f h e E ig h t h d B egi n n i n g f h e A in et h Ce n t
'
t ee n t an o t een t u ry

H I STO R Y L I T E R AT U R E
1 7 60 — 1 8 20 . G e o rg e I I I
1 77 0 — 1
85 0 . Wo rd s w o rth
1 77 1—1 83 2 . S c o tt
1 7 89
-
1 799 . F re n c h Re v l ti
o u on

1 79 6— 1 J a A st s v e l s
816 . ne u en
’
no

1 7 98 . L y i l B ll d s f W d w
r ca a a O or s o rth
a d C l e i d ge
n o r

1 80 0 . Un i on of G re a t B r ta i i n an d

I l
re an d

1 80 2 . C o l o n i z a ti o n of A ustra li a 1 80 2 . S c o tts M i n s tre l s y

’
of th e S c o t
i
ts h B o rd e r
1 80 5 . B a tte l of T ra f l ga r
a 1 80 5 —1 81 7
S c o tts p o e m s
.
’

1 80 7 . Wo rd s w o r th s n ti m a ti on s
’
I of

Im m o rta li ty . L am b ’ s Ta l es

f ro m S h ak e s
p e ar e
1 80 7 . A b li ti
o on of S a l ve t ra d e

1 80 8 -
1 8 4 P
1 i . e n n s u ar l W ar

1 80 9 —1 818 . B y ro n s
’
Ch il d e H a ro l d
1 81 2 . S e c on d w ar wi th U n i te d S ta te s 1810 — 1 81 3 . Co l idg
er e s
’
L e c tu re s on

S h a k e s p e a re
1 814 . C o n gr e s s of ie V nna 1 8 1 4 — 1 83 1 . W av e r l e y N o v e l s
1 81 5 . B a tte l of W t l a e r oo

1 816 . S h e ll e y
’
s Al as tor

1 81 7 . Co l e ri d g e s
’
B i o g rap h i a L te ra r i ia
181 7 8 20 —1 . K e ats s
’
p oe m s
1 8 1 8— 1 8 2 0 . S h e ll e y
’
s P ro m e th e u s
1 819 . F i rs t A tl an tc i ste am s h ip
G e o rge I V ( d Wo rd s w o rth ’
D u d d o n S o n n e ts
'

1 8 20 . . 1 830 ) 1 8 20 . s

1 8 20 -
I 83 3 . y s of E li
L am b
’
s E ssa a

D Q i c y s C o f s io
’
1 82 1 . e u n e n e s ns

824 1 8 46 L d o r s I m gi a y C o
’
1 — . an a n r n

v e rs a tio n s .

1 8 2 6 F i rs tTe m p e ra n c e S oc i e ty
.

1 8 29 C a th o li c E m a n c i p ati o n B il l
.

1 83 0 . W illi am I V (d . 1 83 7) 1 830 . T enn y s on s

’
fi rs t
poe m s
F i rs tra ilw ay
1 83 1 . S c o tts
’
l as tn o v l e

1 83 2 . Re fo rm Bill
83 3 E m an c i p at i l ve s 83 3 C ar lyl e S a r to r R e sa r tu s
’
1 . on of S a 1 . s

B ro wn i ng s
’
P li au ne

1 834 . S y s te m o f n a to n a i l e i
d u c a to n
1 83 7 . V i c to ri a (d . 1 90 1 )
86 1 Q u in c e y Co ll ed
’
1 853 -
1 . De s ect

E ss a y s
 C HA PT E R XI

THE VI C TOR I AN AGE

THE MO D E R N P E R I OD OF P R OG R E S S AN D U NREST

Wh e n V ic to ri a b e c am e q u e e n i n 1 8 3 7 E n g li s h li te ratu re
, ,

se e m e d t o h av e e n t e re d u p on a p e r i o d o f l e a n y e ars i n m ar k e d ,

c o n tras twi th th e p oe tic f ru i tf u l n e s s o f th e ro m a n tic age w h ic h

w e h av e j u s t s tu di e d C o l e r id g e S h e ll e y K e a ts B y ro n an d
.
, , , ,

S c o tt h ad p as s e d a w ay a n d i t s e e m e d a s i f th e re w e r e n o
,

w ri te r s i n E n gl a n d to fill th e i r pl ac e s Wo rd s w orth h ad .

w r i tte n i n 1 8 3 5
, ,

L i ke l th a tr a k e th e m o u n t
c ou d s ai n s u m m i t
s ,

O r w a v e s th a to w n n o c u rb i n g h a n d ,

Ho w f as th a s b ro th e r fo l l o w e d b ro th e r ,

F ro m s u n s h i n e to th e s u n l e s s l an d !
I n th e s e li n e s i s re fl e c te d th e s o rro w f u l s pi ri t o f a li te rary
m an o f th e e a rly n i n e t ee nt h c e n tu ry w h o re m e m b e re d th e

g l o ry th a t h a d p as s e d a w ay f ro m th e e a rth B u t th e l e a n n e s s
.

of t h e s e fi rs t y e a rs i s m o re a pp a re n t th an re al K e a ts an d .

S h e ll e y w e re d e ad i t i s tru e b u t a l re a dy th e re h ad a p p e are d
, ,

th re e di s cipl e s o f th e s e p o e ts w h o w e re d e s ti n e d to b e fa r
m o re wid e ly re ad th a n w e re th e i r m as te r s T e n n y s on h ad .

b e e n p u bli s h i n g p o e try s i n c e 1 8 2 7 h i s fi rs t p o e m s a p p e arin g

,

al m o s t s i m u l t a n e o u s ly wi t h th e l as t w ork o f B y ron S h e ll e y , ,

an d K e a t s ; b u ti t w a s n o t u n t il 1 8 4 2 wi th th e p u blic a ti o n
,

o f h i s c o ll e c te d p oe m s i n t w o v o l u m e s th a t E n g l a n d re c o g
, ,

n iz e d i n h im o n e o f h e r g re a t li te rary l e ad e rs S o al s o .

E li z ab e th B a rre tt h ad b e e n w r i ti n
g S i n c e 1 8 2 0 b u t n o t till ,

tw e n t y y e ars l ate r did h e r p oe m s b e c o m e d e s e rv e dly p o p u l ar ;

a n d B ro w n i n
g h a d p u bli s h e d h i s P a u li n e i n 1 8 3 3 b u t i t ,

w a s n o t u n til 1 8 4 6 w h e n h e p u bli s h e d th e l a s t o f t
, h e s e ri e s
45 2
4 54 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
i
e n d n g a th o m e
c on t b e l o n gs to th e w h o l e rac e of m e n th atb roth e r
h oo d is u n ive rsa l n o t i n s u la r ; th a t a q u e s ti on of j u sti c e is n e v e r
,

se t tl e d by fi gh tin g ; an d t h at w a r i s ge n e ra l l y un m i ti gate d h o rro r

an d ba rb ari s m T e n nyson w h o c am e of age w h e n th e gre at R e form
.
,

B i l l oc c u p ie d atte n tio n e x p re sse s th e i d e a l s of th e L ib e ra l s of h is

,

d ay w h o p rop o se d to sp re ad th e go sp e l o f p e ac e ,

T i ll th e w d m th ob b d o l o ge a d th e b ttl e fl gs w e re f l e d
ar -
ru r
’
n n r, n a -
a ur

I th e P li a m e to f M
n ar nth F e d e ti o o f th e w o l d
an , e ra n r .

Fourth th e Vic tori an Age is e sp e ci al ly re m arkab l e be c au se of its

,

ra p id p rogre ss in a ll t h e a rts an d sc i e n c e s an d in m e c h an i c a l in v e n

m t io n s A g l an.c e a t a n
y re c o rd of t h e i n d u stri a l a c h i e v e

S i
c e n ce s m e n ts of th e n i n e t een t h c e n tu ry w i l l sh o w h ow va s tth e y
a re an d it is u n n e c e ssary t
,
o re p e a t h e re t h e li st of th e i n v e n ti on s ,

f ro m s p i n n i n g l oom s to ste am b oats an d from m atc h e s to e l e c tri c ,

l igh ts All th e s e m ate ri al th i n gs as w e l l as th e growth of e d u c a

.
,

ti on h ave th e i r i n fl u e n c e u p on t
,
h e li fe of a p e o p l e an d i t i s in e v ,

it a b le t h at th e y s h o u l d re ac t u pon its p ros e an d p o e try ; th ou gh as

y e t w e are too m u c h a b sorb e d in ou r sc i e n c e s an d m e c h an i c s to
d e te rm i n e ac c u ra te ly th e i r i n fl u e n c e u p on l i te ra t u re Wh e n th e se .

new t h i n gs sh a l l b y l on g us e h av e b e c am e f am i l i ar as c ou n try road s ,

o r h av e b e e n re p l a c e d by n e w e r an d be t te r th i n gs t h e n th e y a l so ,

w i l l h av e t h e i r assoc i a ti on s an d m e m o ri e s a n d a p oe m on th e ra i l ,

ro ad s m a
y b e a s sugge sti v e as Word s wo rth s s on n e t on We s tm i n ste r
’

Brid ge an d t h e b us y p rac ti c a l w o rki n gm e n w h o to d ay th ron g ou r

,
-

o ri e s m a
st re e t s an d f ac t
y s e e m to a f u tu re an d gre ate r a ge a s q ua in t
, ,

an d po e t ical as to us s e e m th e s l ow to i l e rs of th e Midd l e Age s .

Lite rary Ch ar ac te ri st
i cs Wh e n on e i s i n te re s te d e n ou gh
.

to tra c e th e g e n e al o g y of V ic to ri a h e fi n d s to h i s s u rp ri s e , ,

A Ag
n f th a t i n h e r v e i n s fl ow e d th e bl ood b o t
e o h o f Willi am
Pm “
th e C on q ue ro r a n d o f C e rdic th e fi rs t S a x o n ki n
g ,

of E n l an d
g ; an d th i s s e e m s to b e s y m b o lic o f th e li te ratu r e
of h e r a e
g w h ic h e mb rac e s th e w h ol e re alm of S a x on an d
,

N orm an li f e th e s tre n g th a n d id e al s of t
,
—
h e o n e an d th e ,

c u l tu re an d re fi n e m e n t of th e oth e r T h e rom an tic re viv al .

h ad d on e i ts w o rk an d E n l an d e n te re d u p o n a n e w f re e
g ,

pe riod in w h ic h e v e ry f o r m o f li te ra tu re f ro m p u re ro m an c e
,
,

to g ros s re ali s m s tru

gg l e d for e xp re s s i on
, A t th i s d ay i t i s .
 TH E V I C T OR I AN AG E 455

o bvi ous ly imp os s ibl e to j u d ge th e age as a w h ol e b u t w e a re

g e tti n
g f ar e n ou g h a w a y f r o m t h e e a r ly h a l f o f i tto n o tic e c e r

ta i n d e fi n i te c h ara c te ri s tic s F i rs t th ou g h th e age p rod u c e d

.
,

m a n y p o e ts a n d tw o w h o d e s e r v e to ra n k a m on g th e g re a te s t
, ,

n e v e rt h e l e s s th i s i s e m p h atic ally a n ag e of p ros e An d si n ce .

th e n u mb e r of re a d e rs h as i n c re a se d a th ou s an d f old wi th th e
s p re a d o f p op u l ar e d u c a t i on i ti s th e age of th e n e w s p a p e r th e
, ,

m ag az i n e a n d th e m od e rn n o v e l — th e fi rs tt
,
wo be i ng t
,
h e s to ry
h e w o rld s d a ily lif e an d th e l as t o u r pl e as a n te s t f o r m o f
’

of t ,

l i te rary e n te rtai n m e n t as w e ll as ou r m o s t s u cc e s s f u l m e th o d
,

o f p re s e n t i n g m od e rn p ro bl e m s an d m od e rn id e al s Th e n ov e l .

i n th i s ag e fi ll s a pl ac e w h ic h th e d ram a h e ld i n th e d ay s of
E li z ab e th ; an d n e v e r b e f ore i n a n y ag e o r l an g u ag e h as th e
, ,

n o v e l a pp e are d i n s u c h n u mb e rs a n d i n s u c h p e r f e c t i on .

Th e s e c o n d m a rk e d c h ara c te r i s tic of th e ag e i s th a t li t
e ra t u re,
b oth i n p rose an d in p oe try s e e m s to d e p ar t f ro m ,

th e p u re ly a rti s tic s ta n d ard o f a rt fo r a rts s a k e

’

Mm ; , ,

o b e ac t e d by a d e fi n i t e m o ra l p u r p os e
P M Po se
an d t u at .

T e n n y s on B row n i n g C a rlyl e R u s ki n
, ,
w h o a n d w h a t w e re
, ,
-

th e s e m e n i f n o t th e te a c h e rs of E n gl an d n o t v ag u e ly b u t ,

d e fi n i te ly wi th s u p e rb fai th i n th e i r m e s s ag e a n d wi th th e
, ,

c on s ci ou s m o ra l p u rp os e to u pli f t an d to i n s tru c t? E v e n th e
n ov e l b re a k s aw a y f ro m S c o t ts rom an tic i n fl u e n c e a n d fi rs t
’

st u d i e s lif e a s i t i s an d t
,
h e n p o i n ts o u t w h a t li f e m ay an d
ou gh t t o be Wh e th e r w e re ad th e f u n a n d s e n ti m e n t of
.

D ick e n s th e s oci a l m i n i a tu re s o f T h a ck e ray o r th e p s yc h o

, ,

l og ic al s tu di e s o f G e o rg e E li ot w e fin d i n a l m o s t e v e ry c as e
,

a de fin it e p u rp o s e t o s w e e p a w ay e rr o r a n d t o re v e a l t he
u n d e rl m an li f e S o th e n o v e l s ou g h t to d o
i .

f o r s o ci e ty i n th i s ag e p re c i s e ly w h at L y e ll a n d D a r wi n s ou g h t
to d o for s ci e n c e th a t i s to fin d th e tru t
, ,
h a n d to S h o w h o w ,

i t mi g h t b e u s e d to u pli f t h u m an i ty P e rh a p s f o r th i s re a so n .

th e V ic to r i a n A g e i s e mp h a tic ally a n a ge o f re al i s m ra th e r
th an of ro m an c e — n o t th e re ali s m o f Z o l a a n d I b s e n b u t a
, ,

d e e pg g n lis m w h ic h s triv e s to te ll th e w h e t h s h o wi n g
gl ru t
’
,
4 56 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
m o ral an d p h y s ic al di s e a s e s as th e y a re b u th oldi n g u p h e al th
,

a n d h o pe as t h e n o rm a l c o n di ti o n s o f h u m a n i ty .

I t i s s o m e w h at c u s to m a ry to s p e a k o f th i s ag e as a n ag e
o f d o u b t a n d p e s s i m i s m f o,
ll o wi n g th e n e w c on c e p ti on o f
m a n an d o f th e u n iv e rs e w h ic h w as f o r m u l a te d by
I d li m
ea s
s ci e n c e u n d e r t h e n a m e o f E v o l u ti on I t is s p ok e n
.

o f a l s o as a p ro s aic ag e l a cki n g in g re a t id e al s B oth th e s e

,
.

c ri tici s m s s e e m to b e th e r e s u l t o f j u d g i n g a l a rg e th i n g w h e n
w e a re t o o cl os e t o it t o ge t i t s t r u e p ro p o r t i on s j u s t a s ,

C ol og n e C a th e d ra l o n e o f th e w orld s m o s tp e rf e c ts tr u c tu re s
’

, ,

se e m s t o b e a s h a p e l e s s pil e o f s t on e wh e n w e s t an d t oo cl o s e

b e n e a th i ts m i g h ty w all s a n d b u ttre s s e s T e n n y s on s i m m a .
’

tu re w o rk lik e th a t of th e m i n or p o e ts i s s om e ti m e s i n a
, ,

d ou b tf u l or d e s p ai ri n g s tra i n ; b u t h i s I n M e m or i a m i s lik e
th e ra i n b ow a f te r s tor m ; a n d B ro w n i n g s e e m s b e tte r to e x
p re s s th e s pi ri to f h is age i n th e s tro n g m an ly f a i th of R a bbi ,

h e c ou rag e o u s O p ti m i s m o f a ll h i s p oe try
”
B e n E z ra an d in t
,
.

S te d m an s Vi c tor i a n A n th ology i s on th e w h o l e a m os t i n
’

, ,

s pi r i n g b ook o f p oe t ry I t w ou ld b e h ar d to c oll e c t m ore

.

v ari e d c h e e r f ro m an y age A n d th e g re a t e s s ayi s ts lik e

.
,

M ac au l ay C a rlyl e R u s ki n a n d th e g re at n o v e li s ts lik e
, , , ,

D ick e n s T h ack e ray G e o rg e E li o t g e n e ra lly l e av e u s wi th a

, , ,

l arge r c h a ri ty a n d wi th a d e e p e r f ai th i n ou r h u m an i ty .

S o al s o th e j u d g m e n tth a tth i s ag e i s too p ra c tic al for g re at

id e al s m ay b e o n ly a d e s c r i p ti o n o f th e h u s k th a t h id e s a v e ry
f u ll e a r o f c orn I t i s w e ll to re m e m b e r th at S p e n s e r a n d
.

S id n e y j u d g e d th e i r o w n ag e ( w h ic h w e n o w c on s id e r to b e
th e g re a t e s t i n o u r li t e rary h i s t ory ) t o b e al t og e t h e r g iv e n
ov e r t o m at e ri a li s m a n d t o b e i n c a p a bl e o f li t e ra ry g re a t n e ss
, .

J u s t as tim e h as m ad e u s s m il e a tth e i r bli n d n e ss s o th e n e x t ,

c e n tu ry m ay c o rre c t ou r j u d g m e n t of th i s as a m ate ri al age ,

a n d l oo ki n
g u p o n th e e n or m ou s g ro w th o f c h a r i ty an d b ro th e r
h ood a m o n g u s an d a t th e li te ra tu re w h ic h e xp re s s e s ou r
,

f ai th i n m e n m ay j u d g e th e V ic tor i an A g e to b e o n th e w h o l e
,
, ,

th e n o bl e s t a n d m o s t i n s pi ri n i n th h i t y f th w ld
g e s o r o e or .
 j
m a e st y o f Mil t on th e n a tu r a l S i m plici ty o
,
f W o rds w or t h th e ,

f an tas y o f B l ak e a n d C o l e rid ge th e m e l ody o f K e a ts an d ,

S h e ll e y th e n arra tiv e vi g o r o f S c o tt a n d B y ro n a ll th e se ,
—
,

st r iki n g q ua li t i e s a re e vid e n t o n s u cc e s s iv e p ag e s of Te n n y
s o n s poe t ry T h e o n ly th i n g l acki n g i s th e d r a m a tic p o vVe r
’
.

of t h e E li z a b e th an s I n re fl e c ti n g th e r e s tl e s s s pi r i t o f th i s
.

p rog re s s iv e age T e n n y son i s as re m a rk a bl e as P o p e w as in

v oici n g th e a rtific ia li ty of th e e a rly e i gh te e n th c e n tu ry A s a .

p oe t th e re f ore w h o e xp re s se s n o t S O m u c h a p e rs on a l as a
, ,

n at i o n al s pi ri t h e is p ro b a bly th e m os t re p re s e n ta tiv e l i te r
,

ar m an o f t h e V ic t o r i a n e ra
y .

Li f e . T e n n yson kab l e on e in th i s re sp e c t th a t
’
s l ife is a re m a r ,

f rom be gi n n in g to e n d h e se e m s to h av e b e e n d o m i n a te d b y a s i n gl e
i m pu l se th e i m p u l se of p oe try H e h ad n o l arge o r re m arkab l e e x
,
.

p e rie n c e s n o w i l d oa t ,
s to sow n o gre a t suc c e sse s o r re v e rse s no , ,

bus in e ss c a re s o r p u b l ic offi c e s F or s i x ty s ix ye ars fro m th e a pp e ar .

-
,

an c e o f t h e P oe m s by Tw o B r ot h e r s in 1 8 2 7 u n ti l h is d e a th in , ,

1 8 9 2 h e stud i e d an d p rac tic e d h is art c o n ti n u a l ly a n d e x c l u s iv e l y

, .

On ly B own i n g h is f e l l ow w o k e r re se m b l e s h im in th i s ; b u tth e
r ,
-
r ,

d iff e re n c e s in th e tw o m e n a re w o rl d w i d e T e n n y son w as n a tu ra l l y -
.

sh y , re t i ri n g i n d iff e re n t to m e n h ati n g n oi se an d p u b l ic i ty l ovi n g

, , ,

to b e al on e w i t h n a tu re li k e Wo rd s w o rth B ro w n i n g w as soc i ab l e
, .
,

d e l i gh ti n g in a pp l ause in soci e t y in trave l in th e n oi se an d bu stl e

, , ,

of th e b ig w orl d .

T e n n y so n w as bo rn in th e re c t
or y of S o m e rs b y , L i n c o l n sh i re , in
1 80 9 . Th e swe e t i n fl ue n c e s of h is e ar ly n at
u ra l i
su rroun d n gs c an

be be tte r u n d e rstood f ro m biograp h y h is e ar ly p o e m s th an f ro m an y .

H e w as on e of th e tw e l v e c h i l d re n o f th e R e G e o rge C l ayton v .

Te n n y son a sc h o l arly c l e gy m an an d h is w i fe E l zab e th F y tc h e a

, r , i ,

ge n tl e l ova b l e w o m an
, n o t l e a rn e d sav e i n grac i ous h ous e h o l d
, ,
”
ways to w h o m th e poe tp ays a son s l oy a l trib u te n e a r th e c l ose o f
,
’

Th e P i n c es s r I t is i n te re s ti n g to n o te th a t m ost o f th e se C h i l d re n
.

w e re p oe ti c al l y i n c l i n e d an d th a t tw o of th e b ro th e rs C h arl e s an d
, ,

F re d e ri c k ga v e fa r g e a te r p o m i se th an d id Alf re d
, r r .

Wh e n se v en y e ars th e b oy w e n t t
old o h is
gran d m o th e r s h ou se
’

e n d a fa m ou s
er t
o att gra m m a r s c h oo l a tth a tp l a c e .

m e m or y w h ic h
, g e n e ra l ly m a k e s l i gh t o f h ard sh ip
e x pe ri e n c e s , c ou ld e v e r so f te n T e n n y s on s h a t re d
’
 AL F R E D TE NN Y S O N
Aft
er i
th e p ortra tb y G e o rge F i W
re d e r c atts
4 60 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
wi th th e new re c t
o r, th e y a t S om e rsby
fam il y a ned
re t i th e re c t
or ,

a n d h e re fo r n e a r ly s ix y e a rs T e n n yson l ive d in a re ti re m e n tw h i c h
, ,

s t ro n g
l y s u gg e s ts M i l to n a t H o r to n H e re ad an d s t u d i e d w id e ly .
,

c u l tiv a te d a n i n ti m a t e ac q u a i n ta n c e w i th n a tu re th o u gh t d e e l y o n
p ,

th e p ro b l e m s su gge s t ed b y t h e R e fo rm B il l w h i c h w as th e n agi t at in g
E n gl an d a n d d u ri n g h is l e is u re h ou rs w ro te p o e try
,
Th e fi rs tf ru i ts .

of t h i s re tire m e n t a p p e a re d la te in 1 8 3 2 in a w on d e rf u l l i ttl e v o l , ,

u m e b e ari n g t h e S im p l e n a m e P oe m s AS th e w o rk of a yo u th .

o n ly t w e n ty th re e th is book is re m arkab l e fo r th e var i e ty an d m e l ody

-
,
“
o f it s ve rs e Am on g its tre asu re s w e s ti l l re a d w i th d e l i gh t Th e
.

Lo t os E at e rs
”
Pal ac e o f Art A D re am of F a ir Wom e n
,
”
,
Th e ,
”

“
M il l e r s D augh te r
’
an d ,
”
Th e L a d y o f S h alo tt ; b u t
”

t h e c r i ti c s of th e Qu a r t e rl
y w h o h ad b ru t a l l y c o n d e m n e d h is e a r l i e r
,

wo rk w e re aga i n un m e rc ifu l ly se ve re Th e e ffe c to f th i s h a rsh c riti

,
.

c is m u p o n a s e n s i t ive n atu re w as m os t un fo rtu n a te ; an d w h e n h is

fr i e n d H al l am d i e d in 1 8 3 3 T e n nyson was p l u n ge d i n to a p e ri od
, ,

of gl oo m a n d so rro w Th e so rro w m ay b e re ad in th e e xq u i s i te l i ttl e

.

p oe m b e gi n n i n g B re ak b re ak b re ak O n th y c o l d g ray s ton e s 0
, , , , ,

S e a I w h ic h wa s h is fi rs t p u b l i s h e d e l e gy fo r h is f rie n d ; an d th e d e
p re ss i n g i n fl u e n c e o f th e h a rsh a n d u n j u s t c r i ti c i s m is su gge ste d in
"
M e rl in an d Th e G l e a m w h i c h th e re ad e r w ill u n d e rstan d o n ly
”
,

af t e r h e h as re ad T e n n y s o n s bi ogra p h y
’
.

F o r n e a rly te n y e a rs afte r H a l l a m s d e ath T e n n y son p u b l i sh e d

’

n ot h i n g an d h is m ove m e n ts a re h a rd to tra c e as th e fa m i ly w e n t
,

h e re an d th e re se e k i n g p e ac e an d a h o m e in va ri o u s pa rts of E n g
,

l an d Bu tth ough s i l e n t h e c on ti n u e d to w ri te p o e try an d i tw a s in

.
, ,

th e s e sa d w an d e ri n g d ay s t h at h e b e gan h is i m m o rta l I n M e m or i a m
an d h is I d lls o
y f th e K i ng I n 1 8 4 2 h is f ri e n d s p e rsuad e d h im to .

gi ve h is w o rk to th e w orl d an d wi th so m e h e s i t at i on h e p u b l i s h e d
,

h is P oe m s Th e suc c e ss o f th i s w ork w a s a l m o s t in stan t

.
a n e ou s an d ,

w e c an a
p p re c i a te th e favo r w i t h w h i c h i t w as re c e iv e d w h e n w e
re ad t h e n ob l e b l an k v e rse of “
U ly ss e s an d M orte d Arth u r
“ ” ” ’
,

th e p e rfe c t l i ttl e so n
g of grie f fo r H a l l a m w h i c h w e h ave a l re ady
h e e xq u i s i te i d y l s l ik e Th e G a rd e n
“
m e n tion e d an d t , D ora an d
”

w h i c h arou se d e v e n Word s w orth s e n th u si as m an d

’ ”
e r s Da u h t ’
g er ,

brough tfrom h im a l e tte r sa y i n g th at h e h ad b e e n try i n g all h is li f e

o w r it
an d h ad fa i l e d F rom
t e suc h an E n l i s h
.
g p a s to ra l as D ora .

th i s ti m e fo rward T e n n y s on w i t h i n c re a s in g c on fi d e n c e in h i m se lf
,

an d h is m e ssa e e a d ily m a i n t a i n e d h is
g st ,
p l ac e a s th e b e s t kn o wn
an d be s t l o v e d
p oe t in E n gl a n d .
 TH E V C O R A I T I N AG E 461

Th e ye ar 1 8 5 0 w as y on e for T e n n yson H e w as ap p oi n te d
a h a pp .

p o e t a l
u re a te, to s u c c e e d Wo rd sw o rth ; an d h e m a rri e d E m i ly S e l l w ood ,

He r w h os e g e n tl e w i ll h as c h an g e d m y fa te
A n d m ad e m y l i fe a p e rfu m e d a l tar fl a m e ,

w h om h e h ad l ove d
i rte e n ye ars b u twh om h is p ove rty h ad p re
for th ,

v e n te d h im f rom m a rry i n g Th e y e ar i s m ad e f u rth e r re m arkab l e by .

th e p u b l i c a ti on of I n M e m or i a m p rob ab l y th e m os t e n d u r i n g of h is ,

p oe m s u p on w h i c h h e h ad w o rke d a ti n te rva l s for s ix te e n y e ars T h re e

, .

y e ars l ate r w i th th e m on e y th ath is w o rk n ow b rou gh th im h e l e as e d

, ,

th e h ous e F a rrin gfo rd in th e I s l e o f Wi gh t an d se ttl e d in th e fi rs t

, ,

p e rm an e n th om e h e h ad kn o w n S i n c e h e l e f tth e re c tory a tS om e rsb y .

F o r th e re m a i n i n g fort y ye ars of h is li f e h e l ive d l ik e Wo rd s ,

“
in th e s ti l l n e s s of a gre at p e a c e w ri ti n g s te ad i l y an d e n ”
w ort h , , ,

j oy i n g th e fri e n d sh i p of a l a ge n u m b e r of p e op l e so m e di sti n gu i s h e d
r , ,

so m e o b s c u e f ro m t h e ki n d ly an d sy m p a th e ti c Vi c to ri a to th e s e r v
r ,

an t s o n h is o w n farm All o f th e se h e c a l l e d w i th e q u al s i n c e ri t
. y h is
fri e n d s an d to e ac h on e h e w as th e sa m e m an s i m p l e stro n g
, , , ,

ki n d ly an d n ob l e C a rly l e d e sc rib e s h im a s a fin e l arge f e atu re d

, .
,
-
,

d im e y e d b ron z e c o l o re d S h aggy h e a d e d m an
-
,
—
,
fu l
m os t r e s t -
, ,

b roth e rl y so l i d h e arte d
, Lo v in g so l i tud e a n d h a ti n g p u b l i c i t
-
.
”
y as
h e did th e n u m e rou s tou ri sts f ro m b o th s id e s of th e o c e an w h o
, ,

s ou gh t h im ou t in h is r e t re a t an d i n s i st e d u p o n se e i n g h im m ad e ,

h is l i f e at ti m e s i n to l e ra b l e I n fl u e n c e d p artly by th e d e s i re to e s
.

c a e su c h p o u l a r i t y h e b ou gh t l an d an d bu i l t for h i m se lf a n e w
p p ,

h ou se Al d w o rth in S u rre y th o u gh h e m ad e h is h o m e in F arrin g

, , ,

ford for th e gre ate r p artof th e y e ar .

H is l ab o r d u ri n g th e s e y e a rs an d h is m a rv e l ou s f re sh n e ss an d
you th fu l n e s s of f e e l i n g are b e s tu n d e rstood b y a gl an c e at th e c on
te n ts of h is c om p l e te w o rk s I n f e ri o r p oe m s l ik e Th e P r i n c e ss
.
, ,

w h i c h w as wr i t e n in t
t h e fi rs t fl u sh o f h i s su c c e s s an d h is d ram as , ,

w h i c h w e re w ri tte n agai n s tth e ad vi c e of h is b e st fri e n d s m ay e asi ly ,

b e c ri ti c i se d ; b u t th e b u l k of h is v e rse sh o w s an aston i sh i n g o ri gi
n alit y an d vi go r to th e v e ry e n d H e d i e d v e ry q u ie tl y atAl d w o rth .
,

w ith h is fam i ly abou th im in th e m oon l i gh t an d b e s id e h im a vol u m e ,

o f S h ak e s p e a re o p e n a tt h e d irge in Cy m be li n e
,
:

F mo e t he h t0 th e
e ar n o r ea
’
su n ,

f u r i ou s wi n te r s rag e s ;
N o r th e
’

T h ou th y w o rl d l y ta s k h as td o n e ,

H om e a r tg on e a n d ta e n th y w a g e s ,
’
.
4 62 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
Th e stro n g an d n o bl e sp r i i to f h is l ife is re fl e c te d in on e of h is be s t
C ross i n g th e Bar, w ri tte n in h is e i gh t
y
”
k n ow n p o e m s,
“
wh ic h w as

firs t ye ar an d w h i c h
,
h e des i re d sh ould b e p l ac e d h e en d
at t of h is

e d w o rk s :
c oll e c t

S u n s e ta n d e v e n i n g s ta r ,

An d one c l e ar c a l l f o r me

A n d m a y th e re b e n o m o an i n g of h e b ar,
t
Wh e n p u to u tto s e a ,
I
B u ts u c h a td ei
v i n g s e e m s as l e e p
as , mo , ,

T o o f u l l fo r s o u n d a n d f o a m ,

Wh e n th a tw h i c h d re w f rom ou tth e b o u n d l e s s de e p
T u r n s ag a i n h o m e .

T wil i g h t an d e vening b ell,

An d a f te r h e d ar
h a tt
t k!
A n d m a y th e re b e n o sa d n e s s o f fa re w e ll ,

Wh e n e m b ar k ;I
F o r th o
’
f ro m o u to u r b o u rn e of Tim e an d Pl ac e
Th e fl oo d m ay b e ar m e f ar ,
I h op e to se e my P i l o tf ac e to fac e
Wh e n I h av e he
c ros tt b ar .

Work s . A t th e ou tse dy of T e n n y s on s w ork s

t of ou r s tu
’

i t m ay b e w e ll to re c o rd tw o th i n g s by w ay of s u gg e s ti o n ,
.

Fi rs t T e n n y s on s p oe try i s n ot s o m u c h to b e s tu d i e d as to
,
’

b e re ad a n d a pp re ci a te d ; h e i s a p oe t to h av e Op e n o n o n e s
'

t a bl e
,
an d t o e n j o y a s on e e n j oy s h i s d a ily e x e r c i s e And .

s e c o n d w e s h o u ld by a ll m e a n s b e i n t o e t a cq u a i n t e d wi th
, g g
T e n n y s on i n th e d ay s o f ou r y ou th U n lik e B ro w n i n g w h o .
,

i s g e n e ra lly a pp re ci a te d by m ore m a tu re m i n d s T e n n y s on ,

is fo r en j oy m e n t for i n s pi rati o n ra th e r th a n for i n s tru c ti o n

, ,
.

On ly y ou th c an f u lly a pp re ci ate h i m ; an d y o u th u n fo rtu ,

n at e ly , e xc e p t i n a fe w ra r e b e a u ti f u l c a s e s i s s o m e th i n g
, ,

w h ic h d oe s n o t dw e ll wi th u s l on g a f te r o u r s c h oo l d ay s Th e .

s e c re t o f p o e t ry e s p e ci a lly o f T e n n y s o n s p o e t ry i s to b e
’

, ,

et e r n ally y o u n
g a n d lik e A d a m in P a r a di s e to fin d e v e ry
, , ,

m o rn i n g a n e w w o rld f re s h w on d e rf u l i n s pi r i n a s if j u s t
, g, , ,

f rom th e h an d s of God .
4 64 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
h e ar T e n n y so n re ad i t w e S h ou ld a pp re c i ate i t b e tte r ; b u t
,
,

on t he w h o l e i t s e e m s o v e r w ro u g h t a n d m e l o d r a m at ic E v e n .

,
”

its ly ric s lik e C o m

“
e i n t o th e G a r d e n M a u d w h ic h m a k e , ,
,

th i s w o rk a f av or i te wi th y ou n g l o v e rs a re c h a rac te r i z e d by ,

p re tti n e s s ra th e r th an by b e au ty o r s tre n g th .

P e rh ap s th e m os t l ov e d of a ll T e n n y s o n s w o rk s i s I n M e
’

m or i a m w h ic h o n acc o u n to f b o th i ts th e m e an d i ts e xq u i s i t
, ,
e
“
w o rk m an s h ip i s on e of th e fe w i m m o rta l th i n gs
,
I M m i m
n e or a ”
th a t w e re n o t b orn to d ie Th e i m m e di a te o cc a .

s i on o f t h i s re m a rk a bl e p o e m w as T e n n y s on s p ro fou n d p e r
’

s on a l g r i e f at t h e d e a th of h i s f r i e n d H a ll a m A s h e w ro te .

ly ric af te r ly ric i n s pi re d by th i s s ad s u bj e c t th e p oe ts g ri e f
, ,
’

b e c a m e l e s s p e rs on al a n d th e g re a te r g r i e f o f h u m an i ty
,

m o u rn i n g fo r i ts d e ad an d q u e s ti o n i n g i ts i m m o r t a li t
y too k
p os s e s s i on o f h im G rad u ally th e p oe m b e c am e an e xp re s
.

s i on ,
fi rs t o f u n iv e r s al d o u b t a n d th e n of u n iv e rs a l f a i th
, , ,

a f ai t h w h ic h re s ts u l ti m a te ly n ot on re a s on o r p h il o s o p h y ,

b u t o n th e s ou l s i n s ti n c t f or i m m o r tali ty Th e i m m o r ta li ty
’
.

o f h u m an l o v e i s t h e th e m e o f th e p o e m w h i c h i s m ad e u p ,

o f o v e r o n e h u n d re d d i ff e re n t ly r ic s T h e m o v e m e n t tak e s .

us t h rou g h th re e y e a rs r i s i n g S l owly f rom p o i g n an t s orro w

,

an d d o u b t t o a c al m p e a c e a n d h o p e an d e n di n g wi th a ,

n o bl e h y m n o f c o u ra e a n d f a i t h a m o d e s t c o u rag e an d —
g ,

a h u m bl e f a i t h l o v e i n s pi re d — w h ic h will b e a f av o r i te a s
,
-

l o n g as s add e n e d m e n tu r n to l i te ra tu re fo r c on sol a ti on .

T h oug h D a rwi n s g re a te s t b ook s h ad n o t y e t b e e n w ri tte n

’

s ci e n c e h ad a l re a dy o v e r t u r n e d m a n y o ld c on c e p t i on s of l if e
an d T e n n y so n w h o liv e d a p a r t a n d th o u g h t d e e ply o n all th e
,

p robl e m s o f h is d ay ga v e th i s p oe m to th e w orld as h is ow n
,

an s w e r t o t h e d o u b ts a n d q u e s ti on i n g s o f m e n T h i s u n iv e r .

s al h u m a n i n t e re s t t og e t h e r wi th i ts e xq u i s i te f o rm an d m e l
,

od
y m ak e s th e p oe m i n p op u l a r f a v o r a t l e as t th e s u p re m e
, , ,

th re n ody o r e l e i a c p oe m o f o u r li te ra tu re th h Mil to n s
’
, g ; o,u g
Ly c i d a s i s f ro m th e c ri tic al vi e w p o i n t u n d o u b te dly a m ore
, ,

a rt i s tic w ork .
SI R G A L A HA D
4 65
4 66 E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E

Th e I dy lls f o k h e K i ng
s am o n g t
t h e g re a te s tof T e n n y
ra n

s o n s l at e r w o rk s I ts ge n e ra l s u bj e c t i s th e C e l tic l e g e n d s
’ -

of K i n g A rt h u r an d h i s k n i g h t s Of t h e R oun d
Id y ll f th
s o e

Ki gn T abl e a n d th e c h i e f s ou rc e of i ts m a te ri a l I S
,

M al ory s lll or te d Ar th u r H e re i n th i s m as s o f b e au tif u l

’ ’
.
,

l e ge n d s i s c e r ta i n ly th e s u bj e c t o f a g re a t n a ti on al e pic ; y e t
,

aft e r f o u r h u n d re d y e a rs d u r i n g w h ic h m a n y p o e t s h ave u s e d
,

th e m a te ri al th e g re a t e pic i s s till u n w ri tte n

,
Mil ton an d .

S p e n s e r as w e h av e al re ady n o te d c o n s id e re d th i s m ate ri a l
, ,

c are f u lly ; a n d Mil ton a l on e o f all E n g li s h w r i te rs h ad p e r , ,

h ap s th e p o w e r to u se i t i n a g re a t e pic T e n n y s on b e gan to .

h e s e l e g e n d s i n h is Mor t e d Art h u r ( I 8 4 2 ) b u t th e e pic

’

u se t .

id e a p rob ably o cc u rre d to h i m l a te r i n 1 8 5 6 w h e n h e b e gan , ,

” “ ”
“
G e rai n t a n d E n id a n d h e add e d th e s tor i e s of Vivi e n
, ,
“
E l ai n e G u i n e v e re an d o th e r h e roe s an d h e ro i n e s at in
” ”
, ,

”
te rv als u n til ,
B ali n th e l as to f th e I dy lls app e a re d i n 1 8 8 5
, ,
.

L ate r th e s e w o rk s w e re ga th e re d tog e th e r an d a r ra n g e d wi th
an a t te m p t at u n i t y Th e re s u l tis i n n o s e n s e a n e pic p o e m
.
,

b u t ra th e r a s e ri e s o f s i n g l e p o e m s l oo s e ly c on n e c te d by a
th re ad of i n te re s t i n A r th u r th e c e n tra l p e rso n ag e an d i n h i s , ,

u n s u cc e s s f u l at te m p tt o f ou n d a n id e al ki n d o m
g .

E n ti re ly di ff e re n t i n S pi ri t is an o th e r c o ll e c ti on o f p o e m s
c all e d E ng li s h I dy ls w h ic h b e gan i n th e P oe m s o f 1 8 4 2
1
, ,

E g li h
n s a n d w h ic h T e n n y s o n i n t e n d e d S h o u ld re fl e c t t he
my “ id e al s o f wid e ly di ff e re n t typ e s of E n g li s h li f e Of .

“ “
th e s e v ari e d p oe m s Th e G a rd e n e r s D au g h te r
” ”
D o ra
’

, , ,

S ir G a l a
“ ” “ “
U ly s s e s L ock s l e y H all
, an d h ad ar e th e
” ”

b e s t; b u t all are w o rth y o f s tu dy O n e o f th e m os t f a m ou s .

“
of t h i s s e ri e s i s E n o c h A rd e n i n w h ic h T e n n y
”

s on t u rn s f ro m m e di a e v al k n i h t l d
’

g s f ro m o r s h e roe s an d , , ,

f a i r l adi e s to fin d th e m ate ri al for tru e p oe try a m o n g th e

,

l o wly p e opl e th at m ak e u p th e b u lk o f E n g li s h li f e I ts rare .

m e l ody i t s s y m p at
, h y for c o m m on li f e a n d i ts re v e l a ti on of ,

1 Te n n y so n made a i
d i s tn c ton i n i s pe lli ng bet w ee n th e I d y lls f
o h e K i ng ,
t an d th e
E n g li sh I dy ls ; lik
e D ora .
”
4 68 E NG LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
h e re are wid e ly di ff e re n tp oe m s y e tth e th e m e o f e ac h
th re e ,

p y i ki d f pi i t l p h il s p h y a n d w e i gh s
so f t
a r a s o e r s a n o s r u a o o

i ts w or d s b e f o r e i t u tt e r s t h e m i s t h e o r d e rly d e v e l o pm e
,
n t

o f la w i n t h e n atu ra l a n d i n th e s pi r i tu a l w o rld .

T h i s c e rta i n ly i s a n e w d oc tri n e in p oe try b u t th e m e s s age ,

d oe s n o t e n d h e re L aw i m pli e s a s ou rc e a m e th od an o h
.
, ,

T e nny son sje c

i t T e n n y so n
. af te r f aci n g h i s d ou b t
,
s h on e s t ly
M e s sag e
an d m an f u lly fi n d s law e v e n i n th e s orro w s an d
,

l os s e s o f h u m a n i ty He g iv e s th i s la w an i n fi n i te an d p e rson al
.

s ou rc e an d fi n d s t
,
h e s u p re m e p u r p os e of a ll law to b e a re v e _

l a ti o n of d ivi n e l o v e A ll e ar th ly l o v e th e re f o re b e c o m e s an
.
, ,

i m age o f th e h e a v e n ly Wh atfi rs tp e rh ap s attrac te d re a d e r s to

.

T e n n y s o n as to S h ak e s p e are w as th e c h arac te r o f h i s w o m e n
, , ,

— p u re ge n tl e re fi n e d b e i n gs w h om w e m u s t re v e re as ou r
, , ,

A n g l o S ax o n f o re f a th e rs re v e re d th e w o m e n th e y l o v e d L ik e
-
.

B ro w n i n g th e p o e t h ad l o v e d o n e g o od w o m an s u p re m e ly
, ,

a n d h e r l o v e m ad e cl e a r t h e m e a n i n g o f a ll li f e Th e m e s s ag e .

g oe s o n e s t e p f ar t h e r B e c au s e la w a n d l o v e a re i n th e w o r ld
.
,

f a i th i s th e o n ly re as o n abl e a tti tu d e tow a rd li f e a n d d e ath ,

e ve n t h o u gh w e u n d e r s tan d th e m n o t S u c h i n a fe w w o r d s .
, ,

o b e T e n n y s o n s w h o l e m e s s a e a n d p h il os o p h y
’
se e m s t
g
I f w e a tte m p t n o w to fi x T e n n y so n s p e r m a n e n t pl a c e i n ’

li te ra tu re as th e re s u l t of h i s li f e an d w o rk w e m u s t apply
, ,

to h i m th e s a m e te s t th a t w e appli e d to Mil to n a n d Wo rd s
wo rth an d i n d e e d to all ou r g re a t p oe ts an d as k wi th th e
, , , ,

G e rm an c ri tic s Wh a t n e w th i n g h as h e s a id to th e w orld
,
“

or e v e n t o h i s o w n c ou n t ry ? Th e a n s w e r i s f ra n kly th a t
”
, ,

w e d o n o t e t k n o w s u re ly
y ; th a t w e a r e s till t o o n e ar T e n n y

s on t o j u d e h i m i m p e rs o na lly T h i s m u c h h o w e v e r i s cl e ar
g .
, ,
.

I n a m ar v e l o u s ly c o m pl e x a e a n d a m id a h u n d re d re a tm e n
g g, ,

h e w as re ga rd e d as a l e ad e r F or a f u ll h a l f c e n tu ry h e w as
.

th e v o ic e o f E n l a n d l o v e d a n d h o n or e d a s a m an a n d a p o e t
g , ,

n o t s i m ply by a fe w di s c e r n i n
g c ri tic s b u t by a w h o l e pe o pl e ,

th at d o n ot e a s ily iv e th e i r all e i a n c e to an n e m an A nd
g g y o .

th a t for t h e p re s e n t i s T e n n y s o n s s u ffi ci e n t e u l o y ’
, , g .
 T H E V I C T O R I AN AG E 4 69

R O B E R T B R O WN I N G ( 1 8 1 2— 1 8 8 9)

H o w g o od i s m an
’
s l i fe , h e m e re
t l i v i ng ! h ow fi tto em p l oy
All th e h e a r ta n d th e sou l an d th e se n se s fo r e ver in j y!
o

I n th i s n e w s o n g of D avid , B ro w n i n g S a u l, w e h a v e
’
f ro m s

a s u gg e s to n i i
of th e as ton sh n g i
v i g or an d h o p e th a t c h a ra c
te ri z e all th e w o rk s o f B ro w n i n g th e o n e p o e t o f th e ag e ,

w h o af t
,
er t h i r ty y e ars of c on ti n u ou s w ork w as fi n a lly re c og ,

n i z e d a n d pl ac e d b e s id e T e n n y s o n an d w h o m f u tu re ag e s ,

m ay j u d g e to b e a g re a te r p o e t — p e rh a p s e v e n th e g re a t , , ,

e s t i n o u r li te ra t u re s i n c e S h a k e s p e are .

Th e c h i e f di ffic u l ty i n re a di n g B ro w n i n g i s th e o b s c u r i ty
of h i s s t yl e w h ic h th e c r i tic s of h a l f a c e n tu r y a g o h e ld u p
,

to r idic u l e T h e i r atti tu d e to w ard s th e p oe ts e arly w o rk m ay ’

.

b e i n f e rre d f ro m T e n n y s on s h u m o r ou s c r i tici s m o f S or d e llo

’
.

I t m ay b e r e m e m b e re d th a tth e fi rs t li n e o f th i s o b s c u re p o e m
is ,
“
Wh o will m ay h e a r S o rd e llo s s to ry to ld an d t h a t th e
’ ”

l as t li n e i s Wh o w o u ld h as h e a r d S o rd e llo s s to ry to ld
,
“ ’
.
”

T e n n y so n re m a rk e d th at th e s e w e re th e o n ly li n e s i n th e
w h o l e p oe m th a t h e u n d e rs too d a n d th a t th e y w e re e vid e n tly ,

b o th li e s I f w e a tte m p t to e xpl a i n th i s o b s c u r i ty w h ic h
.
,

p u zz l e d T e n n y s on a n d m an y l e s s f ri e n dly c r i tic s w e fin d th a t ,

i t h a s m an y s o u r c e s g ri t th e p o e ts though t i s of te n Q_
’
. b ,

s c u re or e l s e so e x t
,
r e m e ly s u b t l e th at l an g u ag e e xp re s s e s i t
i m p e rf e c tly ,

T h o gh t h d l y to b e p c k e d
u s ar a

I to a n w ct n a r ro a ,

F c i e th tb o k e th o gh l g ge a d e p e d
an s a r r u an ua n sc a .

W
ow n m e n ta
B ro w n i n g i s le d
l as s o ci a ti o n s ,
an
f ro m on e

d fo rg e ts th a t the
th i n g to an o t

re ade r
her
’
s
by
as s o
h is
ci a
ti o n s m ay b e i ly d i ff e re n t ki n d TI
B m w n mg .s Of a n e n tr e .

23 1,
Ob s c uri ty

clip s h is
B row n i n
i
W
ivi
o f e ac u l a ti A
li s h , an d f re q u e n tly
S p ge gh
g , g j n on s S we
us a se r e s .

d o n ot q u i te u n d e rs tan d h i s p ro c e s se s o f th o u g h t w e m u s t ,

st op b e tw e e n th e e j ac u l a ti o n s to trac e o u t th e c on n e c ti on s .
4 7o E N G L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

r ngi to s om e c ra p o f i n f o r m ati on w h ic h h e h as pick e d

od d s .

u p in h i s wid e re ad i n g a n d th e o rdi n a ry re a d e r fi n d s i t
, /

d i fli c u lt to tra c e a n d u n d e rs ta n d th e m F i fi a lly B ro w n i n g
—
.
,

w rote too m u c h an d re vi s e d too li ttl e The T i m e w h ic h h e

.

s h o u ld h a v e g iv e n t o m aki n
g o n e th ou g h t cl e a r w a s u s e d i n
e xp re s s i n g o th e r th ou g h ts th a t fl i tte d th rou g h h i s h e a d l ik e
a fl o ck of s w a ll o w s H is fi e ld w as th e i n divid u a l so u l n e v e r
.
,

e x ac t ly alike i n a n y tw o m e n an d h e s o u gh t to e xp re s s
,

th e h idd e n m o ti v e s
a n d p r i n c 1 p le s w h ic h

g ov e rn i n divid u al ac
ti o n I n th i s fi e ld h e .

i s lik e a mi n e r d e lvi n g
u n d e r ro u n d s e n d i n
g g ,

u p m a s s e s of m i n l e d
g
e a rth a n d ore an d th e
re a de r m us t s i ft a ll

th i s m a te r i a l t
o se pa
ra te th e g o ld f ro m th e
d ros s .

H e re c e rtai n ly are
, ,

s u ff ici e n t re as o n s fo r

B rown i n g s o b s c u r i ty ;
’

an d we m u s t ad d he
t
R OBE R T B R O W NI N G
w o rd
f au l t th a t th e
s e e m s u n p a rd o n a bl e f o r th e s i m pl e re as o n th a t B ro w n i n
,
g
s h o w s h i m s e l f c a p a bl e at t i m e s of w ri ti n g di re c tly m e l odi
, , ,

ousl
y a n d wi th n obl e S i m plici ty
, .

S o m u c h fo r th e f a u l ts w h ic h m u s tb e f a c e d a n d o v e rl oo k d
, e

b e fo re o n e fi n d s th e tre as u re th a t is h idd e n i n B ro w n i n g s ’

B w i g
ro n n p oe try Of all th e p oe ts i n o u r li te ra tu re n o o th e r
a, .

,
Tm h "
a
i s s o c o m pl e te ly s o c on s ci o u s ly s o m a n i fi c e n ly
,
g t ,
a

b t an d
m . F o r th i r ty y e a rs he f ac e d
4 72 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
Lo n d on ; an d i y
th e
t l i g h tsc b y n i gh t a n d t h e s m oky C h i m n e y s by

day h ad th e sam e p o w e rf u l fasc i n ati on fo r th e c h i l d th a t th e w ood s

“

fi e l d s an d th e be au tif u l C oun try h ad for h is f ri e n d T e n n y son .

H is sc h oo l i n g w as s h o rtan d d e s l to ry h is e d u c a ti on be i n g a tte n d e d u ,

to by p ri va t e t ut o rs an d b y h is f a t h e r w h o l e f t th e b oy l arge l y to ,

fo l l ow h is own i n c l i n a ti on L ike th e y oun g Mi l ton B rown in g w as

.
,
“
fo a an d in m an y o f h is p o e m s e s p e c i a l l y in
,
Ab t Vog ,
“
A T oc c a t a o f G a l u pp i s h e __ h e m u s i c a l te m
”
t
’
le r a n d in te r re t s ,

ra m e n t be t t rh a p s t h a n ot h e r w ri t e r in o u r l i t e ra tu re
_n y
er e a
p e p , _ ,
.

Bu tW eT I i lt ’on t h rou gh w h ose p o e try th e re run s a gre at m e l ody

, ,

m u s i c se e m s t o h av e h ad n o c o n s i s t e n te ff e c t u pon h is y e rs e wh ic h ,
-

is ofte n s o j a ri n n r n de r h ow a m us i c a l e ar c ou l d

h ave e n d u re d it .

L ike T e n n y son th i s b oy fou n d h is w o rk v e ry e a r l y an d for fi f t

,
y ,

y e ars h ard ly a w e e k p ass e d th a t h e d id n otwr i te p oe try H e b e gan .

at s i x t o p od u c e v e s e s i n i m it
r at
r imL QLB xLOn b u t f o rtu n a te l y th i s
,

e a ly w o rk h as b e e n l os t
r T h e n h e fe l l u n d e r th e i n fl u e n c e o f
.

M
S h e l l e y a n d h is fi rs tk n o w n w o rk P a u li n e ( 1 8 3
,
m u stb e c o n S i d
,

e re d as a t rib u t o S h e l l e y an d h is p o e t ry T e n n yson s e ar l i e st ’
e t .

work P oe m s by Tw o B roth e r s h ad b e e n p u b l i sh e d an d w e l l p a id
, ,

fo r fiv e y e a rs be fore ; b u t B ro w n i n g c ou l d fin d n o p u b l i sh e r w h o
,

w ou l d e ve n c on s i d e r P a u li n e an d t h e work w as p u b l i s h e d by m e an s
,

o f m on e y f u n i s h e d b y an i n d u l e n t re l a t
r ive T h i s p o e m re c e ive d
g .

sc an t n o t i c e f rom th e re vi e w e rs w h o h ad p ou n c e d l ike h aw ks on a ,

d ove c ote u p on T e n n y son s fi rs t tw o m od e st v o l u m e s ’

Tw o ye a r s .

l ate r app e a re d P a a c e ls u s an d th e n h is trage dy S tr afior d w as p u t

'

r ,

u p on t h e stage ; b u tn ot til l S o d e llo w as p u b l i sh e d in 1 8 4 0 d id h e

r , ,

at trac ta tte n t i on e n o u gh to b e d e n oun c e d for th e o bsc u ri ty an d v a

garie s o f h is sty l e S ix y e a rs l a te r in 1 8 4 6 h e su dd e n ly b e c am e
.
, ,

fam ous n ot be c au se h e fi n i sh e d in th at ye ar h is B e lls a n d P om e

,

g a nat ( w h i c h is B ro wn in g s sym bo l i c n a m e for p o e try an d

’
r es

t h ou gh t o r s i n gi n g an d se rm on i z i n b u tb e c au se h e e l op e d w i th
g
th e be s tkn o w n l i t e ra ry w o m an in E n l an d E li z a b e t h Barre tt w h o se
g , ,

fam e w as for m a n y y e ars both b e fo re an d af te r h e r m arri age m u c h

, ,

gre a te r th an B ro w n i n g s an d w h o wa s a tfi rs t c on s id e re d s u pe r i or to
’

Te n n y son T h e re afte r u n til h is ow n wo rk c om p e l l e d a tte n ti on h e

.
, ,

w as k n o w n c h i e fl y a s t h e m an w h o m a rri e d E l i zab e th Ba rre tt F or .

ad y h ad b e e n a n a l m os th e l l e ss i n va l id an d i tse e m e d a
p ,

in g w h e n B rown i n
g h avi n g fa il e d to ga i n h e r fa m i ly s c on
’
,

a rri a e c a rr i e d h e r o ff ro m an t ic a l l y L ove an d I ta ly
g , .
 TH E V I C T O R I AN AG E 473

p rov e d b e tte r th an h e r p h y s i c i an s, an d fo r fi f te e n ye ars B ro w n i n g

an d h is wif e l iv e d a n i d e a l l y h a ppy l i f e i n P i s a a n d in F l o r e n c e .

Th e e xq u i s i te rom an c e of th e i r l ov e is p re s e rv e d in M rs B ro w n i n g s
’
.

S on n e t s f om t h e P or t
r ug u e s e a n d in t h e v o l u m e o f L e tt e s re c e n t
,
ly r

p u b l i sh e d w on d e rfu l l e tte rs b u t so te n d e r an d i n ti m ate th at i t

—
, ,

s e e m s a l m os ta sac ri l e ge fo r i n q u i s i t ive e y e s to re ad th e m .

Mrs B ro wn i n g d i e d in F l o re n c e in 1 8 6 1 Th e l oss se e m e d a t
. .

fi rsttoo m u c h to b e ar an d B rown in g fl e d w i th h is so n to E n gl an d
, .

F o r th e re m a i n d e r o f h is l i fe h e l i v e d a l te rn a te l y in L on d on an d in
vari ou s p a rts of I ta l y e sp e c i a l ly a tth e Pa l azz o R e z z on i c o in Ve n i c e
, , ,

w h i c h is n o w an obj e c t o f p i l gri m age to a l m os t e ve ry tou ri st w h o

vi s i ts th e b e au ti fu l c i ty Wh e re ve r h e w e n t h e m in gl e d w i th m e n
.

an d w o m e n s oc i a b l e
,
w e l l d re sse d c o u rte ou s lovi n g c ro wd s an d
, , ,

p o p u l ar a p p l au se th e v e ry re v e r s e o f h is f r i e n d T e n n y s on
, H is .

e ar l i e r w o rk h ad b e e n m u c h B et te r a p p re c i a te d in Am e ri c a th an in
E n gl an d ; b u t w i th th e p u b l i c a ti on of Th e R i ng a n d t h e B ook in ,

1 8 68 h e w as at l as t r e c ogn i z e d b y h is c o u n try m e n as on e o f th e
,

g re ate st of E n g l i s h p o e ts H e mem .e on D e c e m b e r 1 2 , ,

1 889 ,th e sa m e d ay th a t sa w th e p u b l i c a t i on of h is last work ,

As ola n d o T h ou gh I ta ly o ffe re d h im an h on ore d r e s ti n g p l ac e

.
,

E n gl an d c l a i m e d h im fo r h e r ow n an d h e l i e s b u ri e d b e s i d e T e n n y ,

son in We st m in st e r Abb e y Th e sp i r i t of h is w h o l e l i f e i s m agn ifi

’

c ent ly e x p re sse d in h is ow n l i n e s in th e E p i l o g ue of h is l as t b oo k : ,

On e w h o ne ve r tu rn e d h i s b a c k ,
b u tm ar c h e d b re as t fo r w a rd ,
Ne ve r d o u b te dw o u l d b re a k l
c ou d s ,

N e v e r d re a m e d th o r i g h tw e re w o rs te d w ron g w oul d
,
’
, tr ium ph ,

H e l d w e f a l l to r i s e a re b a flfle d to fi gh tb e tte r , ,

S l e e p to w a k e .

Wor k s A g l an c e a t e v e n th e
. ti tl e s wh i c h B ro w n i n g

g a v e to h i s b e s t k n o w n v o l u m e s — D r a m a ti c Ly r i c s
D ra m a ti c R om a n c e s a nd Ly r i c s Men a nd Wom e n
( 1 8 D ra m a ti s P e rs on ae will s u g ge s t h o w s tron g ( 1 86 4 ) —

th e d r a m a ti c e l e m e n t i s i n a ll h i s w o rk I n d e e d a ll h i s .
,

po "
m m y b e divid e d i n to t re e cl s se
h p e d ms —
e s a a s u r ra a , ,

lik e S trafl ord an d A B lot i n th e S c u tc h e on ; d ra m ati c n a rra 7 ; ’

tiv e s lik e P ipp a P a s s e s w h ic h a re d ra m atic i n m

,
b ut ,

w e re n ot m e an t to b e ac te d ; an d d ra m a tic ly ric s I “
,

L a s t R i d e Tog e t h e r w h ic h a re s h o rt p o e m s e xp re
,
4 74 E N GLIS H L IT E R ATU R E

st ro n g p er s on a l e m o t i o n o r d e s c r ibi n
,g s o m e d ra m a t ic e pi s od e

m
i n h u an li f e an d i n w h ic h t h e h e r o h im s e l f g e n e r a lly t e ll s
,

th e s t o ry .

T h o u gh B ro w n i n g i s o f te n c o m p are d wi th S h ak e s p e are ,

th e re a d e r will u n d e r s ta n d th a t h e h a s v e r y li tt l e o f S h a k e

p e a re s d ra m a t ic tal e n t H e c an n o tb ri n g a g ro u p
’

s
Bm wm d
.

M
g an

S h a k e s p e are of le to eth e r an d le t ds
pe o
of h is c h a ra c te rs S h o w u s th e c o m e dy an d trag e dy of h u m an
li fe N e i th r c an th e au th o r b e s t
a i s i
f e d as ,

SEW th Ofig ra w i n g a n y m oral

.

S h ak e s p e a re w a s w 1 WW

W
,

c o n cl us i on s B ro w n i n g h as a lw a s a m o ral re ady an d i n s i s ts
. ,

u p o n g ivi n g u s h i s o w n eb S h a k e s p e a re
n e ve r

h i m s e l f c all s th e h i s to ry o f a s ou l S o m e ti m e s a s i n P a ra c e l.
,

s u s h e e n d e am
, p rog re s s o f t h e h u m a n s pi r i t .

M o re o f te n h e tak e s s o m e d ra m atic m om e n t i n li f e s o m e ,

c ri s i s i n th e c e as e l e s s s tru ggl e b e tw e e n go od a n d e vil an d ,

d e s c rib e s wi th w on d e r f u l i n s i gh t th e h e ro s ow n th ou gh ts ’

a n d f e e li n g s ; b u t h e al m os t i n v ar i a bly t e ll s u s h ow at s u c h ,

an d s u c h a p o i n t t h e goo d o r th e e vil in h i s h e ro m u s t i n e vi
,

t ably h av e t ri u m p h e d A n d ge n e ra lly as i n My L as tD u c h
.
,
”
e ss ,
th e s pe ak e r add s a w o rd h e re a n d th e re as id e f ro m th e ,

st ory w h ic h u n c o n s ci ou s ly s h o w s t
,
h e ki n d of m a n h e i s It .

is th i s p ow e r o f re v e ali n g th e so u l f ro m wi th i n tt cai i s e s
-“

B ro wn in g to f as ci n ate th os e w h o s tu dy h i m l on g e n ou g h
_
.

His ran m m ou s an d b r i n g s all s o r ts an d c on di ti on s

,
“ ”
o f m e n u n d e r a n a ly s i s Th e m us ic i a n in . A b t V og l e r th e ,
”
a rtis ti n A n d re a d e l S ar to th e e arl y Ch ri sti an i n A D e ath
,
”
i n th e D e s e rt th e A ra b h o rs e m an i n Mu lé k e h th e s a il o r
”
,
y ,

in H e rv e R i e l th e m e d iae vm i igh t in C h ild e R ol an d

,
” “
,
”

Hpbi
“ “ ”
th e e w in S aul e Gl e e k i n on s A d v e n
’
th , B alau s t i
”
tu re ,
th e m ons t e n in C alib an th e i m m o rt al d e ad i n ,
”
K a rs h
”
ish ,
— all t h e s e a n d a h u n d re d m ore h i s tor i e s o f th e s o u l
’
n g s m arv e l o u s v e rs
atili ty I t i s th i s g re a t ra n ge .

wi th m an y di ff e re n ttyp e s of li f e th atc on s ti tu te s
4 76 E NG LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
I n th e th i rdp e ri od b e g i n n i n g w h e n B ro w n i n g w as n e arly ,

s ix t
y y e a rs old h e w ro te e v e n m ore i n d u s tri ou s ly th an b e f ore
, -
,
“

an d p u bli s h e d o n a n a v e rag e i i C ar ly a v o l u m e o f
Th i d P i d
r er o
p oe try a y e ar S u c h v o l u m e s as F ifi n e a t th e F a i r .
,

R e d Cotton N igh tCap Cou n try , Th e I n n Alb u m , f oc os e r i a ,

an d

m a n y oth e rs ,
Sh o w h o w B ro w n i n g g a i n s s te adily i n th e p ow e r
o f re v e a li n g th e h id d e p g p ri ng s _of h um an fi c ti o n ; b u t h e
_
— —
f te ni a m ble S rrfos tf ifgso m e ly
-

i n g e n e ra l h i s w o r k l os e s i n
'

an d
’

o ,

s us ta ne i d i n te re s t I t i s p e rh ap s . S i g n ific a n t t h at m os t o f h i s
b e $t w o r k w a s d o n e u n d e r Mrs B ro w n i n g s in fl u e n c e
’
. .

Wh atto R e ad Of th e s h o r t m i s c e ll an e ou s p oe m s th e re i s
.

s u c h a n u n u s ual v a ri e t y th a t on e m u s th e s i tate a li ttl e i n s u g

”
g e s ti n g t h i s o r th a t to th e b e g i n n e r s atte n ti on My S ta r
’
.
,
“
E v e ly n H o p e Wa n ti n g is — Wh at
,
” “
H om e T h ou gh ts
f rom A b road M e e ti n g a t N i gh t O n e Wo rd M o re (an
,
" “ “
,
” ”

e xq u i s i t e trib u t o h is d e ad wi f e L k
e t
) ( oo F or ,

ward ) ; s on g s f r o m P ipp a P a s s e s ; v ar i ou s l o v e p oe m s lik e

“ “ ” ”
B y th e F i re s id e an d Th e L as t R id e T og e th e r ; th e i n
“ ” “ ”
i m i ta bl e P i e d P ip e r an d th e b all ad s lik e H e rv e R i e l ,
“
an d Ho w T h e y B ro u g h t th e G oo d N e w s th e s e a re a ,
”

m e re s u g ge s ti o n e xp re s s i n
g on ly th e w r i te r s p e rs on a l p re f e r
’

e n ce ; b u t a
gl a n c e a t th e c o n te n ts o f B ro w n i n g s v ol u m e s
’

will re v e al s c ore s of o th e r p oe m s w h ic h an o th e r w ri te r m i g h t ,

re c o m m e n d a s b e i n
g b e tte r i n th e m s e lv e s o r m o re c h a ra c te r
i s tic o f B ro w n i n g 1 .

A m on g B ro w n i n g s d ra m a tic s o u l s tu d i e s th e re i s a l s o a
’

“ ”
v e ry wid e c h o ic e A n d re a d e l S ar to .
i s on e o f th e b e s t ,

l re v e a li n a s i td o e s t h e st re n g th an d t h e w e ak n e s s
goa St d u g
“
of
”
th e p e r f e c t p ai n te r w h os e l ov e for a s ou ll e s s ,

w om an wi th a p re tty f ac e s add e n s h i s li f e a n d h amp e rs h is

b e s t w k N e x t i n i m p o rtan c e to A n d re a s tan d s A n
o r .
“ “ ”

E pi s tl e
”
r e ci t
, i n g th e e xp e ri e n c e s o f K a rs h i s h an A ra b p h y ,

s i c i an , w h ic h i s o n e of th e b e s t e x am pl e s of B ro w n i n g s ’

1 An e ce e n t i tte b o o
x ll l l k v
fo r th e b e gi n n e r i s L o e tt’ s S e le c ti on s
f r om B r ow n i n g
( Se e l
S e ec ti on s for R ea di n
g, att i
h e e n d of th s c h a p te r ) .
 TH E V I C T O R I AN AG E 4 77

pecul i ar m e th o d of p re s e n ti n g th e tru th Th e h al f s c o fli n g .
-

h al f e arn e s t an d w h o lly b e wild e re d s ta te of th i s O ri e n ta l

-
,

s ci e n t i s ts m i n d i s cl e arly i n dic a te d b e tw e e n th e li n e s o f h i s
’

l e tte r to h is old m as te r H i s d e s c ri p ti on o f L az a ru s w h om
.
,

h e m e e ts by c h a n c e a n d o f th e s ta te o f m i n d of o n e w h o
, ,

h avi n g s e e n th e g l o r i e s of i m m ortali ty m u s tliv e ag a i n in th e ,

m id s t o f th e j u m bl e o f tr ivi a l a n d s tu p e n d o u s t h i n g s w h ic h
c on s ti tu te ou r li f e f o rm s on e of th e m o s t ori g i n a l an d s u g
,
”
g e s ti v e p oe m s i n o u r li t e ra tu re My L a s t D u ch e s s
. i s a

s h o r t b u t v e ry k e e n a n a ly s i s of t
,
h e s ou l of a s e l fi s h m a n ,

w h o r e v e a l s h i s c h ara c t e r u n c o n s ci ou s ly by h i s w o rd s of
p rai s e c o n c e rn i n g h i s d e a d wif e s pic tu re I n Th e B i s h o p ’
.

”
O rd e rs h is T o m b w e h av e a n ot h e r e x tra ordi n ar ily i n te re s t
i n g re v e l a ti o n o f th e m i n d o f a v a i n a n d w o rldly m a n th i s ,

ti m e a c h u r c h m an w h os e w ord s te ll y o u fa r m o re th an h e
,
“ ”
d re a m s a b ou t h is ow n c h arac te r A b tV o gler u n d ou b te dly
.
,

on e o f B ro w n i n g s fi n e s t p oe m s i s t h e s tu dy o f a m u s ic i an s
’ ’

Mu léy k e h
" ”
sou l .
g iv e s u s t h e s o u l of an A ra b v a i n a n d ,

p rou d o f h is f as t h ors e w h ic h w as n e v e r b e ate n i n a r a c e A

,
.

r iv a l s t e al s t h e h o r se a n d r id e s a w ay u p o n h e r b ack ; b u t ,

u s e d as s h e i s t ou c h s h e will n o t s h o w h e r
’
o h e r m as t er s t ,

b e s t p ac e to th e s tra n ge r Mu léy k e h r id e s u p f u ri ou s ly ; b u t
.

i n s te ad of s triki n g th e th i e f f rom h is s addl e h e b oa s ts ab ou t ,

h i s p e e rl e s s m a re sayi n g th a t i f a c e rta i n s p o t o n h e r n e ck
,

w e re tou c h e d wi th th e re i n s h e c ou ld n e v e r b e o v e r tak e n
,
.

I n s tan tly th e ro bb e r tou c h e s th e s p ot a n d th e m are an s w e rs ,

wi th a b u r s tof s p e e d th atm ak e s p u rs u i th o p e l e s s Mu léy k e h .

h a s l o s th i s m a re ; b u th e h a s k e p th i s p r id e i n th e u n b e a te n

W
”
on e an d is s a t
,
is fie d . m w h ic h re f u s e s an aly ,

s i s a n d w h ic h m u s t b e re a d e n t
,
i re t o b e a pp r e ci a t e d is p e r ,

h ap s th e m os t gu ote d of all B ro w n i n g s w ork s an d c on ta i n s ’

th e b e s t e xp re s s i o n o f h i s o w n f a i th in li f e b o th h e re an d
W
,

h e re a f te r A ll th e s e w o n d e r f u l p oe m s are ag ai n m e re ly a
.
, ,

s u gg e s t i on T h e y i n dic a te s i m ply th e w o rk s to w h ic h on e
.

r e ad e r t u rn s w h e n h e f e e l s m e n t a lly vi g orou s e n ou g h t o pick

4 78 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

u p B ro w i A n o t h e r li s t o f s o u l s t u di e s ci ti n g A T o cc a ta
n n g . ,

of G a l u ppi s
’ "
A,
G
"
e ra l “ 3
9 2 2 91 4 3i
1 ,
”

omo u
” ( j
"
Sa l u ,
"
C l e on ,
"
th e D e s e rt an d s q l ,
’

” ’

p i h C l i t m i h t i t h j d m nt be
of t e h S a n s o s e r g n a n o
,
e r s u g e , ,

m o re i n te re s ti n g a n d s u gg e s tiv e .

A m o n g B ro w n i n g s l o n ge r p oe m s th e re a re tw o a t l e as t
’

, ,

th a t w e ll d e s e rv e o u r s t u dy P z
pp a P a s s es a s id e f ro
. m i ts ,

r are p o e t ic al q u ali ti e s i s a s tu dy of u n c on s ci ou s
P i p pa P
,
as s e s
i n fl u e n c e Th e id e a of th e p o e m w as s u gg e s te d to
.

B row n i n g w h il e li s te n i n g to a g yp s y gi r l s i n g i n g i n th e w ood s
n e a r h is h o m e ; b u t h e t ra n s f e rs t h e s c e n e of th e a c ti on to
th e li ttl e m o u n ta i n to w n o f A S O10 i n I taly P ipp a i s a li ttl e ,
.

s ilk w e a v e r w h o g o e s o u t i n t
,
h e m o r n i n g to e n j oy h e r o n e
h o lid ay o f th e w h o l e y e a r A s s h e th i n k s o f h e r o w n h a ppi .

n e s s s h e i s va g u e ly wi s h i n g t h a t s h e m i g h t s h a re i t a n d d o ,

s o m e g oo d T h e n wi th h e r c h ild i s h i m ag i n a ti o n s h e b e gi n s
.
, ,

to w e a v e a li ttl e r o m an c e i n w h ic h s h e s h a re s i n th e h appi
n e s s of t h e f o u r g re a te s ta n d h a ppi e s t p e 0 p 1e i n A sol o It .

n e v e r o cc u rs t o her t h a t p e rh a p s th e re i s m ore o f mi s e ry
th an o f h appi n e s s i n th e f o u r g re a to n e s o f w h o m s h e d re a m s
an d s o s h e g oe s o n h e r w a s i n gi n g
y ,

Th e y e ar ’
h e spr n
s a tt i g
A n d d ay ’
he
s a tt m om ;
Morn i n g ’
5 a tse ve n ;
Th e h i l l s i d e d e w p e ar l e d
’
s -

Th e l ark s o n ’
th e wi n g ;
Th e s n ai l s on
’
th e t
h o rn
G od i n h is h e a v e n
’
5

Al l ’
5 r i g h tw i th he
t w or l d !
F ate will s i t th a t th e w ord s an d m u s ic of h e r l i ttl e s on g s
s h o u ld c o m e t o th e e a rs of f o u r di ff e re n t g ro u p s o f p e o pl e at
th e m o m e n t wh e n th e y a re f ac i n
g th e g re a te s t c ri s e s of th e i r
liv e s an d tu rn th e s c al e f ro m e vil to g ood B u t P i p p a k n o w s
, .

n ot h i n g of th i s S h e e n j oy s h e r h o lid ay a n d g oe s to b e d s till
.

sin in
g g e n ti re ly i g n o ra n t o f th e g o o d s h e h a s d o n e i n th e
,

wo rld Wi th on e e xc e p ti on i t i s th e m os t p e rf e c t of all
.

,
4 8o E NG LISH L IT E R ATU R E
’

i n a ll re s p e c t s t o r a n k w i th S h a k e s p e a r e s g re a t h e r o i n es ;

h P p pl did fi t h t n g e s t o f all B ro w n
a n d t e o e a s e n g u
,
re e s ro ,

i n g s m as c u li n e c h a ra c te rs Wh e n w e h a v e re ad th e s tory as
’
. ,

t o ld by th e s e f o u r di ff e re n t a c t or s w e h a v e th e b e s t of t h e
,

p oe ts w o rk a n d of W
'

,
nal p g g n j g fi u r4 an gu ag e _ r
,

B row n i n g s Plac e an d Me ss age B ro w n i n g s pl a c e i n ou r

’
’
.

li te ra tu re will b e b e tte r ap p re ci a te d by c o m p ari s on wi th h is

B w i g
ro n n d
f r i e n d T
an
e n n y s on w h o m w e h av e j u s t s t u di e d
,
I n .

T e nn y son
o n e re s p e c t a t le as t t h e s g pg e ts a rej n p e r f ec t
, k fi

a cc o rd E ac h fl cm.
lg e th e s u p re m e p u r p os e a n d m e an

i n g o f li f e I n o th e r re s p e c ts e s p e c ia lly i n th e i r m e th od s of
.
,

app r oac h i n g t h e tru th th e tw o m e n a re th e e x ac t o pp os i te s

,
.

T e n n y s o n 1 3 fi rst th e a rtisL an d th e n th e te ac h e fT b u t wi th
'

B ro w n i n g th e m e s s age i s alw ay s th e i m p o r ta n tth i n g an d h e ,

i s c a re l e s s too c a re l e s s of th e f or m i n w h ic h i t i s e xp re s s e d
, ,
.

A ga i n T e n n y s o n i s u n d e r th e i n flW
, W e
”
v i v al a n d c h o o s e s h i s s u bj e c t s d ai n t ily ; b u t a ll 3 fis h th at ’

c o m e s to B row n i n g s n e t He tak e s m ea g nd g gly s u b’

.
'
w

je c ts wi th e q u al pl e as u re an d ai m s to s h ow th a t tru th li e s ,

h idd e n i n b o th th e e vil a n d th e g o od T h i s c on tras t is all .

th e m o re s tr iki n g w h e n w e re m e m b e r th a t B r w n n g s e s se n
g i
’

tially s ci e n ti fi c a tti tu d e w a s tak e n by a m an w h o re f u se d to .

st u dy s ci e n c e Te m so n w h os e w o r k i s al w ay s a rti s tic
.
, ,

n e ve r s t u di e d a r t b u t w a s d e v o t ,ed t o t h e s ci e n c e s ; w h il e
B row n i n g w h o se w o rk i s s e ld o m a r ti s tic i n f or m th o u g h t
, ,

th a t a rt w a s th e m os t s u i tabl e s u bj e c t fo r a m an s s tu dy
’
.

Th e tw o p o e ts di ff e r e v e n m o re wid e ly i n th e i r re s p e c tiv e
m e s s ag e s T e n n y s o n s- m e s s ag e r e fl e c ts th e g row ing ord e r o f
.
’

th e ag e ari d i s s u m m e d u p i n th e w ord fl aw
''
”
B m w mg n
»
s , .

m e s sa g e
I n h i s vi e w th e i n divid u a l will m u s tb e s u pp re s s e d
,

th e s e l f m u s t alw ay s b e s u b o rd i n a t e His re s i g n a ti o n i s at .

ti m e s al m os t O ri e n ta l i n i ts f atali s m an d o cc a s i o n ally i t s u
g ,

g e s ts S c h o p e n h a u e r i n i ts m i x tu re of f a te an d p e s s i m i s m
B ro w n i n g m s sag e o n th e o th e r h an d i s th e t i j n h o b th e
.

, gu p ,

i n divid u al will o v e r all o b s ta cl e s ; th e se lf is n o t s u b ordi n ate ‘

 TH E V C I T O R I AN AG E 481

b ut so em e T h e re i s n o th i n g O ri e n ta l n oth i n g d ou b tful
.
, ,

n ot h i n g pe s s i m i s tic i n th e w h o l e ra n g e o f h i s p oe try H i s is .

th e v o ic e o f th e A n gl o S a x o n s ta n di n g u p i n th e f a c e of a ll
-
,

ob s t a cl e s an d s ayi n g
" ”
I c a n an d I will
,
He i s th e r e f ore far .
, ,

m o re ra dic al ! E n li s h T e n n o n ; a n d i t m ay b e fo r
th i s re a s o n th a th e i s th e m o re s tu d i e d an d th a t w h il e o h
y ut , ,

d e li g h ts i n T e n n y s o n m an h oo dW ,
ro w n

i n g B e c a u s e o f h is i n vi n cibl e will a n d o p ti m i s m B ro w n i n g
.
,

i s a t p re s e n tre ga rd e d a s th e p oe tw h o h a s s p ok e n th e s tr o n g
e s t Wo rd o f f a i t h to a n a g e of d ou b t H i s e n e rg y h i s c h e e r .
,

f u l c o u rag e h i s f a i th i n li f e a n d i n th e d e v e l o p m e n t th a t
,

a wai t s u s b e y on d t h e p o r tal s o f d e a th a re lik e a b u g l e c a ll to ,

-

go od livi n g . T h i s s u m s u p h is p re s e n t i n fl u e n c e u p on th e
m i n d s o f th os e w h o h a v e l e a rn e d to a p p r e c i a t e h im O f th e .

f u tur e w e c a n o n ly s ay th at b o th ath o m e a n d a b road h e s e e m s

, ,

to b e g a i n i n g s te a dily i n a pp re ci a ti o n a s th e y e a rs g o by .

M I NOR P OE T S OF THE V I CTO R I A N A G E

E li z ab e th B ar r e tt . i n or p oe ts of th e p as t
A m o n g th e m

c e n tu r y E li z ab e th B ar re tt ( Mr s B row n i n g) o cc u pi e s p e r h ap s
.

th e h i g h e s t pl a c e in p op u l a r f av or S h e w as b orn at C o x h oe .

H all n e ar D u r h a m in 1 8 0 6 ; b u t h e r c h ild h ood an d e ar ly

, ,

y ou th w e re s p e n tin H e re f ord s h i re am o n g th e M a lv e r n H ill s ,

m a d e f am ou s by P i e rs P lo w m a n I n I 8 3 5 th e B arr e tt f a m ily
.

m ov e d t o L on d on w h e re E li z a b e th g a i n e d a li te rary r e p u ta
,

ti on by th e p u blica ti on of T/ze S e rap /zi m a zza Ollze r P oe m s

'

T h e n ill n e s s an d th e s h o ck c a u s e d by th e trag i c d e ath

o f h e r b r ot h e r in 1 8 4 0 pl a c e d h e r f ra il li f e in d a n g e r a n d
, , ,

fo r s ix y e ar s s h e w a s c o n fi n e d to h e r ow n r oom Th e i n n ate .

st r e n gth a n d b e au ty of h e r spi r i t h e re s h ow e d i ts e l f s tr on g ly
in h e r d a ily s tu dy h e r p o e try a n d e s p e ci a lly in h e r i n te re s t
, ,

i n th e s o ci a l p robl e m s w h ic h s oo n e r o r l a te r o cc u pi e d a ll th e
V ic to r i an w r i te r s My m i n d to m e a ki n g d om is m i g h tw e ll
.

h a v e b e e n w r i tte n ov e r th e d oor o f th e room w h e r e th i s d e l ic ate

_

i n v a lid w ork e d a n d s u f e r e d i n l on e li n e s s a n d in s il e n c e
f

.
4 82 E N GLI SH L IT E R ATU R E
In 1 M i s s B ar re tt p u bli s h e d h e r P oe m s wh ic h th o ug h
84 4 , ,

s o m e w h a t imp u l s iv e a n d o v e r w rou g h t m e t wi t h re m ar k a bl e ,

”
p u blic fa v or S u c h p oe m s a s Th e C ry o f th e C h ild re n
.
,

w h ic h v o ic e s th e p rote s t of h u m an i ty aga i n s t c h ild l a b or ,

a pp e al e d t r e m e n d o u s ly t o t h e r e ad e rs o f th e a ge an d th i s ,

y o u n g w om an s fa m e a s a p oe t te m p orarily o v e r s h ad o we d
’

th at of T e n n y s on a n d B r o w n i n g I n d e e d a s l a te as 1 8 5 0 .
, ,

w h e n Word s worth di e d s h e w as s e ri o u s ly c on s id e r e d for th e

,
'

p o s i ti on of p oe t l a u re ate w h ic h w as fi n a lly g iv e n to T e n n y s on
, .

A re f e r e n c e to B row n i n g in L ady G e ra ldi n e s C ourtsh ip

’ ”
, ,

is s u pp os e d to h av e fi r s t le d th e p oe tto w r i t e t o M i s s B ar re t t ,

in 1 8 4 5 S oon a f te r ward s h e v i s i te d th e i n v a lid ; th e y f e ll i n

.

l ov e a l m os t at fi rs t s ig h t an d th e f ol l owi n g y e ar aga i n s t th e
, ,

wi s h e s of h e r f ath e r w h o w as e vid e n tly a s e lfi s h old t

,
y ran t ,

— B row n i n g c arr i e d h e r off an d m arr i e d h e r Th e e xq u i s i te .

rom an c e of t h e i r l ov e i s r e fl e c te d in M r s B ro w n i n g s S on n e t
’
s .

f rom t/ze P or tug u e s e ( I 8 T h i s i s a n obl e an d i n s pi ri n g

b ook of l ov e poe m s ; an d S te d m an re g ard s th e op e n i n g s on
"
net , I th oug h t on c e h ow T h e oc r i tu s h ad s un g as e q ua l to ,
”

an y in o ur l an g u ag e .

F or fi f te e n y e ar s t h e B ro w n i n g s l iv e d an id e ally h a ppy li f e
at P i s a a n d a tC a s a G u idi Fl or e n c e s h ar i n th e sa m e p tic l
,
g, o e a ,

a mbi t i on s A n d l ove w a s th e g rea te s tth i n g in th e w orld

.
,

How d o I l ov e h e e ? L e tm e
t w ay s he
c ou n tt .

I l o v e th e e to th e d e p th an d b re ad th an d h e i gh t
M y s o ul c an re ac h w h e n f e e l i n g o u to f s i g h t
,

F or th e e n d s of B e i n g a n d i d e a l G ra c e .

I l ov e th e e to th e l e v e l of e v e ry d a y s ’

Mos tq u i e tn e e d b y s u n an d c an d l e l i gh t
, .

I l o v e th e e fre e l y as m e n s tri v e for R i gh t

,

I l ov e th e e p u re l y as th e y tu rn f rom P ra i s e ;
,

I l o v e th e e wi th th e p as s i on p u tto u s e
I n m y old gr i e fs an d wi t , h m y C h il d h ood s f a i t
h ;
’

I l o v e th e e wi th a l o v e I s e e m e d to l os e
Wi th m y l os ts a i n ts I l o v e th e e wi th th e b re a t
,
—
h ,

S m il e s te ars o f all m l ife a n d if G od c h oos e —

, , y , ,

I s h all b u tl ov e th e e b e tte r a fte r d e ath .

 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
T/ze Ge r m h is
"
H an d an d S o u l a d e l icate p ros e ,
”
stu dy ,
hd
a
" ”
h is f am ous Th e B l e s se d D a m oz e l b e gi n n in g , ,

T h e b l e s s e d d a m o ze l l e an e d ou t

F ro m l
th e g o d b a r of He a v e n ;
He r y e s w e re d e e p e r th a n th e d e p th
e

O f w a te rs s till e d a te v e n ;
S h e h ad th re e l il i e s i n h e r h an d ,

A n d th e s tars i n h e r h a i r w e re s e v e n .

" ”
T h e s e tw o ea rly w ork s e s p e cia lly Th e B l e s s e d D am oz e l
, ,

wi th its s i m pl ici ty an d e xq u i s i te s pi r i tua l q u a li ty a re c h ara c ,

te ris tic of th e id e a l s of th e P re R a p h ae li te s -
.

I n 1 8 60 a f te r a l on g e n ga ge m e n t R o s s e tti m a rr i e d E li za
, ,

b e th S id d al a d e lic a te b ea u ti f u l E n g l i s h g i rl w h om h e h as
, , ,

i m m ortali z e d b oth in h is pic tu re s a n d i n h is p oe try S h e di e d .

tw o y e a rs l a te r a n d R os s e tti n e v e r e n ti r e ly r e c o v e re d f rom
,

th e s h ock A t h e r b u r i a l h e pl a c e d in h e r c offi n th e m an u
.

s c r ip ts o f all h is u n p u bli s h e d p oe m s a n d o n ly a t t h e p e rs i s t ,

e n t d e m an d s of h i s f r i e n d s d id h e a ll ow t h e m to b e e x h u m e d
an d p ri n t e d in 1 8 7 0 Th e p u bl ic a ti o n o f th i s v o l u m e o f l ov e
.

poe m s c re ate d a s e n s ati on in li te rar y ci r cl e s an d R os s e tti w a s ,

h a il e d a s on e of th e g re a te s t o f livi n g p oe ts I n 1 8 8 1 h e p ub .

lis h e d h is B a lla d s a n d S on n e t s a r e m ar k a bl e v o l u m e c on t
, ai n
" ”
in g a m on g o th e r p oe m s
, Th e C on f e s s i on
, m od e l e d a f te r ,

”
B ro w n i n g ; Th e B a ll ad of S i s te r H e l e n f o u n d e d on a m e d i ae ,
"
v al s u p e r s ti ti on ; Th e K i n g s T rag e dy a m as te rpi e c e of
' ”
,
" ”
d ra m atic n ar rativ e ; an d Th e H ou s e o f L i f e a c oll e c ti on of ,

on e h u n d re d an d o n e s on n e t s r e fl e c ti n g th e p oe ts lov e an d ’

l os s T h i s l a s t c oll e c ti on d e s e rv e s to ran k wi th M rs B row n

.
.

'

i n g s S on n e ts f rom t/ze P or tug u e s e a n d wi th S h ak e s p e ar e s ’

S on n e ts as o n e of th e th re e g re a t cycl e s o f l ov e p oe m s i n ou r
,

l an g uage I t h as b e e n w e ll sa id th at b o th R o s s e tti a n d M orri s

.

pa i n t pic tu re s as w e ll i n th e i r p oe m s a s on th e ir can va s e s an d ,

th i s pic tor i a l q ua li ty o f th e i r v e r s e is its c h i e f c h a ra c te r i s tic .

Morri s Willi a m M or r i s ( 1 8 3 4 1 8 96 ) i s a m o s t i n te re sti n g

. —

c ombi n ati on of l i te ra ry m an a n d arti s t I n th e l atte r c a pa ci ty .

,
 TH E V I C T O R I AN AG E 485

as a r c h i te c t d e s i g n e r a n d m an u f a c tu r e r o f f u rn i tu re c a rp e ts
, , , ,

a n d w all p a p e r a n d as f o u n d e r o f t
, h e K e l m s c ott P re s s f or
a rt i s tic p r i n ti n g an d b oo kbi n d i n g h e h as l a id u s a ll u n d e r an ,

i m m e n se d e b t of g rati tu d e F ro m b oy h oo d h e h a d s te e p e d .

h i m s e l f i n th e l e g e n d s an d id e a l s o f th e M iddl e A g e s an d h is ,

b e s t li te ra ry wo rk i s w h olly m e di ae va l in s pi r i t T/ze E a r t/zly .

P a ra a i s e ( 1 8 6 8 1 8 7 0 ) i s g e n e ra lly r e g a rd e d as h i s m a s te r
’
—

pi e c e T h i s d e li g h tf u l c oll e c ti on of s tor i e s i n v e r s e te ll s of a
.

rovi n g b a n d o f V iki n g s w h o ar e w re ck e d o n t h e fa bl e d i s l a n d
,

of A t l an ti s an d w h o di s c ov e r th e re a s u p e r i or ra c e of m e n
,

h avi n g th e c h arac te r i s ti c s o f id e a l G re e k s Th e V iki n g s r e .

m a i n f or a y e ar te lli n g s to r i e s of t h e i r o w n N or th l an d an d
, ,

li s te n i n g to th e cl as s ic an d O ri e n tal tal e s of th e i r h os ts .

M orri s s i n te re s t in I c e l a n d ic li te ratu re is f u r th e r s h ow n by
’

h is S igu rd t/ze Vols u ng an e pic f o u n d e d u p on on e o f th e old,

s a a s an d by h is p r os e rom an c e s
g , T/ze H ou s e of t/ze Wo lfi ng s , ,

Th e S tory o
f /ze
t G li tte r i ng P la i n , an d T/ze R oots f
o /ze
t
M ou n ta i n s . L a te r in l ife he b e c am e d e e ply i n te re s te d in
so ciali s m , an d tw o oth e r r om an ce s , T/ze D r e a m fj
o o zn/ B a ll
an d News f r om N ow /ze r e , i n te r e s ti n g as
ar e mo d e rn atte m p ts
at d e picti n g an id e al s oci e ty gov e rn e d by th e p r i n cipl e s of
M or e s U top ia
’
.

S w i n b urn e A l g e r n on C h arl e s S wi n b u rn e ( I S 3 7 1 9 0 9 ) i s
.
—
,

c h ron ol og ic al ly th e l as t of th e V ic tor i an p oe ts A s a n ar ti s t
, .

in te c h n iq u e — h avi n g p e r fe c t c om m an d o f all Old E n g li s h

v e rs e f o rm s an d a re m ark abl e fa c u l ty for i n v e n ti n g n e w he
s e e m s at t h e p r e s e n t tim e to ran k a m o n g th e b e s t in ou r l i te r
"
at u re . I n d e e d a s S te d m an s ay s b e f ore h is adv e n t w e did
, ,

”
n ot r e a li z e t h e f u ll s c o p e o f E n g l i s h v e r se T h i s r e fe rs to .

th e m e l od i o u s an d c o n s ta n tly c h a n g i n g f or m rath e r th a n to
th e c on te n t o f S wi n b u rn e s p oe try A t th e d e a th o f T e n n y
’
.

so n ,
i h 1 8 9 2 h e w a s u n d o u b te dly th e g re a te s t l ivi n g p oe t a n d
, ,

on ly h i s l ib e ral Opi n i o n s h is s c orn of roy a l t y an d of c on v e n

,

ti on s an d th e p r e j u d ic e ar o u s e d by th e p ag an s pi r i t o f h i s
,

e ar ly w or k p r e v e n t e d h is a pp oi n tm e n t a s p oe t l au r e ate He .
4 86 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

h as w r i tte n a v e ry la rge n u mbe r of p oe m s d ram as an d e s say s , ,

in li te rary c r i tici s m b u t w e a re s till too n e ar to j u d g e of th e

pe rm a n e n c e of h is w o rk or of h is pl a c e i n li te ra tu r e T h os e .

w h o w ou ld re a d an d e s tim ate h i s w ork f or t h e m s e lv e s will d o

w e ll to b e g i n wi th a v o l um e of se l e c te d p oe m s e s p e ci a lly ,

th o s e w h ich s h o w h is l ov e of t h e sea an d h is e xq u i s i te app re

c iat ion o f c h ild li f e H is A ta la n ta i n Ca ly on
. a
’
a be a uti
f u l ly r ic d ram a m o d e l e d on th e G re e k trag e dy is g e n e ra lly ,

re g ard e d a s h is m a s t e r pi e c e I n all h is w ork S wi n b u rn e c a rr i e s

.

T e n n y s on s l ov e of m e l ody to an e x tre m e a n d o f te n s a c rifi c e s

’

s e n se t o s oun d H is p oe try is a lwa y s m u s ic al an d lik e m u s ic

.
, , ,

a pp ea l s a lm os t e xcl u s iv e ly t o th e e m o ti on s .

We h av e c h os e n s om e wh at a r bi trar ily th e s e f ou r w r ite r s

, ,

Mr s B row n i n g D G R o s s e tti M orr i s an d S wi n b u r n e

.
, . . as , ,
—

re p re se n t at ive of th e m i n or p o e ts of th e age ; b u t th e re ar e
m an y o t h e rs w h o are w or th y o f s tu dy A rth u r H u g h C l ou gh ,

a n d M at th e w A rn o ld w h o are O f te n c a ll e d th e p oe ts of s k e p
1
,

tic is m b u tw h o in r ea li ty re p r e s e n ta re v e re n ts e e ki n g f o r tr u th
,

th ro u g h r e as o n an d h u m an e xp e r i e n c e ; F r e d e r ick Willi am
F ab e r th e C ath ol ic m y s tic auth or of s om e e xq u i s i te hy m n s ;
, ,

an d t h e s c h o l ar ly J o h n K e bl e a u th or of T/ze Ch r i s ti a n Ye a r
, ,

o u r b e s t k n o w n b o ok o f d e v ot i on a l v e r s e ; an d am on g th e
w om e n p oe ts A d e l a id e P ro c te r J e an I n g e l o w a n d C h r i s ti n a
, , ,

R o s s e tti e a c h o f w h om h ad a l ar g e a d m i r in g ci r cl e of re a d e rs
, , .

I t w ou ld b e a h op e l e s s tas k a t th e p r e s e n t ti m e to i n q u i r e i n to
th e r e l ativ e m e r i ts o f a ll th e s e m i n or p oe ts We n ote on ly .

th e i r c ar e f u l w o r k m an s h ip an d e xq u i s i te m e l ody th e i r wid e ,

ran e of t h ou g h t an d f e e li n g th e i r eag e r s e ar c h for tru th

g , ,

e c h in h is o w n w a a n d e s p e ci a lly t h e n ote of f re s h n e s s a n d
a y ,

Vi tali ty w h ich th e y h ave g iv e n to E n gl i s h p oe try .

1
A ld w
rn o as o n e o f th e be s t k w no n p oe ts o f th e a ge , b u t b e cau se h e h as e x e rte d a.

i fl
d ee pe r n u e n ce on o ur lit
e ra tu re a s a c r ii v v
tc , w e h a e re se r e d h i m fo r S pec a s tu d i l y a m on g
th e e ssa yi s ts
( See p
. .
4 88 E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
Th e d e ts b st il l p u rs u e d h im , an d a fte r tw o ye ars of gran d i l oq u e n t
m i sfo rtun e h e w as th rown in to th e p oo r d e btors p ri son H is w ife -
’
.
,

th e o r i gi n a l o f M rs M i c a w b e r th e n se t u p th e f a m o u s B o a r d i n g
.
,

E sta b l i s h m e n tfo r Y o n g L ad i e s ; b u t in D i c ke n s s w o rd s n o yo u n g
’
u , ,

l ad i e s e ve r c am e T h e o n l y vi s i to rs w e re c re d i to rs an d th e y w e re
. ,

q u i te fe roc i o us I n th e p i c tu re of th e M i c aw b e r fam i l y w i th its te ars

. ,

a n d s m il e s a n d ge n e ra l s h if t l e ssn e ss w e h a v e a sugge s ti on of D ic ke n s s ,
’

o w n fa m i l y l if e .

At e l e ve n ye ars o f age th e b oy w as tak e n o u tof sc h o o l a n d w e n t

to w o rk in t h e c e l l a r o f a b l ac k i n g fa c to ry At th i s ti m e h e w as in .
,
"
h is o w n w o rd s a q u e e r sm a l l b oy w h o su ff e re d as h e w o rk e d ;
, ,
”

a n d w e c an a p p re c i a t e t h e b oy an d th e su ff e ri n g mo re w h e n w e fin d
both re fle te d in th e c h a rac te r o f D a v i d C o pp e rfie l d I tis a h e a rt
c .

re n d i n g p i c t u re th i s se n s i tiv e c h i l d w o rki n g f ro m d a w n ti l l d a rk for

,

a fe w p e n n i e s an d assoc i at ,
in g w i th tough s an d w ai fs in h is b ri e f in
te r als o f l a bo r ; b u t w e c an se e in it th e s ou rc e s of th at i n ti m a t
v e

k n o wl e d ge o f th e h e arts o f th e p oo r a n d ou tc as t w h i c h w as soon
t o be re fle c te d in l i t e ra t u re an d t o st a rtl e all E n gl an d by its a pp e a l
for s y m p a th y A s m a l l l e ga c y e n d e d th i s w re tc h e d n e ss b rin gi n g th e
.
,

fath e r f ro m th e p ri son an d s e n d i n g th e b oy to We l l i n gton H ou se

Ac ad e m y , a w o rt
— h l e ss an d b u t a l sc h ool e vid e n t
ly w h o se h e ad
r , ,

e r w as i n D i c ke n s s w o rd s a m o s ti n o ran t f e l l o w a n d a ty ran t
’
m ast , g , .

He l e a n e d l i ttl e a tth i s p l a c e b e i n g i n te re ste d c h i e fly in s to ri e s an d

r , ,

in ac ti n g ou tth e h e o i c p a rts w h i c h a pp e a l e d to h is i m a gi n a ti on ; b u t
r

aga i n h is
p e rson a l e x p e ri e n c e w as of i m m e n s e va l u e a n d re su l te d in ,

h is fam ous p i c tu re o f D o th e b oys H a l l in N i e lzola s M e k le o y w h ic h

'

, ,

h e l p e d large ly to m i ti ga te th e e v i l s o f p ri v a te sc h oo l s in E n gl an d .

Wh e re v e r h e w e n t D i c k e n s w as a m arv e l ou s ly k e en o b se rv e r w i th
, ,

an ac t ive i m agi n a tion w h i c h m ad e s to ri e s o u t Of i n c id e n ts an d C h a r

ac t e rs t h a t o rd in ary m e n w ou l d h a v e h a rd l y n oti c e d M ore o v e r h e .

was a b o rn ac t o r a n d w as a t on e t , i m e th e l e ad i n g s p i ri t of a ban d
of a m a t e u s w h o ga v e e n t
r e rt ain m e n t s fo r C h a r i t
y all ove r E n gl an d .

T h e se th re e th i n gs h is k e e n O bse rvati on h is ac tiv e

, ,

an d t h e ac tor s sp i ri tw h ic h an im a te d h im fu h is l i fe
’

an d w ri ti n gs .

Wh e n on l y fi fte e n y e ars old h e l e f t th e sc h oo l an d aga in w e n tto ,

w ork th i s tim e as c l e rk in a l awy e r s Offi c e By n i gh t h e s tu d i e d

,
’
.

s h o rth an d i n o rd e r to fith i m s e l f to b e a re o rte r

,
p th i s in i m i t
ati on ,

o f h is fa t h e r w h o w as n ow e n a e d b y a n e ws a e r to re o rt th e
,
g g p p p
sp e e c h e s in Pa rl ia m e n t E ve ry th i n g th at D i c ke n s a tte m p te d se e m s
.
 CH AR L E S D C I K E NS
A ft
er th e p ortra i tb y D i l M
an e a c li s e
4 90 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E ‘

h e tu rn e d l e c tu ri n g to h is n ove l s a n d th e n fo r
f rom h is , , re a l xa
ti on , gav e h i m s e lf u p t o w h a t h e c all e d t h e m agi c l an te rn of th e

Lo n d on stre e t
s .

In 1 84 2 , w h il e st il l a you n g m an , D i c k e n s w as i n v i te d to vi s i tth e
U n i te d St
ates an d C a n ad a , w h e re h is w o rk s w e re e v e n be t te r kn o wn

th an in E n g l an d , an d w h e re h e was re c e iv e d th e gu e st of th e
as

i
n a ton an d ed
tre a t wi th e ve ry i i m ar k of h on or an d a pp re c aton At .

th is tim e Am e ri c a w as t o m os tE u ro p ea n s a ki n d of h u ge fa i ry l an d
, , ,

w h e re m on e y s p ran g ou t of th e e arth an d l i fe wa s h appy as a l on g ,

h o l id a y D i c k e n s e v i d e n tly s h are d th i s ro sy vi e w an d h is rom an tic

.
,

e xpe c t ati on s w e re n atu ral ly di s ap p o i n te d Th e c ru d e u n fi n i sh e d .

l
,

l ook of th e b ig c oun try se e m s to h av e ro use d a stron g p re j u d i c e in

h is m i n d w h ic h w as n ot ove rc o m e at th e ti m e o f h is se c o n d vi s i t
, ,

twe n t y five y e ars l ate r an d w h ic h b rou gh t forth th e h arsh c ri ti c ism

-
,

of h is A m e r i c a n N ot
es
( 1 84 2 ) an d of M a r tin C/zuzzle w i t ( 1 8 4 3
Th e se tw o un ki n d b ook s struc k a fals e n ote , an d D ic ke n s
be gan l ose so m e th i n g of h is gre atp opu l ari ty I n add i ti on h e h ad
t
o .

s p e n tm on e y b e y o n d h is i n c o m e H is d o m e sti c l if e w h i c h h ad be e n
.
,

at fi rs tv e ry h a pp y b e c am e m ore an d m o re i r ri t
, at i n g u n ti l h e s e pa ,

ra t e d f ro m h is w i fe in 1 8 5 8 To ge t i n s p i ra ti on w h i c h se e m e d for a
.
,

ti m e t o h av e fa il e d h e j o u rn e ye d to I t a ly
, b u t w as di sapp o i n te d , .

Th e n h e tu rn e d bac k to th e L o n d on stre e ts, an d in th e fiv e y e ars

f ro m 1 84 8 t
o 1 85 3 a pp e a re d D om oey a nd S on , D a v id Copp e rfie ld ,
an d B le a k [l ow e, — th re e re m ar k ab l e n ove l s , w h i c h i n di c a te th at
h e h ad re d sc o
i v e re d h is p o w e r an d ge n i u s La te r h e re s u m e d
own .

h e pu
t b l ic re ad in gs , wi th th e ir p u blic triu m p h a n d ap p l au s e , w h ic h
soo n c am e o be
t i ty to on e w h o c rav e d p op u l ari ty as a
a n e c e ss

h un gry m an c rave s b re ad Th e se e xc i te m e n ts e x h au ste d D ic ke n s

.
,

p h y s i c a l l y an d s p i ri tu a l ly an d d e ath wa s th e i n e vi t
, ab l e r e su lt He .

d i e d in 8 7 0 ove r h is u n fi n i s h e d E d w i n B r e e a an d w as b u r i e d in
1 ,
’
,

We s tm i n ste r Abbe y .

Di c k e n s Work in Vi e w of h i s L i f e A g l a n c e th roug h e v e n
’
s .

th i s u n sati s f a c to ry bi o r a p h y
g g iv e s u s c e r t
a in i ll u m in a ti n g
gge s ti on s in r e gar d to a ll of D ick e n s s w or k F i rs t as a ’
su .
,

c h ild p oor an d l on e ly l on gi n g for l o v e an d for s oci e ty h e

, , ,

l aid th e f ou n d a ti on for th os e h e a rtr e n d i n g pic tu re s of c h il

d re n wh ich h av e m ove d s o m an y r ea d e r s to u n acc u s tom e d
,

tea r s S e c on d as cl e r k i n a l awy e r s offi c e a n d in th e c ou r ts

.
,
’

,
 TH E V I C T O R I AN AG E 491

h e g a i n e d h is k n owl e d g e of an e n ti r e ly d i ff e re n ts id e of h u m an
li f e H e re h e l e ar n e d to u n d e r s ta n d
. b oth th e e n e m i e s an d
th e vic tigns
.
ci e ty b e twe e n w h om th e h ar s h
of s o , th at
d ay f re q u e n tly m ad e n o d i s ti n c ti on T h i rd a s a r e p or te r an d
.
, ,

a ft e r wa r d s a s m a n a g e r O f v ar i ou s n e w s p ap e r s h e l e a rn e d t he ,

tr ick o f ra cy w r i ti n g an d of k n o wi n g to a n ic e ty w h at w ou ld
,

suit t h e p op u l ar ta s te F ou r th a s an ac tor a lw ay s an ac tor

.
, ,

in s pi r i t h e s e i z e d u p on e v e r y d ra m a tic p os s ibili ty e v e r y
, ,

te n se s i tu a ti on e v e r y p e c u l i ar i ty o f v o ic e an d g e s tu re in t
,
he
p e opl e w h om h e m e t a n d re p r od u c e d th e s e th i n g s i n h is
,

n ov e l s e x ag g e r at
,
i n g th e m in th e w ay th at m ost pl e a se d h is
au di e n c e .

Wh e n w e tu rn f rom h is ou tw ar d tra i n i n g to h is i n n e r d is
p os i ti on w e fin d tw o s tron g ly m ar k e d e l e m e n ts Th e fi r s t is .

h i s e xc e s s iv e i m ag i n a ti on w h ic h m ad e g ood s tor i e s o u t o f in
,

c id e n t s t h at ordi n arily p as s u n n otic e d an d w h ic h d e s c r ib e d ,

th e c o m m on e s t th i n g s — a s t re e t a s h o p a fog a l a m p p o s t
, , ,
-
,

a st ag e c oa c h wi th a w e al th of d e ta il an d of rom an tic s ug
—

g e s ti on th at m a k e s m an y o f h is d e s c r ip ti on s lik e ly r ic p oe m s .

Th e s e c on d e l e m e n t is h is e x tre m e s e n s ibili ty w h ic h fi n d s ,

r e li e f on ly in l a u g h t e r an d t e ars L ik e s h ad ow an d s u n s h i n e
.

th e s e f oll o w on e an oth e r cl ose ly th rou g h ou ta ll h is b ook s .

R e m e m b e r i n g th e s e tw o th i n g s h i s tra i n i n g an d di s p o s i ti on
, ,

w e c an e as ily f or e s e e th e k i n d o f n ov e l h e m u s t p ro d u c e He .

Di k
c e n s an d will b e s e n ti m e n ta l e s p e ci ally ov e r c h ild r e n an d
,

hi P W
s U
ou t
C
c a s ts ; h e will e xc u se th e i n divid ua l in v i e w o f
th e f au l ts of s oci e ty ; h e wil l b e d ra m atic or m e l od ra m atic ;
an d h i s s e n s ibili t y will k e e p h im alway s cl o s e to th e p u blic ,

st u dyi n i ts ta t d pl yi wi th i t m il d te ars I f
g s e s a n a n
g s s e s a n .

pl e as i n g th e p u blic b e in i ts e l f an ar t th e n D i ck e n s is on e of,

our g r ea t e st a r t i s ts A n d it is w e ll to re m e m b e r th at in
.

pl e a s i n g h is p u blic th e r e w as n oth i n g of th e h yp o c r i te or
d e m agog u e in h is m ak e u p He w as e s se n tially a p art of th e
-
.

g r e a t d r i f ti n g p an ora m ic c ro wd th a t h e l o v e d H i s s ym p a .

th e tic s ou l m a d e all th e i r j oy s an d g r i e f s h is ow n H e f ou g h t .
4 92 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
i i j ic h e ch ampi on e d th e w e a k aga i n stth e s tron g ;
ag a n s t n u s t e

h e g av e c o u ra g e to th e f a i n t an d h op e to th e w e ar y in h e art ,

a n d in t h e l ov e w h ic h th e p u blic g a v e h im in r e tu rn h e f o un d
’

h i s b e s tre wa r d H e re i s th e s e c r e tof D ick e n s s u n p re c e d e n te d

.

p op u l a r s u cc e s s a n d w e m ay n ote h e r e a v e ry s i g n i fic an t
,

parall e l wi th S h a k e s p e a re Th e g re at d i ff e re n c e in th e g e n i u s
.

a n d w ork o f t h e tw o m e n d o e s n ot c h a n g e th e f ac t th at ea c h
w on s u cc e s s l a rg e ly b e c au s e h e s tu di e d a n d pl e as e d h is p u bl ic .

Ge n e r al Plan of D ic k e n s s Nov e ls A n i n te r e s ti n g s u g g e s
’
.

ti on c o m e s to u s f ro m a s tu dy o f th e c on d i ti o n s w h i c h le d to
D ick e n s s fi r s tth re e n ov e l s P i c k w i c k w a s w r i tte n atth e s u g
’
.
,

g e st i o n o f an e di t o r fo r s e r i a l p u blic a t
, i on E a c h c h ap t e r w as .

to b e a cc om pan i e d by a ca r toon by S e y m ou r (a c o m ic a rti s t

of t h e da y ) a n d th e o bj e c t w a s to am u se th e p u bl ic an d i n ci
, , ,

d e n tally to s e ll th e p ap e r Th e r e s u l t w as a s e r i e s of c h ara c
, .

te rs a n d s ce n e s a n d i n cid e n ts w h ic h f or vi g or an d b ou n dl e s s
fu n h av e n e v e r b e e n e q u al e d i n ou r l an g u a ge T h e r e a f te r n o .
,

m atte r w h ath e w ro te D ick e n s w a s l a b e l e d a h u m or i s t L ik e

, .

a c e rt a i n A m e r ic an w r i t e r o f o u r o w n g e n e ra t i on e ve ry th i n g ,

h e s a id w h e th e r fo r a f e as t o r a f u n e ral w a s s u pp o s e d to c on
, ,

tai n a l a u g h In a w. or d h e w as t h e vic ti m of h is ow n b ook

, .

D ick e n s w a s k e e n e n o ugh to u n d e r s tan d h is d a n g e r a n d h is ,

n e x t n ov e l Oli v e r Tw i s t h ad th e s e ri ou s p u r p o s e o f m itig at
, ,

in g th e e vil s u n d e r w h ic h th e p oor w e re s u ff e r i n g I ts h e ro .

w a s a p o or c h ild t h e u n f o r tu n ate vic ti m o f soci e ty ; a n d i n

, ,

ord e r t o d ra w a t te n ti on to th e r e a l n e e d D ick e n s e x agge rate d ,

th e w oe f ul c on di ti on of th e p o or an d fill e d h is p a e s wi th s e n
g ,

tim e n t w h ic h ea s ily s lipp e d o v e r i n to se n ti m e n ta l i ty This .

a l s o w a s a p o p u l ar s u cc e s s an d i n h is t h i rd n ov e l N i c /zola s
, ,

N i c k /c lip an d i n d e e d in m o s t o f h is r e m a i n i n w ork s D ick e n s

,
g ,

c om bi n e d th e p r i n cipl e s o f h i s fi rs t tw o b ook s g ivi n g u s m i rth ,

on t h e o n e h an d i n j u s ti c e a n d s u ff e r i n o n th e th e r ; m i n
,
g o

g li n g h u m o r a n d p ath o s te a rs an d l au gh te r as w e fin d th e m
, ,

i n li f e i ts e l f A n d in ord e r to i n cr e a se th e li h ts an d s h ad ow s
g
.

in h is s ce n e s an d to iv e re a te r d ram a tic e ff e c t to h is n a rra

g
,
g
 4 94 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

so ci a l p r obl e m s a n d t o c r i tici s e o u r c h e e r y c o m p an i on s e e m s

as di s c o u r te o u s a s to s p ea k u n ki n dly o f a g u e s t w h o h as j u st
l e f t ou r h om e B u t w e m u s t c on s id e r D ick e n s n ot m e r e ly as
.

a f ri e n d ,
b u t a s a n ov e li s t a n d apply to h is w o r k th e s am e
,

st a n d a rd s of ar t w h ic h w e a pply t o ot h e r w r i te rs ; an d w h e n
w e d o th i s w e ar e s o m e ti m e s a li t tl e di s a pp o i n te d We m u s t .

c on f e s s th at h is n ov e l s w h il e th e y c on ta i n m an y r e a li s tic d e
,

ta il s s e ld om g iv e th e i m p re s s i on of re a li ty
,
H is c h ara c te r s
.
,

th o u g h w e l a ug h o r w e e p o r s h u dd e r at th e m a r e s o m e tim e s ,

o n ly c a r ica t u re s e a c h on e a n e x agg e ra t i on o f s o m e p e c u li ari t y

\ , ;
w h ic h s u gg e s t B e n J on s on s E v e ry Ma n i n H is H u m ou r I t
’
.

is D ick e n s s art to g iv e h is h e roe s s u ffici e n t r e ali ty to m a k e

’

th e m s ug g e s tc e r ta i n typ e s o f m e n an d w o m e n w h om w e k n ow
b ut i n re ad i n g h im w e fin d o u rse lv e s o f te n in th e m e n ta l s tate
o f a m an w h o is w a t ch i n g th ro ug h a m icr os c o p e th e s w arm i n g
li fe o f a w ate r d r op H e r e a re l iv e ly b u s tli n g e x traordi n ary
.
, ,

c re atu re s s om e b e au ti f u l s om e g r ote s q u e b u t a ll far apar t

, , ,

f rom th e li fe th atw e k n o w in d a ily e xp e r i e n c e I t is c e rta i n ly .

n ot t h e re a l i ty o f th e s e c h arac te rs b u t r ath e r th e g e n i u s of
,

th e a u th o r in m an ag i n g th e m w h ic h i n te r e s ts u s an d h old s
,

o u r at te n ti on . N otwi th s tan di n g th i s c r i tici s m w h ic h w e w ou ld ,

g l a dly h a v e o m i tte d D ick e n s i s e xc e ll e n t r e a di n g a n d h is

, ,

n ov e l s will c on t i n u e to b e p op u l ar j u s t s o l on g as m e n e n j oy
a w h o l e s om e a n d a b s or bi n
g s tory .

Wh at to R e ad A s id e f ro m th e re f orm s in s c h ool s an d
.

pri son s an d w or k h ous e s w h ic h D ick e n s a cc ompl i s h e d h e h as ,

l a id u s all r ic h an d p oor al ik e u n d e r a d e b t of g r ati tu d e

, , .

A f te r th e y ea r 1 8 4 3 th e on e li te rary w or k w h ic h h e n e v e r
n e le ct e d w as t o f u rn i s h a C h r i s t m as s tor y fo r h is re a d e rs ;
g
a n d it is d u e i n s om e m e as u r e t o t h e h e lp of th e s e s tor i e s ,

b ri m m i n g ov e r wi th g ood c h e e r th at C h r i s tm as h as b e c om e
,

in all E n g li s h s p e aki n g c o u n tr i e s a se a son o f l ad n e s s of i f t

g g
-

g ivin g ath o m e a n d o f r e m e m b e r i n g th ose l e s s f ortun a te th a n

,

o u r s e lv e s , w h o a re s till m e m b e rs o f a c o m m on b roth e r h ood .

I f w e re ad n oth i n g e l s e of D ick e n s on c e a y e a r at C h r i s tmas , ,

 TH E V C I T O R I AN AG E 495

ti m e , w e s h ou ld re m e m be r h im a n d re n e w ou r y o u th by re a d
in g on e of h is h olid a y sto r e s, i T/t€ Cr i c k e t on t/ze He a r t/i ,
Tli e C/zi m e s , anb ov e a ll th e u n r iva l e d Ck r i s tm a s Ca r ol
d a .

Th e l atte r e s p e ci a lly will b e re ad an d l o v e d a s l on g as m e n

ar e m ov e d by t h e s pi r i to f C h r i s tm a s .

O f th e n ov e l s D a v i d Copp e iyi e ld i s r e ga rd e d by m an y as
,

D ick e n s s m a s te rp i e c e I ti s w e ll to b e gi n wi th th i s n o v e l n ot
’

,
.

s i m ply fo r t h e u n u s u a l i n te r e s t of th e s tor y b u t a l so f or th e ,
-i

g l i m p s e it g iv e s u s of th e au th or s o w n b oy h oo d a n d f am ily
’
.

F or p u r e f u n a n d h il a r i ty P i c k w i c k will a lw ay s b e a f a v or i te
b u t for arti s tic fi n i s h an d fo r th e p or tray a l o f on e g r e a t
,

c h ara cte r S yd n e y C arton n oth i n g e l se th at D ick e n s w rote is

, ,

c om p ara bl e to A Ta le of Tw o Ci ti e s H e r e is an ab sorbi n g .

T l
a e o f Tw st or y wi t h a c ar e f u lly c on s tru c te d pl ot a n d th e ,
o ,

C i ti
es
ac t i on m o v e s s w if tly to its th r illi n g i n e vi tabl e c on ,

e l u s ion. U s u ally D ick e n s i n trod u c e s s e v e ra l p ath e tic or g ro

te s q u e o r l a u g h a bl e c h ara c te rs b e s id e s th e m a i n ac tor s an d ,

r e c o r d s v ar i ou s u n n e c e s sar y d ra m a t i c e pi sod e s f or th e i r ow n
s ak e ; b u t i n A Ta le o T o Ci t i e s e v e ry t i h s its pl a c e
f w h n
g a

in th e d e v e l op m e n t of th e m a i n s tor y T h e re a r e as u s u al .
, ,

m an y c h a ra c t e rs S yd n e y C ar ton th e outc as t w h o l ay s d ow n
, , ,

h is li f e for th e h appi n e s s o f on e w h o m h e l ov e s ; C h ar l e s
D arn a y a n e x il e d y o u n g F re n c h n obl e ; D r M an e tte w h o
, .
,

" ”
h as b e e n r e c a ll e d t o li f e f r om a f r i g h tf u l i m p r i son m e n t ,

a n d h is g e n t l e d au gh te r L u ci e th e h e ro i n e ; J a r vi s L or ry a
, ,

l ova bl e old fas h i on e d cl e r k in th e b ig b an k i n g h ou s e ; th e

,
-

te rr ibl e Ma d a m e D e f arge k n i tti n g c a l m ly at th e d oor of h e r

,

wi n e s h op an d re c or di n g wi th th e f e ro ci ty of a ti g e r licki n g
,

its c h op s th e n am e s o f all th o s e w h o ar e m ark e d f or v e n

,

g e a n c e ; a n d a d oz e n oth e r s e a c h w e ll d raw n w h o pl ay m i n or
, ,

p arts in th e trag e dy Th e s c e n e i s l a id i n L on d on a n d Pa r i s
.
,

att h e ti m e o f th e F re n c h R e v o l u ti on ; an d th ou g h c ar e l e s s of ,

h i s toric a l d e tail s D ick e n s re p r od u c e s th e s pi r i t of th e

,

o f T e rror so w e ll t h a t A Ta le of Tw o Ci ti e s i s an
s u ppl e m e n t t o t h e h i s tor y of th e p e ri od I t is w .
4 96 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

D ick e n s l pic ture s q u e s tyl e an d r e v e al s h is u s u al im ag i

’

s u s ua ,

n at ive outl ook on li f e an d h is f on d n e s s for fin e s e n ti m e n ts

a n d d ra m a tic e pi s od e s I n d e e d all h is q ua liti e s are h e r e s h ow n
.
, ,

n ot b rilli an t ly or gari s h ly a s in oth e r n ov e l s b u t s u bd ue d , ,

a n d s o ft e n e d lik e a s h a d e d li g h t f o r a r t
,
i s tic e ff e c t ,
.

T h o s e w h o a re i n te re s te d i n D ick e n s s g row th a n d m e th od s ’

ca n h a rdly d o b e t te r th an to re ad in s u cc e s s i o n h i s fi rs t th re e
n ov e l s P i c k w i c k Oli v e r Tw i s t an d N i c k ola s N i c kle by
, ,
w h ic h , , ,

as w e h av e i n dic at e d S h o w cl e a r ly h o w h e p a s s e d f r o m f u n t
, o

se r i o u s p u rp o s e a n d w h ic h f u rn i s h i n c om bi n a t
,
ion th e g e n e ra l
pl a n of a ll h is l ate r w or k s F o r th e r e s t w e Can on ly i n dic ate
.
,

th os e w h ic h i n o ur p e r s on a l j u d g m e n t s e e m be s t w o rth r e ad
, ,

in g , — B lea k H ou s e ,
D o m b ey and S on , Ou r M u tu a l F rien d ,
an d Old Cu r i os i t
y S k p
o , — b ut w e a re n ot
y et far e n ou gh

aw ay f rom th e fi rs t p op u l ar s u c ce s s of th e s e w or k s to d e te r
mi n e th e i r p e rm an e n tv al ue an d i n flu e n c e .

WI L L I A M MA K E P E A C E T HA C K E R AY ( 1 8 1 1 1 8 6 3 ) —

A s th e tw o m o s t s u cc e s s f u l n ov e li s ts o f th e i r d ay it is n at ,

ur al for u s as it w a s for t , h e i r p e rs on a l f r i e n d s an d a d m i re rs ,

to c o m pa re D ick e n s an d T h ack e ray wi th r e s p e c t to th e i r li f e

a n d w or k an d t h e i r a tti tu d e to w ard th e w o r ld i n w h ic h th e y
,

liv e d D ick e n s a f te r a d e s p e rate ly h ar d s tr ugg l e in h i s b oy

.
,

h ood wi th o u t f r i e n d s or h i g h e r e d u c a ti on c om e s i n to m an
,
,

h ood c h e e ry s e l f c on fid e n t e n e r e tic fil l e d wi th th e o o f
g j y
-
, , ,

h is w o rk a n d in th e wo r ld w h ic h h ad at fi rs t tr e a te d h i m s o ,

h ars h ly h e fi n d s g ood e v e ryw h e re e v e n i n th e j a il s a n d i n

,
,

th e s l u m s s i m p ly b e c a u s e h e is l o oki n f or i t T h a ck e ra y
,
g .
,

a fte r a b oy h oo d s p e n t in t h e b e s t of E n g li s h s c h oo l s wi th ,

m on e y f r ie n d s an d c om f or ts o f e v e ry k i n d fa c e s li f e ti m idly
, ,
'
, ,

di s tru s tf u lly a n d di s lik e s th e l i te rary w or k w h ich m ak e s h im

,

fam ou s He h as a g ra ci ou s an d l o va bl e p e r s on al i ty is ki n d of
.

d re v e re s all th at i s p u r e an d g ood in li f e ; y e t h e
s t cy n ic a l t o wa r d t h e w o rld w h i c h u s e s h im s o w e l l ,

d s s h a m s d e c e p ti on s v a n i ti e s e v e ryw h e re b e c au s e
, , ,

4.
4 98 E N G LI SH L IT E R ATU R E
i
a rts t . Wh e n h e be c am e of age in 1 8 3 2 h e c a m e i n to p oss e ss i on of
, ,

a c o m fo rt ab l e f o rtu n e re t u rn e d t
,
o E n gl an d a n d s e t tl e d d o w n in th e ,

T e m ple to s tud y law S oon h e b e gan to di s l i k e th e p rofe ss ion in

.

te n se l y a n d w e h a v e i n P e n de n n i s a re fl e c t
,
ion of h is m e n ta l atti tud e
to w ard t h e la w a n d th e you n g m e n w h o s t u d i e d i t H e s oon l os th is .

fortun e p artly b y gam b l in g an d sp e c u l ati on p artl y b y u n suc c e ssfu l

, ,

at e m pt
t s a t ru n n i n g a n e w s p a p e r a n d a t t we n ty two b e gan fo r th e -
,

fi rst ti m e to e a rn h is own l i vi n g as an arti st an d i l l u strato r An ih

, .

te re s tin g m e e ti n g b e twe e n T h ack e ra y an d D i ck e n s a t th i s ti m e

I
( 3 ) gg
8 6 s u e s t
s t h e r e l a tiv e i m p o rta n c e of t h e tw o w r i te rs S e ym o ur .
,

wh o was i l l us t ra ti n g th e P i ckw i ck P ap e r s h ad j ustdi e d an d T h ac k , ,

e ray c a l l e d u p o n D i c k e n s w ith a fe w
d ra w i n gs an d ask e d to b e a l l o w e d to
c on t in u e th e i l l us tra ti on s D i c k e n s .

w as at th s tm e i i
b e gi n n i n g at th e
o f h is gre at p op u l a r i t y Th e b e tte r .

l i te rary arti st wh ose d ra w i n gs we re ,

re f us e d w as a l m os t u n kn own
, an d ,

h ad to w ork h a rd fo r m o re th an te n
ye a rs b e fore h e re c e ive d re c ogn i
ti on D i sa p p o i n te d by h i s f ai l u re as
.

an i l l us tra to r h e b e ga n h is l i t e ra ry
,

c a re e r b y w r i tin g sati re s on soc i e ty

for F r a s e r s M ag a zi n e T h i s w as th e
’
.

be gi n n i n g of h is su c c e ss b u tth ou gh
th e Ye llowp lu s /z P ap er s , Tli e G r e a t
W I L L I A M MA K E P E A C E
TH A C K E R AY H ogg a r t
y D i a m on d , Ca t /zer i ne , T/ze
F it
z B oodle r s , Tk e B ook f
o S n obs ,
B a r ry Ly n don , an d va riou s oth e r i m m atu re wo rk s ma de h i m k n ow n
o a fe w re ad e rs
t of P u n ck a n d of F r a ser s
’
M ag a z i n e itwas , n o tt il l th e
pu b l i c a ti on of Va n i t
y F a ir
( 1 8 4 7— 1 8 4 8 ) th ath e b e gan to b e r e c og

n iz ed a s o n e o f t v i
h e gre a t n o e l s ts of h is d ay All h is e arl e r w o r s . i k
i
are sa tre s , so m e u on s oc ie t
p y , o th e rs u p on th e p op u l ar n o e l s ts , v i
i i k
B u l w e r , D i s rae l i , an d e s e c i a l l y D c e n s , — w th w h os e se n tm e n t
p al i
h e roe s an d h e ro i n e s h e h ad n o a ti e n c e w h a te v e r H e h ad m arri e d
p .
,

m e an w h il e i n 1 8 6 a n d fo r a fe w ye ars w a s v e ry h a
, 3 , ppy in h is h o m e .

T h e n d is e ase an d in san ity faste n e d u p on h is youn g wi fe an d sh e was ,

p l ac e d in an asy l u m Th e w h o l e a f te r l i f e of ou r n ov e l i stw as d a rk
.

e n ed b
y th i s l o ss w o s e th an d e a th
r H e be c am e a m an of th e c l u b s;
.

ra t h e r th an of h is ow n h om e an d th o u h h is w ita n d ki n d n e ss m ad e
g ,
 TH E V I C T O R I AN AG E 4 99

h i m th e m ost w e l c om e of c u l bm e n ,
h e re w as
t an un d e rc u rre n t of
sa d n e ss in a ll f te rw ard s h e sa id th a t th ou gh
th a t h e w ro te . L on g a ,
"
h is m a rri age e n d e d in sh ip w re c k h e w ou l d d o i t o Ve r aga i n ; for ,

b e h o l d L ove is th e c row n an d c o m p le ti on of a ll e a rth ly good ”

.

Af te r th e m o d e rate suc c e ss of Va n i t y F a i r T h a c k e ra y w ro t e the ,

th re e n ov e l s of h is m id d l e l i fe u p on w h ic h h is fa m e c h i e fl y re s ts ,

P e n den n i s in 1 85 0 , H en ry E s m on d in 1 85 2 , an d Tk e N ew com es in
D ic ke n s gr e a t p o p u l a r l e c tu re r an d d ram ati c
’
1 85 5 . s su c c e s s as a

re a de r h a d le d to a ge n e ra l d e s i re on th e p a rtof th e p u b l i c to s e e
an d l i te rary m e n
to h e a r ,
an d T h ac k e ra y , to in c re as e h is i n c o m e ,

g av e tw o r e m a rk ab l e c ou rs e s of l e c ture s , th e fi rs t b e in g E ng /i s }:

H u m or i s ts of tk e E zgk teen t/i Ce n tu ry , an d th e se c o n d Tk e F ou r

G eorg es , — both c o u rse s be in g d e l iv e re d w i th i yi n g su c c e ss in
gra tf
E n gl an d an d e sp e c i a l ly in Am e ri c a D i c k e n s as .
, w e h av e s e e n w a s ,

d i sa p p o i n te d in Am e r i c a an d v e n te d h is di sp l e a su r e in ou trage ou s
c ri t ic i sm ; b u t T h ac k e ray w i th h is u sual good b re e di n g saw on ly
, ,

th e b e sts id e of h is ge n e rou s e n t e rta i n e rs an d in b o th h is p u b l i c an d ,

r iv a t e ut te ran c e s e m p h as i z e d th e vi r t u e s of th e n e w l an d w h ose
p ,

r e st l e ss e n e rgy se e m e d to fasc i n ate h im U n l ik e D i c k e n s h e h ad .

,

n o c on fid e n c e in h i m s e l f w h e n h e fac e d an au d i e n ce an d l ik e m o s t ,

li te rary m e n h e di sl ik e d l e c tu ri n g an d soon gav e it u p I n 1 8 6 0 , .

h e b e c a m e e d i to r of th e Co n / zll M ag a z in e w h i c h p ros p e re d in h is
'
°

r z ,

h an d s an d w i th a c o m f o rtab l e i n c o m e h e se e m e d j u s t r e a dy to d o
,

h i s b e stw o rk fo r th e w orl d ( w h i c h h as a l w a y s b e l i e v e d th ath e w as

c a p a b l e of e v e n b e t ter t h i n gs th an h e e v e r w rote ) wh e n h e di e d su d
d e n ly in 1 8 6 3 H is b ody l i e s bu ri e d in K e n sa l G re e n an d on ly a
.
,

bu std oe s h on or to h is m e m o ry in We stm i n ste r Abb e y .

Work s of Th ack e ray Th e b e g i n n e r will d o w e ll to om i t .

th e e ar li e r s ati re s o f T h a ck e r ay w r i tte n w h il e h e w as s tr u g ,

H y E
enr g li
S
n
g
,
t o e ar n a l ivi n
g f r o m t h e m a az i n e s a n d Op e n
g ,

m d
on H e n ry E s m on d h i s m o s t p e r f e c t n ov e l ,

th ou g h n ot th e m o s t wid e ly k n ow n a n d r e ad Th e fin e h is .

to ri c al a n d li te ra r y fl a v o r of th i s s tory is on e o f its m os t
m ark e d Ch ara c te r i stic s an d on ly on e w h o k n o w s s om e th i n g o f
,

th e h i s tor y an d li te ra tu re of th e e i g h te e n th c e n tu ry c a n a p

p re c ia te its v a l u e Th e h e ro C ol on e l E s m on d r e l a te s h is
.
, ,

ow n s t o ry c arryi n th e r e d th h t h e c rts an d c am p s
g , a e r r o u g ou

of Q u e e n A n n e s r e i n an d gi vi n g t h e m o s t c om pl e te an d
’

g ,
500 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
a cc urate pic tu re of a p as t ag e th at h as e v e r a pp e are d in a
n ov e l T h a ck e ray i s as w e h av e s a id a rea li s t a n d h e b e g i n s
. , , ,

h is s tory by ad o p ti n g th e s t yl e an d m an n e r of a s c h ol arly
g e n tl e m an o f th e p e r i o d h e is d e s c r ibi n g H e h as a n e x .

traord in a ry k n o wl e d g e o f e i g h te e n th c e n tur y li te ratu r e an d -

,

h e re p rod u c e s its s tyl e i n d e ta il g o i n g so fa r a s to i n s e rt in ,

h is n a rra tiv e a n a ll e g e d e s say f ro m th e Ta tle r A n d s o p e r .

fe c tly is i td on e th at it is i m p os s ibl e to s ay w h e re i n itd i ff e rs

f ro m th e s tyl e o f Addi son an d S te e l e .

I n h is m a tte r a l so T h a ck e ray is re al i s tic re fl e c ti n g n ot th e ,

.

p r id e a n d p om p o f w ar w h ic h ar e l a rg e ly d e l u s i o n s b ut its
, ,

R li m f
ea s
bo
ru ta li ty a n d b ar b a r i s m w h ic h a re a ll t oo r e a l ; ,

E m s d On pa i n ti n g g e n e ra l s an d l e ad e rs n ota s th e n e w s pap e r ,

h e roe s to w h om w e are acc u s tom e d b u tas m ov e d by i n tr ig u e s , ,

p e tty j e al ou s i e s an d s e l fi s h am bi ti on s ; s h owi n g u s th e g re at
,

D u k e o f M a rlb oro u g h n ot as th e m ili tary h e r o th e id o l of ,

w a r c raz e d m u l ti tu d e s b u t a s wi th o u t p e rs on a l h o n or
-
, an d ,

go v e rn e d by d e s pic abl e a v a r ic e I n a w o r d T h a ck e ra y g iv e s
.
,

" ”
us t he b ack s ta i rs v i e w of w ar w h ic h is as a r u l e totally , , ,

n e gl e c t e d in o u r h i s t or i e s Wh e n h e d e a l s wi th th e l i te rary
.

m e n o f th e p e r i od h e u s e s t h e sam e f ran k re ali s m s h owi n g

, ,

us S t e e l e a n d A ddi so n a n d ot h e r l e a d e rs n otwi th h al os a b o u t ,

th e i r h e ad s a s p o p u l ar au th o rs b u t in s lipp e r s a n d d r e s s i n g
, ,

g o w n s s m o ki n g a pip e in th e i r ow n r oo m s or e l s e growi n g
, ,

tip s y an d h il a r i ou s in th e tav e rn s j u st a s th e y a pp e ar e d ,
—

in d a ily l i f e B oth i n s tyl e a n d in m atte r th e r e f ore E s m on d

.
, ,

d e s e r v e s to ran k as p roba bly th e b e s t h i s tor ic al n ov e l in

ou r l a n u a e
g g .

Th e pl ot o f th e s to ry i s lik e m o s t of T h a ck e ray s pl ots,

’

v e ry s li gh t b u t p e rf e c tly s u i te d to th e n ov e li s ts p ur p os e
,
’
.

Th p l t f
e o Th e pl an s o f h is C h ara c te r s fa il ; th e i r id e al s g ro w
o
E m nd
s
d im ; th e re i s a g e n e ra l di sa pp e aran c e o f y outh f u l
a m bi t i on s T h e re i s a l ov e s tory at th e c e n te r ; b ut th e e le
.

m e n t of ro m an c e w h ic h f u r n i sh e s th e li h t a n d m u s ic an d
,
g
f ragran c e of l ov e is i n c on s pic uou s Th e h e ro a f te r te n y ea rs
, .
,
50 2 E N GLISH L IT E R ATU R E
d e s i re to ge t th e m os t ou to f th e f ool s w h o l a rg e ly con s ti tu te
s oci e t y On th e w h ol e it i s th e m os t p owe r f u l b u t n o t th e
.
,

m o s t w h o l e som e o f T h a ck e ray s w or k s
’

I n h is s e c on d i m p o rta n t n ov e l P e n d e n n i s ( 1 8 4 9 we ,

h av e a c on ti n ua ti o n of th e sa ti r e o n s o ci e ty b e g u n i n Va n i t y
F a i r T h i s n ov e l w h ic h th e b e g i n n e r s h ou ld r e ad
,
P d i
.

en e nn s
aft e r E s m on d i s i n t e re s ti n g to u s fo r tw o r e a s on s
, ,

— b e c au se it re fl e c ts m or e of th e d e ta il s of T h ack e ray s l i f e ’

th a n a ll h i s o th e r w r i ti n g s an d b e c a u s e i t c o n ta i n s o n e ,

pow e r f u lly d raw n c h a rac te r w h o i s a p e rp e tua l re m i n d e r of

"
th e d a n g e r o f s e lfi s h n e s s Th e h e r o is n e it.h e r a n ge l n or
”
in T h a ck e ray s w ord s b u t th e typic a l y ou n g m an of
’
im p , ,

s oci e t y w h om h e k n ow s th oro u g h ly a n d w h om h e p a i n ts e x
, ,

ac t ly as h e i s a c a re l e s s g ood n a t
,
— u r e d b u te ss e n t
, ia lly s e lfi s h
-

p e rson w h o g oe s th ro ugh li f e i n te n t on h is ow n i n te re s ts
, .

P e n d e n n is is a p rof o u n d m oral s tu dy an d th e m os t p ow e r f u l ,

arra i g n m e n t o f w e ll m e a n i n
g s e lfi s h n e s s i n our li te r a tur e n ot
-

e v e n e xc e p t i n g G e org e E li ots R om ola w h ic h it s u gg e s ts ’

, .

Tw o oth e r n ov e l s Tli e [Ve re c om es I 8 5 5 ) an d T/ze Vi rg i n

,
-

ia n s ( I 8 com pl e te th e l i s t o f T h ack e ray s g re at w ork s of ’

Th N w
e e fic ti on Th e f o rm e r i s a s e q u e l to P e n d e n n i s an d
.
,

CON S th e l a tte r to He n ry E s m on d ; a n d b oth s h ar e th e

g e n e ral fa te of s e q u e l s in n o t b e i n g q u i te e q u a l in p o w e r or in
te re s t to th e i r p re d e c e s s o r s T/ze N e w c om e s h o w e v e r d e
.
, ,

s e rv e s a v e ry h i h pl a c e s om e c r i t ic s i n d e e d pl aci n g it at
g , , ,

th e h e a d o f th e a u th or s w o rk s L ik e a ll T h a ck e ray s n o v e l s
’
’
.
,

it is a s tory of h u m an f ra il ty ; b u t h e re th e a u th or s i n n ate ’

g e n tl e n e s s an d ki n d n e s s a re s e e n a tth e i r b e s t an d th e h e ro is ,

pe r h ap s th e m ost g e n u i n e an d l ov abl e of all h is c h arac te rs .

T h a cke ray is k n ow n in E n g li s h li te ratur e as an e s sayi st

as w e ll a s a n o v e li s t H is E n li s /t
g .
H u m o r i s ts a n d Tli e F ou r
G
g th e fi n e st e s sa y s of th e n i n e
Th e or e s ar e am o n
k g
’
ac e ra
y s
E ss’y s
te e n th c e n tu r y I n th e f o rm e r e s p e ci a lly T h a ck e ray
.
,

s o s n ot on
h w ly a wid e k n owl e d g e b u tan e x traord i n ar y u n d e r
st a n di n
g of h is s u bj e c t A pp a r e n tly th i s n i n e te e n th c e n tu ry
. -
 TH E VI C T O R I A N AG E 50 3

w r i te r k n ow s Addi s on F i e ldi n g S wi ft S m oll e tt an d o th e r

, , , ,

r ea t w r i te rs o f th e p a s t c ent u r y al m o s t as i n ti m ate ly a s on e
g
k n ow s h is n e a re s t f r i e n d ; a n d h e g iv e s u s th e fin e fl a v or of
th e i r h u m o r in a w ay w h ic h n o o th e r w r i te r s av e p e r h ap s ,

L a m b h a s e v e r r iv al e d
,
1
Tk e F ou r G e org e s is in a v e i n o f
.

d e l ic ate s ati re an d p re s e n ts a rath e r u n fl atte r i n g pic tu r e of

,

f ou r of E n g l an d s r u l e r s a n d o f th e c ou rts i n w h ic h th e y
’

m ov e d B oth th e s e w ork s a r e r e m a rk a bl e f o r th e i r e xq u i s i te
.

st yl e th e i r g e n tl e h u m or th e i r k e e n li te rary c r i tici s m s a n d
, , ,

f or th e i n ti m ate k n owl e d g e a n d s ymp a th y w h ic h m a k e s th e

p e opl e of a pa s tag e l iv e on c e m or e i n th e w r i tte n p ag e s .

Ge n e r al Ch ar acte r i stic s I n tr e ati n g o f T h a ck e ray s V i e w o f

’
.

li f e as r e fl e c te d in h is n o v e l s c r i tic s v a ry g re a tly an d th e
, , ,

f oll owi n g s u m m ar y m u s t b e ta k e n n ota s a p o s i tiv e j u d gm e n t

b u t on ly a s an a tte m p t to e xp r e ss th e g e n e ra l i m p r e s s i on o f
h is w or k s on an u n c ri tic a l re ad e r He i s fi r s t of all a re a li s t .
,

"
w h o p a i n ts l i f e a s h e s e e s it A s h e say s h i m s e l f I h av e n o
.
,
”
b ra i n s ab ov e my e y e s ; I d e s c rib e w h at I s e e H is pic tu re s .

of c e r t ai n t yp e s n otably th e w e a k an d vici ou s e l e m e n ts of
,

s o ci e ty ar e a cc u rate an d tru e to li f e b u t th e y s e e m to pl ay
, ,

too l ar g e a p a r t in h is b ook s an d h a v e p e rh ap s too gr e atly i n ,

fl u e n c e d h is g e n e ral j u d gm e n t o f h u m a n i ty A n e xc e s s iv e .

s e n s ibil i ty or th e c ap a ci ty f or fin e f e e li n g s an d e m oti on s is
, ,

a m ar k e d c h a ra c t e r i sti c of T h a ck e ray a s i t is o f D ick e n s ,

an d C a r lyl e H e is e a s ily o ff e n d e d a s th e y are by th e

.
, ,

s h a m s o f s o ci e t y ; b u t h e c a n n ot fin d an o u tl e t a s D ick e n s ,

d o e s in l a u g h te r an d te ar s a n d h e i s too g e n tl e to f oll ow
, ,

C ar lyl e i n v i ol e n t d e n u n ci ati on s an d p r op h e ci e s H e turn s to .

s at i re — i n fl u e n c e d d ou b tl e s s by e i gh te e n th c e n tur y li te ra
, , ,
-

tu re w h ic h h e k n e w s o w e ll an d in w h ic h s ati re pl ay e d to o ,

l arg e a p ar t H is s ati re is n e v e r p e r son a l lik e P op e s or

2
.
,
’

b ru tal lik e S wi f ts an d is te m p e re d by ki n d n e s s an d h u m or ;
,
’

1 i
I ts h ou ld b e p o n te d o u t th a t th e E n g li s /z H u m or i s ts i s so m e h attoo h g h c ol w i ly
o re d t o be s tr ct a c c u ra t ei ly
I n c e rt ab y t
a n c a s e s a so , n ot
. i l
h ato f S tee e , th e rea d e r m a y l l
w ll
e o b e c j
tto T h a c e ra
’
s pa t k
r on z n y i i
g a tttu d e to a rd h i s s u b e c t i w j .

2 S ee 2 60 —2 6 1
pp . .
 50 4 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
b u titi s u se d too g f re e lylly , l ay s t
an d oo m u c h e m p h a s i s
e n e ra

o n fa u l t s a n d f o ibl e s t o b e c on s id e re d a t r u e pic t ur e o f an
y
l arge cl as s of E n g li s h so ci e ty .

B e s id e s b e i n g a re a li s tan d s ati r i s t T h a ck e ray i s e s s e n tia lly ,

a m ora li s t lik e A ddi s o n

,
ai m i n g d e fi n it ,
e ly i n a ll h is w o rk at

Th ack e ra
y
p r od u ci n
g a m or a l i m p r e s s i o n S o m u c h d o e s h e .

“ 3 1m m ” re v e re oo d n e s s a n d s o d e t e rm i n e d i s h e t h a t h i s
g ,

P e n d e n n i s or h is B e cky S h arp s h all b e j u d g e d at th e i r tr ue

val u e th at h e is n otc o n te n t lik e S h ak e s p ea re to b e s imply an
, , ,

ar t i s t to te ll a n ar ti s tic tal e an d le t it s p e ak its o w n m e s sa ge

,

h e m u s t e xpl a i n a n d e mp h as i z e th e m ora l s i g n ifi c an c e of h is
w ork T h e re is n o n e e d to co n s u l t o u r ow n c on s ci e n c e ov e r
.

th e a c ti on s of T h a ck e ray s c h ara c te rs ; th e b e au ty of vi r tu e
’

an d t h e u g li n e s s of vice ar e e vid e n t on e v e r y pa ge .

Wh ate v e r w e m ay th i n k o f T h ack e ray s m atte r th e re is on e ’

p o i n t in w h ic h c ri tic s are agre e d th at h e is m a s te r o f a

,
—

Hi S ty l
s e
p u r e a n d s i m pl e E n li s h s t
g yl e W h e th e r h is th ou gh t .

b e s ad or h u m o rou s c o m m on pl a c e or p r o f ou n d h e , ,

e xp r e s s e s it p e r f e c t ly wi th ou t e ffor tor a ff e c tati on I n all h is

, .

w ork th e r e i s a s u b tl e c h arm i m p os s ibl e to d e s cr ib e w h ic h , ,

g iv e s th e i m p r e s s i on th a t w e a re li s te n i n g to a g e n tl e m an .

A n d it i s th e e a se th e r e fi n e m e n t th e e xq u i s i te n a tu ra l n e s s
, ,

o f T h ack e ray s s t
’

yl e th at f u rn i s h e s a l arge par t of ou r pl e a s
u re in r e adi n
g h im .

MA R Y A N N E VA N S , G E OR G E E L I OT 819 88 0 )
( 1 -
1

In n ear ly all
w r i te rs of th e Vic tor i an A g e w e n ote on
th e ,

th e on e h a n d a s tron
g i n te ll e c tu a l te n d e n cy to an a ly ze th e
,

p robl e m s o f li f e an d on th e oth e r a te n d e n cy to te a c h th at
, ,

is to e xp l ai n to m e n th e m e th od by w h ic h th e s e p r obl e m s
,

m ay b e s o lv e d Th e n o v e l s e s p e ci a lly s e e m to l os e s i h t of
g
.

th e p u re ly ar ti s tic id ea l o f w r i ti n
g a n d to a im d e fi n i te ly at ,

m ora l i n s tru c ti on I n G e org e E li o t b o th th e s e te n d e n ci e s

.

rea c h a cli m a x S h e is m ore o bvi ou s ly m o r e c on s ci ou s ly a

.

p c h e r a n d m ora li z e r th an an y of h e r g reat c on te m p orar i e s

r ea
.
 50 6 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
by i sc e llan e ou s re ad i n g We h a v e a su gge sti on of h e r m e th od in
m .

on e o f h e r e arl y l e t te rs i n w h i c h s h e say s :
, My m i n d p re s e n ts an
as se m b l age of d i sj o i n t e d s p e c i m e n s of h i s t o ry an c i e n tan d m o d e rn ,

sc ra p s of p oe t ry p i c k e d u p f ro m S h ak e s p e a re C o w p e r Word s w orth , , ,

a n d Mi l t on n e w s pa p e r to p i c s m o rs e l s o f Ad d i s o n an d B ac o n L a t
,
in ,

ve rbs ge om e try e n to m ology an d c h e m i s try ; re vi e ws an d m e ta p h y s

, , ,

ic s a ll a rre s te d an d p e trifi e d an d s m o th e re d by th e fastth i c k e n i n g

,
-

e v e ry d a y ac c e ss i on o f a c t ua l e v e n t s r e l at ive an xi e ti e s an d h ou s e , ,

h o l d c are s an d v e x a ti on s
”
.

Wh e n Mary w as tw e n ty on e ye ars old th e fa m i l y aga i n m ove d th i s

-
,

ti m e t o F ole s h ill R oad n e a r C ove n t ry

, H e re s h e b e c am e ac q u ai n te d .

w i th th e fam i ly of C h a rl e s B a y r ,

a p ros p e rou s r ibb on m an u fa c t u re r ,

w h os e h ou s e w as a gath e ri n g p l ac e
for th e f re e th i n k e rs of th e n e i gh
b orh ood Th e e ff e c t of th i s l ib .

e ra l a tm o sp h e re u p o n Mi ss E va n s ,

b rou gh t u p in a n arrow w ay w i th ,

n o k n o w le d ge of t h e w o rl d was to ,

u n se t tl e m an y o f h e r you t h f u l c on
v ic tion s F ro m a n a rro w i n te n se .
,

d ogm ati s m sh e w e n t to th e o th e r ,

e xt re m e of rad i c a l i s m ; t h e n ( a b ou t
1 8 60
) sh e l os t all s y m p ath y wi th
th e f re e th i n k e rs an d b e i n g ia
MA R Y A N N E VAN S
, ,

st in c tiv e ly r e l i gi ou s s e e m e d to b e
,

G E OR G E E L I OT
,

gro p i n g a f te r a d e fi n i te fa i th w h i l e
f ol l ow i n g th e id e a l of d uty T h i s sp i ri tua l s tru ggl e w h i c h su gge sts
.
,

th at o f C a l yl e is u n d o ub t
r , e d ly t h e c au s e of th a t gl oo m a n d d e p re s
s i on w h i c h h an
g l ik e an E n gl i sh fog o v e r m uc h of h e r wo rk ; th ou gh
, ,

h e r b iogra p h e r C ross te l l s u s th at s h e w as n o t by a n m e an s a sad

, ,
y
or
gl oom y w om a n .

I n 1 8 4 9 Mi ss E v a n s s
’
fath e r d i e d an d th e B ra y s too k her a b road
,

for a t
ou r of th e c on tin e n t . On h e r re t
u rn to E n gl an d sh e w ro t
e
se ve ral l i b e ra l i l
a rtc e s fo r th e I Ve s t
n zi n s t
e r R e vi e w , an d p re s e n t ly was
m ad e an te d
as s s ti i to r o f th atm agaz i n e . H e r r e s i d e n c e i n L on d o n at
h is ti m e m a r
t ks c are e r an d th e l b e gi n n i n g
a u rn in
t g p o i n ti n h e r re a
of h e r l te rary
i i e n d sh i p s w i th
l ife . S h e m ad e s tron g f r S p e n c e r Mi ll , ,

an d her
ot i s of
s c e n ts t i th e d ay , an d th rou gh S p e n c e r m e t e o rge G
H e n ry Le w e s , a m i sc e l l an e ou s w ri te r w h om sh e af te r w ar s m arr e d i d .
,
 T H E V I C TO R I A N AG E 50 7

U n d e r h is sym p ath e tic i n fl u e n c e sh e . b e gan to w r i te fi c ti on for th e

"
m a gaz i n e s h e r fi rs t s t
o ry b e i n g w h ic h
”
, Am o s B a rton w as
l a te r i n c l ud e d in th e S c e n e s of Cle r i c a l L if e He r fi rs t
l on g v l A d a m B e d e ap p e a re d e a rl y in 1 8 5 9 an d m e t w i th su c h
no e , ,

p o p u l a r favo r th atto th e e n d o f h e r l i f e s h e d e sp a i re d of e v e r aga i n

re p e a t i n g h e r tri u m p h B u tth e u n e x p e c te d su cc e ss p rov e d to b e a n
.

i n s p i ra ti on an d sh e c om p l e te d Tli e M ill on th e F loss an d b e gan

,

S ila s M a r n e r d u ri n g th e fo l l ow i n g y e a r N o tu n ti l th e gre a ts u c c e ss
.

of t h e se w o rk s le d to an i n s i ste n t d e m an d to k n o w th e a u th o r d id
th e E n gl i sh p u b l i c l e a rn th a t it w as a w o m an an d n o t a n E n gl i sh ,

c l e rgy m an a s t h e y su p p o se d w h o h a d su d d e n l y j u m p e d to th e f ron t
, ,

ran k o f l i v i n g w r i t e rs .

U p to th i s p o i n t G e o rge E l i o t h ad c on fi n e d h e rs e lf to E n gl i sh
c ou n t ry l i f e b u t n ow sh e su d d e n l y a b an d on e d th e sc e n e s an d th e
,

p e o p l e w i th w h o m s h e w a s m o s tfa m i l i a r in o rd e r to w r i te a n h is to r
i c a l n ov e l I tw as in 1 8 60 w h i l e trav e l i n g in I tal y th ats h e form e d
.
, ,

th e gre a t p roj e c t o f R o m ola — a m i n gl i n g of fi c ti on a n d m o ra l

" ”
,

p h i l osop h y aga i n stth e b ac kgrou n d o f th e m i gh t

,
y R e n a i s san c e m ov e
m en t In t
. h i s sh e w as w ri ti n g o f th i n gs o f w h ic h s h e h a d n o p e rson al
k n o wl e d ge an d th e b ook c osth e r m an y m on th s of h ard an d d e p re ss
,

in g l ab o r S h e sa id h e r se lf th a t s h e w a s a y ou n g w o m a n w h e n sh e
.

b e gan th e work an d an Old wo m an w h e n sh e fi n i sh e d it R om e /a

, .

a s n o t su c c e s sf u l w i t u b l ic
( 1 8 62 —1 8 63
) w h th e p an d t h e s am e m ay ,

b e sa i d o f F e li x H olt t /ze R a d i c a l ( 1 8 6 6 ) an d Tk e Sp a n i s k Gyp sy

Th e l a stn am e d w ork w a s th e re su l tof th e au th o r s a m bi ti o n
’
-

to w ri t e a d ra m a t i c p o e m w h i c h s h ou l d d u p l i c ate th e l e sson of R om
ola ; an d fo r t h e p u rp o s e o f gath e ri n g m a te ri a l s h e vi s i te d S p a i n ,

w h ic h sh e h ad d e c i d e d u p on as th e sc e n e of h e r p oe ti c al e ffo rt With .

th e p u b l i c a ti on o f I ll i d dle m a r c /z ( 1 8 7 1 — 1 8 7 2 ) G e o rge E li o t c a m e
bac k aga i n i n to po p u l ar favor th ough th i s w o rk is l e ss s p on tan e ou s
, ,

an d m o re l ab o re d a n d
p e d an ti c th a n h e r e ar l i e r n ov e l s Th e f au l t
,
.

of t oo m u c h a n a l y s i s an d m o ra l i z i n g w a s e v e n m o re c on s p i c u o u s

i n D a n i e l D e r on d a wh ic h sh e r e ga r ded as h e r gre a te s t
b ook . l i f e d u ri n g all th i s ti m e w as
He r s i n gu la rl y u n e ve n tfu l , an d
th e C h i e f m i l e st on e s a l on g t h e road w e re th e p u b l i c a ti on of h e r
su c c e ss i v e n o v e l s .

D u ri n g a ll th e y e ars of h e r l i te ra ry su c c e ss h e r h usban d L e w e s
h ad b e e n a m ostsy m p a th e tic f ri e n d an d c ri ti c a n d w h e n h e di e d in , ,

1 8 78 , th e l o ss s e e m e d to b e m o re th an sh e c o u l d b e ar H e r l e tte rs .

of t h i s p e ri o d a re tou c h i n g in th e i r l o n e l i n e s s a n d th e i r c ravi n g fo r
50 8 E N GL IS H L IT E R ATU R E
sym p ath y . La t
er ve ybody b y m arry i n g J oh n Wal te r
i
on s h e d e
s h e as t r

C o ss m uc h you n ge r th a n h e rse l f w h o i s k n o wn a s h e r bi o gra p h e r

r , ,
.

D e e p d o w n b e l o w th e re is a r ive r of sad n e ss b u t I am ab l e ,

o e n j oy m y n e wl y r e o p e n e d li fe w ri te s th is w o m an o f s ix ty w h o
”
t -
, , ,

e v e r s i n c e s h e w as t h e gi rl w h o m w e k n ow a s M a gg i e Tu lli e r m us t v ,

a l w ay s h av e so m e o n e t o l o ve an d t o d e p e n d u p on H e r n e w i n te re s t .

in l ife l a ste d b u ta fe w m on th s fo r s h e d i e d in D e c e m b e r o f th e sa m e
,

y e ar On e o f th e b e s t i n di c a ti on s o f h e r s tre n gth an d h e r
l i m i ta ti on s is h e r p o rtra i t wi th its s tron g m a sc u l i n e fe a tu re s su g
, ,

g e s tin g b o h
t by re s e m b l an c e a n d b y c o n t ras t t h a t w on d e rf u l p or

trai t of Sav on aro l a w h i c h h an gs ove r h is o ld d e s k in th e m on as te ry

a t F l ore n c e .

Work s of Ge or ge E l i ot Th e se
c on v e n i e n tly d ivid e d i n to
. a re

th re e g rou p s c o rre s p on di n g to th e th r e e p e r i o d s o f h e r li f e
,
.

Th e fi rs t g ro u p i n cl u d e s all h e r e ar ly e s s ay s a n d m i s c e ll an e
o u s w ork f rom h e r tran s l ati on o f S tra u s s s L e b e n j e s u in ’

, ,

1 846 t ,o h e r u n i o n wi t h L e w e s in 1 8 5 4 Th e s e c on d g rou p .

i n cl u d e s S c e n e s of Cle r i c a l L if e A d a m B e d e M ill on t/ze , ,

F los s an d S i la s M a r n e r all p u bli s h e d b e tw e e n 1 8 5 8 an d I 8 6 1

, , .

T h e s e f o u r n ov e l s o f th e m iddl e p e r i od a re f ou n d e d on th e
h or s o w n li f e an d e xp e r i e n c e ; th e i r s c e n e s are l a id in th e
’
aut

c ou n try an d th e i r c h ara c te rs are tak e n f rom th e s to lid p e opl e

,

of t h e Midl an d s wi th w h om G e or ge E li ot h ad b e e n fam il i ar
,

s i n c e c h ild h ood T h e y are p ro ba bly th e a uth o r s m os t e n d u r ’

.

in g w ork s T h e y h av e a n a tu ral n e s s a s p on tan e i ty a t ti m e s

.
, ,

a fl a s h o f r e al h u m or w h ic h ar e l a cki n i n h e r l a te r n ov e l s ;
,
g
an d t h e y s h ow a r a pid d e v e l op m e n t o f li te rar y p o w e r w h ic h
re a c h e s a cli m a x in S ila s M a r n e r .

Th e n ov e l o f I ta li an li f e R om ola I 8 6 2 m ar k s a
( ,

tra n s i ti o n to th e th i r d
g r ou p w h ic h i n cl u d e s th re e m or e,

n ov e l s Pe li t Holt( 1
,
—
ll/i d d le m a r c k ( 1 8 7 1
.
D a n ie l
D e ron d a ( I 8 7 6 ) th e a m bi ti o u s d ram a tic p oe m Tk e S a n i s /z
,
p
Gyp sy an d a c o ll e c ti on o f m i s c e ll a n e ou s e s say s c all e d
T/ze I mp r e s s i on s o Tlze o /i ra s tu s S u e /z Th e g e n e ra l
f p
i m p re s s i on of th e s e w ork s is n ots o f av orabl e as th at p r od u c e d
by th e n o v e l s of th e m iddl e p e r i od T h e y are m o re l a b or e d .
5 IO E N G LI SH L IT E R ATUR E
In th e s e c h ara cte rs T i to a n d R om ol a w e h av e an
tw o , ,

e pi t h o r s m oral te a c h i n g Th e p r i n cipl e o f law

'

o m e o f o u r au t .

w a s in t h e a ir d u r i n g t h e V ic t or i an e ra an d w e
M m,o
,

T hi g
e ac n
h av e al r e ady n ote d h o w d e e ply T e n n y s on w a s in fl u
e n c e d by it Wi th G e o rg e E li ot law is lik e fate ; it ov e r
.

w h e l m s p e r s on a l f re e d om a n d i n cli n ati on M o ra l law w a s to .

h e r a s i n e vi tabl e as a u to m atic a s g ravi ta ti on T i to s d e g e n

’

, .
,

c rati on an d th e s ad fa il ur e Of D oroth e a a n d L yd gate in

,

fl /i d d le m a rc /z m ay b e e xpl a i n e d a s s i m ply a s th e f all o f an

,

a ppl e o r as a b ru i se d k n e e w h e n a m an l ose s h i s b a la n c e
,
A .

c e rta i n ac t p rod u c e s a d e fi n i te m ora l e ff e c t on th e i n divid u al

an d c h arac t h e a dd e d s u m of a ll th e a cts of a m an s
’

e r is t

li f e — j u s tas th e w e i gh t of a b ody is th e s u m of th e w e i g h ts
,

o f m a n y di ff e re n t a t o m s w h ic h c on s t i tu te it Th e m atte r of .

re ward s an d p u n i sh m e n t s t h e re f ore n e e d s n o fi n a l j u d ge or
, ,

j ud g m e n t s i n c e th e s e th i n g s tak e care of th e m s e lv e s au to
,

m atic ally in a w or ld o f i n vi o l a bl e m ora l law .

P e rh ap s on e th i n g m o re s h ou ld b e a dd e d to th e g e n e ra l
ch arac te r i s tic s of G e org e E l i ots n ov e l s — th e y are a ll rath e r '

d e p re s s i n g Th e gl ad s o m e n e s s of li f e th e s u n s h i n e of s m il e s
.
,

an d l a ug h t er is d e n i e d h e r
, I t is s aid th a t on c e w h e n h e r
.
,

h u s b an d r e m a rk e d th a t h e r n o ve l s w e r e all e s se n ti a lly s a d ,

s h e w e p t a n d an s w e re d t
, h a t s h e m u s t d e s c r ib e l i f e a s s h e
h ad f oun d it .

Wh atto R e ad G e orge E li ots fi rs t s tor i e s are in s om e re

.
’

s pe c t s h e r b e st t h o u gh h e r li te rar y p o w e r i n c r e a s e s d u r i n g
,

h e r s e c on d p e r i od c u l m i n a ti n g in S i la s M a rne r an d h e r s
,
p y ,

c h olog ic al a n a ly s i s i s m or e e vid e n t in D a n i e l D e r on d a On .

th e wh ol e it is an e xc e ll e n t w a to b e i n wi th th e f r e s h n e s s
,
y g
an d i n s pi ra t i on of th e S c e n e s of Cle ri c a l L if e an d rea d h e r
book s in th e ord e r in w h ic h th e y w e re w r i tte n I n th e fi rs t .

g ro u p of n ov e l s A da m B e d e is th e m o s t n atu ral a n d p r oba bly ,

i n te re s ts m ore r e ad e rs th an all th e oth e rs c om bi n e d Tlze M i ll .

on t h e F los s h as a l arg e r p e rs on a l i n te re s t b e c a us e it r e fl e c ts
,

m u c h of G e orge E li ots h i s tory an d th e s ce n e s an d th e frie n d s

’
 TH E V I C T O R I AN AG E 5 1 1

of h er e ar ly li f e l a ck of p r op orti o n in th i s s tory w h ic h
. Th e ,

g iv e s ra t h er t oo m u c h s p ac e t o t h e g i r l an d b oy e xp e r i e n c e s - -
,

i s n atura lly e xpl a i n e d by th e te n d e n cy i n e v e r y m a n a n d

w om an to li n g e r ov e r e arly m e m or i e s .

S i la s M a r ne r is a r ti s tic a l ly th e m o s t p e r f e c t o f G e orge
’

E li ots n o v e l s an d w e v e n tu re to an a ly z e it a s typic a l of h e r
’

id e al s a n d m e th od s We n ote fi rs t th e s tyl e w h ic h
.
,
S l
i as M a rn e r
I s h e a vy a n d a l i t tl e s e l f c o n s c I Ou s l a ck i n g th e V i g or
-
,

a n d pi c t u re s q u e n e s s of D ick e n s an d t h e g rac e an d n a tur a l

,

n e s s of T h a ck e r a y Th e c h ara c te rs are th e c om m on p e 0 p 1e of
.

th e M idl a n d s th e h e r o b e i n g a l i n e n w e av e r a l on e ly o u tc as t
, ,

w h o h oa r d s an d g l oa ts o v e r h is h a rd e a r n e d m o n e y is ro bb e d -
, ,

th row n i n to u tte r d e s p a i r an d b rou g h t b a ck to lif e an d h appi

,

n e s s by t h e c om i n g o f a n a b a n d o n e d C h ild to h i s fire I n th e .

d e v e l op m e n t of h e r s tory th e a u th or s h o w s h e rs e l f fi r s t a , ,

re a li s t by t
, h e n atura l n e s s o f h e r c h ara c te rs a n d th e m i n u te
a cc u r a cy wi t h w h ic h s h e r e p ro d u c e s th e i r w ay s an d e v e n th e
a cc e n t s of t h e i r s p e e c h ; s e c on d a p s yc h ol og i s t by th e c on
, ,

tin u al a n a ly s i s an d e xpl a n ati on of m otiv e s ; th i r d a m orali s t , ,

by s h owi n g in e ac h i n d ivid ua l th e a c ti on an d r e a c ti on o f u n i
v e r s a l m or al f or c e s a n d e s p e ci ally by m aki n g e v e r y e v il ac t
,

b r i n g i n e vi tabl e p un i s h m e n tto th e m an w h o d oe s it T rag e dy .

,

th e re f o r e pl ay s a l arg e p art i n th e s to ry ; fo r a cc or di n g to
, ,

G e or g e E li ot trage dy an d s u ff e r i n g w a lk cl os e b e h i n d u s or
, ,

l u rk at e v e ry tu r n in th e road of li f e L ik e all h e r n ov e l s .
,

S i la s M a r n e r is d e p re s s i n g We tu rn a w a y f ro m e v e n th e
.

w e dd i n g of E ppi e — w h ic h is j u s t as it sh o u ld b e wi th a —

s e n s e o f s ad n e s s a n d i n c om pl e t ene ss F i n ally as w e cl os e th e
.
,

b ook w e are c on s ci ou s o f a p ow e r f u l an d e n d u r i n g imp re s s i on

,

of r e a l i ty S il as th e p oo r w e av e r ; G odfr e y C a ss th e w e l l
.
, ,

m e an i n g s e lfi s h m an ; Mr M a c e y th e g arr u l ou s a n d ob se rv
, .
,

an t p ar i s h cl e r k ; D olly W i n t h r op th e ki n d h e a rte d c ou n try

,
-

wo m an w h o c a n n ot u n d e r s tan d th e m y s te r i e s of re li g i on an d
so i n t e rp re t s G od i n t e r m s o f h u m a n l ov e — th e se a re re al
‘

p e 0 p 1e w h om h avi n g on c e m e t w e c an n e ve r f or ge t
, .
5 I2 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
R om ola h a s th e s am e l m ora l th e m e as th e E n g li s h
g e n e ra
n ov e l s ; b u t t h e s c e n e s a r e e n ti re ly d i ff e re n t an d opi n i on i s ,

d ivid e d as to th e c om p arativ e m e ri t of th e w ork I t .

R m l
o oa
i s a s tu dy a v e ry p rof ou n d s tu dy o f m ora l d e v e l op
,

m e n t in on e c h ara c te r a n d of m ora l d e g e n e ra cy i n an oth e r .

I ts c h ara c te rs an d its s c e n e s a r e b oth I tali a n a n d th e a c ti on ,

t ak e s pl a c e d u r i n g a c r i t ic a l p e ri od of th e R e n a i s sa n c e m ov e
m e n t w h e n S av on arol a w as at th e h e i g h t of h is p ow e r in
,

Fl or e n c e H e re is a m ag n ifi c e n t th e m e a n d a s u p e rb b a ck
.

roun d for a g re at n o v e l a n d G e org e E li otr e a d a n d s t u di e d

g ,

till s h e f e l t s u re th at s h e u n d e rs to od th e pl a c e th e ti m e an d , ,

th e p e opl e of h e r s tor y R om ola is th e r e f or e i n te r e s ti n g re ad

.

i n g in m an y r e s p e c ts th e m os t i n te r e s ti n g o f h e r w or k s I t
, .

h as b e e n c all e d o n e of ou r g re ate s t h i s tor ic al n o v e l s ; b u t as

s u c h it h a s on e
g ri e v ous f au l t I t is n ot q u i te tru e to th e
.

p e opl e o r e v e n to th e l o cali ty w h ic h i te n d e av or s to r e p re se n t .

On e w h o re ad s i t h e r e i n a n e w an d di ff e re n t l a n d th i n k s
, ,

on ly of t h e s tory a n d of th e n o v e li s ts p ow e r ; b u t on e w h o
’

r ea d s it on t h e s p ot w h ic h it d e s c r ib e s a n d a m id s t th e li f e
,

w h ic h it pic tu re s i s c on ti n u ally h au n te d by th e s ugg e s ti on

,

th a t G e org e E li ot u n d e r s tood n e i th e r I taly n o r th e I tali a n s .

I t is th i s l ack of h a rm on y wi th I tali a n l i fe i ts e l f w h ic h c au se d
M orri s an d R os s e tti a n d e v e n B row n i n g wi th all h is admi ra ,

ti on for th e a u th o r to la as id e th e b oo k u n abl e to r e a d i t
, y ,

wi th pl eas u re or p ro fi t I n a w ord R om ola i s a g re at m oral

.
,

st u dy an d a v e ry i n t e re s ti n g b ook ; b u t th e c h a ra c te rs a re
n ot I t ali a n an d t
, h e n ov e l a s a w h ol e l ack s th e s tron g r e ali ty
w h ic h m ark s G e o rge E li ots E n g li s h s tu di e s’
.

M I N O R N O V E L I S T S O F T HE V I C T OR I A N A G E
I n th e th re e g re at n o v e li s ts j u s t c on s id e re d w e h av e an
e pi tom e o f t h e fi c ti on o f th e a e D ick e n s u s i n th e n ov e l to
g g ,

s olv e s oc i al p ro bl e m s
T h ack e ray to p ai n t th e li fe of s oci e ty
,

a s h e sa w it an d G e o r li c h f d m l p i
,
g e E ott o te a th e u n a e n ta r n
C ‘ IC S Of
P m orali ty Th e i n fl u e n c e of th e s e th re e w r i te r s is
.
5 4 1 E N G LIS H L IT E R ATU R E
B a re /te s te r To w e rs ( dy o f l i f e i n a cat
1 8 h e Th is is a stu

d ra l tow n an d is re m a r k a bl e for its m i n u te pic tu r e s of bi s h o p s

,

a n d cl e rg y m e n wi th th e i r f am il i e s a n d d e p e n d e n ts I t w o u ld
,
.

b e w e ll to r e a d th i s n ov e l i n c on n e c ti on wi th Tlze Wa r d e n
T/ze L a s tCli r on i c le of B a rs e t a n d ot h e r n ov e l s
of t h e s am e s e r i e s s i n c e th e s c e n e s a n d c h ara c te rs ar e th e
,

sa m e in all t h e se b ook s a n d th e y a re u n d ou b te dly th e b e s t ,

e xp re s s i o n o f t h e au th or s ge n i u s H a w th orn e say s of h is '

.

n ov e l s : T h e y p re ci s e ly s u i t m y ta s te s o l id an d s u b s t
" —
an ,

ti al an d ,
j u s t as re a l as i f s om e g i an t h ad h e w n a g re a t
.

l u m p o u t of th e e ar th an d p u t i t u n d e r a g l as s ca s e wi th all ,

t h e i n h abi tan ts g o i n g a b o u t th e i r d a ily b u s i n e s s an d n ot s u s

”
e c ting t h at t h e y w e re b e i n g m a d e a s h o w o f
p .

Ch arlot te B ron te We h a v e an oth e r s u g g e s ti on of T h a ck

.

e rn y i n t h e w or k o f C h ar l otte B ro n te ( 1 8 1 6 She
'

aim e d t o m ak e h e r n ov e l s a r e a li s t i c pictu re of s oci e ty b u t ,

s h e add e d t o T h a ck e ray s r e a li s m t h e e l e m e n t o f p as s i on a te
’

a n d s o m e w h a t u n b a l a n c e d ro m an t ici s m Th e l atte r e l e m e n t .

w as p a r tly th e e xp re s s i o n o f M i s s B r on te s o w n n a tu r e an d
’

p artly th e re s u l t o f h e r l o n e ly a n d gr i e f s tr ick e n li f e w h ic h
-
,

w as d ar k e n e d by a s u cc e s s i o n o f f am ily trag e di e s I t will h e lp .

us t o u n d e rs t an d h e r w or k i f w e r e m e m b e r t h at b oth C h ar
l otte B ron te an d h e r s i s te r E m ily 1 tu rn e d to li te ratu re b e c au s e
th e y f ou n d th e i r w ork a s gov e rn e s s a n d te a ch e r u n e n d u rabl e ,

a n d s ou h t t
g o r e li e v e th e l on e li n e s s a n d s a d n e s s of th e i r o w n
lo t by c re ati n g a n e w w or l d o f th e i m a g i n a ti on I n th i s n e w .

w or ld h owe v e r th e s ad n e ss of th e old re m a i n s an d all th e

, , ,

B ron te n o v e l s h av e b e h i n d th e m a n ac h i n h e ar t C h ar l ot t e
g .

B r o n te s b e s t k n o w n w ork is j a n e E r e
'

y w h ic h wi th ,

all i t s fa u l t s i s a p ow e r f u l a n d f as ci n at
, i n g s tu dy of e l e m e n tal
l ov e an d h ate re m i n d i n g u s v ag u e ly o f on e of M ar l o w e s
,
’

ily B te ( 8 8 84 8) w
1 Em ly li ttl l
ro n 1 1 —1 a s on a e e ss f f
gi te d th a n h e r a m o us s s te r He r i .

b tk
es w w k i W t/ w i g H ig h t
no n or s a r n e s a str o n g b u t m orb d n o e i
o f ove a n d vl l
suff g M tth w A
e ri n .
l d i d f h th t f
a e rn o sa o er a or th e po rtra y l fp i
a o a s s on , v e h e m en ce,

q xq i it p i t
,
”
and g i f E m ily B te h d l v y An ily is
r e , B ro n a no e ua sa e r on . e u s e c u re of Em
g v C h l tt B te v l S ki l y ’
i en i n ar o e ro n s no e r e .
 TH E V I C T OR I A N AG E 515

trag e d i e s T h i s w ork w o n i n sta n t f a vor wi th th e p u bl ic an d

.
,

th e a u th or w a s pl ac e d in th e f r o n t ra n k o f livi n g n o v e li s ts .

A s id e f r o m i ts v a l u e a s a n o v e l it i s i n te re s ti n g in m a n y of
, ,

its e ar ly p a s s ag e s a s th e r e fl e c ti o n o f th e a u th o r s o w n life
’

a n d e xp e r i e n c e S li i r ley ( 1 8 4 9 ) an d Vi lle tte ( 1 8 5 3 ) m ak e u p

.

th e tr i o o f n ov e l s by w h ic h th i s g i f te d w om an i s g e n e ral ly
r e m e m b e re d .

B u l w e r L y tton E d wa rd B u lw e r L y tton ( 1 8 0 3 1 8 7 3 ) w as
.
—

an e x t r e m e ly v e r s at il e w r i te r w h o tr i e d a l m os t e v e ry ki n d of
,

n ov e l k n o w n t o th e n i n e te e n th c e n tu ry I n h i s e a r ly l i f e h e .

w r ote p oe m s a n d d ra m a s u n d e r th e i n fl ue n c e o f B y r o n ; b u t
,

h is fi r s t n ota bl e w or k P e l/za m o n e of t
, h e b e s t of h i s
n ov e l s w a s a ki n d of b u r l e s q u e o n t
,
h e B y ron ic typ e of g e n tl e
m an A s a s tu dy of c on te m p o rary m an n e r s in h i g h soci e ty
.
,

P e llza m h a s a s u g ge s ti on o f T h ack e ra y a n d th e r e s e m bl an c e ,

is m ore n otic e abl e in oth e r n o v e l s of th e s am e typ e s u c h ,

as E rn es t M a ltra v e rs l e Ca r ton s ( 1 8 4 8 My
N ov e l an d K e n e lm We h av e a
C/zi lli ng ly
s u ge st
g i on o f D ick e n s i n a t l e as t t w o o f L y t to n s n ov e l s
’

P a u l Cl zfl or d a n d E ug e n e A r a m th e h e roe s O f w h ic h ar e ,

c r i m i n a l s pic tu r e d a s th e v ic ti m s rath e r th an as th e o pp r e s sor s

,

o f so ci e t y L y tto n e s say e d a l so wi th c on s id e rabl e p o p u l ar

.
,

s u c ce s s t h e r om a n tic n ov e l in Tlze P i lg r i m s of t
,
lze R /zi n e an d
Z a n on i an d tr i e d th e g h os t s tory in Tk e Ha u n te d a n d Me
,

Ha u n te rs H is f a m e at th e p re s e n t d ay r e s ts l arg e ly u p on
.

h is h i s tor i c a l n ov e l s i n i m i tati o n o f Wa l te r S c o tt T/ze L a s t

, ,

D ay s o
f P omp e i i ( I 8 3 4 ) , R ie n z i an d H a r old
th e l as t b e i n g h is m o s t am bi ti ou s a tte m p t to m ak e th e n ov e l
th e s u ppl e m e n t o f h i s to r y I n a ll h is n ov e l s L y tton is i n cli n e d
.

to s e n ti m e n tal i s m an d se n s ati on ali s m an d h is w o rk s th ou gh , ,

lly i i m dly w y i pl c
'

g e n e ra n te r e s t n g s e e h a r , o r t h o f a h g h a e i n ,

th e h i s tory o f fic ti on .

K i n g s le y E n ti r e ly di ffe r e n t in s pi r i t a r e th e n ov e l s o f th e
.

s c h ol a r ly cl e r y m a n
g C h ar l e s ,K i n gs l e y
( 1 8 19 H i s

w or k s n atu ra lly divid e th e m s e lv e s i n to th re e cl as s e s I n th e .

5 16 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
fi r s t a re h is ci al s tu d i e s an d p r obl e m n ov e l s s u c h a s A lton
so ,

L oc k e h a vi n g for i ts h e ro a L on d on ta il or a n d p oe t ,

a n d Y e a s t w h ic h d e a l s wi th th e p ro bl e m o f t h e ag r i

c ul tu ra l l ab ore r I n th e s e con d cl a s s ar e h is h i s toric a l n ov e l s

. ,

He re w a rd t/i e lVa k e Hy p a t
,
i a a n d W e s t
w
,
a r d H o ! Hyp a ti a
is a d ra m a tic s tor y o f C h ri s tia n i ty i n c o n tac t wi th p aga n i s m ,

h a vi n g its s c e n e l a id in A l e x a n d r i a a t th e b e gi n n i n g of
th e fi f th c e n tu r y W .e s tw a r d H o ! h is b e s t k n o w n
w ork is a s ti rri n g tal e o f E n g li s h c on q ue s t by lan d an d s e a in
,

th e d ay s of E li za b e th I n th e th i r d cl as s a re h is v a r i o u s m is
.

c e lla n e o u s w o r k s n o t th e l e as t o f w h ic h i s
,
Wa te r B a b i e s a -
,

fas ci n ati n g s tor y o f a C h i m n e y s w e e p w h ic h m oth e r s r e ad to ,

th e i r c h ild re n a t b e d ti m e — t o th e g re a td e lig h tof th e ro u n d

,
s

e y e d li t tl e li s te n e rs u n d e r th e c o u n te r p an e .

Mrs Gas k ell M rs E l i za b e th G a s k e l l ( 1 8 1 0 1 8 6 5 ) b e ga n

. . .
—
,

lik e K i n g s l e y wi th th e id e a o f m aki n g th e n ov e l th e in s tru

,

m e n t o f s o ci a l r e f or m A s th e wi f e o f a cl e r gy m an i n Man
.

c h e s te r s h e h ad c om e in cl o s e c on ta c t wi th th e s trugg l e s an d
,

id e al s of th e i n d us tr ia l p oor of a g r e a t ci ty an d s h e re fl e c te d ,

h e r s y m path y as w e ll a s h e r ob s e rva ti on in M a ry B a r ton

( 1 8 4 8 ) a n d i n N a r lIi a n d S au d i B e tw ee n th e s e tw o
p ro bl e m n ov e l s s h e p u bli s h e d h e r m a s te r pi e c e Cra nf or d in , ,

1853 . Th e o r i g i n a l o f th i s c o u n tr y vill ag e w h i c h i s g iv e n ,

ov e r to s pi n s te rs i s u n d ou b te dly K n u ts f ord
, in C h e s h ir e , ,

w h e re Mrs G as k e ll h ad s p e n t h e r C h ild h ood Th e s ym path y

.
.
,

th e k e e n o b s e rv ati o n a n d th e , g e n tl e h u m or wi th w h ic h th e
s m a ll a ffa i rs o f a c o u n t ry v ill a e a re d e s c r ib e d m a k e Cra n or d
g f
o n e of t h e m os t d e li g h tf u l s to r i e s i n th e E n g l i s h l a n g uag e .

We are i n d e b te d to Mrs G as k e ll a l s o f or th e L ife of C/za r lotte

.

B r on te; w h ic h is o n e of o u r b e s t bi o ra p h i e s
g .

B lac k m ore R ic h ard D o dd r id g e B l a ckm ore ( 1 8 2 5 1 9 0 0 )

. —

w a s a p rol ific w r i te r b u t h e o w e s h is f am e a lm o s t e n ti r e ly
,

to on e s pl e n did n ov e l L or n a D oon e w h ic h w a s p u bl i s h e d i n
, ,

1 86 9 Th e s c e n e of th i s f as ci n ati n r om an c e is l aid in E xm oor

g
.

in th e s e ve n te e n th c e n tu ry Th e s to ry a b o u n d s in ro m a n tic
,
5 1 8 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
a s ng e i l se n ten x cl am ati on O n a cc o u n to f h is e n ig
ce or an e .

m a tic s tyl e a n d h is p s yc h o l o g y M e r e d i th will n e v e r b e p op u

,

la r ; b u t by th o u g h tf u l m e n a n d w om e n h e will p ro b a bly b e
ran k e d a m on g o u r g r e a t e s t w ri te rs O f fi c t i o n Th e s i m pl e s t .

a n d e as i e s t o f h i s n o v e l s f o r a b e g i n n e r i s Tli e A d v e n t
u re s o
f
He n ry R i c lzm on d ( 1 8 A m on g th e b e s t o f h is w or k s b e ,

s id e s th e tw o m e n ti o n e d a b ov e a re B ea u c /za m p s Ca re e r ( 1 8 7 6 )
’

a n d T/ze E g o i s t Th e l atte r i s in o u r p e r s on a l j u d g ,

m e n t on e o f t h e s tro n g e s tan d m os t c on vi n ci n g n o v e l s of th e
,

V ic tori an A g e .

Hard y T h om as H a rdy ( 1 8 4 0 1 928 ) s e e m s lik e M e re di th

.
—
, ,

to b e l on g t o t h e p r e s e n t ra th e r th an to a p a s t ag e an d a n i n ,

te re s tin g c o m p ar i s on m ay b e d ra w n b e tw e e n th e s e tw o n ov e l
is ts I n s tyl e M e r e di th is Ob s c u re an d di ffic u l t w h il e H a r dy
.
, ,

is di re c t a n d s i m pl e a i m i n g at r e a li s m in a ll th i n g s M e re d i th
, .

m ak e s m an th e m os t i m po r t an t p h e n o m e n on i n t h e u n iv e rs e
an d t h e s tru gg l e s o f m e n ar e b r i g h te n e d by th e h op e of vic
to ry H a rdy m ak e s m an an i n s ig n i fic an t p art of th e w orld
.
,

st r u gg li n g aga i n s t p o w e r s g r e a ter t h an h i m s e l f — s o m e ti m e s ,

ag a i n s t sy s t e m s w h ic h h e c an n ot re a c h or i n fl u e n c e s om e ,

ti m e s aga i n s ta ki n d of g r i m w or ld s pi r i tw h o d e li g h ts in m ak -

in g h u m an aff a i rs g o w ro n g H e is th e re f ore h ardly a r e a l

.
, ,

i s t b u t rath e r a m an bli n d e d by p e s s i m i s m ; a n d h is n ov e l s
, ,

th ou gh g e n e rally p ow e r f u l a n d s o m e ti m e s f a s ci n ati n g a re n ot ,

pl e a s an t or w h o l e som e r e a di n g F r om th e r e a d e r s v i e w p oi n t
.
’

s om e o f h is e a r li e r w o r k s l ik e t h e idyllic l ov e s to f y U n d e r t/ze
,

Gr e e n w ood Tre e ( 1 872) an d A P a ir f

o B lu e E y e s a re

th e m os t i n te re s ti n g H ardy b e c a m e n ote d h o w e v e r w h e n
.
, ,

h e p u bli sh e d F a r f r om t lze M a d d i ng Cr ow d a b ook w h ic h , ,

wh e n it app e ar e d a n o n y m o u s ly in th e Cor n /ti ll M ag a z i n e

w a s g e n e rally att r ib u ted to G e or e E li o t f or t h e s im
g ,

p le r e a so n th a t n o o th e r n ov e li s t w a s s u pp os e d to b e c a pa
b le o f w r i ti n g it T/ze R e tu r n o tk e N a ti v e 1 8 8 an d l e
f
.

( 7 )
Wood la n de rs are ge n e ra lly r e ga rd e d as H ardy s m as te rpi e c e s ’

b u ttw o n o v e l s o f o u r o w n d a
y Te ss of t
’
k e D U ke r v i lle s ( 1 8 9 1 )
,
 TH E V I C T O R I AN AG E 5 19

an d f ad e /i e Obs c u r e
t b e t te r e xp r e s s i on s of H ar dy s
ar e
’

li te rary a rta n d of h is g l oo m y p h il os op h y .

S te v e n s on I n pl e a s i n g c o n tras twi th H ardy i s R ob e rtL o u i s

.

S te v e n s on ( 1 8 5 0 a b r av e c h e e ry w h o l e som e s pi r i t
, , ,

w h o h as m ad e u s all b r a v e r a n d c h e e r i e r by w h a t h e h as

wr i tte n A s id e f rom th e i r i n tr i n s ic va l u e , S te ve n s on s n ov e l s
.
’

ar e i n t e re s ti n g in th i s r e s p e c t th at th e y m ar k a re tu rn to
,
—

th e p u re ro m an tici s m of Wa l te r S c o tt Th e n ov e l of th e n i n e .

te e n th c e n tu r y h a d a s w e h a v e s h o w n a v e ry d e fi n i te p u r
, ,

p os e I t a i m e d n ot on ly to re p r e s e n t l i f e b u t to c orre c t it
.
,

an d t o o ff e r a s o l u ti on ta p r e s s in g m ora l a n d s ocia l p robl e m s .

A tth e e n d o f th e c e n tu ry H ar dy s g l oom i n th e f a c e of m od
’

e rn s o ci a l c on d i t i o n s b e c a m e o ppr e s s iv e a n d S te v e n son b ro k e ,

a w a y f ro m i t i n t o t h a t l a n d o f d e li g h tf u l r om an c e i n w h ic h
y ou th fi n d s an an s w e r to all its q u e sti on s P ro bl e m s d i ff e r .
,

b u t y ou th is e v e r th e s am e a n d th e re f or e S te v e n son wil l
,

p r ob ably b e re g ar d e d by f u tu re g e n e rati on s as on e of ou r
"
m os t e n d u r i n g w r i te r s To h is li f e
. wi th its h e roi c ally ,
”
h appy s tr u gg l e fi rs t ag a i n s t p o v e r ty th e n agai n s t p h y s ic a l
, ,

ill n e s s it is i m p os s ibl e to d o j u s ti c e in a s h ort a rticl e E v e n

, .

a l o n g e r bi og ra p h y i s i n ad e q u at f or S te v e n s o n s s pi r i t n ot
’
e , ,

th e i n cid e n ts o f h i s l i f e i s th e i m p or tan t th i n g ; a n d th e
,

s pi r i t h a s n o bi og rap h e r T h oug h h e h ad w ritte n m u c h b e tte r

.

w ork e ar li e r h e fi rs t g a i n e d f am e by h is Tr e a s u re I s la n d
,

an a b s or bi n g s t o r y of pi ra t e s a n d o f a h un t fo r b u r i e d

g o ld D
. r f y ll a n d M r Hy d e ( 1 8 8 6 ) is a p r o f ou n d e th ic al
e k /. .

p arabl e in w h ic h h ow e v e r S te v e n s on l e av e s th e p s yc h ol og y
, , ,

an d t h e m i n u te an a lys i s o f c h ara c te r to h is r e a d e r s a n d m a k e s ,

th e s tory th e c h i e f th i n g in h is n ov e l K i d n app e d .

Th e M a s te r of B a lla n tra e an d D a v id B a lfou r

( 1 89 3)
ar e no ve ls o f adv e n t ur e g ivi n g u s v ivid pic tu r e s o f S c otc h
,

li fe . Tw o r om an c e s l e f t u n fi n i s h e d by h is e ar ly d e ath in
S a m oa We i r of He r m is ton an d S t I v e s Th e l atte r
are Tb e . .

w a s fi n i s h e d by Q u ill e r C o u c h i n 1 8 9 7
-
th e f orm e r i s h a ppily
j u s tas S te v e n s on l e f t it a n d th oug h u n fi n i s h e d is ge n e rally
,
5 20 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
r e gar de d as h is m as te rpi e c e I n add i ti on
. to th e s e no ve ls ,

S te v e n s on w rote a l a rg e n u m b e r o f e s s ay s , th e b e s t of w h ic h
a r e c o ll e c te d in Vi rg i n i b u s P u e r i s q u e , F a m i li a r S tu d i e s of
Me n and B ook s , an d fl I e m or i e s and P o r tra i t
s . D e li g h tf u l
s k e tc h e s of h i s tra v e l s a re f ou n d i n A n I n la n d Voy ag e
Tra v e ls w id e a D on k ey A c ros s t/ze P la i n s an d

Tb e A m a te u r E m i
g ra n t
( I 8 94 ) . U n d e r w ood s ( 1 8 8 7 ) is an e x

q u is ite li ttl e v o l u m e o f p oe tr y a n d A C/i i ld s Ga r d e n of Ve rs e s

,
’

is o n e of th e b o ok s th a t m oth e r s will a lw ay s k e e p to re a d to
th e i r c h ild re n .

I n all h is b ook s S te v e n s on g iv e s th e imp r e s s i on of a m an

a t pl ay rat h e r th an at w ork a n d th e r e ad e r s oo n s h are s in th e
,

h appy s pi r i t o f th e a u th or B e c a u s e of h is b e au ti f u l p e r s o n al
.

i ty an d b e c au s e of th e l ov e an d ad m i rati on h e a w ak e n e d for
,

h i m s e l f i n m ul ti tu d e s of re ad e rs w e a r e n atura lly i n cli n e d to ,

e x agg e ra t e h is i m p or t an c e as a w ri ter H o w e v e r th at m ay b e .
,

a st u dy o f h is w o rk s s h o w s h im t o b e a c on s u mm at e li te rary

a rt i s t H is s tyl e is alway s s i m pl e o f te n p e r f e c t an d b oth in

.
, ,

h is m a n n e r an d i n h is m atte r h e e x e r c i s e s a p r o f ou n d i n fl u e n c e
on t h e w r i te rs o f th e p re s e n t g e n e rati on .

I II . ESS A Y I S TS OF THE I TO R I A N
V C AG E

T HO MA S B A B I N GT ON
MA C A U L A Y ( I 8 OO— 1 8 5 9 )
M ac au l ay is on e o f th e m o s t typi ca l fi g u re s o f th e n i n e
te e n th c e n tury T h o u gh n ot a g re at w r i te r i f w e c om p ar e
.
,

h im wi th B ro w n i n g o r T h a ck e ray h e w a s m ore cl o s e ly a s s o ,

c iat ed t h an an y o f h is li te ra ry c on te mp orar i e s wi th th e s o ci al
a n d p oli t ic al s trug gle s of th e age Wh il e C ar lyl e w as p ro .

cl ai m i n g th e g os p e l o f l ab or an d D ick e n s w r i ti n g n ov e l s to
,

b e tte r th e c on d i ti on o f th e p oo r M ac au l ay w e n t vi g o rou s ly to
,

w ork on w h a t h e th oug h t to b e th e m os t i m p or tan t ta s k o f

th e h ou r a n d by h is b r illi a n t s p e e c h e s d id p e r h a p s m o r e th an
,

an
y oth e r s i n gl e m a n to f or c e th e p as s ag e o f th e f a m o u s R e
f or m B ill L ik e m an y o f th e E li za b e th an s h e w a s a p ra c tic a l
.

,
 5 22 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
Af te r h is M ac au l ay s tud i e d law w as ad m i tte d to
Co l l e ge C o u rs e ,

th e b ar d e vo t e d h i m s e lf l a rge l y t
,
o pol iti c s e n te re d Parl i am e n t in ,

1 83 0 a n d a l m os ti m m e di a t
,
e ly w o n a r e p u t at i on as th e b e std e bate r
an d t h e m oste l o q u e n t s p e a k e r o f th e L ibe ra l o r Wh i g p art y G l ad .

st on e sa y s o f h im : Wh e n e ve r h e a ros e to sp e a k itw as a su m m on s
"

l i ke a tru m p e tc a l l to fill th e be n c h e s At th e ti m e o f h is e l e c ti o n
.
”

h e w as p oo r, a n d th e l o s s of h is fa th e r s p ro p e rty th re w u p o n h im
’

th e s u p po rto f h is b
h e rs an d s ste rs ; b u t h e too u p th e u rd e n
ro t i k b
wi th c h e e rf u l c ou rage an d b y h is ow n e ff orts soon p l ac e d h i m s e lf an d
,

h is fam ily in c o m fo rt H is p o l i ti c a l p rogre ss w a s ra p id an d w as d u e

.
,

n o tt o fa v o ri ti sm o r i n tri gu e b u tto h is abi l i ty h is h ard w ork an d h is

, , ,

st e rl i n g c h arac t er H e was se v e ra l ti m e s e l e c te d to Pa rl i am e n t w a s
.
,
'

le ga l a d vi se r to th e S u p re m e C ou n
C il o f I n dia ,
w as a m e m be r of th e
bi n e t an d d e c l i n e d m an y o ffic e s
ca ,

fo r w h i c h o th e r m e n l a bo r a l i f e ti m e .

I n 1 8 5 7 h is gre a ta b i l i t y an d s e rvi c e s
to h is c oun t ry w e r e re c ogn i z e d by h is

b e i n g ra i s e d to th e p e e rage w i th th e
ti tl e o f B a ron M a c au l ay o f R o th l e y .

M ac au l ay s l i te ra ry w o rk b e gan in ’

c o l l e ge w i th th e c on tr i b u ti on o f va ri
o u s b a l l ad s a n d e s say s t o t h e m aga
zin e s I n h is l ate r l i fe p rac ti c a l a ff a i rs
.

c l ai m e d t h e gre a te r p artof h is ti m e ,

an d h is b r i l l i an te ss ay s w e re w ri t te n
T HO MA S B A B IN G T ON MA C A U L AY
in th e e a rl y m orn i n g o r l a te a tn i gh t .

H is fa m o u s E ss ay on M ilton a p p e are d in th e E d i n b u rg lz R ev i ew in
1 825 I tc re ate d a s e n sa ti on an d M ac au l ay h avi n g ga i n e d th e e ar o f
, ,

th e p u b l i c n e v e r on c e l os titd u ri n th e tw e n t y ye ars in w h i c h h e w as
,
g
a c on t i b u t
r or t o t h e m agaz i n e s H is L ay s of A n c ien tR om e a p p e a re d
.

in 1 8 4 2,a n d in t h e f o l l o w i n g y e ar th re e vo l u m e s o f h is c o l l e c te d
E ss ay s I n 8 4 7 h e l o s th is s e atin P ar l i am e n t te m ora il y th rou h
1
.

p g ,
r ,

h is z e a l ous e ff o rts in b e h a lf o f re l i i ous to l e ra ti on an d th e l os s w as

g
s i n c e i t a v e h im O
p p ortu n i ty to b e gi n h is [l i story
m o s tfo rt un a te
g,

Of E ng la n d a m on u m e n t
, a l w o rk w h i c h h e h ad b e e n
p l a n n i n g fo r
m an y y e ars Th e fi rs t two v o l um e s a p p e a r e d in 1 8 4 8 an d th e i r
.
,

s uc c e ss c an b e c o m are d on l y
p t o t h at of th e m os t p o p u l a r n ove l s .

Th e th i rd an d fo u rth vo l u m e s o f th e H is t e re e v e n
ory
( 1 85 5
) w
m o re su c c e ssfu l a n d M ac a u l a y w as h a rd a t w o rk o n t
, h e re m a i n i n g
 TH E V I C T O R I A N AG E 523

vo l u m e s w h e n he d i e d q u i te
,
su d d e n ly ,
in 1 85 9 . He w as bu i e dr ,
n e ar

Ad d i son , in th e Poe ts ’
C o rn e r of We stm i n ste r Abb e y . A p a ragra p h
f rom on e o f h is l e tte rs ,
wr t i
te n a t th e h e gh t o f i h is fa m e an d in fl u
enc e, m ay g iv e u s an in s gh t i i n to h is l if e an d w ork :
I c an tru ly sa
y th at I h av e n ot,
fo r m an y y e a rs ,
b een so h ap p y as I
am a t p re s e n t . I am f re e . I
i n d e p e n d e n t I a m i n P a rl i a m e n t am .
,

as h o o r a b l y s e a t
n e d as m a n c a n b e M y f a m il y i s c o m fo r ta b l y o ff I . .

h a v e l e i s u re f o r l i t
e ra tu re e t I a m n o tr e d u c e d t o t h e n e c e ssi ty o f w rit
y ,

i n g for m o n e y I f I h ad t o c h oos e a lo tf ro m a ll t
. h a tth e re are i n h u m an
l ife I am n o t s u re th a t I s h ou l d p re fe r a n y to th at w h i c h h as f a l l e n to
,

me . I a m s i n c e re l y an d th o ro u gh l y c o n te n te d .

Work s of Mac au lay M ac a u l ay 1 3 f am ou s i n l i te ratu r e for .

h is e s s ay s f or h is m a r ti a l b all ad s a n d f or h i s H i s t
,
or
y f E ng
o ,

E ss y
a on la n d Hi s fi r s t i m p ortan t w or k th e E s s ay on M i l
.
,

M il t” ton i s w or th y of s tu dy n ot o n ly fo r i ts e l f ,

as a cri t ic al e s ti m ate o f th e P ur i tan p oe t b u t a s a k e y to all ,

M a c au l ay s w r i ti n g s H e re fi rs t of a ll i s a n i n te re s ti n g w ork
’
.
, , ,

w h ic h h o we v e r m u c h w e d i ffe r f ro m th e a u th or s o pi n i on
,
’

h old s o ur a tte n ti o n a n d g e n e r a lly m a k e s u s r e g re t th a t th e

e n d c om e s s o s oon Th e se c on d th i n g to n ote is th e h is
.

to r ic a l fl a v or o f th e e s s a y We s tu dy n o t o n ly Mil ton b u t .
,

al so t h e ti m e s in w h ic h h e liv e d a n d th e g r e a t m ov e m e n ts of ,

w h ic h h e w as a p ar t H i s tory an d li te rature p rop e r ly b e l on g

.

tog e th e r a n d M a ca u l ay w a s on e of th e fi r s t w ri te r s to e x pl a i n
,

th e h i s tor ic al c on di ti on s w h ich p ar tly a cc ou n t f or a w r i te r s

’

w o r k a n d i n fl u e n c e Th e th i rd thi n g to n ote i s M a c au l ay s
.
’

e nt h u s ia s m for h is s u bj e c t an e n th u s i a s m w h ic h i s o f te n ,

p arti s an b u t w h ic h w e g l adly sh ar e f or th e m om e n t a s w e
,

f oll o w th e b re ath l e s s n arra tiv e M a c au l ay g e n e rally m a k e s a .

h e ro o f h is m an s h ow s h im b a ttli n g ag a i n s t odd s a n d th e
, ,

h e ro ic s id e of o ur ow n n a tur e a w a k e n s a n d re s p on d s to th e
au t h or s pl e a Th e f o u rth a n d p e r h a p s m o s t c h arac te r i s tic
’
.
,

th i n g in th e e s sa y i s th e s tyl e w h ic h is r e m ark a bly cl e ar , ,

f or ce f u l an d c on vi n ci n g J e ff re y th e e d i tor of th e E d i n b u i g /t
,
.
,

R e v i e w w ro te e n th u s i a s tic a lly w h e n h e r e c e iv e d th e m an u
,
"
s c rip t Th e m ore I th i n k th e l e s s I c an c on c e i v e w h e r e y ou
, ,
5 24 E N GLI S H L IT E R ATU R E
We s till s h ar e i n th e e di to r s w on d e r ;
’

pick e d up yl e th at s t .
’

b u t th e m o re w e th i n k th e l e s s w e c on c e iv e th at s u c h a s tyl e
,

c ou ld b e pick e d u p I t w a s par tly th e r e s u l t of a w e ll s to r e d

.
-

m i n d p a r tly o f u n c on s ci o u s i m i ta ti o n o f o th e r w r i te r s a n d
,
,

par tly o f th at n atu ra l tal e n t fo r cl e ar s p e a ki n g an d w r i ti n g

w h ic h is m an i f e s t in a ll M ac a u l ay s w ork ’
.

I n th e r e m ai n i n g e s say s w e fin d th e sa m e g e n e ra l q u a l i ti e s
w h ic h ch aracte r i z e M a c a ul ay s fi rs t a tte m p t T h e y c ov e r a ’
.

wid e ran g e o f s u bj e c ts b u t th e y m ay b e divid e d ,

Ot h E
er y ssa s
i n to tw o g e n e ra l cl as s e s th e li te r ary or c r i ti ca l an d , ,

th e h i s to r ic a l O f th e li te ra ry e s sa y s th e b e s t are th os e on
.

M il ton A ddi s on G o ld s m i th B y ron D ryd e n L e i gh H u n t

, , , , , ,

B u n y an B ac o n an d J oh n s o n
, ,
A m o n g th e b e s tk n o w n O f th e
.

h i s tor ic a l e s say s a r e th o s e o n L o rd C liv e C h ath a m Warre n , ,

H a s ti n g s H a ll am s C on s ti tuti on a l H i s to ry V on R a n k e s H is
,
’

,
’

tory o f th e Pa p acy F r e d e r ick th e G r e at H ora c e \Va lp ole

, , ,

Willi a m P i tt S ir Willi a m T e m pl e M a c h i av e ll i a n d Mi ra b e au
, , , .

M os to f th e s e w e re p ro d u c e d in th e vi g o r of y o u n g m a n h ood ,

b e tw e e n 1 8 2 5 an d 1 8 4 5 w h il e th e w r i te r w a s b u s y wi th p rac ti
,

c a l a ff a i r s o f s tat e T h e y a r e o f te n on e s id e d a n d i n a cc u rate b u t
.
-
,

a lw ay s i n t e re s ti n g an d f rom th e m a l arg e n u m b e r o f b us y p e o
,

p le h av e d e r iv e d th e i r fi rs t k n o wl e d g e o f h i s tor y an d l i te ratu re .

Th e b e s t o f M a c a u l ay s p oe tic a l w o r k i s f o u n d in th e L ay s
’

of A n c i e n t R om e a c ol l e c ti on o f b all ad s i n th e s tyl e o f
L y a f “s o S c ott w h ic h s i n g o f th e old h e ro ic d ay s o f th e
,

“ tR ”
en 0
R om an r e p u blic Th e b all a d d o e s n ot r e q u i r e m u c h
.

th o u g h t or e m o ti o n I t d e m a n d s cl e arn e s s vi g o r e n th u s i as m
.
, , ,

a c ti o n ; a n d i t s u i t e d M a c a u l ay s i p f c ly H
’

g e n u s e r e t e w a s .
,

h o we v e r m u c h m o re c are f u l th an oth e r b a ll ad w ri te rs in m ak
,

i n g h is n a rra tiv e tr u e to tradi ti on Th e s ti rr i n g m ar tia l s pi r i t .

of t h e s e b all a d s th e i r fin e w o rk m a n s h ip a n d th e i r a pp e a l to
, ,

c o urage a n d patri oti s m m ad e th e m i n s tan tly p op u l ar E v e n .

to d a f t m o re th an fi f ty y e a r s s u c h b a ll ad s a s th o se o n
y a
-
e r
, ,

V irg in iu s an d H o ra ti u s at th e B r id e a r e f av or i te pi e c e s in
g
m an y s c h o ol r e ad e r s .
5 26 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
work a n d m ad e h is n arra tiv e as a b s or bi n g as a n ov e l To all .

h is c h a rac te rs h e g iv e s th e re a li ty o f fl e s h a n d bl o od an d i n ,

h is o w n w o rd s h e s h ow s u s ov e r t h e i r h ou s e s a n d s e ats u s
"

h e i r tabl e s A ll th at is e xc e ll e n t b u t it h a s i ts d is a d
”
at t . ,

v an tage s I n h is ad m i rati on fo r h e ro i s m M ac a ul ay m a k e s
. ,

s o m e o f h is C h ara c t e rs t oo g o o d a n d ot h e r s to o b a d I n h is .

z e a l fo r d e t a il s h e m i s s e s t h e i m p or tan c e of g re atm o v e m e n ts ,

a n d o f g re a t l e ad e r s w h o a re a cc u s t om e d t o i g n o re d e t a il s ;

a n d in h is joy o f d e s c r ibi n g e v e n t s h e of t e n l os e s s i g h t o f

u n d e r lyi n g c a u s e s I n a w or d h e is wi th o u th i s to r ic a l i n s i g h t
.
, ,

a n d h is w or k t ,
h ou g h f a s ci n ati n g i s se ld om pl a c e d a m on g th e
,

re li a bl e h i s tori e s o f E n g l an d .

Ge n e ral Ch ar ac te ri s tic s To th e r e ad e r w h o s tu di e s M a c a u
.

l ay s b rilli a n t e s say s a n d a fe w c h ose n c h ap te rs o f h is H is

’

th re e th i n g s s oon b e c om e m an i f e s t F i rs t M a c a u lay s
’

t ory ,
.
,

ar t is t h a t o f a p u blic s p e ak e r rath e r th a n th at o f a li te ra ry
m an He h as a w o n d e r f u l c om m an d Of l an g uag e a n d h e m ak e s
.
,

h is m e an i n g cl e a r by s tr iki n g p h ra s e s v i g o rou s an ti th e s e s , ,

an d ill u s
"
a n e cd ot es , tra ti on s H is s tyl e is s o cl e ar th at h e
.

”
w h o r u n s m ay re ad a n d f r om
, b e g i n n i n g to e n d h e n e ve r
l os e s th e atte n ti on o f h i s r e ad e r s S e c on d M a c au l ay s g ood .
,
’

s pi r i ts an d e n t h u s i a s m a r e c o n tag i ou s A s h e s a id h i m se l f .
,
" ”
h e w rote o ut o f a f u ll h e ad c h i e fly for h is ow n p l e a s ure o r
,

r e c r e at i on ; an d o n e w h o w r i te s j oy ou s ly g e n e rally a wak e n s
"
a s e n s e o f pl e a s u r e in h i s r e a d e r s T h i rd M a c a u l ay h as th e
.
,

He r e ad s a n d r e m e m b e rs s o m u c h
”
d e f e c t of h is q u a li ti e s .

th at h e h a s n o ti m e to th i n k o r to f or m s e ttl e d O pi n i on s As .

"
Gl ad s ton e s aid M a cau l ay i s al w ay s c on v e r s i n g o r r e c o ll e c t
,

”
i n g or re adi n g or c o m p o s i n g b u t r e fl e c ti n e v er So he
, g n .

w ro te h is b r illi an t E s s ay on M i lton w h ic h took all E n g l an d ,

"
by s tor m an d said o f it a f te r wa r d th at it c on ta i n e d s c a r c e ly
,

parag rap h w h ic h h is m a tu re j u d g m e n ta pp rov e d Wh e th e r .

”

h e s pe ak s o r w r i te s h e h a s a lw ay s b e f or e h im an e a e r a u di
, g
e n c e an d h e f e e l s wi t h i n h im th e b o rn ora tor s p o w e r to h old
’
,

a n d f as ci n at e . S o h e g iv e s l oos e re i n to h i s e n th u s i a s m q uote s ,
 TH E V I C T O R I AN AG E 5 27

f ro m a h u n d re d
b ook s an d i n h i s d e li g h t a t e n te r tai n i n g u s
,

f o rg e ts th a tth e fi r s t q u a li ty o f a c r i tica l o r h i s to r ic a l w o r k i s
to b e a cc u ra te an d t h e s e c on d to b e i n te re s ti n g
,
.

T H OM A S CAR L YL E ( 1 795
—
1 88 1 )

I n m ar k e d c on tr as t wi th M a c a u l ay th e b r illi a n ta n d c h e e r ,

f u l e s sayi s t is T h om a s C ar lyl e th e p ro p h e t a n d c e n s or o f th e
, ,

n in e t eent h c e n tu ry M a cau l ay i s th e p r ac tic a l m an of a ffa i r s

.
,

h e l pi n g an d r e j oici n g in th e p rog r e s s o f h i s b e l o v e d E n g l an d .

C ar lyl e liv e s a p a r t f r o m a ll p ra c tic a l i n te r e s ts l ook s w i th d i s ,

tr u s t o u th e p rog r e s s of h i s ag e a n d te ll s m e n th at tr u th , ,

j u s tic e a n d i m m or ta l i ty ar e th e on ly w o rth y obj e c ts of h u m a n

,

e n d e a v or M a c au l ay i s d e li g h te d wi th m ate r i al c om f orts ; h e
.

i s m os t at h o m e in b r il li an t a n d fa s h i on abl e c om p an y ; a n d
h e w r i te s e v e n w h e n ill a n d s u ff e r i n g wi th u n f a ili n g h o p e f u l
, ,

n e s s a n d g oo d n a t u re C a r lyl e is lik e a H e b r e w p r op h e t j u s t
.

i n f r om th e d e s e rt a n d th e b u r d e n o f h i s m e s s ag e is
,
Woe ,
"

”
to th e m th a t a r e a t e a s e i n Z i on ! B o th m e n a r e in di ff e r ,

e n t w ay s t ypica l of th e c e n tu ry an d s o m e wh e re b e tw e e n th e
, ,

tw o e x tr e m e s — th e p ra c tic a l h e lp f u l a c tivi ty o f M a ca u l ay ,

an d t h e s pi r i tu a l a g on y a n d c on fl ic tof C ar lyl e w e s h all fi n d —

th e m e as u r e of an ag e w h ic h h as l e f t th e d e e p e s t i m p r e s s
u p on o u r o w n .

Li fe of Carly l e . C a rly l e w a s bo rn at E c c l e f e c h an , D u m f r i e ssh i re ,

in 1 7 9 5 , a f e w m on th s b e fore B u rn s s d e ath an d b e fo e S c o tt h ad ’

,
r

pub fi
l i sh e d h is rs t w o rk L ik e B u rn s h e c am e of p e asan ts toc k
.
, ,

s t on g s i m p l e G o d f e a i n g f o l k w h os e i n fl u e n c e in C a rly l e s l a te r
’
r , ,
-
r ,

l if e i s b e yon d c a l c u l ati on Of h is m oth e r h e say s S h e w as too m i l d

.
,

h e p l an e t s h e l iv e d in ; an d O f h i s f a th e r a s ton e
”
an d p e a c e f u l fo r t ,
"
m a so n h e w i t
, es C o u l d I w r i te m y b ook s as h e b u i l t h is h o u s e s
r , ,

w a l k m y w ay so m an fu l l y th ro u gh th i s s h ad ow w o r l d an d l e av e it ,

w i th s o l ittl e blam e itw e r e m ore th an a ll m y h o p e s

, .
”

O f C a rly l e s e a rl y s c h oo l l i fe w e h av e so m e i n te re sti n g
’

in S a r t
o r R e sa r t
us . At n in e y e a rs h e e n te re d th e An n an
sc h oo l , w h e re h e w as bu l l i e d b y th e o l d e r b oy s ,
wh o n ic k n a
 5 28 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
To m th e T e a rfu l . F o r th e te ac h e rs of h o se
t d ay s h e h as on ly r id i ‘

l
c u e, ca l l in g th e m
"
h id e -
bou n d ”
p e d an ts , an d h e c a l l s th e sc h o ol
b y th e s u gge s t e iv G e rm an n a m e of f l i n t c r s c /i lag Gy m n a s i u m At .

th e w ish of h is p a re n ts , w h o i i
i n te n d e d C a rly l e fo r th e m n s try , h e e n
d u re d th i s h a te f u l sc h oo l l ife til l
1 8 0 9 wh e n h e e n t e re d E d i n b u rgh ,

U n iv e rs i ty T h e re h e s p e n t fi e m i se rab l e y e ars of w h ic h h is own

. v ,
"
re c o rd is : I w as w i th ou t f i e n d s e x p e ri e n c e o r c on n e c ti on in th e
r , ,

s p h e re o f h u m an b u s i n e ss w as o f sly h u m o r p ro u d e n o u gh an d t
, o ,

a n d h a d b e g n m y l on g c u r ri c u l u m o f d y s p e s i a T h i s n ag ”
s are
p ,
u
p .

gi n g i l l n e s s w a s th e c au s e
o f m uc h of t h a t i rri tabi l i ty
of t e m pe r wh i c h f re q u e n t ly
le d h im to sc o l d th e p u b
lic an d fo r w h i c h h e h as ,

b e e n h arsh ly h an d l e d by
u n f ri e n d l y c ri t ic s .

Th e p e r i o d f o l l o w i n g h is
u n iv e rs i ty c ou rse w as on e
of st
o rm an d s t
re s s for C ar
ly l e M u c h to th e gri e f of
.

t h e f a th e r w h o m h e l ov e d ,

h e h ad g ive n u p t h e id e a
of e n t e ri n g th e m i n i s try .

Wh e re ve r h e tu rn e d d oub ts ,

l ik e a th i c k fog su rro u n d e d
h im — d ou b ts of G od o f
, ,

h is fe l l ow -
m en , of h u m an
p rogre ss , of h i m se l f . He
w as p oo r , an d to e a rn an
U NI V E R S I T Y OF E D IN B U R G H
h on e st l iv i n g w as h is fi rst
b
p ro l e m H e tri e su c c e ss i e l te ac h i n g s c h o o l , tu to r i n g, th e
.
d v y udy
st

o f law , an d w r t i i
i n g m sc e l l an e o us arti c l e s fo r th e E d i n b u rg k E n cy c lo
p e d ia All th e w h il e h e w as gh tn g h is d ou ts , l i n g, as h e sa y s ,
.
fi i b vi
in a c on ti n u al , i n d e n i te , fi i v y
p n i n g fe ar Af te r s ix o r se e n e a rs of
”
.

m ent a l a o n y , w h c h h as a tt
g i
i m e s a s u gge s ti o n of B u n an s s p ri tua l
’
y i
i
is s c a m e in 1 8 2 1 w h e n C a rl y l e su d e n l sh o o o ff h is d y k
"
nd i
h m se lf . All a t sa sy in S a r t
or , th e re
in m e , k e d m yse l f Wh a tAr tth ou af ra id o f ?
an d I as

a c o w a d d o stt h o u f o re v e r p ip an d wh i m p e r a n d go
r
,

e m bl i n g ?
r D e sp i c ab l e b i p e d Wh a t is th e su m tota l
 TH E V I C T O R I AN AG E 5 29

of th e w o rs tth a t l i e s be fore th e e ? D e a th ? We l l , D e a th an d s a
y th e
p a n gs of o p h e tto o , a n d a ll th a tth e D e v i l an d Man m ay , w l l , o r c an
T i
d o a ga n s tth e ei as tt H
h ou n o ta h e art c an stth ou n o tsu ff e r w h at
so e ve r it b e ; an d , a s a C h i ld of F re e d om , th ou gh c as t
ou t , tra m p l e
T o p h e t i ts e l f u n d e r th y fe e t w h i l e it c on s u m e s th e e ? L e t it c o m e ,

th e n ; I w i l l m e e ti tan d d e fy it An d as I so th ou gh t th e re ru sh e d ,

l ik e a s tre am of fire ov e r m y w h o l e so u l ; a n d I S h ook base F e a r

a w ay f ro m m e f o re v e r T h i s s tru ggl e b e tw e e n f e a r an d fa i th a n d th e
”
.
,

t i u m p h of th e l a tt
r e r i s re c o rd e d in t w o r e m a rk a b l e c h a p t
, e rs Th e ,
"
E v e r l a s ti n g N o Th e E v e r l a s ti n g Ye a
”
an d of S a t o r R e sa tus ,
r r .

C a rl y l e n o w d e fi n i te l y re so l v e d o n a l i te ra r y l i f e a n d b e gan w i th ,

a n y w o rk t h at o ff e re d a ba re l ive l i h ood H e tra n s l a te d L e ge n d re s ’

.

G e om e t ry f ro m t h e F re n c h w rote n u m e rou s e ssa y s fo r th e m agaz i n e s

, ,

an d c on t i n u e d h is stu dy of G e rm an w h i l e m aki n g tran s l a ti on s f rom

th a t l an guage H is tran s l ati on of G o e th e s I Vi /lze lm M e is te r ap
.
’
/

p e a re d in 1 8 2 4 , h is L if e f
o S eb i lle r in 1 825 , an d h is Sp eci m e n s f
o

G e r m a n R om a n ce in 1 8 2 7 b e gan a tth i s ti m e a c orre sp on d e n c e

. He
w i th G o e th e h is l i te rary h e ro w h i c h l aste d ti l l th e G e rm an p oe ts
, ,
’

d e a th in 1 8 3 2 Wh i l e s ti l l b u sy wi th h ac k w o rk
”
. C a r l y l e in 1 8 2 6 , , ,

m a rr i e d J a n e We l s h a b ri l l i a n tan d b e au t ,
i fu l wo m an w h o se l i te rar y ,

e n i u s a l m os t e q u a l e d th t f h h u sb an d S oo n a ft e r w a rd s in fl u
g a o e r .
,

e n c e d c h i e fl y by p ov e r t y th e C a r ly l e s r e ti re d to a farm a tC ra i ge n
, ,

p u ttoc h ( H aw k s H il l) a d re ary a n d l on e l y s p o t far f rom f ri e n d s

’
, ,

a n d e v e n n e i gh b o rs T h e y re m a i n e d h e re s ix ye a rs d u ri n g w h i c h
.
,

ti m e C a rly l e w ro te m an y o f h is b e st e ssa y s an d S a r t or R es a t u s h is ,
r ,

m o sto ri gi n al wo rk T h e l a tte r w e n t b e ggi n g a m on g p u b l i s h e rs fo r

.

tw o ye ars a n d w as fi n a l l y p u b l i s h e d se ri a l l y in F r a s e s M ag a z i n e
’
,
r ,

In 1 8 3 3 1 83 4 — By th i s ti m e C a r ly l e h ad b e gu n to a ttra c ta tte n ti on
.

a s a w ri t e r an d t h i n ki n g th a ton e w h o m a d e h is l ivi n g b y th e m aga

, ,

in e s s h ou l d b e in c l o se to u c h w i th th e e d i tors took h is wife s a dvi c e

’
z ,
"
a n d m ov e d t o L on d on o s e e k w o rk an d b re ad H e s e ttl e d in ”
t .

C h e y n e R ow C h e l se a — a p l a c e m a d e fa m ou s by M o re E ra sm u s
, , , ,

B o l i n gb rok e S m o l l e tt L e i gh H u n t an d m an y l e sse r l i gh ts of l i te ra
, , ,

tu re , an d b e gan t
— o e n j oy t h e fi rs t re a l p e ac e h e h ad k n o w n s i n c e
c h i l d h ood I n 1 8 3 7 a pp e a re d Tk e F r en c/z R e volu t
. i on w h i c h fi rs t ,

m a d e C a r l y l e f a m ou s a n d in t h e sam e y e a r le d by th e n e c e s s i t y of ,

e a rn i n g m o n e y h e b e an t h e e i e s o f l e c tu re s G er n a n L i t e at ure z r
g s, r

( 1 8 P e r iod s f
o E u r o ea n
p C u ltu r e i on s
R e v olu t o f M od e rn

E uro e p [f e r oe s an d Hero Wor sk ip ( 1 8 4 1 ) — wh ic h c re ate d

a s e n sa to n i in L o n d o n .
"
I t w as ,
”
ys
sa L e i gh H un t , as if so m e
5 30 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
P u ri tan h ad c om e t
o l ife aga n , i lib e ra l i ze d b y G e rm an p h il oso p h y
an d h is own i n te n s e re fl e c ti on an d e x p e ri e n c e .
”

T h ou gh C ar ly l e se t h i m se lf a ga n s t t i
he i it of
sp r h is a ge , ca l l in g
"
a n d d e m oc rac y d a rkn e ss
”
th e fam ou s R e form B il l a p rogre ss in to ,

h e ru l e o f th e w o rs t ra th e r th an th e b e s t h is ro u gh s i n c e rity w as
" ”
t ,

u n qu e s t i on e d a n d h is re m arks w e re m o re q u ote d th an th os e of an y
,

ot h e r l i vi n g m an He w a s su pp o rte d m o re o v e r by a ra re c i rc l e of
.
, ,

f ri e n d s — E d w ard I rvi n g S ou th e y S te rl i n g Lan d o r Le i gh H u n t

, , , , , ,

D i c k e n s M il l T e n n yson B ro w n i n g an d m os th e l p fu l of all E m e rson

, , , , , , ,

w h o h ad v i s i t e d C ar ly l e a tC ra ige n p u t oc h i n 1 8 3 3
t I tw a s d u e l arge l y .

o E m e rs o n s i n fl u e n c e t h at C ar ly l e s wo rk s w e re be tte r a p p re c i a te d
’ ’
t ,
‘

a n d b rou gh tb e t te r fi n an c i a l re w a rd s in Am e r ic a t h an in E n gl an d ,
.

C arl y l e s fa m e re ac h e d its c l i m a x in th e m o n u m e n ta l H i s t ory ( f

’

F r eder i ck t h e G r ea t( 1 8 5 8 p ub l i s h e d a f te r th i rte e n y e a rs o f
so l i ta ry t o il w h i c h in h is ow n w ord s m ad e e n ti re d e v as ta ti o n of
, , ,

Th e p ro ud e s t m o m e n t of h is l i fe w as
”
h o m e l if e an d h a p p i n e s s .

w h e n h e wa s e l e c te d to su c c e e d G l ad ston e as l o rd re c tor of E d i n
bu rgh U n i v e rs i ty ih 1 8 6 5 th e y e ar in w h i c h F r ede r ick t/ze G r e a tw as
, ,

fi n i sh e d I n th e m id st of h is tri u m ph an d w h i l e h e w as in Sc o tl an d
.
,

to d e l iv e r h is i n au gu ra l ad d r e ss h is h a p p i n e s s w as su d d e n l y d e s troy e d
,

b y th e d e a th of h is w i f e a t e rr i b l e b l o w f ro m w h i c h h e n e v e r re
, ,

c o v e re d . H e l ive d o n for fi f te e n ye ars s h o rn of h is stre n gth an d in ,

te re st i n l if e ; an d h is c l o s i n g h o u rs we re l i k e th e d u l l su n se t o f a
N ove m be r d ay On l y a s w e re m e m b e r h is gri e f an d re m o rse atth e
.

d e ath of th e C o m p an i o n w h o h ad s h a re d h is to i l b u tn o th is tri u m p h ,

c a n w e u n d e rs t an d t h e sorro w th at p e rvad e s th e p age s O f h is R e m i

n i s cen c es H e d i e d in 1 8 8 1 an d at h is ow n wi sh wa s b u ri e d n o tin
.
, ,

We s tm i n s te r Abbey b u ta m on g h is h um b l e ki n s fo l k in E c c l e fe c h an
, .

H o w e ve r m u c h w e m ay d i ff e r fro m h is p h i l o sop h y o r re gre t th e

h ars h n e s s o f h is m i n o r w o rk s w e s h a l l p ro bab ly all agre e in th i s s e n
,

tim e n t f ro m o n e o f h is o w n 1e tt e rs — th a t th e o bj e c t o f a ll h is ,

st ru ggl e an d w r i t i n g was th atm e n s h ou l d fin d ou t an d b e l i e ve th e

h,
tru t an d ch t
m at he i r live s to i t .
”

Work s of Carly le . T h e re
wid e ly d i ff e re n t j u dg a re tw o
m e n ts o f C a rlyl e as a m an an d a w r i t er Th e fi r s t w h ic h i s .
,

f o u n d e d l arge ly on h is m i n or w r i ti n g s lik e Ck a r ti s m L a tte r , ,

D ay P a mp /zle ts an d S /zoo ti n N ia a r a d e cl a r e s th a t h e i s a
g ,
g ,

m i sa n th rop e a n d dy s e p tic wi t h a b a r b ar ou s s tyl e o f w ri ti n g ;

p
5 32 E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
" "
th an th e w ork s o f a w r ite r th e b e s t a re th os e on B u rn s , ,

” ”
S c o tt N ov al i s G oe th e C h a ra c te r i s ti c s S i gn s o f
” ”

, , ,
,
”
1
th e Tim e s B os w e ll s L i f e o f J oh n s on
”
I n th e f a m ous
’

an d ,
.

E ayss
E s s ay on B u r n s w h ic h i s g e n e ra lly s e l e c te d for,

B urn s s pe ci a l st u dy w e n ote f o u r s i gn ifi c a n t t ,
h ings
C a r lyl e i s p e c u li a rly w e ll fi t te d fo r h is ta s k h a vi n g m an y
( )
1 ,

p oi n ts in c o m m on wi th h is h e ro ( 2 ) I n m os t o f h is w o rk .

C a rlyl e by h is s tyl e a n d m a n n e r i s m s a n d p os i tiv e o pi n i on s

, ,

e n e ra lly a t t ra c ts ou r at tent i o n a w ay f ro m h is s u bj e c t; b u t
g
i n th i s e s s ay h e s h ow s h i m s e l f c a p a bl e o f f org e tti n g h i m se l f
fo r a m om e n t T o a n u n u s u a l e x te n t h e s tick s to h is s u bj e c t
.
,

a n d m ak e s u s t h i n k of B u r n s ra th e r th an of C ar lyl e Th e .

st yl e th ou g h u n p o li s h e d i s f a i rly s i m pl e a n d r ea d abl e an d is
, , ,

f re e f r om th e b re ak s c r ud i ti e s e j a c u l a ti on s a n d g e n e ra l
, , ,

n od u los it ie s wh ich d is fig u re m u c h o f h is w ork 3 ) C ar lyl e .

h as a n o ri g i n a l a n d i n te r e s ti n g th e o r y of bi og ra p h y an d c r iti
c is m Th e O bj e c t o f c r i ti ci s m i s to S h o w th e m a n h i m s e l f h i s
.
,

a i m s id e al s a n d o u t
, l ook on th e u n iv e rs e ; th e obj e c t of b i og
,

"
r ap h i s to s h o w w h at an d h o w p r o d u c e d w as t h e e ff e c t f
y o

s oc i e t y u p on h im ; wh ata n d h o w p ro d u c e d wa s h is e ff e ct on
s o ci e t y (4 ) Carlyl e is o f te n s e v e re e v e n h ar s h in h is e s ti
”
.
, ,

m ate s of oth e r m e n b u t i n th i s c a s e th e tr ag e dy of B u rn s s
’

,
"
li f e of frag m e n ts attra c ts a n d s o f te n s h im H e g row s
”
.

e nt h us i as tic an d a ra r e t h i n g for C ar lyl e

—
a p ol og i z e s f or —

h is e n th u s i as m in th e s tr iki n
g s e n te n ce W e l o v e B u rn s ,
"
,

an d w e pi t y h im ; an d l o v e a n d pi ty a re p r on e to m agn i f y ”
.

S o h e g iv e s u s th e m o s t te n d e r a n d a pp re cia tiv e of h i s e s s ay s ,

a n d on e o f t h e m o s t ill u m i n ati n g c r i tici s m s of B u rn s th at h a s

a pp ea r e d i n ou r l a n u a e
g g .

Th e c e n tra l id e a of C a r lyl e s h i s tor ic a l w or k s is f ou n d in h is ’

He r oe s a n d H e ro Wo rs /zip h is m o s t wid e ly re a d b oo k .

"
U n iv e rs a l h i s to ry h e say s
”
is a t b ottom th e h i s tor y of
, ,
"

1
Th e s tu d e n ts h o u d re m e m b e r th atC a r e s t
l e ra r o p n o n s , t lyl
h ou g h e r p o s t e ,
’
li y i i v y i iv
a re to b e re c e i e d v
th ca u to n wi i i
S o m e t m e s , n d ee d , th e a re so on e s d ed a n d p re ju
. i y -
i
d ced th at th e a re m o re a u ab e a s a re e
i y vl l vl i lyl i l y
a to n o f C a r e h m se f t h a n a s a stu d of
he
t au th or h e is c on s id i
e r ng .
 TH E VI C T O R I AN AG E 533
”
th e gr e a tm e n w h o h av e w or k e d To ge ta tth e tru th o f
h e re .

h i s tory w e m u s t s tu dy n o t m ov e m e n ts b u t m e n , an d r e a d n ot

He roe s a n d p ap e r s b u t th e bi og rap h i e s of h e roe s H is

at
st e .

He m Wm “?
s u m m a ry o f h i s t o ry as p r e s e n t e d in t h i s w or k h as
s ix d ivi s i on s I T h H ro a s D ivi n i t y h vi n g f or it l
( ) e e a s
g e n e r
,a
" ”
s u bj e c t O d i n t he , typ e N o rs e m an w h om C ar lyl e th i n k s w as
,

s o m e old h e ro ic c h i e f a f t e r w a r d s d e ifi e d by h is c o u n t
,
ry m e n ;

( 2 ) Th e H e r o a s P rop h e t tr e ati n g of M a h om e t an d th e r i s e of
,

I s l am ( 3 ) Th e H e r o as P oe t in w h ic h D an te a n d S h ak e s p e a re
,

are t ak e n a s t yp e s ( 4 ) Th e H e r o as P r i e s t or re li g i ou s l e ad e r , ,

in w h ic h L u th e r a pp e ars as th e h e ro o f th e R e f or m ati on a n d ,

K n o x a s th e h e ro o f P u r i ta n i s m T h H ro a s Man of
( )
5 e e

L e tte r s in w h ic h w e h av e th e c u r i o u s c h o ic e o f J o h n so n R o u s
, ,

s e a u an d B u r n s ; T h e H e r o a s K i n g in w h ic h C r o m w e ll
,
( )
6 ,

a n d N a p o l e on a pp e ar a s t h e h e roe s o f re f o r m by re v o l u ti on .

I t is n e e dl e s s to s a y th a t He r oe s i s n o t a b o ok o f h i s tor y ;
n e it h e r i s it s ci e n tifi c a lly w r i tte n i n th e m an n e r of G ibb on .

Wi th s ci e n c e in a n y f o r m C arlyl e h ad n o p a ti e n c e ; a n d h e
m i s c a lc u l ate d th e v a l u e of th a t p a ti e n t s e a r c h for f ac ts a n d

e vid e n c e w h ic h s ci e n c e u n d e rt a k e s b e f or e b u ildi n g a n th eo
y
r i e s e it
,
h e r of ki n g s o r c a bb a g e s Th e b oo k th e re f or e a b o u n d s
.
, ,

i n e r r o rs ; b u t th e y a r e th e e r ro r s of c a re l e s s n e s s a n d a re
p e rh a p s of s m all c on s e q u e n c e H is m i s c on c e p ti on o f h i s tory
.
,

h ow e v e r is m ore s e r i ou s Wi th th e m od e r n id e a of h i s tory a s
, .
,

th e g row th o f f re e d om a m on g a ll cl as s e s h e h as n o s ym p ath y , .

Th e p rog re s s o f d e m o c ra cy w as to h im an e vil th i n g a tu r n ,

”
in g o f th e f a c e tow ard s d a rk n e s s an d an a r c h y A t c e r ta i n .

p e r i od s a cc or di n g to C ar lyl e G od se n d s u s g e n i u s e s s om e
, , ,

ti m e s a s p r i e s ts or p oe ts s om e ti m e s a s s oldi e rs o r s t
,
at e sm e n

b u t i n w h a te v e r g u i se th e y a pp e a r th e s e a r e o u r r e a l r u l e r s
, .

He s h o w s m ore o v e r th at w h e n e v e r s u c h m e n a pp e ar m u l ti
, , ,

tu d e s f ol l o w th e m a n d th a t a m an s f oll o wi n g i s a s u re i n d e x
’

o f h i s h e r o i s m an d ki n s h ip
g .

Wh e th e r w e ag re e wi th C arlyl e or n ot w e m u sta cc e p tf or ,

th e m om e n th is p e c u li a r V i e w o f h i s tor y e l s e H e r oe s c an n e v e r ,
5 34 E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
o p e n its tre a s u re s to u s Th e b ook a b ou n d s in s tartli n g id e as
.
,

e xp re s s e d wi t h or i g i n ali ty an d p ow e r a n d i s p e r vad e d th rou g h ,

ou t by a n at m os p h e r e of i n te n se m ora l e ar n e stn e s s Th e .

m o r e w e re ad it th e m or e w e fin d to a d m i r e an d t
,
o re m e m b e r .

C ar lyl e s F r e n c /i R e v olu ti on ( 1 8 3 7 ) i s to b e ta k e n m ore

’

s e ri o u s ly a s a h i s t or ic a l w o rk ; b u t h e r e ag a i n h is h e ro w or

s h ip c o m e s t o t h e f r o n t a n d h i s b oo k i s a s e r i e s o f
c h ,

R v l ti
e o u fl as h li g h ts th row n u p o n m e n in d ram atic s i tuati on s
on
,

rat h e r th an a tra ci n g o f c a u s e s to th e i r c on s e q u e n c e s Th e .

v e ry ti tl e s o f h is c h a p te rs A s tr ae a R e d ux Wi n dbag s ” ,
”
,

B ro g li e th e Wa r G od d o vi ol e n c e to ou r c o n c e p ti on O f
h i s tor y a n d a re m o re s u gg e s tiv e o f C ar lyl e s i n d ivid u a li s m
’

th a n o f F r e n c h h i s tory H e i s h e re th e p r ea c h e r ra th e r th an
.

th e h i s to r i a n h is te x t is th e e te r n a l j u s tic e an d h is m e s sag e

is th a t all w ro n g d o i n g i s i n e vi ta bly f oll ow e d by v e n g e a n c e .

H is m e th od is i n te n s e ly d ram atic F ro m a m a s s of h i s tor i ca l .

d e ta il s h e s e l e c ts a fe w pi c tu re s q u e i n cid e n ts an d s tr iki n g fig
ur e s , a n d h is vivid pic t u re s o f t h e s torm i n g o f th e B a s till e ,

th e ru s h of th e m ob to Ve r sa ill e s th e d e ath of L o u i s X V I , ,

an d t h e R e i g n o f T e r ror s e e m lik e th e w or k o f a n e y e wi tn e s s
,

d e s c r ibi n g s o m e te rr ibl e c a tas trop h e A t ti m e s a s it p or tr ay s .

,

D an ton R o b e s pi e r re a n d th e g re a tC h ara c te r s o f th e trag e dy

, , ,

C arlyl e s w or k is s ug g e s tiv e of an h i s to r ic a l pl ay of S h a k e
’

s p e ar e ; a n d a a i n a s i t d e s c r ib e s t h e r u s h an d r i o t o f m e n
g ,

le d by e l e m e n ta l p a s s i o n it i s m ore lik e a g re at p r os e e pi c
, .

T h ou gh n ot a r e li a bl e h i s to r y in a n y s e n s e it is on e of th e ,

m os td ram atic an d s ti rr i n
g n ar ra tiv e s in o u r l an g uag e .

Tw o o th e r h i s tor ic a l w ork s d e s e rv e a t l ea s ta p a s s i n n o tic e

g .

Th e H i s toi y o
f F r e d e r i c k t/te G r e a t ( 1 8 5 8 in s ix v o l

u m e s , is a c o l os sa l pic t u re o f t he l ife an d ti m e s of
Cm m w e "
th e h e ro of th e Pr u s s i an E m pi re . Oli v e r Cr om
w e ll
’
s L e tte r s and p e r s on a l j u d g m e n t
Sp e e c /ze s i s , in ou r ,

C ar lyl e s b e s t h i stor ica l w or k H is id e a is to p r e s e n tth e v e ry

’

s o u l of th e gr e at P u r i tan l ea d e r H e i v e s u s a s o f fi r s t i m
g .
,

p ortan c e C rom w e l l s ow n w or d s an d c on n e c ts th e m by a
,
’

,
5 36 E N G LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
of th e yl e w h ic h th ou g h pic tu re s q u e is s om e ti m e s c on f u se d
st , , ,

an d u n gr a m m at ic al S a r tor i s n o t e a s y re ad i n g ; b u t it am ply
,

re p ay s w h at e v e r ti m e a n d s t u dy w e g iv e t o it M an y of i t s .

p a s s ag e s ar e m or e l ik e p oe try th an p ros e ; a n d on e c an n ot
" ” "
r e ad s u c h c h a p t e rs as Th e E v e r l as ti n g N O Th e E v e r ,

” "
l as ti n g Ye a R e m i n i sc e n ce s
,
”
an d N a tu ra l S u p e rn atura l
,

an d b e q u i t h e s am e m an a f te r war d s ; f or C ar lyl e s
” ’

is m ,
e t

th o u g h t h a s e n te r e d i n to h im a n d h e w alk s h e n c e f o r th m o re
,

g e n tly m,
or e re v e re n t ly th ro u g h t h e w or ld a s in t h e p re s e n c e,

of t h e E te rn a l .

C o n c e r n i n g C a r lyl e s s tyl e th e r e
’
Ge n e r al Ch arac te r i s tics .

a re a l m o s t a s m an y opi n i on s a s t h e r e ar e re ad e r s T h i s is .

p artly b e cau s e h e i m p r e s se s d i ff e re n t p e opl e in

S ty le
wid e ly di ff e r e n t w ay s a n d par tly b e c au s e h i s e x
,

p re s s i on v ari e s g r e atly A t ti m e s h e is cal m p e r s u as iv e

.
, ,

r i m ly h u m o ro u s a s i f c o n v e rs i n g ; a t ot h er t im e s wildly
g , ,

e xcl a m at ory as i f h e w e re s h out

, i n g a n d w avi n g h is ar m s at
th e r e ad e r We h av e s p ok e n o f M ac a u l ay s s tyl e a s th at of t
’
. he
fi n i s h e d orator an d w e m i g h tre as on ably s p e ak of C ar lyl e s as
,
’

th ato f th e e x h o rte r w h o c a r e s li ttl e for m e th od s s o l o n g as h e

,
"
m ak e s a s tr o n g i m p r e s s i on o n h is h e ar e r s E v e ry s e n te n c e .

”
i s aliv e to its fi n g e r tip s wr i te s a m od e rn c r i tic ; an d th ou g h
,

C arlyl e o f te n vi ol a te s th e ru l e s of g ram m a r a n d r h e tor ic w e ,

c an w e ll a ff o r d t o le t an or i i n a l
g g e n i u s e xp r e s s h is o w n ih
te n s e c o n vi c ti on in h is o w n vivid a n d pic tu r e s q u e w a
y .

C a rlyl e s m e s s ag e m a y b e s u m m e d u p i n tw o i m p e rativ e s
’

l ab or an d b e s i n c e re H e l e c tu re d an d w r ote c h i e fly for th e
, .

u pp e r cl a s s e s w h o h ad b e u n t o th i nk s o m e w h at
Hi M
s e s sa
g e
g ,

se n ti m e n tally o f th e c on di ti on s o f th e l a b or i n g m e n
,

of t h e w o rld ; a n d h e d e m an d e d f o r th e l a tte r n ot c h ar i ty or ,

pity b u t j us tic e a n d h on or A ll l a b or w h e th e r o f h e ad or
, .
,

h an d is divi n e ; a n d l a b or a l on e j u s tifi e s a m an a s a s on of
,

ea r t h a n d h e a v e n To s o ci e ty w h ic h C arlyl e th ou g h t to b e
.
,

o cc u pi e d w h o l ly wi t h c o n v e n ti o n al a ff a i rs h e c am e wi th th e ,

st am p o f s i n c e r i t y c a lli n g u p on m e n to lay a s id e h yp o c r i s y
,
 TH E V I C T O R I AN AG E 537

an d to th i n k p e a k a n d liv e th e tru th H e h ad n on e of
an d s .

A ddi s on s d e l ic a te s ati r e a n d h u m or an d i n h is f u ry at w h at
’

h e th o u g h t w as f a l s e h e w a s g e n e ra lly u n s y m p a th e tic a n d
o ft e n h ar s h b u t w e m u s t n ot f o rg e t th a t T h ack e r a y wh o —

k n e w s o ci e ty m u c h b e tte r th an did C a r lyl e — ga v e a v e ry #

u n fl at te r i n g pic tu r e of i t i n Va n i t y F a i r a n d T/ze B ook of

S n ob s A pp a r e n tly th e ag e n e e d e d pl a i n s p e aki n g an d C a r
.
,

lyl e f u rn i s h e d it in s c r ip tu re m e as u re H arr i e t M a rti n e a u .

,

w h o k n e w th e w o r ld for w h ic h C ar lyl e w ro te s u m m e d u p h is ,
"
i n fl u e n ce w h e n s h e sa id th at h e h a d i n f us e d i n to th e m i n d
of t h e E n g li s h n a ti on s in ce rity e a r n e s tn e s s h e a l th f u l n e s s
, , ,

”
an d c o urag e I f w e a dd to th e a b ov e m e s s a g e C a r lyl e s c on
’
.

c e pt ion s of th e w orld a s g ov e rn e d by a G o d o f j u s tic e w h o

”
n e v e r f or g e t s a n d o f h u m an h i s t
, or y a s a n i n a rtic u l ate B ibl e ,

s l o wly r e v e a li n g t h e d ivi n e p u r p ose w e s h a ll u n d e r s ta n d b e tte r

,

th e f or c e of h is e th ic a l a pp e a l a n d th e p ro f o u n d i n fl u e n c e h e
e x e r c i s e d on t h e m ora l an d i n te ll e c tu a l l i f e o f th e p a s tc e n tu r y .

J O HN R US KIN ( 1 8 1 9— 1 90 0 )
In a pp roa c h i n g dy o f R u s ki n w e a re to re m e m b e r
th e stu ,

fi r s t o f all th a t w e a r e d e a li n g wi th a gr e a t a n d g ood m an
, ,

w h o i s h i m s e l f m o r e i n s pi r i n g th a n a n o f h i s b o ok s I n s om e
y .

re s p e c ts h e i s l ik e h i s f r i e n d C a r ly l e w h o se d i s cipl e b e a c ,

k n o wl e d g e d h i m s e l f to b e ; b u t h e i s b roa d e r i n h is s y m pa
th i e s a n d i n e v e ry w ay m o r e h o p e f u l h e lp f u l a n d h u m an e
, , , .

T h u s i n th e fa c e o f th e d ru d g e ry an d p o v e rty of th e c om p e ti
,

tiv e s y s te m C a r lyl e p ro p o s e d w i th th e gr i m s ati r e o f S wi f ts

’

, ,
”
M od e s t PrOp o sa l to orga n i z e a n an n ual h u n t i n w h i c h s u c
,

c e s s fu l p e o pl e s h o u ld s h oo t t h e u n f or tu n ate an d to u s e th e ,

g am e for th e s u pp or t o f th e ar m y a n d n a vy R u s ki n fa ci n g .
,

th e s am e p robl e m w ro te I will e n d u re itn o l on g e r q u i e tly ;

,

b u t h e n c e f o r war d wi th an y f e w or m a n y w h o will h e lp d o m y
, ,
”
b e s t to ab ate th i s m i s e r y T h e n l e avi n g th e fi e ld of ar t
.
,

c ri tici s m w h e re h e w a s th e ack n o wl e d g e d l e a d e r h e b e g i n s
, ,

to w r i te o f l a b o r an d j u s tic e ; g iv e s h is f ortu n e in c h a r i ty in ,
5 38 E N G LI SH L IT E R ATU R E
e sta bl i s h i n g s c h ool s an d l ib rar i e s ; an d f ou n d s h i s S t G e orge s .
’

G u ild o f w o rki n g m e n to p u t in p r ac tic e th e p r i n cipl e s of

,

b roth e r h ood an d c oop e rati on for w h ic h h e an d C ar lyl e c o n

te n d e d T h o ugh h is s tyl e m ar k s h im a s on e o f th e m as te r s
.

of E n g li s h p ros e h e is g e n e ra lly s t
,
u d i e d n ot as a l i te ra r y m an

b u t a s an e th ic a l te a c h e r an d w e s h a ll h a r dly a pp re ci a te h is
,

w ork s u n l e s s w e s e e b e h i n d e v e ry b oo k th e fi g ure of th e
h e ro ica lly s i n c e re m a n w h o w rote it .

Li fe . Ruski n was bo rn i n L on d on , in 1 8 1 9 , H is fat

h e r w as a

p ros p e ro u s w in e in e d a
m e rc h an t w h o ga d fo rtun e in tra e , an d w h o
s p e n t h is l e i s u re h ou rs i n t h e c o m p an y o f goo d bo o k s an d p i c tu re s .

On h is to m b s to n e o n e m ay s ti l l re ad th i s i n sc ri p ti on w ri tte n by R u s
H e w as an e n ti re ly h on e st m e rc h an t an d h is m e m o ry is to
"
k in :
a ll w h o k e e p it d e a r an d h e l p f u l H is son w h om h e l ov e d to th e
.
,

o s p e ak t h sa y s th i s o f h im R uski n s
”
e r m os t an d t au gh t t
’
ut t ru t , .

m ot h e r a d e vou tan d so m e w h a ta us te re wo m an b rou gh th e r son u p

, ,

w i th P uri tan i c a l s tri c tn e ss n ot forge tti n g S ol om on s i n j u n c ti on th a t

,
’

"
h e ro d a n d re p roo f giv e w i sd om
”
t .

Of R u ski n s e arl y y e a rs a tH e rn e H i l l on th e ou tsk i rts of L o n d on

’

, ,

it is b e tte r to re ad h is ow n i n te re sti n g re c o rd in P ce t e ri t a I tw a s r .

in s om e re s p e c ts a c ra m p e d an d l on e l y c h i l d h o od b u tc e rta i n th i n gs ,

w h i c h stron gl y m o l d e d h is c h arac te r are w orth y of m e n ti on Fi rst .

,

h e w as tau gh tby w o rd a n d e x a m p l e in all th i n gs to s p e ak th e tru th ,

a n d h e n e v e r fo r ot t h e l e sso n S e c on d h e h ad f e w toy s an d s p e n t
g .
, ,

m u c h ti m e in s t ud y i n
g th e l e av e s th e fl o w e rs t , h e grass th e c l ou d s , , ,

e ve n t h e fi gu re s a n d c o l o rs o f th e c a rp e t a n d so la i d th e f oun d a ti o n
,

for th at m i n u te an d a c c u ra te o b s e rva ti on w h i c h i s m an i f e s tin all h is

w ri tin gs T h i rd h e w as e d uc a te d fi rstby h is m o th e r th e n by p rivate
.
, ,

tu t o rs a n d s o m i ss e d t
, h e di sc i p l i n e o f th e p u bli c sc h oo l s Th e in fl u .

e n c e of t h i s lo n e ly tra i n i n g is e vid e n tin a ll h is w o rk L ik e C a rl yl e .

,

h e i s ofte n too p os i tiv e an d d ogm a ti c — th e re su l t o f f a i l i n g to te s t

,

h is w ork b y th e s tan d a rd s of o th e r m e n of h is a e F o u rth h e w as

g .
,

obl i e d t o r e ad t h e B ible e ve ry d ay a n d to l e arn lon g p assage s v e r

g
bati m Th e re su l t of th i s tra i n i n g w as h e says to m ak e e ve ry
.

, ,
"

w o rd o f t h e S c ri ptu re s fa m i l i a r to m y e a r in h ab i tu a l m u si c ”
We .

c an h a rd l y re ad a
p a ge of h is late r w o rk w i th ou tfi n d i n g so m e re fl e c
tion of th e n ob l e s i m l i c i t y or vivid i m age ry o f th e sac re d re c o rd s
p .

Fi fth h e trave l e d m uc h w i th h is fath e r an d m oth e r an d h is i n n ate

,
,
 5 40 E NG L i S H L IT E R ATU R E
E ng la n d , Va l d A r n o ( l e c tu re s on ) , S t M a r k s R est ( a
T ’
u sc a n a rt
’
.

i
h st o ry of Ve n i c e ) , M or n i ng s i n F lor e n ce ( s tu d e s in C h r i s ti an art, i
n o w m uc h us e d
a s a gu i d e o o o t
t b k
h e p c ture ga l l e r e s o f lo re n c e ) , i i F
Tli e L a w s q i e s o/e ( a tre ati se on d raw i n g an d i i
p a n tn g for sc h oo s) , l
A ca d e m y qf F i ne Art s i n Ve n i ce , P le a s u r es o
f E ng la n d , — a ll th e se
w orks on a rt S h o w R usk in s li t e rary in d us t
’
ry An d w e m u s ta l so . re

c o rd L ove
’
s M ein ie ( a dy of bi rd s) P r ose p i n a ( a study o f fl o w e rs)
st
u ,
r ,

D e c li on ( a s tu d y of w av e s an d s ton e s ) b e s id e s va r i ou s e ssa y s o n
u a ,

p o l i ti c a l e c o n o m y w h i c h i n d ic at e t h a tR u ski n l ik e Arn o ld h ad b e gun , ,

to c on s i d e r t h e p rac ti c a l p ro b l e m s of h is age .

Atth e h e i gh to f h is fa m e in 1 8 60 R u ski n turn e d for a ti m e f rom

, ,

a rt t,
o c on s i d e r q u e s t ion s o f w e a l th an d l a bor te rm s wh i c h w e re ,

u s e d gl i b l y b y t h e e c on o m is ts o f th e age w i th o u t m u c h th ou gh tfo r
"
th e i r f u n d am e n t T h e re is n o w e a l th b u t l if e an ”
a l m e an i n g .
,

n ou n c e d R u ski n ,
l if e in c l ud i n g a ll its p o w e rs of lov e of joy an d
, , ,

o f ad m i ra t ion T h atc ou n try is th e r i c h e stwh ic h n ou r i sh e s th e gre at

.

e s t n u m b e r o f n o b l e an d h a p p y h u m an b e i n gs S u c h a d oc tr i n e
”
.
,

p ro c l a i m e d by G o l d sm i th in h is D es e r t e d Vi llag e w as re a rd e d as a
g ,

p e tty s e n ti m e n t b u t c o m i n g f ro m on e o f th e gre ate s t l e ad e rs an d

r ,

te a c h e rs o f E n gl a n d it w as l i k e a b o m b s h e l l R u ski n w rote f o ur .

a b l i sh i n
e ssa y s e s t g th i s d o c tri n e an d p l e ad i n g for a m o re so c i a l i s ti c
form of gov e rn m e n t in w h i c h re fo rm m i gh tb e p oss ib l e Th e e ssays .

w e e p u b l i sh e d i n th e Cor n /ti ll M ag a zi n e o f w h i c h T h ac ke ray was

r
,

e d it o r an d t
, h e y a rouse d s u c h a s t o m t h a t th e p u b l i c a tion w a s d is
r

c on t i n u e d R u sk i n th e n p u b l i s h e d th e e ssay s ih book fo rm wi th th e
.
,

ti tl e U nt o T/zis L a s t in 1 8 6 2 , M u n e r a P u lve r i s ( 1 8 6 2 ) w as ano th e r

.

w ork in w h i c h th e p ri n c i p l e s of c ap i ta l an d l abor an d th e e v i l s of
th e c o m p e ti tive sys te m w e re d i sc uss e d in suc h a w ay th at th e a u th o r
w as d e n ou n c e d as a vi s i o n ary o r a m ad m an O th e r w ork s of th i s .

p rac ti c a l p e ri od a re Ti m e an d Tid e, F or s Cla v iger a , S e s a m e and L i lie s ,

an d t h e C r ow n o f Wild Oli ve .

Th el atte r p a rt of R u sk i n s l if e was a ti m e of i n c re as i n g sad n e ss

’
,

d u e pa rtly to th e fa i l u re o f h is l an s an d tl y to u b l i c atac k s
t
p p a r p ,

u on h is m o t
p i v e s o r u p on h is san i ty He gre w bi tte r atfi rs t as h is .
,

r itc s ri d i c u l e d o r d e n o un c e d h is
fi j p ri n c i p l e s an d atti m e s h is vo i c e ,

as q u e ru l o us a s t h a t o f C a rl y l e We a re to re m e m b e r h o w e v e r
.
, ,

th e c o n d i tion s un d e r w h i c h h e stru
ggl e d H is h e a l th h ad b e e n s h at.

te re d b y su c c e ss i ve a tt ac k s o f d i s e a s e h e h ad b e e n d i sa p p o i n te d in
l ove ; h is m arri age w as un h a p p y ; an d h is w o rk se e m e d a fai l u re .

He h ad giv e n n e arly a ll h is fortu n e in c h ari ty an d th e poo r w e re

,
 TH E V C I T O R I AN ’

AG E 54 1

m o re n u m e ro u s ve r b e fo re H is fa m ou s S t G e o rge s G u i l d w as
th an e . .
’

n o t su c c e s sf u l an d t he t y ran n y of th e c o m p e ti tive syste m s e e m e d

,

too d e e p l y roo t ed t o b e ov e rt h ro w n On th e d e a th o f h is m oth e r h e .

l e ft Lon d on an d in 1 8 7 9 r e ti re d to B ran tw ood on C on i ston Lak e

, , , ,

in th e b e au ti fu l r e gi on b e l o v e d of Wo rd s w o rth H e re h e p asse d th e .

l astq u i e ty e a rs o f h is l i fe u n d e r th e c a re of h is c ou s i n Mrs S e v e rn , .
,
"
e a t P rof e s so r N o rt
”
an ge l of t h e h ou se an d w ro t
’
t he ,
on s su gge s ,

ti on P e t
,
e it r
a o n e o f h is m os t i n t
r , e re s t i n g book s in w h i c h h e d e ,

sc r ib e s t h e e ve n ts o f h is you th f ro m h is o w n vi e w p o i n t H e di e d .

q u i e tly in 1 9 0 0 an d w as bu ri e d as h e w i sh e d w i th ou tfun e ra l p o m p
, , ,

o r p u b l i c c e re m o n y i n t h e l i ttl e C h u r c h y ard a t C on i s ton

,
.

Work s of R u sk i n T h e r e ar e th re e l i ttl e b ook s w h ic h in

.
,

p o p u l ar f av or s tan d fi r s t o n th e li s t o f R u s ki n s n u m e ro u s
,
’

wor k s E tlzic s of tlze D u s t a s e r i e s of L e c tu re s to L i ttl e

,
—
,

Ho u s e wiv e s w h ic h app e a l s m os t to w o m e n ; Cr ow n of Wi ld
,

Oli v e th re e l e c tu re s o n Work T r a ffi c a n d Wa r w h ic h a pp e al s
, , , ,

to th ou g h tf u l m e n f a ci n g th e p robl e m s o f w or k a n d d u ty ;
an d S e s a m e a n d L i li e s w h ic h a pp e a l s to m e n an d w om e n , .

a lik e Th e l a s t is th e m o s t wid e ly k n o w n o f R u s ki n s w o rk s
’
.

an d t h e b e s t wi th w h ic h to b e g i n ou r re adi n g .

Th e fi rs tth i n g w e n otic e in S e s a m e a n d L i li e s i s th e sy m
”
b olic al ti tl e ta k e n f ro m th e s t or y of t h e ro bb e rs
’
S e sam e .
,

Sesa m e and
c a v e in t h e A ra b i a n N zgk t s m e an s a s e c re t w o r d ,

L il i a li s m a n w h ic h u n l o ck s a t
‘

es
or t re as u r e h ou s e I t w as .

i n te n d e d n o d ou b t to i n trod u c e th e fi r s t part of th e w ork

, , ,

" ”
c all e d O f K i n g s T r e a s u ri e s w h ich tre a ts of b ook s an d
’

,
”
re a di n g L ili e s
. tak e n f ro m I s ai a h a s a s y m b ol of b e au t
, y ,

p u r i ty a n d p e ac e i n trod u c e s th e s e c on d l e c tu re O f Q u e e n s
, , ,
’

”
G ard e n s w h ic h is an e xq u i s i te s tu dy of w om an s li f e an d
,
’

e d u c at i on T h e s e tw o l e c tu re s p rop e r ly c on s ti tu te th e b ook
.
,

" ”
b u t a th i r d is a dd e d o n Th e My s te r y of L if e , .

b e g i n s in a m on ol og u e u p on h is ow n f a il u re s i n l i f
p e r v ad e d by a n atm o s p h e re of s ad n e s s s om e ti m e ,

q u i te di ffe re n t f rom th e s pi r i t o f th e oth e r tw o

T h oug h th e th e m e of th e fi rs t l e c tu re is
m an age s to p r e s e n t to h is a u d i e n c e h is w h ol e
54 2 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
li fe He g iv e s u s wi th a w e a l th o f d e ta il a d e s c r ip ti on of w h at
. , ,

c on s ti tu te s a re al b ook ; h e l ook s i n to th e m e an i n g o f w or d s ,

Ki g
n Tw
s
, a n d
as
te.
a c h e s u s h ow t o re ad u s i n g a s e l e c ti on f ro m ,

"i Mil ton s Ly c id a s a s an ill u s trati on T h i s s tudy of

’
r es .

w ord s g iv e s u s th e k e y wi th w h ic h w e a re to u n l o ck K i n g s ’

T r e a s uri e s th at i s th e b ook s w h ic h c on ta i n th e p re ci ou s
,
”
,

th ou g h ts of th e ki n g ly m i n d s o f all ag e s H e s h o w s th e r e a l .

m e an i n g an d e n d of e d u c ati o n t h e v a l u e o f l a b o r a n d of a
,

p urp os e i n li fe ; h e tre ats of n atu re s ci e n c e art li te ratu re , , , ,

re li g i on h e d e fi n e s th e p u r p o s e of g o v e r n m e n t s h owi n g th a t ,

s o ul li f e n ot m on e y o r t
-
,
ra d e is t h e m e a s u re o f n ati on a l g re at
,

n e ss an d h e c r i t ici s e s th e g e n e ra l i n j u s tic e of h is age q u oti n g ,

a h e ar t re n d in g s t or y o f t oil an d s u ff e r i n g f ro m t h e n e w s pa p e rs
to s h o w h ow C l o s e h is th e o ry is to d a ily n e e d s H e r e is a n .

a st o n i s h i n g v ar i e ty in a s m all c om p a s s ; b u t th e re is n o c on
f u s ioh R u s ki n s m i n d w as w on d e r f u ll y an a ly tic a l a n d on e
’
.
,

s u bj e c t d e v e l o p s n at u rally f r o m t h e o th e r .

" ”
I n th e s e c on d l e c tu re O f Q u e e n s G ard e n s h e c on s id e r s
’

, ,

th e q u e s ti on o f w om an s pl a c e an d e d u c ati on w h ic h T e n n y s on
’

h ad atte m p te d to an s w e r in Tlze P r i n c e s s R u s ki n s
’

of Q ue e n s
. .

G d
ar e n s
th e ory i s th atth e p u r p ose of a ll e d u c a ti on i s to ac
q u i r e p owe r to bl e s s an d to re d e e m h u m an s o ci e ty ; an d that
in th i s n obl e w o r k w om an mu s t a lway s pl a y th e l e adi n g p art .

He s e arc h e s all li te ratu re for ill u s trati on s an d h is d e s c r ip ti on ,

of li t e ra ry h e r o i n e s e s p e ci ally of S h a k e s p ea re s p e r f e c tw o m e n
’

, ,

is u n r ival e d R u s ki n i s alw ay s a th is b e s tin w r i ti n g of w om e n

.

or f or w om e n an d t h e l o f ty id e a li s m of th i s e s s ay tog e th e r
, ,

wi th its rare b e au ty o f e xp re s s i on m ak e s it o n th e w h ol e , , ,

th e m o s t d e li gh tf u l a n d i n s pi r i n o f h i s w o rk s
g .

A m on g R u s ki n s p ra c tic a l w or k s th e r e ad e r will fin d in
’

v i e ra a s e r i e s o f l e t te rs to w orki n g m e n an d U n t
g ‘
, o ,

T/I ZS L a s t f o ur e s sa y s on th e p r i n cipl e s o f p oli ti ca l

O

s
,

4 e c o n om y t h e s u b s tan c e of h is e c o n om ic tea c h i n g s
, .

latte r w o rk s tarti n g wi th th e p r op os i ti on th a t o u r
,

com p e ti tiv e s y s te m c e n te rs a b ou t th e id e a of w e al th ,
5 44 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

(4 ) th at th e m a i n p u rp o s e o f a r t is n o t t o d e li h t a fe w c u l
g
"
ture d p e opl e b u t to se r v e th e d a ily u s e s o f c o m m on li f e Th e .

” "

g ivi n g b righ t n e ss t o pic t u re s i s m u c h h e s ay s b ut t h e g iv , ,

”
i n g b r i g h tn e s s to li f e is m o r e I n th i s a tte m p t to m ak e ar t
.

s e rv e t h e p ra c tic al e n d s o f li f e R u s ki n is a lli e d wi th a ll th e
,

r e at w r i t e r s of t h e p e ri o d w h o u s e li t e r atur e a s t h e in s tru
g ,

m e n t o f h u m an p rog re s s .

Ge n e ral Ch a ra c te r i s tic s O ne w h o r e a d s R u s ki n i s in a s tate

.

of m i n d a n a l o g o u s t o th a to f a m an w h o g o e s th r o ug h a p ic tu r e
a ll e ry p a u s i n g n ow t o a d m i r e a f a c e or a l a n d s c a p e f or it s
g ,

o w n sa k e a n d ag a i n t
,
o m a rv e l a t t h e te c h n ic a l s kill of th e
a rt i s t wi th ou t r e ga rd to h is s u bj e c t F or R u s ki n is a g re a t
,
.

li te rary a rti s t an d a g re at e th ica l te ac h e r a n d w e a d m i re on e ,

p age for i ts s tyl e an d th e n e x t for its m e s s ag e to h u m an i ty

, .

Th e b e s t o f h is p ro se w h ic h on e m ay fin d i n th e d e s c r ip tiv e
,

p as sa ge s o f P r ce te r i ta an d M od e r n P a i n te rs i s w r i tte n i n a ,

r ic h ly o rn a t e st yl e wi th a w e a l th of fi g u re s an d all u s i on s a n d
, ,

at t i m e s a rh y th m ic m e l od i ou s q u ali ty w h i ch m ak e s i t al m o st
,

e q u al t o poe t ry .R u s ki n h ad a ra re s e n s i tiv e n e s s to b e au ty i n
e v e ry f or m a n d m or e
, p e rh ap s th an a n y oth e r w r i te r in ou r
, ,

l an g uage h e h as h e lpe d u s to s e e a n d app re ci a te th e b ea uty

,

of t h e w o r ld a ro u n d u s .

A s fo r R u s ki n s e th ic a l te ac h i n g it a pp e ars in s o m an y
’

fo r m s an d in so m an y di ff e r e n t w ork s th at an y s u m m ary
Et hi l
ca
m u s t a pp e ar i n ad e q ua te F or a f u ll h a l f c e n tu r y .

T hi g " ”
ea c n
h e w as th e a p o s tl e of b ea u ty i n E n g l a n d an d ,

th e b ea u t y for w h ic h h e pl ea d e d w a s n e v e r s e n s u o u s or
as in t h e R e n a i s s a n c e b u t a lw ay s S pi r i tu al a pp e ali n g to th e
, ,

s o u l o f m a n ra t h e r th a n to h is e y e s l e a di n g to b e tte r w or k ,

an d b e t te r livi n g I n h is e c on o m ic e s s ay s R u s ki n i s e v e n m o re
.

di re ctly an d p os i tiv e ly e th ic al To m i ti gate th e e v il s of th e .

un re a s on a bl e c om p e ti t iv e s y s te m u n d e r w h ic h w e l a b or an d
s o rr o w ; t o b ri n
g m a s te r a n d m an to g e th e r in m u tua l tr u s t
an d h e lp f u l n e s s
; to s e e k b e a u ty tr u th g ood n e s s a s th e c h i e f , ,

e n d s o f li f e an d h a vi n
, , g f o u n d th e m to m a k e o u r C h a ra c te rs ,
 TH E V I C T O R I A N AG E 54 5

c orre s p on d ; to s h ar e th e b e s t tr e a s u r e s o f art an d l i te rature

wi th r ic h an d p oor alik e ; to l ab or alway s an d w h e th e r w e , ,

w or k wi th h a n d or h e ad to do ou r wor k in p ra i s e of s o m e th i n g
,

th at w e l ov e h i s s u m s u p R u s ki n s p u rp os e a n d m e s s ag e ’
— t
, .

A n d th e b e s t of it is th a t lik e C h a u c e r s c ou n tr y p a rs on h e
’

, ,

p ra c tic e d h i s d o c tr i n e b e for e h e p re a c h e d it .

MA TT HE W A R NOL D ( I 8 22 — 1 8 8 8)

I n th e w orld
li te ratu r e A r n old h a s o cc u pi e d f or m a n y
of

y e ar s a n a u th or i tativ e p os i ti on a s c r i tic a n d te a c h e r s i m il ar ,

to th a t h e ld by R u s ki n i n th e w or ld of ar t I n h i s l i te rary .

w ork tw o v e ry di ff e re n t m ood s are m an i f e s t I n h is p oe tr y .

h e re fl e c ts th e d o u b t o f an ag e w h ic h wi tn e s s e d th e c on fl ic t
b e tw e e n s ci e n c e an d r e v e al e d re l i g i on A ppare n tly h e n e v e r .

p a s s e d th rou gh an y s u c h d e ci s iv e p e r s on a l s tru gg l e a s is re
c ord e d i n S a r tor R e s a r tu s an d h e h a s n o p o s i tiv e c on vic ti on
,

He i s b e se t by
”
s u c h a s i s v o ic e d i n Th e E v e r l a s ti n g Y e a .

d ou b ts w h ic h h e n e v e r s e ttl e s an d h is p oe m s g e n e r ally e x ,

p re s s s orr o w or r e g r e t or re s i gn ati on I n h is p rose h e s h o w s .

th e c a v a li e r s pi r i t a gg r e s s iv e
, l i g h th e a rte d s e l f c on fid e n t
—
,
-
,
-
.

L ik e C a r lyl e h e di s lik e s s h a m s a n d p r o te s ts aga i n s t w h at h e

, ,

c all s th e b ar bar i s m s of soci e ty ; b u t h e w r i te s wi th a lig h t

to u c h u s i n g s ati r e an d b a n te r a s th e b e tte r p ar t of h i s a rg u
,

m e n t C ar lyl e d e n o un c e s wi th th e z e a l of a H e b re w p r o p h e t
.
,

an d l e t s ou k n o w t h at o u ar e h op e l e s s ly l os t i f ou r e j e c t
y y y
h is m e s sag e A r n old is m or e lik e th e c u l tivate d G r e e k ; h is
.

v o ic e is sof t h is s p e e c h s uav e b u t h e l e a v e s th e i m p r e s s i on
, , ,

i f y ou h app e n to di ff e r wi th h im th at y ou m u s t b e d e fi ci e n t ,

in c u l tu r e B oth th e se m e n s o di ff e re n t in s pi r i tan d m e th od s
.
, ,

c on f ron te d th e s am e p robl e m s s ou gh t th e s am e e n d s an d , ,

w e re d om i n ate d by th e sam e m ora l s i n c e r i ty .

Li fe . Arn o l d w as b ornva l l e y of: th e T h am e s

in L a l e h am
~
,
in th e ,

in 1 8 2
2 H is fath e r was D r T h om as Arn o l d h e ad m as te r o f R u gb y
. .
, ,

w it
h w h om m an y of u s h av e grow n f a m i l i ar by re ad i n g Tom B r ow n s
’
5 4 6 E N GLI S H L IT E R ATU R E
S c lzool D ay s Af te r fi tti n g fo r th e u n i v e rs i ty a t Wi n c h e s te r an d a t
.

R ugby , Arn o l d e n te re d B a l l io l C o l l e ge , Ox f ord , w h e r e h e w as d is

tin gu ish e d by w in n in g p riz e s in p o e try a n d by ge n e ra l e x c e l l e n c e in
th e C l a ss i c s M o re th an a n y o t
. h e r p oe tA rn o l d re fl e c ts th e s p i ri to f
"
h is un iv e rs i ty .
"
Th e S c h o l ar -
Gi p sy ”
an d Th y rs is
"
c on t
a n i m an y
f
r e e re n c e s to O xfo rd an d th e su rro u n d n g c ou n tr i y , b u tth e y a re m o re

n oti c e ab l e i i tof a l oofn e s s — as if Ox fo rd m e n w e re too

fo r th e i r sp r ,

m u c h oc c u p i e d w i th c l ass i c d re a m s a n d id e a l s to c on c e rn th e m s e l v e s
w ith th e p rac ti c a l aff a i rs of lif e .

Af te r le avi n g th e u n iv e rs i ty Arn o l d fi rst tau gh t th e c l ass i c s a t

R ug by ; th e n , in b e c a m e p rivate se c re ta ry to Lord L an s
1 84 7 , h e
d ow n e w h o a pp o i n te d th e you n g p o e t to th e po s i ti on of i n s p e c tor
,

of sc h ools un d e r t h e gov e rn m e n t I n th i s p os i tion Arn o l d work e d .

a t i e ntl y f or t h e n e xtt h i y
rt fi e y e ars t ra v e lin g ab ou t t
v h e c oun t ry
p
-
, ,

e x a m in in g t e ac h e rs an d c o rre c t i n g e n d l e ss e xam in ati on p ap e rs F or

, .

te n y e ars ( 1 8 5 7 1 8 6 7 ) h e w as p ro f e s so r of p o e t
— ry a tO x f o rd w h e re ,

h is fa m ous l e c tu re s On Tr a n s la t i n g H om e r w e re g ive n H e m ad e .

n u m e rou s re p o rt s on E n gl i s h a n d f o re i n sc h oo l s an d w as t h re e t i m e s
g ,

se n ta b road t o st u d y e d uc a t ion al m e th od s on th e C on ti n e n t F rom .

th i s i tw i ll b e se e n th a tArn o l d le d a b us y of te n a l ab o r i ous l i fe an d , ,

w e c an a p p r e c i a t e h is s t at em ent t h a t a ll h is b e s t l i te rary w o rk was

d on e l a te a t n i gh t a f te r a d ay of d ru d ge ry I t is w e l l to re m e m b e r
, .

th at w h il e C arly l e w a s p re a c h i n g a bou t l abor Arn o l d l a b ore d d a ily ;

'

, ,

th a t h is w o rk wa s c h e e rfu l l y a n d p ati e n tly d on e ; a n d th ata fte r th e

d a y s w ork h e h u rri e d aw ay l ik e La m b to th e E ly s i an fi e l d s o f l i te ra
’

, ,

tu re He w a s h a p p i l y m a rri e d l ov e d h is h o m e an d e sp e c ia l ly l ov e d
.
, ,

c h il d re n w as f re e f ro m a ll bi t
, te rn e s s an d e n vy an d n o tw i t h sta n di n g , ,

h is c o l d m an n e r w a s a th e art s i n c e re ge n e rou s an d tru e We s h a ll

, , ,
.

a p p re c i a te h is w o rk b e t te r if w e c an s e e t h e m an h i m s e lf be h in d all
th a th e h as w ri t te n .

Arn o l d s li te ra ry w o rk d i v i d e s i tse lf i n t h re e p e ri od s w h i c h w e
’
o t ,

m ay c a l l th e p oe ti c a l t h e c r i ti c a l an d th e p rac ti c a l H e h a d w ri tte n
, , .

p o e try in c e h is sc h oo l d a y s an d h is fi rs tv o l u m e Tb e S t y e a R ev el/e r
’
s ra
, ,

a d Ot
n lze P oe m s ap p e a re d an on y m ou s l y in 1 8 4 9 T h re e ye a rs l a te r
r , .

h e p u b l i sh e d E mp e docles on E t n a a n d ot lze r P oe m s ; b u t o n l y a fe w
c o p i e s of t h e s e vo l u m e s w e re s o l d a n d p re s e n tl y b o th w e re w i th d rawn
,

f ro m c i rc u l ati on I n 1 8 5 3 — 1 8 5 5 h e p u b l i sh e d h is sign ed P oe m s an d
.
,

tw e l v e y e a rs late r a
pp e are d h is lastvo l u m e of p oe tr y C om p are d w ith .

th e e a rl y work of T e n n y so n t h e s e w o rk s m e t w i th l i ttl e f avo r an d

, ,

Arn old p rac tic ally aban d on e d o e ty in f avor of c ri ti c a l wri ti n

p g r .
548 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E

ii
"
b eg ty N atu ra lly on e w h o r e ga rd s p oe try a s a c r i tici s m
”
. ,

will w ri te v e ry di ff e re n tly f ro m on e w h o re gar d s p oe try as th e

n at u ra l l a n g u ag e o f t h e s o u l He will w r i te for th e h ea d r ath e r .

th an for th e h ea r t a n d will b e c old an d c r i tic a l rath e r th a n e n

,

th u s ias tic A cc or di n g to A r n o ld e a c h p o e m s h ou ld b e a u n i t
. , ,

an d h e p ro t e ste d ag a i n s tt h e te n d e n cy of E n gli s h p oe ts to u s e
b rillian t p h ra s e s an d fi g u re s of s p e e ch w h ic h on ly d e tra c t
at te n ti o n f rom th e p oe m a s a w h ol e F or h is m o d e l s h e w e n t .

"
to G re e k p oe try w h ic h h e r e g a r d e d a s ,
th e on ly s ure g u id
”
an c e t o w h at i s s ou n d a n d t r u e i n p oe t ic al art A rn old i s .
,

h ow e v e r m o re i n d e b te d th an h e th i n k s to E n gli s h m a s te r s
, ,

e s p e ci a lly t o Wo rd s w or t h an d M il ton w h os e i n fl u e n c e i s ,

n ot ic e abl e in a l arg e p a rt of h is p oe try .

O f A rn o ld s n arra tiv e p oe m s th e tw o b e s t k n o w n ar e B a l
’

d e r D ea d an i n c u rs i o n i n t o t h e fi e ld o f N or se m y th o l
og
y w h ic h i s s u gg e s tiv e o f G ray a n d S o/zr a b a n d R u s t um ,

1 8 5 3 ) w h ic h t ak e s u s i n t t h fi e ld o f l e g e n d ar y P e rs i an
( , o e

h i s tory Th e th e m e of th e l a tte r p oe m i s ta k e n f rom th e

.

S k a li N a m a k ( B oo k of K i n g s ) of th e P e rs i an p o e t Fi rd a u s i
-
,

w h o liv e d an d w r ot e in t h e e l e v e n th c e n tu r y .

B ri e fly , he
t st
or y is o f on e R us t
em or R u s tu m , a P e rs i a n A c h i ll e s ,
wh o
fe l l l
as e e p on e d ay whe n h e h a d g ro w n w e a r y o f h u n ti n g Wh i l e h e .

l
s e p ta b a n d o f rob b e rs s to l e h i s f a v o r i te h o rs e , R u k s h In .

S oh r ab an d
R u s tu m
tra i l ing he
t r o bb e rs R ustum c am e to th e p a l ac e of h
t e ki n g
of S a m e n ga n , w h e re
y a l l y w e l c o m e d a n d w h e re
h e w as ro ,

h e fe ll i n l ov e w i th th e ki n g s d a u g h te r T e m i n e h a n d m a rr i e d h e r B u t
’
, , .

h e w as o f a ro vi n g ad v e n t u ro u s d i s o s i ti o n a n d s oo n w e n tb a c k to fi gh t
, p ,

a m o n g h i s ow n
p e o p l e th e P e rs i a n s W h i l e h e w as g o n e h i s s o n S oh rab
, .

w as b orn g re w t , o m an h o o d a n d b e c a m e t h e h e ro o f th e T u ran a rm y
, .

War aros e b e tw e e n th e tw o p e o p l e s a n d two h o s ti l e a rm i e s w e re e n

'
,

c am p e d b
y th e O x u s E a c h arm y c h o se a c h a m p i on an d R u s tu m a n d
.
,

S oh rab f ou n d t h e m s e l v e s m a tc h e d i n m orta l c om b a t b e tw e e n th e l i n e s .

Atth i s p o i n t S oh rab w h os e c h i e f i n te re s ti n l i fe w a s to fin d h i s f a th e r
, ,

d e m an d e d to k n o w i f h is e n e m y w e re n o t R u s tu m h e l a tte r w as
; b u tt
d i s g u i se d a n d d e n i e d h i s i d e n ti ty O n th e fi rs td a y o f th e fi gh t R u s tu m
.

w a s o v e rc o m e b u th is l i f e w as s a re d b a ri k a n
,
p y t c d b y th e ge n e ros i ty
o f S oh rab O n th e se c on d d a y R u s t
.
u m p re v a i l e d an d m o r t a l l y w ou n d e d ,

h i s an tago n i s t T h e n h e re c o n i z e d h is o w n s o n b
g y a g o l d b ra c e l e t
.
 TH E V I C T O R I A N AG E 549

w h i c h h e h a d l on g a g o g i v e n to h is w i fe T e m i n e h Th e tw o a r m i e s , .

ru s h i n i o b at
nt tl e w e re st opp e d b y t h e s i g h to f f a t
h e r an d s on w e e p
g ,

i ng i n e ac h h er s S o h rab d i e d , th e w a r c e as e d , a n d
’
ot a rm s . R u s tu m
we n t h om e t
o a l i fe o f s o rro w an d r e m or s e .

U s i n g th i s i n te re s ti n g
i a l A rn o ld p rod u c e d a p o e m
m ate r ,

wh ic h h as th e ra re an d d ifl i c u lt c om bi n ati on of C l as s ic re s e r v e
f

a n d r om an t ic f e e li n g I t i s w r i tte n in bl a n k v e rs e a n d on e
.
,

h a s on ly to re a d th e fi r s t f e w li n e s to s e e th a tth e p oe t i s n ot
a m ast e r of h i s i n s t r u m e n t Th e lin e s ar e s e ld o m h a r m on i o u s
.
r

a n d w e m u s t f re q u e n t ly c h an g e th e ac c e n t o f c om m on w ord s ,

or la st r e s s o n u n i m p or t a n t p a rt icl e s t o s h ow t h e r h yt h m
y , .

A r n old f re q u e n tly Copi e s Mil ton e s p e ci a lly in h is r e p e ti ti on ,

of id e as a n d p h r ase s ; b u tt h e p oe m as a w h o l e is l a cki n g in
M il ton s w on d e r f u l m e l ody
’
.

Th e cl as s ic i n fl u e n c e on S olzra b a n d R u s tu m is e s p e ci al ly
n ot ic e a bl e in Ar n o ld s u s e of m ate r i a l s F i g h ts are s h o r t;
’
.

r i e f i s l on
g g ; th e r e f or e th e p oe t g iv e s fe w l i n e s to th e c o m
b a t b u t l i n g e r s o v e r th e s o n s joy a t fi n d i n g h is f a th e r a n d
’

, ,

th e f a th e r s q u e n c h l e s s s orr o w a t th e d e ath o f h is s o n Th e
’
.

"
l a s t li n e s e s p e ci a lly wi th th e i r p as s i o n a te gr i e f s e tto s o l e m n
,

”
m u s ic , m a k e th i s p oe m on e of th e b e s t on th e w h ol e th at , ,

A rn old h a s w r i tte n A n d th e e xq u i s i te e n di n g w h e re th e
.
,

Ox u s u n m i n d f u l of th e tr ivi a l s tr i f e s o f m e n fl o w s on s e d a te ly
, ,

" ”
to j o i n h i s l u m i n o u s h om e o f w a te r s i s m os t s u g g e s tiv e o f
th e p o e ts c on c e p ti on o f th e o rd e r ly li f e o f n a tu re in c on tr a s t
’

wi th th e d ou b t a n d r e s tl e s s n e s s of h u m a n li f e .

N e x t in i m p or tan c e to th e n a rra tiv e p oe m s a r e th e e l e g i e s ,

" ” " ” " ” "
Th y r s i s Th e S c h ol ar G ip s y
, M e m o ri a l V e rs e s
-
A , ,
” ”
m sc e ua S ou th e r n N i gh t O b e rm an n S ta n z a s f r o m th e
, ,

P m ” " ”
Oe
G ran d e C h a rtre u se an d R ug by C h ap e l
S
,
A ll .

”
th e s e are w or th y o f c a r e f u l r e adi n g b u t th e b e s ti s Th y r s is , ,

a l am e n tfor t h e p o e t C l o u gh w h ic h i s s om e ti m e s cl a s s e d w i th
,

M il ton s Ly c i d a s a n d S h e l l e y s A d on a i s A m on g th e m i n or
’ ’
.

p oe m s th e r e ad e r will fin d th e b e s t e xp re s s i o n of A rn old s ’

" ”
id e al s a n d m e th od s in D ov e r B e a c h th e l ov e ly r ic s e n ti tl e d ,
5 50 E N GLI S H L IT E R ATU R E
” ” " ”
S wi tz e r l an d R e q u i e s c at, S h ak e s p e are , Th e F u tu re
”
, ,

” " ”
K i
e n s n gton G a rd e n s Ph il om e l a ,
”
H u m an L i f e C al , ,

”
th e l a s t
" "
’
lic le s s S o n g M ,
o
"
ra li ty "
a n d G e i s t s G ,
ra v e —
’

b e i n g a n e xq u i s i te trib u te to a li ttle d og w h ic h lik e all h is ,

ki n d h ad re p aid ou r s ca n t c ru m b s of a ff e c ti on wi th a w h ol e
,

l i f e s d e v oti on
’
.

Th e fi rs t pl a c e a m o n g Arn o ld s p ros e w or k s m u s t b e g iv e n
’

to th e E ss ay s i n Cr i ti c i s m w h ic h r a i s e d th e au th or to th e ,

f ro n t ran k o f livi n g c r i t i c s H i s f un d a m e n t a l id e a
E y ,“
.

s sa s

C ifl i m
r C s of c ri t ici s m app e al s to u s s tron g ly T h e b u s i n e s s .

of c r i t ici s m h e say s is n e i th e r to fin d f a u l t n or to d i spl ay th e

, ,
"
c r i tic s ow n l e ar n i n g o r i n fl ue n c e ; it is to k n o w th e b e s t
’

”
wh ic h h as b e e n th ou gh tan d s a id in th e w orld an d by u s i n g ,

th i s k n owl e d g e to c rea te a c u rr e n tof f re s h a n d f re e th ou g h t .

I f a c h o ic e m u s t b e m ad e a m on g th e s e e s say s w h ich ar e all ,

" ”
w orth y of s tu dy w e w ou ld s u gge s t Th e S tu dy o f P oe try
, ,

Word s wor th B y ron ,

”
an d E m e r son ,
”
Th e l as tn a m e d .
”
-

e s say w h ic h i s f ou n d in t
,
h e D i s c ou rs e s i n A m e r ic a i s h ardly ,

a s at i s fa c to ry e s tim ate of E m e rs on b u t its s i n g u l ar c h a r m ,

o f m an n e r an d i ts a t m os p h e re of i n te ll e c tu al c u l tu r e m ak e i t
p e rh ap s th e m os t c h ara c te r i s tic of A rn old s p r os e w ri ti n g s ’
.

A m on g th e w ork s o f Ar n old s p ra c tic al p e r i od th e re are tw o

’

wh ic h m ay b e tak e n a s typical of all th e re s t L i te ra tu re a n d .

D og m a ( 1 8 7 3 ) is in g e n e ral a pl e a f o r l ib era li ty in re l i g i on
, , .

A rn old w o u ld h av e u s r e ad th e B ibl e for i n s tan c e a s w e w ou ld , ,

re a d an
y ot h e r g re atw ork a n d apply t o i t t h
, e o r di n ar y s ta n d
a r d s o f li t e ra ry c r i tici s m .

Cu ltu r e a n d A n a rc lt y ( 1 8 6 9 ) c o n ta i n s m os t of th e te r m s
c u l tu r e sw e e tn e s s an d l i gh t B ar bar ia n P h ili s ti n e H e b ra i s m
, , , , ,

C lt
u d
u re a n a n d m an y o t h e rs w h ic h are n ow a s s o ci a te d wi th
1‘ “t
A rn old s w o rk a n d i n fl u e n c e Th e te rm B a r b ari a n
’ ”
.

r e f e rs t o t h e a r i s toc r a tic C l a s s e s w h o m A rn old th o u g h t to b e ,

e s se n t i ally c r ud e in s ou l n otwi th s tan d i n g th e i r g oo d cl oth e s

,

an d s u p e r fi ci al
g ra c e s P h ili s ti n e . r e f e rs
l
to th e m iddl e
cl as se s n a r row mi n d e d an d s e l f s a t
,
— -
is fie d p e opl e a cc ordi n g -

,
55 2 E NG LISH L IT E R ATU R E

J O HN H E N R Y N E WM A N ( 1 8 0 1 — 1 8 9 0 )
An y r e c o r d o f th e p r os e l i te ra tu r e o f th e V ic to r i an e ra ,

w h ic h i n cl u d e s th e h i s torical e s say s of M a c a u l ay a n d th e ar t
c ri tici s m of R u s ki n sh ou ld c on ta i n a l so s om e n otic e o f its
,

s pi r i tu a l l e ad e r s F o r th e re w as n e v e r a ti m e w h e n th e r e
.

lig io u s id e a l s th a t i n s pi re th e r a c e w e r e k e p t m or e c o n s ta n tly
b e f o re m e n s m i n d s th ro u g h th e m e d i u m o f l i te ratu r e
’
.

A m on g th e r e li g i o u s w ri te rs of th e ag e th e fi r s t pl a c e b e
l on g s u n q u e s ti on a bly to C ardi n a l N e w m an Wh e th e r w e c o n .

s id e r h im as a m an wi t h h is p ow e r f u l y e t g raci o u s p e rs on ali ty
, ,

o r as a r e li g i ou s r e f o r m e r w h o did m u c h t o b r e a k d o w n old
,

re li g i o u s p re j u dic e s by s h o wi n g t h e u n d e r lyi n g b e a u ty an d
c on s i s te n cy of th e R om an ch u r c h o r a s a p ros e w r i te r w h os e ,

st yl e i s as n e ar p e rf e c ti on as w e h a v e e v e r re a c h e d N e w m an ,

is on e o f th e m os t i n te re s ti n g fi g ur e s of th e w h ol e n i n e
te e n th c e n tur y .

Li f e . T h re e h i n gs
t an d
st l
ou t c e a r ly in N e w m an ’
s l i fe : fi rst h is
,

un s h a k e n fa ith in th e d i v i n e c om p an i on sh i p an d gu id an c e ; s e c on d ,

h is d e s i re to fin d an d t o t e ac h t h e tru th o f re v e a l e d re l i gi on th i rd ,

h is q u e s tof an au th ori t at ive s tan d a d o f f a i th wh i c h s h ou l d r e m a i n

r ,

st e ad fas tt h rou gh th e c h an gi n g c e n tu ri e s a n d am id all s orts an d c o n

d ition s o f m e n Th e fi s t le d to th a t ra e an d b e au ti fu l s p i ri tu a l
. r r

qua l i ty w h ic h sh i n e s in all h is w ork ; th e s e c on d to h is f re q u e n t

d oc t i n a l an d c on tro v e rs i a l e s sa y s ; th e th i rd to h is c on v e rs i on to th e
r

C ath o l ic c h u rc h w h i c h h e s e r v e d as p ri e s t a n d te a c h e r fo r th e l a st
,

forty -
fiv e y e ars l ife P e rh ap s w e sh o u l d ad d on e m o re c h ar
of h is .

ic — th e p rac ti c al b e n t of h is re ligio n ; fo r h e w as n e v e r so
‘

ac t e r is t ,

busy wi th s tud y o r c on trove rsy th ath e n e gl e c te d to give a large p a rt

o f h is t i m e to ge n tl e m i n i strati on a m on g th e p oor a n d n e e d y .

He w as b orn in L on d on in 1 8 0 1 H is f a th e r w a s a n E n gl i sh
, .

ban ke r ; h is m o th e r a m e m b e r of a F re n c h H ugu e n o tfa m i l y w as a

, ,

th ough t fu l d e vout w o m an w h o b ro u gh t u p h e r son in a w ay w h ic h

, ,

s ugge s t s t h e m o th e r o f R u sk i n Of h is e a rl y tra i n i n g h is re ad i n g o f
.
,

d oc tri n a l an d a rgum e n tati v e w o rk s a n d of h is i s o l a ti on f rom m ate ri a l

,

th i n gs in th e t h ou gh t th a t th e re w e re "
tw o an d on l y two ab so l u te
an d l u m i n ou s ly se lf e v i d e n t b e i n s i n
h e wo rl d h i m se lf an d h is
”
g
-
t ,
 TH E V I C T O R I AN AG E 553

C re a tor, i t i s b e tte r to re ad h is o w n r e c ord in th e Ap olog i a w h i c h ,

i s a ki n d of s p i ri tu a l bi ogra p h y .

At th e a ge of fi f te e n N e w m an h ad b e gu n h is p ro fou n d stu d y of
th e o l o gi c a l su bj e c ts .F o r s c i e n c e l i te ratu re art n atu re — all th e
, , , ,

b road i n te re sts wh ic h a ttrac te d oth e r l i te rary m e n of h is age he ,

—

c a re d l i t tl e h is m i n d b e i n g w h o l l y oc c u p i e d w i t
,
h th e h i sto ry a n d
d oc tri n e s of th e C h ri sti an c h u rc h to w h i c h h e h ad a l re ady d e vote d
,

h is l i f e
. H e w a s e d u c a te d fi rst at th e sc h oo l in E a l i n g th e n at ,

O x ford taki n g h is d egre e in th e latte r p l a c e i n 1 8 2 0

,
T h ou gh h is .

c o l l e g e c a re e r w a s n ot m o re b r i l l i an t t h an th a t o f m an y u n kn ow n
m e n h is u n u su a l a bi l i t
,
y w as re c ogn i z e d an d h e w as m ad e a f e l l ow

QU A D R AN G L E OF OR E L I C OLL E G E ,

O X F OR D

of O ri e l C o l l e ge , re t i i
a n ng he
t f e l l o w sh i p , an d l e adi n g
l ly a sc h o a r

l ife fo r o v e r tw e n ty ye a rs I n 1 8 2 4 h e w as ord a i n e d in th e An gl ic a n
.

c h u rc h a n d f o u r y e a rs l ate r w a s C h os e n vi c a r o f S t M a r y s
’
, at .
,

O xfo rd w h e re h is s e rm on s m a d e a d e e p i m p re ssi on o n th e c u l tiva te d

,

au d i e n c e s t h a tga th e re d f ro m far an d n e ar t o h e a r h im .

A c h an ge i s n oti c e able in N e w m an s li f e af te r h is tri p to th e

’

M e d i te rran e an in 1 8 3 2 H e h ad b e gu n h is l i fe a s a C a l vi n i st b u t
.
,

w h i l e in Ox ford th e n th e c e n te r of r e l i gi ou s u n re s t h e d e sc rib e d
, ,
"
h i m se l f a s d ri f ti n g in th e d i re c ti on of L ibe ra l i sm ”
T h e n stud y .

an d b e re a v e m e n t an d an i n n a t e m y st ic i sm le d h im to a p rofoun d
sy m
p a th y w i th th e m e d i ae v a l C h u rc h H e h ad f ro m th e b e gi n n i n g
.

b u td u ri n g h is vi s i tto I taly
'

op p os e d C ath olic ism , w h e r e h e sa w the

R o m an c h u rc h he
at t c enter of i ts p o w e r an d l
sp e n do r , m an y of
5 54 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
h i s p re j u d ic e s w e r e o v e r c o m e I n th i s e n l arg e m e n t o f h is s p i ri t
u al .

h o r iz on N e w m an w a s gre atly i n fl u e n c e d by h is f ri e n d H u rre l l F roud e ,

wi t h w h om h e m ad e th e fi rs t p artof th e j o u rn e y H is po e m s of th i s .

pe r i od ( a f te r w ar d s c o l l e c te d in t h e L y r a A p ol ic a
os t
) a m on g w h i c h ,

is th e fam ou s Le ad K i n d l y L i gh t a re n o ti c e ab l e fo r th e i r rad ian t

" ”
, ,

s p i ri t u al i ty b u ton e w h o re ad s th e m c are fu l ly se e s th e b e gi n n i n g of
th a t m e n t a l st ru ggl e w h i c h e n d e d in h is l e a v i n g t h e c h u rc h in w h i c h
h e w as bo rn T h u s h e w ri te s of th e C a th o l i c C h u rc h w h o se se rvic e s
.
,

h e h ad atte n d e d as o n e w h o in a f o re i gn l an d re c e ive s t h e gi f ts of
"

a good S a m ari tan

O th a tth y c re e d w e re s o u n d !
F or th o u d os ts oo th e th e h e a rt, t
h ou C h u rc h of R om e ,
By th y u n w e a ri e d w a tc h a n d v a r i e d ro u n d
O f s e rvi c e , in th y S a v i o u r s h oly h om e
’
.

I w al k th e C i ty s s u l tr y s tre e ts
c an n ot
’
,

B u tth e wi d e p orc h i n v i te s to s till re t re a t

s ,

Wh e re p as s ion s th i rs tis Cal m e d a n d c are

'
’
,
’
h an
s unt kful g l oom .

O n h is re t
u rn to E n gl an l i gi ou s d , in 1 83 3 , h e en t
e re d i n to th e re

ruggl e kn o w n as t h e Ox fo rd or T rac t a ri an M ov e m e n t an d s p e e di l y
1
st ,

be c am e its ac kn o wl ed ge d l e ad e r T h ose w h o wi sh to fo l l o w th i s .

at te m p t a t r e l i gi ou s re fo rm w h i c h p ro foun d l y a ff e c t ed t h e l ife o f ,

th e w h o l e E n g l i sh c h u rc h wi l l fin d it re c o rd e d in th e Tr a ct s f or ,

tlze Ti m e s tw e n ty n i n e o f w h i c h w e re wr i tte n by N e w m an an d i n
,
-
,

h is P a r oc/i i a l a n d P la i n S e r m on s ( 1 8 3 7 Af te r n i n e ye ars of
u a l c o n fl i c t N e w m an r e t
s p i ri t i re d to L i ttl e m ore w h e re wi th a fe w , ,

fo l l o w e rs h e le d a l i fe of a l m os t m on a sti c s e c l u si on s ti l l s tri v i n g to
, ,

r e c on c i l e h is C h an i n
g g b e l i e f w i th th e d o c tri n e s o f h is ow n c h u rc h .

Two y e a rs late r h e re s i gn e d h is c h arge a t S t M a ry s an d l e f t th e .

’

An gl ic an c om m u n i on — n o t bi tte rl y b u t w i th a d e e p an d te n d e r , ,

re r e t H is l as ts e rm on a t L i t Th e Pa rti n g o f F ri e n d s
”
g .
tl e m o re o n
1 Th Oxf d m v m
e ti ligi h m y p i t f
or o e enmbl t th
n P
re on as an o n s o re se an c e o e re
R p h li t m v m t i
a ae e t B th p t t d ga i tth m t i li m
o e en n ar f th o d ro e s e e , an
.
g a ns e a er a s o e a
b th w t b k f th i m l t th M i dd l A g i i lly th m v m
o en
y ac or O e r
g r e stw i o e e es . r na e o e en as n
t d d t b i g
en e o w lif t th r nA gli ne h h by viv l f th d t i
e o e d p n ca n c u rc a re a o e oc r n e an rac
ti ce s of l p i d R g i i g th p w f th p
a n e ar i e r er o .
th l d h
eco n z n li t t e o er o e re s s , e ea e rs c ose e ra u re
for th i i t m
e r t f f m d b y th i T t f tl T m th y b e m k w
n s ru en o re o r an e r r ac s or ze i es e ca e no n
,

as T t i T
ra c a r a n s li b li m d t t th d t i o O o se d th ity f th
pp .
e ra s an o re s ore e oc r ne an au or o e
e ar ly C h h w th u rc t f th i t h i g Th i b li f m i gh tb
as e ce n e r o mm d p i e r e ac n . e r e e e su e u n on e

g e rat ti l
ar f th C ee d wi th ll th t i ti m li
c e o
p
e I b e li v i
r , C th li a d Ap a e s, —
"
e e n on e a o c an os
t l Ch ”
o ic h Th m v m tb ga
u rc .
tO xf d wi th R b l
e o e fm m
en N ti l
e n a or e e s
’
a ou s se r o n on a ona

A po t y i 8 3 3 ; b tN wm w th
s as ,
”
n 1 l l d f th e m v m t wh i h p ti lly
u e an as e re a ea er o o e en ,
c ra c ca
en d d wh
e h t e d th C th li
en h
e en er h i 845 e a o c c u rc n 1 .
55 6 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
m an y other m e n , i n th ep u blic p re s s Hi s r e ti r e m e n t to s oli .

tu d e a n d m e d i tati on at L i ttl e m or e h a d b e e n o u trag e ou s ly

m i s u n d e r s to od a n d i t w a s op e n ly c h arg e d th a t h is c on v e r
,

s i o n w a s a c u n n i n g ly d e vi se d pl ot t o w in a l a rg e n u m b e r o f

h is f o ll ow e rs to th e C ath o lic c h u r c h T h i s c h ar g e i n v olv e d

.

ot h e r s a n d it w as to d e f e n d th e m a s w e ll as to vi n dic a te
, ,

h i m se l f th at N e w m an w rote th e Ap olog i a
,
Th e p e r f e c t s in .

c e r it y wi th w h ic h h e t ra c e d h is r e li g i o u s h i s t ory s h o wi n g t h at ,

h i s c o n v e r s i on w a s o n ly th e fi n a l s te p i n a c o u r s e h e h ad b e e n
f oll owi n g s i n c e b oy h ood s il e n c e d h is c r i tic s an d r e v ol u ti on i z e d
,

p u bli c opi n i on c on c e rn i n g h i m s e l f an d th e c h u r c h w h ic h h e
h ad j o i n e d A s th e re v e l ati o n o f a s o u l s h i s to r y a n d a s a
’

.
,

m od e l of p u r e s i m pl e u n a ff e c te d E n g l i s h th i s b ook e n ti r e ly
, , , ,

a par t f ro m i t s d oc t ri n al t e a c h i n g d e s e r v e s a h i g h pl a c e i n
,

o u r p ros e li t e ra t u re .

I n N e w m an s d o c tr i n al w or k s th e Vi a M e d i a th e G r a m m a r
’

A n d in n u m e ro u s c o n t ro v e rs i a l e s say s t h ude n t
of ss e n t ,a e st

o f li t e ra t ur e will h a v e li t tl e i n te r e s t M u c h m ore s i g n i fi c an t
.

are h is s e r m on s t h e u n c o n s c i o u s r e fl e c ti on o f a ra r e s pi ri tu a l
,

n at ur e , o f w h ic h P ro f e s s or S h a irp said : H is p o w e r s h ow s "

i ts e l f cl e arly in th e n e w an d u n l ook e d for w ay in w h ic h h e -

tou c h e d i n to l i f e o ld tr u th s m ora l o r s pi r i tua l , An d a s .

h e s p ok e h ow th e old tru th b e c a m e n e w ! an d h ow i t c a m e
,

h om e wi th a m e an i n g n e v e r f e l t b e f ore ! H e l a id h is fi n g e r
h ow g e n tly y e t h o w p o w e r f u lly o n s om e i n n e r pl a c e in th e
h e ar e r s h e a r t a n d told h im th i n g s a b o u th i m s e l f h e h ad n e v e r
’

k n ow n till th e n S ub tl e s t tr u th s w h ic h w o u l d h av e tak e n
.
,

ph il os op h e rs p age s of ci rc u m l oc u ti on an d b ig w or d s to s tate ,

w e re d ropp e d o u t by th e w ay i n a s e n te n c e or tw o of th e
”
m os ttra n s p are n t S a x o n O f g re ate r i n te re s t to th e g e n e ra l
.

re ad e r a r e Tlze I d e a o d i s c ou rs e s d e l iv e r e d at
f a U n i v e rs i t y ,

D u bli n an d h is tw o w ork s of fi c ti o n L os s a n d Ga i n tr e a ti n
, , g ,

of a m a n s c on v e r s i on t
’

o C at h olici s m a n d Ca lli s t a w h ic h is
, , ,

in h is o w n w or d s a n at
"
te m p t to e xp re s s th e f e e l i n g s a n d
,

m u tu al r e l ati on s of C h r i s ti an s an d h e a th e n s in th e m i d dl e of
 TH E V I C T O R I A N AG E 557
”
th e th i rd c e n tu ry Th e l atte r is in o u r j u d g m e n t th e m o s t
.
, ,

r e ad abl e a n d i n t i n g o f N e w m an s w or k s Th e c h a ra c te r
’
e re s t .

of C a lli s t a a b e au t i f u l G re e k s c u lp tor of id ol s is
, ,
C lli t
a s a
p ow e r f u lly d e li n e ate d th e s ty l e i s cl e ar an d tra n s
p are n t as a ir an d th e s tory of th e h e ro i n e s c o n v e r s i on an d
,
’

d e ath m ak e s o n e o f th e m os t f as ci n ati n g c h a p te r s in fic ti on ,

th o ug h itis n ot th e s tor y s o m u c h a s th e a u th or s u n c on s ci o u s
’

re v e l a t i on of h i m s e l f th atc h arm s u s I tw o u ld b e w e ll to re a d
.

th i s n o v e l i n c on n e c ti on wi th K i n g s l e y s Hyp a ti a w h ic h at
’

te m p ts to re c on s tru c tth e li f e a n d id e a l s of th e sam e p e r i od .

N e w m an s p oe m s a r e n ot s o w e ll k n ow n a s h is p ros e b u t
’

th e r e ad e r w h o e x am i n e s th e Ly r a Ap os toli c a a n d Ve r s e s on
Va r i ous Occ a s i on s will fin d m a n y s h ort p o e m s th at
P m
oe s
st i r a r e li g i o u s n atu r e p ro f ou n dly by th e i r p u re an d
l of ty i m ag i n ati on ; an d f u tu re g e n e ra ti o n s m ay p ron oun c e on e
" ”
h e s e p oe m s Th e D r e a m o f G e ron ti u s to b e N e w m an s
’
of t , , .

m os te n d u r i n g w or k T h i s p oe m a i m s to re p ro d u c e th e th o u g h ts
.

a n d f e e l i n s o f a m an w h o s e s ou l i s j u s tq u i t ti th e b o dy a n d
g n
g ,

w h o i s j u s t b e g i n n i n g a n e w an d g re a te r l i fe B oth in s tyl e .

" ”
an d in t h o u g h t Th e D re a m i s a p ow e r f u l a n d or i g i n a l p oe m
an d i s w or t h y of a tte n ti on n ot o n ly f or i tse lf b u t a s a m od e rn ,
"
c r i tic s u gg e s ts as a re v e l ati on of th at h i g h s pi r i tua l p u rp ose
,
”
w h ic h an i m ate d N e wm an s l if e f r o m b e g i n n i n g to e n d
’
.

O f N e w m a n s s tyl e it i s a s di ffi c u l t to w r i te a s it w ou ld b e
’

to d e s c r ib e th e d re s s o f a g e n tl e m an w e h a d m e t w h o w a s ,

N wm
e
’
an s so p e rfe ct ly d r e s se d th at w e p a id n o a tte n ti on to
St yle
h i s cl oth e s His s tyl e i s c all e d tran s p are n t b e c a u s e
.
,

at fi rs t w e are n ot c on s ci ou s of h is m an n e r ; a n d u n ob t ru s iv e ,

b e cau s e w e n e v e r th i n k o f N e w m an h im s e l f b u t on ly of th e ,

s u bj e c t h e i s di s c u s s i n g He is lik e th e b e s t F re n c h p ros e
.

w r i te rs in e xp re s s i n g h is th ou g h t wi th s u c h n atu ral n e s s an d
a pp a re n t c a s e t h at wi th ou t th i n ki n g of s tyl e w e re c e iv e e x
, ,

act ly th e i m p re s s i on w h ic h h e m e an s to c on v e y I n h is s e r .

m on s a n d e s say s h e i s w on d e r f u lly s i m pl e an d di re ct in h is
c on tro v e r s i a l w r i ti n g s , g e n tly i ron ic al an d s ati r ic an d th e ,
558 E N G LIS H L IT E R ATU R E
i p e r v ad e d b y a d e lic ate h u m or ; b u t w h e n h is f e e li n g s
'

sa tre i s

ar e a ro u s e d h e s p e a k s wi t h p oe tic i m ag e s a n d s y m bo l s an d ,

h is e l oq u e n c e is l ik e th at o f th e O ld T e s tam e n t p rop h e ts .

L ik e R u s ki n s h is s tyl e is m o d e l e d l arg e ly on th a t of th e
’

B ibl e b u t n ot e v e n R u s ki n e q ual s h im i n th e p oe tic b e au ty

,

a n d m e l ody of h is s e n t e n ce s O n th e w h ol e h e c om e s n e ar e r
.

th an an y oth e r of h is ag e to o u r id e a l of a p e r f e c t p ros e w r i t er .

Oth e r E s say i s ts of th e Vi c tori an Age We h a v e s e l e c te d .

th e ab ove fiv e e s s ayi s ts M ac au l ay C a rlyl e A rn o ld N e w m an , , , , ,

a n d R u s ki n a s r e p re s e n tativ e w ri te r s of t h e V ic
C it
r i lca ,

Wfi t ef s
tor i an A ge ; b u t th e r e are m a n y oth e r s w h o w e ll
re p ay o u r s t u dy N o ta bl e a m o n g th e s e are J oh n A ddi n gton
.

S y m on d s a u th or of Tli e R e n a i ss a n c e i n I ta ly u n d o u b te dly
, ,

h is gre ate s t w o rk an d of m a n y c r i tic a l e s s ay s

, Wal te r Pate r ,

wh os e App re c i a ti on s an d n u m e rou s oth e r w ork s m ar k h im a s

on e of o u r be s t li t e ra ry c r i t ic s ; an d L e s l i e S te p h e n fa m o u s ,

for h i s w ork on th e m on u m e n ta l D i c ti on a ry of N a ti on a l B i og
rap /1y a n d for h is H ou r s i n a L i b ra ry
,
a s e ri e s o f i m p art ial ,

an d e xc e ll e n t c r i t ici s m s b r ig h te n e d by th e pl ay of an or i g i n al
,

an d d e li g h t f u l h u m or .

A m on g th e m os t fam ou s w r i te rs of th e a g e a r e th e s c ie n
tis ts L y e ll D ar wi n H u xl e y S p e n c e r Ty n d all a n d Wa ll a c e
, , , , , , ,

a w on d e r f u l
—
rou p o f m e n w h os e w o r k s t h oug h
Th S i t
g ,
e i t
c en s s
th e y h a rdly b e l on g to ou r p r e s e n t s tu dy h a v e e x ,

e rc is e d a n i n c a lc u l a bl e i n fl ue n c e on ou r li f e an d l i t e ra tu re .

D ar wi n s Or i gi n of Sp ec i e s
’

w h ic h appare n tly e stab

li s h e d th e th e or y o f e v o l u ti on w as a n e p o c h m a ki n b oo k
g
-
, .

I t r e v ol u ti o n i z e d n o t on ly o u r c on c e p ti on s o f n atu ra l h i s tory ,

b u t al s o o ur m e th od s of th i n ki n g on a ll th e p r obl e m s of h u m an
s o ci e ty T h os e w h o w o u ld read a s u m m ary of th e g re ate s t
.

s ci e n t ifi c di s c o v e ry of th e ag e will fin d it in Wa ll a c e s D a r ’

w i n i s rn — a m os t i n te r e s ti n
,
g b ook w r i tte n by th e m an w h o ,

cl ai m s wi th D arwi n th e h on or o f fi rstan n ou n ci n g th e p r i n cipl e

, ,

o f e v ol u t i on A n d fr om a m u l ti tu d e of s ci e n tifi c w ork s w e
.
, ,

re c o m m e n d a l s o t o t h e g e n e ra l rea d e r H u xl e y s A u tobi og rap lzy

’
 5 6o E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
th e y c re ate d i m m or tal w ork s th e i r b o ok s ,
h av e ma e d th e
p re s e n t w o rld a b e tte r an d a h a ppi e r pla c e to l iv e i n . An d
th at is p e rh ap s th e b e s t th at c an b e s a id o f th e w or k o f an
y
ar ti s t or attisan .

S u m m a ry of th e V i c tor i a n Age . Th e y e 1 8_39 i g e

ar
.
s n e ra lly p l ac e d a tthe
beg i i g f th i p
nn n o li m i ts a
s e ri o d , b u t i ts I g l we m y re v ry i d fi i t
e n e n e . n e n e ra a

th i k f i tas
n v i
o g t h e co i g f V i
er nc t i a 18 7
( 3 re H i st
n o i o lly th e g e or r ca a

is re m k b l e f th
ar a g w th f d emg c a c y f l l wi g th e R e m fi fl l f 1 8 3 ;
or e ro o r o o n o 2

f or th p ae s d f e d g gg t
re i om g ll l e ; fo t on ah e p i d donev l
p m a t o f th c as s s r ra e o en e

ar tgj nd s ci c e ; fo i m p t t m c h a ic
en s r s ;
o r an d f th e e e rm n a an or no o us

e xt i
e n s on of th b ds f h m e knowl e dge by th d i c v i
oun o u an f c ie e s o e r es o s nce .

A t th ac c e s i e f V i c t i a th s on o m a ti c m v e m th d p
or t it f c e ;
e ro n o en a s en s or

W d w th h d w i tt h is b tw k ; th th
or s or a r en m ti p es t C l ri d g or e o e r ro an c oe s, o e e,

S h e l le y Ke t , d By a s , an h d p as d a w y ; a d f ro n , ti m e
a ew d v l p
se a n or a no n e e o

m en t w as a p p a ti E g li h p re n t y Th n g h th n Vi t i s Age p d c d
oe r . ou e c o r an ro u e

tw o g tp oe t T
re a y s, d B w i g th e a g e
enn son s a wh
an l i e m k ab l e
ro n n , , a o e , s r ar

fo th v i ty
r e d x ll c e f i ts p
ar e an e A s t d y f all th g tw i t s f
ce en o ro s e . u o e re a r er o

th e p iod er v l f re
g ea s l h gte i tic s ( I ) L i te a t e i th i A g h
our e n e ra c a ra r s : r ur n s e as

m v y lg sg { 94 13 i l i f fl e c ti g i t p ti c l p b l m d i p ggngsg d
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T enn y son d B w i g; an d th ch i f ch
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A ge Th e g re a t s c
. i tien sts, lik y ll D wi H xl y W ll c e Ty d l l
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u o e ra u re , ou e r or re of

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p re s e n tra th e r th a n to th e p s tc e t y
a n ur .

S e l e c tion s f or R e a d i n g . Ma n ly s ’
E ng li sh P oe tr y an d M an ly ’
s E ng li sh

P ro s e
(G in n an d x l l t s e l c ti o s f m ll a th
C o m p an y) of c on t
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an o er co c n , r
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n oe , e
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s

E g li s h P e f m E li a b th t V i c t i P ag B i ti h P o e ts f th e N i e ’
n ro s ro z e o o r a, e s r s o n

th C e t y s A Vi t i A th o l o gy m y b d to ad
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n ur , an an c o r an n , a e u se

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an a . o r an r a oun n n n en an n ens

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c l e d i ti
oo g iv b e l ow ( F
on s f l l ti tl d p b li h e
en e th Ge e l . or u es an u s rs s e e n ra

B i b li o g a p h y ) r .

T y en n Sh tp
s on m a d
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r as s c s , o as s , e rs e r ur

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er e ,
P m b y T y s s e l e c t d a d e d i t d wi th te s b y H y
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V an D yk e ( A th m P e S ie s) i e x c ll e tli t
e n ae u tl e v l m e f
r ss b gi er , s an e n o u or e n n e rs .

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ro S e l ti
n s
n d i t d b y R M L v e tt i S t d d E g li h C l
. ec on , e i e . . o ,
n an ar n s as s c s .

O th r c h o l d i ti i E v ym a L ib y B ll e s L e tt e S e i e s tc ’
e s o e on s n er n s ra r , e r s r , e .

E li b t k B
za e ttB w i g S l tiar re s d i t d b y E li ab th L e e i S t d
ro n n . e ec on , e e z e , n an

ar d E g l i h C l s i c s S l ti
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a s k t C l as s i c e tc
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fl i ttl w A a ze ld S o h ra b d R tm
rno d i t d b y T e t a n d B e w s te
. i an us u , e e r n r r, n

S tan d d E g li h C l s i c
ar n Th e m e p em i
s R iv s i d e L i te a t e S i
a s s . et c sa o n er r ur e r es, .

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on s T as y S e i
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o c P m s t d e t e d i ti ( C o w e ll )
en re ur r e s, . oe s, u n s
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on r .

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s n L ib y t P
e l e c ti s ( H l t A lly n B a c o
an s
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ra r , e c . ro s e s e on o , n,

D k ic Ta l e
en s f T w C i ti
. edit d b y J W Li
o i S t d a d E g li h
o e s, e . . nn, n an r n s

Cl i
as s c s A C h i tm as C a l D vi d C pp e fi l d a d P i kwi c k P p e rs Va i
. r s ro , a o r e , n c a . r

ou s g d ch
oo l d i ti s o f th e o v e l s i n E v e y m s L i b a ry e tc
s oo e on es n r an
’
r , .

T/ k za c y H ry E s m
er a d d i te d b y H B M o o
. en i S ta d a d E n g li s h
on , e . . re , n n r

C l s s i c s Th e s m e n o v e l i E v y m s L i b ary P o c k e tC l i c s e tc ’
a . a , n er an r , as s , .

G g E li t S il s M
e or e e ed it d b y R
o . A d e l i d e W i th m i S ta d a d
a a rn r, e . a a ,
n n r

E gli h C l s i c s Th e a m
n s a s v e l i P c k tC l s s i c s e tc
. s e no , n o e a , .

C ly l ar E ay e . B e d it d b ss
y C L H onon i S ta d a d E n g li h C l
u rn s , e . . an s , n n r s as

i
s c s , an d H d He W h i p d i te d b y A Mac Me c h a i A th e m m
e ro e s a n ro o rs , e . n, n n u

P s S e i S e l e c ti o s d i te d b y H W B y t ( A lly
re s r es . n B ac
, e) Va ri . . o n on n on . ous

o th e i e x p
r n iv e e d i ti i P c k e t C l as s i c s E c l e c ti E g li s h C l
ens on s , i c s e tc
n o , c n as s , .

R ki us S m e a d L il i e
n . e d it
e sa ed b
y L o i s G H ff d i S t d d E g
n s, . u or , n an ar n

li h C l i c s O th e d i ti o s i R iv e i d e L i te t e E v e ry m an L i b a ry e tc
s as s . er n n rs ra u r ,
’
s r , .

Se lec t d E e y s d L tte s d i te d b y H ff d
ssa an e r , e u or ,

S l c ti n s e d i te d b y V i d
e e o , D S c d d e ( S ib l y ) a . u r e

R iv e i d e L i te t e
rs ra u r .

M l y
aca u a E ys A ddi
. d Mil to
ss a e dit ed b y on s on an n ,

S tan d d E g li s h C l as s i c
ar n S m e s s y s i C a s e ll s N a ti o s . a e a , n s
’

s id e L it e at e et
r c L ay s o f A
ur i e t R o m e i n S ta d a d
, . nc n , n r

P o c k e t C l a i s tc ss c , e .
5 62 E NG L S H L I IT E R ATU R E
t
Ve w m a n . Se l ec i wi th i t d ti
to n s , n ro uc on by L E . . G a te s i Se l e c to n s

f omr p ro s e an d poe ty ir R iv ,
id Li t
n e rs e e ra tu re . Th e Id e a of a Un iv s i ty er , in
Ma n ly s
’
E ng li sh P ro s e .

B i b li ogra p h y .
( N OT E F f ll ti tl a . or u es nd li
p u b s h e rs o f g e n e ra l re fe e c r n e

b oo k s, se e G e n e ra l B ib li g p h y ) His tory
o ra . . Te x tbook , Mo n tg o m e r
-
y pp 3 5 7 , .

8
3 3 ; C h e n e , p p 63 y y . 2 —6 4 3 . Ge n e r a l l Vor k s
-
. G a rd i n e r, an d T a ill Sp i l r . ec a

i i H i t ry o f E g
'

Mc C a rth y s H is to ry
’
of O u r O w n T m e s ; B r g h ts
’
I Vor k s .
s o n

l an d , v l o s .
4 5 ;
— Le e
’
s Que e n i
V c to r a ; B r c e s S tu d e s
’
i y i i C
n te m p a ry
on or

B i og ra p h y .

era t
L it ure . Ge n e r a l Wor ks . G a rn e tt an d i G o ss e , Ta ne . Sp e c i a l Wor k s ,

H a rr i s o n
’
s E ar ly V ic t i or an i
L te ra tu re ; S a i t b ry A H i
n s u
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s stor y of Ni ne t
eenth
‘

C e n tu r y i
L te ra tu re ; Wa lk e r s Th e
’
A ge f Te
o y ; nn s on s am e au th or s
’
Th e
G re a te r V i c to r ia Pn oe ts ; M o rl e y ’
s i
L te ra tu re o f th e Age of V i c to r i a ; S te d
m an
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s V ic t ia P o t ; M
or n e s rs . li
O p h a n ts L te ra r H s to r
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i y i y of E ng l an d in t
h e n

Ni ne te e n th C e t ry ; B e n u e rs s
’
li
E n g s h R o m a n tc s m in th e i i Ni ne te e n th C e n tu r y;
Do wd en s
’
Vi t i L i t ra t c o r an e u re , i n T ra n s c r p ts i an d S tu d i es ; B ro wn l l e
’
s V i c to
r ani P ro s e Mas te rs .

Te n ny s on . x
Te ts : C ab i n e te d i ti o n
( Lo n d o n , 1 8 9 7 ) i s th e stan d a rd . Va ri o u s
go o d e d to n s , ii Gl b o e , C a m b r dge i P oe ts , etc . Se l e c to n s i in A th e n ae u m P re s s

i
( G n n an d C o mp y) an .

i L feA lf e d L o d Te y : M m i by hi r i th t da d ; b y
r nn s on , a e o r s s on , s e s an r »

L y l l ( i E g li h M
a f L e tt ) ; b y H t ; b y W
n n s
gh S al A en o e rs o r on au . ee so nne

T R it h i Te y d Hi s F i d ; N p i T h H o m s an d Ha f
’
t
’
. c e s nn s on a ns r en s a er s e e un o ~

T y s ; R aw le y M m o ri o f th e T y o
enn on ns
’
s e es e nn s ns .

C ri ti c i m k Te y h is A t a d h i R l a ti to M d e rn L if ;
’
B s : ro o e s nn son , r n s e on o e
'

A L g A lf e d T y ; Va D yk e Th e P o t y f T y ; S th s
. an
’
s r e nn s on n
’
s e r o enn son nea
’

Th Mi d f T
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n o enn \Y o k ;
son nn
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ca u o enn on s
’
r s

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e s
’

ys W k ; D ix
an A Te y s o P i m ; M s
o o enn on s
’
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nn n r er a

Te y R li gi T c h e ; C lli E a ly P o m s o f
’
te m r an s a nn s Th son s a e o us ea r o ns
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e r e

T y ; M l l m Te y s
enn so n I d yll f th e K i g a d th A rth ri
ac a u S to y ;
’
s nn on s
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s o n n e u an r

B ad l e y C o m m a y Me m ri am ; B g h ts L i te ry S t d i e
’
I ol
’
r t s en r on n o a e o ra u s, v .

B rig h tw ll C d s B i b li g a p h y
’
o d ; S h eph
’
c e s on c r an e er o r .

E y By F Ha is o i T ys
ssa s : R ki Mil l d O th e r L i te ry
. rr n, n e nn on , us n, , an ra

E ti m te ; b y S t d m
s a i V i c to i
s P e t ; b y H tt i L i te ra ry E s ays;
e an , n r an o s u on , n s

b y D wd i S t di s i
o L i t ra t e ; b y G a te
en, i nS t di d Ap p e c i
u e n e ur s, n u es an r a

ti o ; by F o t
ns in G a t T h s ; by F m rs i O L ivi n g P
e r, ts See re e ac er or an , n ur oe .

l M ye S c i e a d F t e L if
a so e r s
’
enc n a u ur e .

B w i g roTe x t C m b i dg a d G l ob
n n d i ti
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et V a ri s e d iti n s of
s a r e n e e on s , c . ou o

ab 0 v e
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b y C h e s te rto n ( E n gli s h M e n of

an d O rr ; b y \ N
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o th e S tu d y of B ro w i g ; s am e
n n

th e \ Y k or s of B ro w i n g ; N e ttl e
n
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R u sk in . T e ts x : B ra n t w ood ed i ti o n, ed it d e by C . E . N o rton ; v i ar o u s

ed i ti ons o f s p a t w rk L ife by H r ie ( E g li h M
ar ef L tt ) ; b y o s . : a r son n s en o e e rs

C lli gw d 2 v l ; l R ki P aet i t ’
o n oo o s . se e a so us n s r er a .
,

C ri ti c i m M th ki h i L if d Te h i g ; C k e S tud i i ’ ’
s R : a er s us n, s e an ac n oo s es n

R ki ; W l d t i Th e W o k f J h ki ; H b J h R ki ’
R
‘

us n a s e n s r o o n us n o s on s o n us n,

S oc a i l R f m ; Mrs M y e ll J o h R s ki ; S i
e or er R ki a d th e . e n
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s n u n z e ra n n e s
’
us n n

R e li gi ty t l te d f m th F h ; Wh i t P ri i p l f A rt; ’
f B
on o e au , ra n s a ro e re n c e s nc es o

\V M R o tti R ki R s tti d P R p h li ti m ’
. . ss e s us n, o se , an re - a ae s .

E y b y R b t in M d
ssa s : H m a i t ; b y S i ts b ry i C
o e r son , td o e rn u n s s a n u , n o rre c e

I m p i ; b y B w ll H i
re s s o n s F t ( b ve ) ro ne , a rr s on ,
o rs e r see a o .

[ll m / y a Te x ts C o m p l te w k
a a , d i te d b y h i i te L ad y T v ly a : e or s, e s s s r, re e n

( L on d on , v i d i ti f p te w k ( S l ti f
a r o us e R d on s o se a ra or s se e e ec on s or ea

i g b o v e ) L if
n , a L ife a d L tt . b y T v ly 2 v l
e : ; b y M o ri s (E g n e e rs , re e an , o s . r on n

l is h M f L tt )
en o e e rs .

C ri ti c i m E ay by B g h t i
s : L i te y S t d i e s ; b y L S te p h
ss s, i a e o , n ra r u . en, n

H o u rs i L ib y ; by S i tb y i C
n a t d Im p ra r i s ; b y Ha ri s o n a n s ur ,
n o rre c e re s s o n r ,

i S t di s i
n u E ly V i c to i L i t t e ; b y M tth w A l d
e n ar r an e ra u r a e rn o .

A wm ’
e T xt U if m e d i ti
an . f im p t t w k e ( Lo d
s : 1 8 68 n or on ~
o or an or s n on ,

A p l gi ( L gm ) ; S l c ti s ( H l t R iv i d L i t t e
o o a on an s e e on o , e rs e e ra u r ,

L if J e i g C d i l N w m ; H tt C di l N w m ; E ly L ife
’ ’
e nn n s s ar na e an u on s ar na e an ar ,

b y F N wm .
; b y Wa ll r
e d B w i W e s tm i s t B i og ap h i e S e e a l s o
an e an a rro , n n er r s

Ch ch Th O xf d Mo v e m e t; F i t g e a l d s F if ty Y e a s f C a th li c L if e
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an d P ro g re s s .

C r tc ii i sm : E ssa y s, b y D on a l d s o n , in F iv e G re a t O xf o rd L e a d e rs ; b y
C h u rc h , i n O c c a s l P p e s l 2 ; b y G a t i Th i on a i i a r , vo . es, n re e S tu d e s i n L te ra
tu re ; by J c bs i L it y S t d i s ; b y H tt i Mo d m G i d
a o , n f E g e ra r u e u on , n e u es o n

li h Th g h t; b y L illy i E s y
s ou d S p e e c h e s ; b y S h ai rp i S t d ie s i , n sa s an , n u n

P e ty d P h il p h y S a l o H tt C a d i a l N w m
o r an oso . ee s u on s
’
r n e an .

R tt i Wo k
os s e 2 v ol s ( Lo d o
. S l c ti o r i G ld
s, T e as ry . n n, e e n s, n o en r u

S e ri L if
es .b y K i gh t ( G e a t Wri te r ) ; b y S h p ; H ll C a i e
e : n R c lle r s ar a n
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ti of D t G b i l R ti ; C y T h e R s s tti ; Ma i lli ti ;
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ae o n . . u
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ae s an e -
ae e ro r oo .

C ri ti c i s m Ti e b tti h i W k a d I fl E ay
’
k s R : r ce uc b y S w in oss e , s or n n ue n . ss s :

b u rn e i ,E ay s nd S t d ie s ; b y F ss m an i O L ivi g P e t ; b y P t
an i u or , n ur n o s a e r, n

W d E gli s h P oe t ; b y F W H My e i E s y M d m
ar
’
s n s . . . rs , n sa s o e .

AI o e Te x ts S to ry f th e G li tte ri
rr .

g P lai H e f th e Wo lfin g e tc
: o n n , o us o s, .

( R veee T r) ; E ly R o m e i E v ry m
s u rn e L i b a y ; S i g rd th e ar an c s, n e an s
’
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o u C m e l t S ri e s ; S c i li ti c w ri ti gs ( H m b o l d t P b li s h i n g
, n a o e o a s n u u

L ife b y Mac k i l ; b C a ry ; b Va ll a c
: a
y y n e ,

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s i S t di: i Tw o L i te ra t e s ; b y D w s o n
s, n s, n u es n ur a ,

i M k
n a f M de E g li s h ; b y S a i n ts b u ry i C
e rs o o ect e d Im p rn ss i n See n n o rr re o s .
,

l o N d b y s I n fl n c e of O ld N o rs e L i te ra t e
a s or
’
ue ur .

S wi b T x ts C m p l e t w k s ( C h a tto a d W i d ) ; P m s a d
n urne . e : o e or n n us oe n

Ba ll ad s ( L o v e ll ) ; S e l e c ti o s R ivi B e ll e L if e
( g to L e tt e S ri s n n n , s r s e e ,
:
W tis law A l g
ra C h a l e S wi b
’
s a S t dy e rn o n r s n u rn e , u .
 T H E V I C T O R I AN AG E 5 65

C ri ti c i s m : E s sa y s, b y F o r m an , Sa i n ts b u r y (s e e a b o v e ) ; b y L o w e ll , i n My
S tu d y Wi n d o w s ; se e a s o l S te d m a n
’
s V i c to r i P
an oe ts .

C/za r le : R e a d e . Te ts x : C l i t
o s e r and th e H e a rth , i n E v e ry m a n ’
s L b ra ri y;
v ri o
a us e d i ti on s of se p a ra te n ove ls . L if e : by C . R e ade .

C r tc ii i sm : E s sa y , by S wi n i ll i
b u rn e , i n M sc e an e s .

A i zt/zoi zy Tr ollop e . Te x ts : R o y l d i ti f p i i p a l v l ( P h il d l p h i
a e on o r nc no e s a e a,

B a rc h e s te r To we rs , e tc i E v y m a s L i b
.
, n y L if A t b i o g p h y
er n
’
ra r . e : u o ra

( Ha rp e r ,

C r tc ii i sm : H TP k I t d ti
. i ti l 1
. E y by ec
’
s n ro uc on to R o y l a ed on , vo . . ssa s :

H J am e s i
. o , n P ti l P t i t ; b y H i
i E ly V i t ri
ar a L i te t Se r ra s a rr s o n , n ar c o an ra u re . e

al soC os T h e D e v l o p m n t f th E g li s h N v l
r s, e e o e n o e .

C/ l tt
za r d E m i ly B o lé T e x t
e s anW k H w th e d i ti o e d i t d b y r on
'

. : or s, a or n, e

M s H W d ( Ha p e ) ; C m p l e te w k ( D t
r . . ar J e E y e Shi l y
r r o or s en , an r ,
r e ,

d W th i g H e i gh ts i E v y m a L ib y L ife o f C h l o tt B te ’
an u er n , n er n s ra r . ar e ro n :

by M G sk l l ; b y S h
rs . t ; b y Bi e l l ( G
a e t W it s) L ife f E m ily or e r rr re a r er . o

te b y R b i s o al L yl d s Th e B o te F m ily
’
B ro n : S o n n . ee so e an r n a .

C i ti c i m E
r y b y L S t p h e i H s i L ib ry ; b y G a te s i S t d i
s : ss a s, . e n, n o ur n a ra , n u es

an d A p p e c i ti s ; b y Ha i so
r i E ly V i c t i
a on L i t ra t b y G B S m i th rr n, n ar o r an e u re . .
,

i P d N v e li ts S e a l s o S wi b A N t C h l tte B te ’
n ts
oe an o s . e n u rn e s o e on ar o ro n .

B lw u Ly tt Te x ts W k
er -
K b w th e d i ti ( R tl d ge ) ; v i s
on . : or s, ne s or on ou e ar o u

e d iti s f s e p ate wo k ; L a t D a y s f P o m p ii tc i E v ry m
on o ar L ib y r s s o e , e .
, n e an s
’
ra r .

L if by h i s
e : th E a l f L y tt ; b y Cs on , p ; b y Te B ri k e r o on oo er n n .

C i ti i m E s y b y W S e i
r c s i E s y i F i c ti
: sa , . n o r, n s a s n on .

fl/ G k ll V i
rr . s e d it i s o f p te w k ; C a f d i S t d d
as e . ar ou on se a ra or s r n or , n an ar

E g li h C l a s i c s
n s tc L ife e D i ti s y of N a ti l B i og p h y C i ti c i m
,
e . :s e c on ar ona ra . r s :

S i tb y N i t th C t y L i te t e ’
see a n s ur s ne een -
en ur ra u r .

Te x t W o k s C h e t d i ti ; H y p ti a W s tw d H ! tc
'

l i g ly
i iz r e s . : r , s er e on a , e ar o e .
,

i E v ym L ib y L if L tt d M mo i b y h i s wif ; b y K a f m
’
n er an s ra r . e : e e rs a n e r es, e u an n .

C i ti i m E s y
r by H
c s i i E a ly V i t i a L i t a t e ; b y L S t
: sa s, a rr s o n , n r c or n er ur . e

ph e i H
n, i n L ib y o u rs n a ra r .

T x t W k ( S ib e ) ; T I s l a d in E v e ry m ’
St e v e n s on . e s : Li or s cr n r re as u re n , an s

b ra r
y ; M s t o f B ll t ai P k tCl
er i ; L e tt s d i t d b y C lvi a an ra e , n oc e as s c s er , e e o n

( S ri b
c ) L ife b y B lf
ner ; b y B il d
.
; by Bl k ; b y C fo d S e l s
: a our a on ac o rn r . e a o

S im p E d i b g h D y ; F ras e S t v e s o s S m o a ; O sb n e a d
’
I
’ ’
son s n ur a s r s n e n n a or n

St ro n
g Me m i s f Va ili m a
’
s or e o .

C i ti i m R a l e i gh S te v ; Ali B w s S t ve s ys b y H ’
E
’
r c s s : s en on ce ro n e n on . ssa : .

J am s i P ti l P ta i t ; b y C h p m
e , n ar i Emea a d Ot he E
or r y s a an , n rs o n n r ss a s .

H dy T x t \V k ( H p e ) C i ti c i m M c d n ll T h m a s H a d y ;
ar . e s : or s ar r . r s : a on e
’
s o r

J h
o Th e A t f T h m
n s on s
’
H d y S e a l s W i d l s Th We e x o f
r o o as ar . e o n e
’
e ss

Th o m H d y ; a d D w o s Ma k e f E g li h F i c ti
as ar n a s n
’
rs o n s on .

G g fli e dit
e or / T e x ts N v l a d S e l e te d P
e re m s ( S c ib e )
z . : o e s n c oe r n r .

C i ti c i m
r L e G lli e e s Ge
s
g: Me d i th ; H h Ly c h Ge g
a nn
’
or e re an n a n
’
s or e

M d i th
e re E s y s b y H e l y i V i e w s a d R e vi e w ; b y B w e ll i
. sa : Vi n e , n n s ro n ,
n c

t i
o r an P e M te ; b y M k h s i B k d P l y S e l B il y
ro s as rs on ou e, n oo s an a s . e a so a e
’
s

Th e N o v l f G ge M d i th ; C l
e s o A p ts f G o ge Me e d i th ; d
e or e re ur e s
’
s ec o e r r an

C Th D v e l p m E g li h N o v l
’
ro s s s t f th e e o en o e n s e .
5 66 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
S u gges ti v e Ques ti on s ( N O T E T h e b e st ue s ti o n s a re t h o s e w h i c h are
. . q
b a s e d u p o n th e b o o k s , e s s a y s a n d p o e m s re a d b y th e p u p il A s th e w o rk s ,
.

c h o s e n fo r s p e c i a l s tu d y v a ry g re a tly wi th d iffe re n t te a c h e rs an d c l as s e s , w e
i n s e rt h e re on ly a fe w q u e s to n si of g e n e ra l i n te re s t) . 1 . Wh a t a re th e c h i f
e

c h a ra c te r i s ti c s of V i c to r i
i e f w ri tan li te
f th e p ri o d
ra tu re ? N am e th e c h e rs o e

d p try W h tb o k f th i p e i d a e i y j d g m t w th y
'

i p n ro s e a n oe . a o s o s r o r , n our u en , or

t b o p l ce d am ag t h e g e a t w k f l
on i t a t ? \ Ve h a t e ff c t d id t
r h d i or s o er u re e e s

c i
ove r e s f i h o v p t h
sc e nc e li te a t e f th e a a
g e
? Wh t p o e t e fl c t
u on e r ur o e a r e s

t h w
e ne c p t i f l w
on c e d e v l ti ?on o W h th i t i c a l c d i ti s a o n t
a an o u on a s or on on cc u

f th
or f c t th
e t m a t f th V i c t a r i a w i t os a e t h i
o l te ac h
e e ? o n r e rs re ca rs

T 2
y G iv
en ne b i f
s on k t ch
. f T e y al i fe d r e m e h is c h i f
s e o nn son s
’
, an na e

wo k \
rY b y
s i. h lik e C h a c s ti e, l p t ? I s y r pl u e i ding
e r, a n a ona oe ou e as u r n re a

T y enn d e c h i
s on fly t th t
uh g h t o the e m e l o d y o f
o e x p r e s s
e i o ? N ot e t
ou h is r n

fi g e in Th e Lo t E t
ur os a e rs

Mu s ic th a tge n tlie r on th e i i tli sp r es

T h a n tre d i e y li d
e s u pon ti d y re e es .

Wh a td o e s th is fi g re s f p e e c h i g e a l ?
s u gg e s t c o n c e rn n g i Te n n y s on s
’
u o s n en r

C mp e o L c k l y H ll
ar wi th L k l y H l l S ix ty Y a s A ft
o s e a Wh t ”
oc s e a e r er .
”
a

d i ff d o y o fi d i th o g h t i w k m a h i p a d i p
e re n c e s u nti th s i as m ?
n u , n or ns , n n oe c en u

Wh a ti T ys o i d f f i th d i m m t li ty
s enn
’
n s xp ed i I [M m
ea o i m 9 a an or a as e re s s n n e or a .

B w i I w h t e c ts i B w i lik e Snh k e s e a re ? Wh a t i s re s s n n a
3 .
g ro p n n .
g p a ro

tb y th p ti m i m f h i po ty C x p l i w h y m y th gh tf l ?
m e an e o
y s o s e r an ou e a n an ou u

p p
e rs o n s f h i m t T e yre ? er \Vh a t i s B w i g s c e d o s xp s e d i nn s on ro n n
’
r e a e re s n

R bb i Bea E R d F a L i pp
n L ip p i
z ra
” ” ?
r A d e a d l S art a d ea r o o n r e o,
”
n

te ll w h t i m e a tb y a d m a ti c m
s l g n I A d a wh at is m e an tb y
a ra ono o ue . n n re

th e li s ne ,

Ah b t m h h ld x d h i g p ,
u a
’
a n s re ac s ou e ce e s ras ,

O wh t h v f ? r a
’
s a ea en or

4 D i c ke n s . . Wh a t e x p e ri e n c e s in D i k
c e ns s
’
lif e a re re fl e c te d ve ls ? i n h is no

Wh ata re h is f v i t typ
a or e e s of c h a ra c te r ? Wh a t i s m e an tb y th e e x a gg ra ti e on

of D ic k e ns ? Wh a t w a s th e s e ri o u s p u rp o s e of h is no ve ls ? M k a b i f a e r e

ana ly i s s of h e Ta le
t o
f Tw o C i ties , h a vi n g in m i nd he p
t l o t th , e c h a ra c t
e rs , an d

th e tyl p a re d th D c e n s s o th e r n o e s wi i k v l
’
s e , as c o m .

5 T h a c k
. e r a
y R e a d l i e n ry E s m on d a n d e p a n Th a c e ra s re a s m
.
’
x l i k y li .

k l
is th e re re m a r a b e i n th e s t e o f th s n o e ? C o m are i t th I v a n /roe
p yl i v l wi
as a h s t o ca
r no ei i l v l
\Vh a t is th e ge n e ra c h a ra c te r o f h a c e ra s s a tre ?
.
’
l T k y i
i f
\Vh a t a re th e c h e c h a rac te ri s tc s o f h is n o e s ? D e s c r b e b r e th e or s i v l i i fly w k
w i
h c h sh o h is g re a ts w kill
a s a c r tc a r ter ii lwi .

6
Ge org e E li ot R e a d S i la s Ill a r n e r a n d m a e a b r e an a s s , h a n g i n
. . k i f ly i vi
i l
m n d th e p o t, th e c h a rac te rs , th e s t e a n d th e e t
, h c a te a c h n g o f th e n o e yl i l i v l .

I s th e m o ra te ac h n o f G e o r e E o t c o n n c n
l i li vi i
g g g ; th a t i s , d o e s i t s u g ge s ti t
self f ro m th e stor y , or i s i tad d e d f o r e f f e c t? Vth a t is th e ge n e ra
’
l im p re s s o n i
l ft b y
e h e r b oo k s ? Ho w d o h e r c h arac te rs c o m p are th th o s e wi of D ic k e n s
an d T h ac k e ra y?
 5 68 E NG LISH L IT E R ATU R E
C HR O N0 LOGY
M n et
ee n t/z C e n tu ry

H I STO R Y L I T E R AT U R E
1 825Ma c a u l ay s E s s a y o n M il to n
.
’

1 8 26 M rs B ro wn i n g s e a rly p o e m s
. .
’

1 830 . W illi a m IV 1 830 y . P m s C h i fl y

Te nn son
’
s oe , e

1 83 2 . Re f o rm B ill L y ic al r

83 3 B w i g s P li e ’
1 . ro n n au n

1 83 3 1 83 4 C lyl s S
’
—
t R s t . ar e ar or e ar us

8 3 6— 1 86 5 D i c k v ls ’
1 . e ns s n o e

1 83 7 . V i c to r i a
(d . I 90 1 ) 1 83 7 C lyl . F ch R v l t
ar i e s
’
re n e o u on

1 84 3 . Ma c a u l a y ’
s e ssa y s

1 84 4 . Mo rs e ’
s Te l e
g ra p h 1 84
3
-
1 860 . R us ki n s
’
Mo d e rn P i a n te rs
1 84 6 . R e pe al
1 8 47 —1 859 . Th a c k e ra y ’
s im p o rtan t

no ve l s

1 84 7 — 185 7 . C h ar l otte B ro n te
’
s no v l e s

1 848 —1 86 1 . Mac a u l a y ’
s H i s to ry
1 853 . Ki n gs e l y ’
s H yp a t
'

M rs G as k e ll s C ra n fo rd ’

Wa r
.

1 854 . C r m e an i
1 85 3 —
1 85 5 . Ma tth e w A rn o ld ’

poe m s s

1 856 M rs B ro w n i n g
.
’
s A u ro ra L e
gh i
I di
.

1 85 7 . n an M u ti n y
85 8— 1 8 7 6 G e o rg e E li o ts ve l
’
1 . no s

1 85 9 —1 8 88 . Te n n y son s
’
I d yll s of th e
Ki n
g
85 9 . Dar wi n s
’
O r g n Of S pe c i i i es

1 864 . N e wm an s A p o lo i
’

g
T y
e nn son s
’
E n oc h A rd e n

1 8 65 — 1 888 . Am o ld s
'

E ss a y s i n C ri ti
1 86 7 . Dom i i
n on of C a n ad a e stab c is m

lis h e d
1 868 . w i
B ro n ng s
’
R i n
g an d th e B o o k
8 69 Bl km L o rn a D o on e
’
1 . ac o re s
1 870 . Go v e rn m ent sc h o o s l estab

h sh e d
1 879 . M e re d i th ’
s Th e E g o is t
1 88 0 . G l ad s ton e
pr m e m i i i
n ster

1 88 3 . S te v e n s on s
’
Tre as u re Il s an d

1 88
5 . R us ki n s
’
P rae te ri ta b e g u
1 88 7 .
Q ue e n
’
s j ub il e e
1 8 89 . B ro w i n ng s
’
l as t w k A l or , s o an d o
1 90 1 . Ed wa rd VI I
1 892 . D e a th of Te n n y son
 G E N E R A L B I B L I O G R A P HY

E v e ry book i n c l u d e s two l i s ts on e of s e l e c te d re ad
c h ap ter in th is ,

i n gs th e oth e r of s p e c i a l w orks tre ati n g of th e h i story an d l i te ratu re of

,

th e p e ri od u n d e r c on s i d e rati on Th e fo ll o w i n g l i s ts i n c l u d e th e b o o k s
.

m os tu s e fu l fo r ge n e ra l r e f e re n c e w o rk an d fo r s u pp le m e n t a ry re adi n
g .

A k n o wl e d ge of h i st o ry i s of gre at advan t age in t h e s tud y of lit

e ra t ure I n e ac h of th e p re c e d i n g c h a p te rs w e h av e giv e n a b ri e f
.

s u m m ary of h i st o ri c a l e v e n t
s an d so ci al c on d i t ion s b u t th e s tud e n t ,

s h o u l d d o m o re t h an s i m p l y re a d th e se su m m ar i e s H e sh ou l d re vi e w .

rap id l y t h e w h o l e h i s to ry o f e a c h p e ri od b y m e an s o f a good te x t
book M on tgom e ry s E ng lis /z H is to y an d C h e y n e y s S /zor tf is tory
.
’
r
’ ’
z

of E ng la n d a re re c o m m e n d e d b u t an y o th e r re l i a b l e te x tbook w i l l
,
-

v
se r e th e p u rp o se .

F o r l te ra r te ts i y x an d s e e c l i
ton s for re a d in g a f e w ge n e ra l c o l l e e
i
ton s , s u c h a s a re g iv e n b e l o w , are f l
u se u ; b u t th e m po rt i
an t w o rk s

of e a c h h or
au t b tai n e d in x
m ay n ow be i xo iv e c e l l e n t an d ne
pen s e
sc h ool e d i t i on s At th e b e gi n n i n g of th e c ou rse th e te ac h e r o r th e
.
,

h o m e s tu d e n t s h ou l d w ri te fo r th e l a te st c a ta l ogu e of su c h p u b l ic a
,

ti on s as th e S t an d a rd E n gl i s h C l as s i c s E v e rym an s L ib rary e t
’

c , , .
,

wh i c h O ff e r a v e ry w id e ran ge Of re adi n g a tsm a l l c o st N e ar l y e v e ry .

p u b l i sh i n g h ou s e i ssu e s a s e ri e s of good E n g l i s h book s fo r s c h ool

u se , an d t h e l i st is c o n stan tly i n c re as i n g .

His to ry

Te x tl ooks M on tgom e ry s E n gl i sh H i story ; C h e y n e y s S h o rt

-
:
’ ’

Hi sto ry of E n gl an d ( Gi n n an d C om p an y ) .

G e n e r a l Wo k s G re e n s S h ort Hi s to ry o f th e E n gl i sh P e o p l e
’
r : ,

I v ol o r A H i story of th e E n gl i sh P e op l e 4 vo l s ( Am e ric an
.
, , .

B ook
Tra ill s S oc i a l E n gl an d 6 vo l s ( P u tn a m )
’
.
, .

B ri gh ts H i s to ry o f E n gl an d 5 vo l s an d G ardi n e r s S tu d e n ts
’ ’ ’
.
, ,

Hi sto ry of E n gl an d ( Lo n gm an s) .

G ib b in s s I n d u stri a l Hi s to ry o f E n glan d an d Mi tc h e l l s E n gl i sh
’ ’
,

L an d s L e tte rs an d K i n gs 5 v o l s ( S c ribn e r )
, , , . .

5 69
5 7o E N GLIS H L IT E R ATU R E

O xfo rd M an u al s
is h H i s tory H an d bo ok s of E n gl i sh H is
of E n gl ,

o ry a n d K e n d a l l s S o
t ,
c e B o ok o f E n gl i s h H i s to y
( Ma c m i l l a n )
’
ur r .

L i n ga d s Hi s to ry o f E n g l a n d u n ti l 1 6 8 8 ( re vi s e d I o vo l s 1 8 5 5 )
’
r
-
, .
,

is th e s tan d ard C a th o l i h i s to ry c .

O th e r h i sto ri e s of E n gl an d a re by K n i gh t F rou d e Mac au l a y e tc , , , .

S p e c i a l w o ks on th e h i s t o ry o f e ac h p e r i od ar e r e c o m m e n d e d in
r

h e p re c e d in g
t c h ap t
e rs .

His tory o f L ite ra tu re

J u ss e ra n d s ’
i
L te ra r y Hi sto ry Of th e E n gl i s h Pe o p l e , 2 vo l s .

( P utn am
) .

Te n B ri n k
’
s E a rl y E n gl i sh
L te ratu re , 3 i vo l s ( H o l t) . .

C o u rth o p e H i s tory ’
s o f E n gl i s h P o e tr
( y Mac m i l l an ) .

Th e C a m b rid ge H i sto ry of E n gl i sh L i te ra tu r e m an y v o l s , .
,
in c o m

p le te ( P u tn am ) .

H an d book s of E n gl i sh L i te ratu re 9 v o l s ( M ac m i l l an ) , . .

G a rn e tt an d G osse s I l l ustra te d H i sto ry of E n gl i sh L i te ra tu re ’

,

4 v o l s ( Ma c m il l a n )
. .

Mo rl e y s E n gl i s h Wri te rs I I v o l s ( C ass e l l ) e x te n d s th rou gh

’

,
.
,

E l i zabe t h an l i te ra tu re I t is rath e r c o m p l e x an d n ot u p to d ate .

,

b u th as m a n y q u o tati on s f o m a u th o rs s tu d i e d r .

Ta i n e s E n gli sh L i te ratu re ( m an y e d i ti on s ) is b ri l l i an tan d i n te r

’

e st i n g b u t u n re l i a b l e
, .

L ite ra ry Critic is m

Lo w e l l
’
s L i te ra r y E s sa y s .

Ha z litts L e c tu re s th e E n gl i s h P oe ts
’
on .

Mac k a il s Th e S p ri n gs ’
0 f H e l i c on ( a stu d y of E n gl i sh p oe tr y f ro m
C h auc e r to Mi l ton ) .

D ow d e n s St ud ie s in L i te ra tu re , T ran sc ri p ts
’
d D ow d e n an d
’
an s

S tud ie s .

M i n to s C h a ac te ri s ti c s o f E n gl i sh P oe ts
’
r .

M atth e w A n o l d s E ssa y s in C ri ti c i sm r
’
.

St e v e n s o n s F a m il i a r S tu d i e s in M e n a n d ks
’
B oo .

L e s l i e S te p h e n s H o u rs in a L i b ra ry ’
.

B i rre l l s Obi te r D i c ta
’
.

H ale s s F o li a L i te rari a
’
.

Pa te r s Ap p re c i a ti on s
’
.

N OT E . S pec i l w k
a or s on c ri tc s m i i , th e d ra m a , th e no v l e , e t
c .
,
wil l be
f o un d i n th e B i b li g p h i o ra es on
p p 9,. 1 81, e tc .
5 72 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
We stm i n s te r B i ograp h i e s ( S m al l M a y n a rd ) ,
.

H i n c h m an an d G u m m e re s L i v e s of G re at E n gl ish Wri te rs ’

( H o u gh t on M ifli in
) i s a go od s i n gl e v o l u m e
,
a i n in g t
c on t h i rty e i gh t ,
-

b i ograp h i e s .

N OT E F r th b tb i g p h i f i d ivi d l w i t
. o e es th B i b li g p h i e s
o ra es o n ua r e rs , s e e e o ra

a t th e d
en f th p di g h pt
s o e re c e n c a e rs .

S e le c tion s

M an ly i sh Po e try an d Man l y s E n gl i sh P rose ( Gi n n an d

’
s E n gl
’

C o m pa n y ) a re th e b e s ts i n gl e vo l u m e c o l l e c ti o n s c ov e ri n g th e w h o l e
-
,

fi e l d of E n gl i s h l i te ratu re .

Pan c oas ts S tan d ard E n gli sh Poe try an d Pan c oasts S tan d ard
’

,
’

E n gl i sh P rose ( H o l t ) .

O xfo rd B ook o f E n gl i s h Ve rs e a n d O x fo rd T re as u ry o f E n gl i sh ,

L ite ra tu re 3 v ol s ( C l a re n d on P re s s )
,
. .

Page s Bri ti sh Po e ts Of th e N i n e te e n th C e n tu ry ( S an b o rn )
’
.

S te d m an s V i c tori an An th ology ( H ou gh ton M iflflin )

’

, .

Wa rd s E n gl i s h P oe ts 4 v ols ; C ra ik s E n gl i s h P ros e S e l e c ti on s
’
, .
’

5 v o l s ; C h am b e rs s E n c y c l op e di a of E n gl i sh L i te ratu re e tc
’
.
, .

Misc e lla ne ous

Th e C l ass i c M y th s
in E n gl i s h L i te ratu re ( Gi n n an d C o m p an y) .

Ad am s
’
s i
D c ti o n a ry of E n g l sh L ite ra tu re i .

R y l an d C h ro n o l o gi c a l Ou tl i n e s E n gl i sh L i te ra tu re
’
s of .

B re w e r H an db ook
’
s R e ad e r
’
s .

a s H a n d book of U n iv e rsa l L i t
’
B o tt e ra tu re .

P loe tz s E p itom e of U n ive rsa l Hi s to ry

’
.

H u tton s Li te rary L an d m ark s of Lon d on

’
.

He yd r ic k s How to S tu d y L i te ra tu re
’
.

F or w o rk s o n th e E n gl i sh l an gu age s e e Bi b l i ograp h y of th e
N o m an p e ri od p 6 5
r
, . .
 IN DE X

K E Y TO P R O N U N C I A TI O N
a, as f
i n a te ; s, as i n fa t; a, a s i n a r m ; a , a s i n a ll ; a , a s i n h a t; a, a s i n c a re w
6, a s i n m e t e ; e, a s i n m e t; 6, a s i n t h e re
i , a s i n i c e ; , a s I n i t; I
a s i n m ac h n e i
v
6 , a s i n o ld ; 6 , a s i n n ot; 9 , a s i n m o e ; 0 , as i n s o n ; 6 , a s i n h o rse ; 0 0 , a s i n f
ood ;
6 6, as i n oot f
u, a s i n u s e ; ii , a s i n u p ; (i , a s i n f u r ; u , a s i n ru e ; u , a s i n p u l ll
y , as
in fly
; 9, a s i n b a b y
c , a s i n ca ll i
; g, a s i n m ce ; c h , a s i n c h d ; e h , as i n s c h oo il l
g , a s i n go ; g, a s i n c a ge
5 , a s i n sa w
; s, a s i n 1 3
i
th , a s i n th n ; th , a s i n th e n
x,
a s i n v e x ; x, a s i n e a c t x
N OT E . T te s il of k
b oo s, p oe m s , e s sa y s, e tc .
,
a re in i t li
a cs .

A bs a lom a n d A c fl i t o /ze l
p ( a c h to f e l) , -
i ’
-
A g l th
n e s, e, 2
3
24 6 A gl N m
n o -
or an P i e r od , 46 ; li t
e ra tu re ,

A li t Vog le r ( ap t v Og le r) , 4 7 7
’

4 9, b a ads, 6 1
52 ; r cs ll
62 ; ly i ,

A ct o rs , in e a r p a s , 1 1 9 ; E za ly l y li s u m m a r , 63 ; y
s e e c to n s f o r r e a d l i
b e th a n , 1 2 9 i n g, 64 ; b b o g ra p h , 64 ; i li
ue s y q
A id d s on , 2 7 8 ; e , 279 ; l if
o r s , 28 1 ; w k i
to n s o n , 6 5 ; c h ro n o o g , 66 l y
y
h m n s , 28 3 ; n u e n c e , 2 7 9 ; s t e , i fl yl A ng lo S a x on C/i r on i c le , 2 8 , 4 5 , 4 8
28 2 A l
ng o S a on -
x
e r od , 1 0 ; e ar P i
p o e tr , ly y
A d on a i s ( a d O 4 1 7 , 4 24 -
1 0 2 4 ; s p r n gs o f p o e t
-
i
r , 2 6 ; lan y
f E s c ( e sk ) , 2 8 g gu a e , 2 7 ; C h r s ta n r te rs , 3 0 —
41 i i wi
Ai dan , S t 31 . s o u rc e b o o s , 3 9 ; s um m ar , 4 2 ; k y
A id s to R efl e c tion 3 93 , l
s e e c to n s i
f o r r e a d n g, 4 3 ; b ib li i
A la s tor ( a las tOr) , 4 1 5 - -
o ra h ,
g p y 43 ; u e s ton s on , 44 ; q i
A lc h e m is t, T/ze , 1 6 1 l y
c h ro n o o g , 4
5
, 2 4 6,
A le x a n d e r s F e a s t 24 8
’
A l x
n g o S a on s , 6 -
th e n a m e , 2 3 ; e, lif
Af l re d , g 39 ;
n , Ki e a n d tm e s , 4 0 ; lif i 24 25 ; l g g 2 7 ; li t
, an ua e, e ra tu re ,

w ks or , 40 , 41 A gl S x o P i od
see n o -
a n er .

A ll f or L ov e 2 4 5 , 2 4 6 , A n n u s M i r a b i li s , 2 4 4 , 2 48
A ly s ou n , o r Alis o u n ( al ys o w n o r :
’
11
"
A n se lm , 5 1

z o o n , o ld
) o rm o f c e , 63 f A li Ap olog i a , e N w
m an s , 5 5 3 , 5 5 5
’

A m e li a , 3 5 4 Ap olog i e f or P oe tr i e , 1 4 I
A m e r i c a n Ta x a tion , B u r e s s p e e c h
’
k A r c a di a , 1 1 3 , 3 4 2
’
A r e op ag i tic a ( ar é Op a j i ti c a) , 2 1 3
’
on
3 oo
- - - -
,

A n E p ist le , 4 7 6 A rn o d , M a t l th e 4 8 6, 5 4 5 ; f e , 5 4 5 w , li
A n a tom y of M e la n c /zoly , 2 2 8 p o e tr , 5 4 7 y p ro s e r wo k s , 5 50 ;
A n c r e n R i w le ( an gk re n r9 1) , 60
’
c h a ra c te ri s tc s ,
551 i
A n d r ea d e l S a r to ( an d ra a d e l
’
-
y '

fi ii
A rt, d e n to n of , 2
4 76 rtA i
h u r an ro m an c e s , 5 6, 5 7
A n d r ea s , 3 8 A i i
r ts tc i
p e r o d o f d ra m a , 1 2 3
A n ge n , 2l 3 A i i q li y
rts tc ua t o f te ra tu re , li 2

5 73
5 74 E NG LI S H L IT E R ATU R E
A sc h a m, R og
e r, 9 2 B ab e of tlze D u c t ze ss e , 7 3 , 8 0
’

A s s o n an c e , 5 4 , 5 5
B ook of M a r t y rs, 1 76
A s tr a a R e d u x ( as tre a r é d u k s ) , 2 4 4 B or on g /z, T/ze , 3 3 4
’ ’
-

A s tr op /ze l a n d S te lla ( as trO fe l) , 1 1 4

’
- w ll J
B o s e , a m e s , 2 93 S e e a ls o o h n s o n . J
At a la n ta i n Ca ly d on ( at a i k l ’
B o y ac to rs , l 3 o
d On ) 4 8 6 ,
B re to n , Ni
c h o as , 1 9 2l
A ugus tan A ge , m e an i gn , 2 63 . S ee l
B ro n te, C h a r o tte a n d E m , 5 1 4 ily
i
E g h te e n th c e n tu ry e ra t u re -
li t w
B ro n e , T h o m a s , 2 2 8 o r s , 2 29
'
w k
A n r or a L a g /z ( a rO ra lé ) , 4 8 3
’
- w i
B ro n n g, M rs I zab e t .h B a r re tt,
A us te n, J an e , 3 7 5 , 4’ 3 7 ; lif e, 438 ; 4 83
-

no v l e s, 4 39 ; S c o tts c r i ti i
c sm of, w i
B ro n n g, R o b e rt, 4 69 ; e, 47 1 lif
439
w kor s , 47
3 ; o b s c u r t o f , 4 69 ; as iy
a te a c h e r, 4 7 0 ; c o m p a re d th wi
B a c o n , F ran c i s, 1 66 ; lif e , 1 67 ; wo k r s, k
S h a e s p e a re , 4 7 4 ; w th T e n n s o n , i y
1 70 ; pl ac e a n d i fl n ue n c e , 1 73 4 80 ; p e r o d s o fi or , 47
.
w k
5 ; so u l
B a c o n , R o g e r, 5 1 , 1 7 3 st ud es, i l
4 7 6 ; p ac e a n d m e s s a ge ,
ll
B a a d th e , 6 1 , 5 2 4 4 80
q
,

B a lla d s a n d S on n e t s , 484
’
B r u t, L a ya m o n s , 5 3 ; u o ta to n ro m , i f
e r Tow e r s , 5 1 4
B a r e /te s t s4
B a r d , T/i e 3 1 0 ,
ll f
B rti tu s , a e ge d o u n d e r o f B r ta n , 5 1 i i
B a r d of Me D zm bov ztz a ( d i m b 0 -
Bu lwer L t y
to n , 5 1 5
v it
’
z a) , R o u m a n a n o s o n s , 2—
g 3 i f lk y J
B un an , o h n , 2 1 9 ; e, 219 ; or s, lif w k
B at tle of Ag i n c ou r t ( E n g s h , aj n
’
li i 2 2 4 ; h is s t e , 2 2 6yl
k ort) , 1 1 5 k
B u r e , E dm un d , 297 e , 297 ; or s, lif w k
B a tt le of B r u n a n b n r /z, 4 1 2 98 ; a n a ly i
s s o f h i s o ra t o n s ,
30 0 i
le of Me B ook s , 2 7 1 y ( Ma d a m e D A rb lay) ,
y ’
B a tt B u rn e , F a n n
x
B a te r, R c h a rd , 2 3 0 i 375
B e a u m o n t, F ra n c s 1 63 i B u rn s , R o b e rt, 3 2 1 e, 2 2 ; p oe tr , l if y
B ec k e t, 4 63
lyl
3 2 5 ; C ar e s e s s a o n , 5 3 N
’
y
Be d e , 3 1 h is h s to r , 2 ; h is a c c o u n t i y B u rto n , R o b e rt, 2 2 8
o f C ae d m o n ,
33 l
B u te r, S a m u e , 2 5 o l
B e lls a n d P om eg r a n a t es , 4 7 2 , 4 7 5 y
B ro n , 4 0 5 ; lif
e , 40 6 ; w or s , 40 8 ; k
fi
B e n e t o f c e rg , 1 5 9 l y c o m p a re d wi
th S c o tt, 4 1 0
u ), t h e p o e m w lf
-
, 1 0 —1 6
;
i y
h s to r , 1 7 ; p o e tc a o rm , 1 7 ; i l f C ae d m o n e,
33 ; lif
o r s, w k
m a n u s c r p to f , 3 9 i 3 4 ; h i s P a r ap /zr a s e , 3 4 ; s c h o o o f , l
Be o uw lf ’
s Mo u n t 1 5 6
i
,

i li i
B b o g ra p h e s , s tu d o f te ra tu re , 9 ; y li Ca n , 4 0 9
A l
n g o S a on e r od
-
x
43 ; P i
o rm a n , , N Ca lli s ta , 5 5 6
64 ; C h a u c e r, 8 6 ; R e a o f L e a rn viv l lv i l y
C a e r t, R a s e , 3 8 0
i n g 9 7 ; E z ab e th an , 1 8 1
, li ur P i C am d e n , W illi
am , 2 4 , 1 7 7
ta n , 2 3 3 ; R e s to ra to n , 2 5 6 ; E gh t i i C a m p a ign , l e , 28 0
eent h c e n tu r , 3 6o ; R o m a n tc s m , y i i i
C a m p o n , Th o m a s , 1 9 2
i
4 4 4 ; V c to r an 5 6 2 ; g e n e ra , 5 6 9 i , l Ca n te r b u ry Ta le s , 7 4 ; p a n o f 7 5 ; l ,

B tc l e r s t fl A lm a n ac , 2 7 3 l y i i
'
r
p ro o g u e , 7 7 ; D r d e n s c ri tc s m
’ ’
a

B i og r ap / ua L i t er a r i a ,
3 93 o f, 7 7

l k
B ac m o re , R c h a rd , 1 6
5 i C a n yn g e s c o f e r , 3 3 6
’
f
B a e, W
l k am , 3 28 ; illi e, lif w k w
C a re , Th o m as 20 0
3 29 ; or s, ,

33 ' C ar lyl
e,
5 27 ; e,
5 27 ;lif or s,
5 30 ; w k
B anl kv e rs e , 9
5 yl
s t e an d m e s s a e ,
g 5 36
B le s s e d D a m oz e l, 4 8 4 l
C a ro s i n e a r
, ly l y
p a s , 1 20
B loti n til e ’ S c n t c li e on , A ,
47 5 Ca s a G n i d i H i n d ow s ( a s a gw é d é ) ,
/
’ ’
k
i
B o e th u s ( b O e’ th u s , 4 1
) -
i -

4 83
il
B o e au (b wa F re n c h c r tc , ii 24 2, Ca s te ll of P e r s e v e r a n c e , 1 2 2
262 Ca s tle of I n d ole n c e , 3 3 3
5 76 E NG L I S H L IT E R AT U R E
D i ct i on a ry , o h n s o n s , 29 1 J ’
a n d s u c c e s s o rs , 1 5 6 ; p ro s e w fi ge rs ,
D i sc ov e r i e of G w a n a ( gé 1 75 1 66 ; s u m m a ry 1 79 ; se le c tion s ,
q
,

1 8 0 ; b i b li o g ra p h y io n s ,
’

D i v i n a C om m e d i a ( d é v é n a k o m 181 ; uest
-
,

’
m ade a) , 2 1 7
D r j e hy ll a n d t
.
l/ r Hy d e , 5 1 9
D o m e s tc d ra m a , 1 3 6
1 8 3 ; c h ro n o l o g y , 1 8
-
5
. E n dy m i on , 4 21
i E ri /i s h B a r d s
g an d S c ot
c h R ev i e w e r s ,

J
D o n n e , o h n , 1 9 4 ; h is p o e tr , 1 9 5 y 406
D o th e b o ys Ha ( d o th e b o s ) , 4 8 8 ll - -
y E n g li s h H u m or i s ts , 4 0 9 , 5 0 2
D ra m a , i n E z a b e th a n A ge , 1 0 1 li
o ri E ng li s h l ay /s , 4 66
'

g in 1 1 5 ; p e r o d s o f, 1 1 6 ,
. i ’
E o rm a n ric ( é o r m a n r ic ) , 1 8- -

i
m ra c e a n d m s te r l p a s 1 17 ; y y l y , E p i c ic n e
’

( é p i s en ) , o r Th e -
S i le n t
nti l
e r u d e s , 1 2 2 ; c as s c a n ue n c e l i l i fl Wom a n , 1 61
o n , 1 26 ; u n t e s , 1 2 6 ; t h e E ng sh , ii li E p it h a la m i u m ( ép i th a a m i u m ) , 1 0 9 - - -
l ’
-

y
1 2 7 ; t p e s o f , 1 3 5 ; d e c n e o f, 1 5 6 li . E ra s m u s , 9 3
S e e a ls o E z ab e th an A g e , S h a e li k E s s ay c on c e r n i ng Hu m an Un der
s
p e a re , J on s on , Ma rl o w e ,
e t
c . st a n d i ng 25 2 ,

D ra m a tc u n te s , 1 26 i ii E s s ay o f D r a m a tic P oe sy , 2 4 9
i
D ra m a ts ts , m e th o d s o f , 1 3 1 S ee . E s s ay on B u r n s , 5 3 N
k
S h a e s p e a re , Ma r o e , e tc l w . E s say on C r i t i c i s m , 2 66
E s s ay on h l a n , 2 68
’
D r ap i e r s L e t
ter s , 2 7 7

y
D ra to n , M c h a e , 1 1 4 i l E s s ay on t l/ i lton , 5 2 2 , 5 2 3 5 2 6 ,

D r e a m of Ge r on tiu s , Th e ( jé rOn s h i
’
-
E s s ay s , A i
d d s o n s , 28 1
’
Ba c o n s , 1 7 1
’

us ) 555
5 57
. . E s s ay s i n C r i ti c i s m , 5 4 7 , 5 5 0
D ry d e n 2 4 3 ; l i fe , w k ’
246 ;
.

, 24
3 ; or s, E s s ay s of E /i a ( é li a) , 4 3 o -

i n fl ue n c e , 24 8, 24 9 ; i ti i
cr c sm of E th i c s of t h e D ust , 5 4 1

Ca n te r bu ry T ale s , 7 6 E up h u e s a n d e u p h u s m ( fi f tt é z ) , 1 3 0
’
i ‘

D u c h e s s of M a lfi 1 64 v
E a n s , Ma r A n n y S e e G e o rge E o t
. li
D u n c i a d , Th e ( d u n s i a d ) , 2 69
’
-
v ly
E e n, oh n, 25 2 J
E v e r la s tin g AL0 , a n d Ye a , Th e , 5 2 9
E a lh i ld , u e e n ( é 18 q E v e ry M a n i n f /i s H u m ou r , 1 60
E a r th ly P a r a d i s e 4 8 5 . E v e ry m a n , 1 2 1
E a s tw a r d H o 1 5 8 E x c u r s i on , Th e , 3 86
i
E c o n o m c c o n d to n s , i n Ag e ii of R0 E x et e r B ooh ,
39
m a n tc i i s m, 37 1
w
E d g e o rth , Ma ri a , 3 7 5 , 4 3 7 F a b e r, F r e d e r c , 4 8 6 i k
E dw a r d I ! , 1 3 4 y
F a ble s , D r d e n s , 2 4 6
’

E g oi s t, Th e , 5 1 8 F a e ry Qu e e n , 1 0 4 , 1 0 5
i
E g h te e n th C e n tu r L te ra tu re : h is
-
y i F a ll of P r i n c e s , 1 1 3
to r of t y h e pe r od, 2 5 8 ; te ra ry i li f
F a u s t ( o u s t) , F a u s tu s 1 33
c h a ra c te r s tc s , 2 60 ; i i
th e C a s s c l i F e r r e x a n d P or r e x , 1 1 3 , 1 2 5
A ge 2 6 1 ; , u us t
g an r t A
e rs , 2 64 ; wi i l i
F e d n g, 3 5 3 ; n o e s , 3 5 3 ; c h a rac v l
ro m a n tc re a i
3 0 4 ; th e viv l
rs t , fi te ri s ti c s , 3 5 4
v li
no e st s , 3 38 ; s um m a r ,
3 5 7 ; se y F i gh ta t F i n n s bu rg h , 2 2
l i
e c to n s f o r re a d n
g 3 5 9 ; b b og i i li ’
R e g a l ( fin s g a ll. 3 3 5
q
,

ra p h ,
y 3 60 ; u e s to n s ,
3 64 ; c h ro i i f li
F rs t o o S h a e s p e a re , 1 4 8
-
k
n o lo
gy , 3 6 7 l
F e tc h e r, G e s , 1 9 2 il
E i h on B a s i li h e ( o n b ii s
’
i k é ) , 20 7 ik '
-
il -
l
F e tc h e r, o h n , 1 63 J
E i k o n o k las te s ( i k o n O 20 7 - -
J
F o rd , o h n , 1 6 5
E legy , G ra s , 3 0 7 , 3 0 9
’
y li
F o rm a s m , 2 4 1
E le n e , 3 8 F ou r Ge org e s , Th e , 4 99 , 5 0 3
l
E iz ab e th a n Ag e : h s to r ,
99 ; n on i y x J
F o e , oh n , 1 76
d ra m a tc p o e ts , i
10 1, 1 1 2 ; rs t fi F r ag m e n t s of A n c i e n tP oe try ,
334
d ra m a ts ts , 1
1 5 ; i
S h a e s p e a re s ’
k i fl
F re n c h n u e n c e i n R e s to ra to n te ra i li
p re d e c e s s o rs , 1 0 ;
3’ S h a e s p e a re , k tu re , 2
38
1 37 k
S h a e s p e a re s c o n te m p o ra r e s i F re n c h la n gu a
g e in E n g l an d, 47
 I N DE X 5 77

F re n c h R e v o l ti u on , i fl n uenc e o f,
3 70 , H e yw o o d J o h n 1 2 2 , 1 2 3 , ,

3 72 H e yw o o d T h o m as 1 64 , ,

F r e n c h R e v olu tion , C a r lyl e s,

’

5 34 H il d a a b b e s s 3 3
, ,

ll
F u e r , T h o m as , 2 2 9 H i ld g un d 22
H i s to ri c a l n o v e l 4 0 2 ,

Ga m m e r G i i r ton s N e e d le , 1 2 4
’
H i s tory of E ng la n d Mac a u l a y
, ,
’
s,
5 22,
k ll
G a s e , M rs E z ab e th , 5 1 6 . li 5 25 ; f
o F r e d e r ic h
Gr e a t, C a r he
t
Ga wa i n a n d th e Gr ee n A n i g /i t ( g a
’ ’

lyle s,
’
5 3
’
0,
5 3 4 ; of H e n ry VI I I ,
w an ) ’ 5 7 ! 3 4 2 B ac o n s , 1 7 3 ; of th e R efor m a ti on i n
w i
G a a n c c e o f ro m an c e s , 5 7 y l S c otla n d , no
’
s, 1 7 7 o t K x
f h e Wor ld ,
Ge b i r 440 , 44 1 l i
R a e gh s , 1 7 5
’

ff y
G e o re o f Mo n m o u th 4 8, 5 1 H n ae f ( n ef ) , 2 2
G e o rg e E o t, 5 0 4 ; li
e , 50 5 ; or s, lif w k H o b b e s , Th o m a s , 2 5 1
5 0 8 ; c h a ra c te r s tc s , 5 0 9 ; a s a i i l f
H o o e rn e s ( h o l O i n j u d ith , -

m o ra li st 6
5
g
, 1o

G e s t ( or j e s t) b o o s , 5 6 k H ly a n d P r of a n e S ta te , 2 2 9
Ge s te of R obi n H ood , 5 6, 6 1 H oly L i v i n g , 2 3 0
i
G b b o n , 3 0 2 ; h i s h s to r , 3 0 3 i y H oly Wa r , 2 2 6
G if ts o
f G od , Th e , 1 99 H om e r , C h a p m a n s , 1 1 4 ; D r d e n ’ s ,
’
y
i
G ro n d s ts (ji i 379 2 46 ; P
o p e s , 2 67 ; C o
’ ’

per s, 3 1 9 w
l
G e e m e n , or m n s tre s , 2 6 , 2 7 i l k
H o o e r, R c h a rd , 1 7 4 i
l
G o d s m th , 3 1 1 i
i e, 3 12 ; or s,
314 lf w k k
H o o e r , Th o m a s , 1 8 6
Good C ou n s e l, 7 2 H ou r s i n a L i b r a ry , 5 5 8
H ou r s of I d le n e s s , 4 0 6 , 4 0 9
’
Gor b od u c ( g Or b O d uk ) , 1 2 5 -

Gorg e ou s Ga lle ry o f Ga lla n t I u v e n H ou s e of F a m e , 7 3

i on s ,
t 1 1 2 H ou s e of L if e , 4 8 4
G r a c e A b ou n d i n g , 2 2 6 H ro th ga r 1 1

y
G ra , T h o m as , 3 0 7 ; lif e , 30 8; w k or s, H u d i b r a s ( h fi d i b ra s ) , 2 5 0
’
-

30 9 H u m an i s m 9 1 ,

G r e a te s tE n g li s h P oe ts , 2 8 0 H u m p h r ey Cli n h e r 3 5 5 ,

G re e n e , R o b e rt, 1 3 1 H un t L e ig h 4 2 6
, ,

G re go r , op e , 4 1y P H u s ba n d s I V ’
l e s s ag e 2 6 ,

l
G re n d e , s to ry o f , 1 1 m o th e r of, 1 3 H u xl e y 5 5 8 ,

G ru b b S tre e t, 2 90 H yg e la c ( h i 1 7
’
G u lli v e r s Tr a v e ls , 2 7 5 H y m n b o o k fi rs t E n g li s h 1 93 , ,

G u ll s H or n booh , 1 2 9
’
H y m n to I n te lle c tu a l B e a u t
y 412 ,

Hy m n s , A
dd i s o n s , 2 8 3 ; C o w p e r s ,
’ ’

H a k l u y t R i c h a rd , 77 1 3 18 3 19 ,

H a l l a m 4 3 6 ; h is , c ri tc i i s m o f B ac o n , Hy p a ti a ( h i 5 16
66 Hyp e r i on ( h i p é ri )
’
1 - -
on , 422
y Th m
H a rd ; o as ,
518
H ti g b ttl
as n s, a e o f, 47 I d li
ea sm of V i c to r i an Ag e , 4 5 6
H th a w y A
a a , nne , 1 42 I d e a s, 8l
H li tt W illi m
az , a , 4 26 l
I d o s , o f B a c on , 1 7 0 1 7 3 .

H e gi t 28 I dy lls of t h e I ti i i g, 4 66
’
n s

H e n ry E s m on d 4 99 , I ! P e n s e r os o ( il p e n s é 20 9 -

H e rb e rt G e o rg e 1 96 ;
, ,
life , 1 97 I li a d ,
’
op e s t Pran s a to n , 2 6 7 ; C h a
p l i
p o e tr 98 y o f, 1 m an s , 1 1 4 ; D r d e n s , 2 46
’ ’
y
Her o a n d L ea n de r 1 1 4 , I m ag i n a ry C on v e r s a t i on s , 4 4 1
H e r oe s a n d H e r o Wor s h ip , 5 2 9 , 5 3 3 I m p ea c h m e n tof Wa r r e n H a s t i n g s, 3 0 0
i
H e ro c c o u p e t, 2 3 9 l I n fl i e m or i a m , 4 6 1 , 4 64
He r oic S ta n z a s , 2 4 3 I n st au rat i o M ag n a —
’

( ih s ta ra s h o ) , -
i -

k
H e r ri c , R o b e rt, 2 0 0 1 7o
H e sp e r i d es a n d N ob le [Vu m be r s ( h és l
I n te r u d e s , 1 2 2
’
p é r i d é z ) , 20 1 I nt im at i on s o f Imm or t
a i
y , 3 84 , 3 8 5
lt
-
5 78 E N G LI SH L IT E R ATU R E
J ac ob ts, 1 9 1 L if e of S a v ag e , 2 90
e an poe
j ane Ey re ( ar) , 5 1 4 i y vi
L n dsa , D a d , 1 2 2
J e ff y re , F ra n c i s, 375
i y l
L te ra r C u b , th e , 2 9 1
Je t( s or ge s t ) b oo ks , 56
i
L te ra r y ii i
c r tc s m , 425 S e e a ls o .

j ew 1 34
C r tc aii lwii r tn g .

Gi lp i n , 3 20 Lit e r a ry R e m i n i s c e n c es 4 3 4
j oh n
q li i
,

J o h n s on , S am u e , 28 7 ; e, 2 89 ; l lif i
L te ra tu re , d e n to n , 8 ; u a te s , 2 ; fi ii
w k
o r s , 2 9 1 ; h is c o n e rs a to n s , 2 9 4 ; v i te s ts , 5 ; o b j e c t i n s tu d n g , 6 ; i m yi
w ll
B o s e s L if e o/ j oh n s on , 2 93
’
p o rtan c e , 7 ; G o e th e s d e n to n ,
’
fi ii
j on a t h a n M M, 3 5 4 ii
7 ; s p r to f m o d e r n , 5 5 9
J o n s o n , Be n , 1 5 7 ; e, 1 58 ; or s , 1 5 9 lif w k L i te r a tu r e a n d D og m a , 5 4 7 , 5 5 0
a rc h s , 1 7 8 ; W a t
Pl l
’ ’

os ep h A n d r e ws , 3 5 3 L i v es , ut on s , 2 1
3
j
h e P lag u e Ye a r , 3 5 0 L i ve s of th e P oe t
j ou r n a l o f t s, 2 2
9
j ou r n a l t o St e lla , 2 7 2 , 2 7 6 k
L oc e , oh n , 2 5 2 J
j udit h , 36 k
L o c h a rt, o h n , 3 7 5 J
u li a n a , 3 6 L or n a D oon e , 5 1 6
j
L os tL e a d e r , Th e , 3 8 0
K t 418 ;
ea s, e, 419; or lif w k s, 4 20 ; v l
L o e ac e , R c h a rd , 2 0 2 i
pl ac e in te ra tu r e , 4 2 3li ’
li
Ly c i d a s ( s i d as ) , 2 1 1 -

K il m a rn o c k
B u rn s , th e , 3 2 5 y
L d ga te , o h n 1 1 3 J ,

K i n g s Tr e a s u r i e s , 5 4 2
’
L yly J , oh n 1 3o

Ki l y
n s e , C h ar e s , 5 1 5
g 555 l ,
Ly r a Ap os t oli c a ,
5 5 4, 5 5 7
A n ig h t s I l i le , Th e , 7 8
’
Ly r i c a l B alla d s , 3 7 6
'

K x J h
no , o n, 1 77 y
L tto n , E d a rd B u e r, 5 1 5 w lw
I tu bla l th a n (
' ’
k ob
’
la k i ) n , 391
K yd , T h o m as , 1
31 Ma c a u l a y 5 2 0 , ; li fe 521 , wor k s,
5 23 ;
ch a ra c te r s tc s , i i 5 26
L A /leg r o ( lal
’
20 9 Ma c p h e rs o n , a m e s ( m a k J 334
L a dy if th e L a h e , 3 9 7 , 4 0 1 i
Maga z n e s , th e m o d e rn , 3 7 5
k
L a e p o e ts , th e , 3 7 3 I li a /d on , Th e B a t le o
t f, 4 1
La m b , C h a r e s , 4 26 ; e , 427 l lif w k or s, Ma l o ry 9 5 ,

4 29 ; st yl e, 430 M a n d ev i lle ’
s Tr a v e ls , 8 5
L am b , M a ry 4 2 8 4 2 9, , I li a nf r e d , 4 0 9
( la m i a ) 4 1 8 4 2 2 M a rl o we 1 3 2 ; life k
’
L a m ia ,
-
, , , 1 3 2 ; wor s, 1 33
L a n d of C oc h ay gn e ( k O 61 a n d M il ton 1 34 ; , a n d S h a e s p e a re , k
L a n d of D r e a m s , 3 3 2 I 3S
La n d o r, Wa l te r Sa v ag e , 4 4o ; lif e , ll/ ar m i on , 3 97 , 4 0 1

4 40 ; w k or s. 44 1 Ma rv e l l A , 1 93 n d re w ,
La n g an d , l W illi a m , 81 M as s i n g e r P h ili p 1 6 5 , ,

La n g u ag e , ou r fi rs t s p e e c h , 27 ; dua l Ma tte r o f F ra n c e R o m e , , an d i
B r tai n ,
c h a rac te r o f, 2 9 ; Te u to n ic or igi n , 28
5 5. 56
L a s tD ay s o f P om p e i i ( p o m 515 Me l o d ra m a 36 , 1
Law , I lo o k e r s d e a o f 1 7 5
’
i , ll/e m oi r s of a Ca v a li e r , 3 4 9 , 3 5 0
L aw s o f E c c le s i a s tic a l P oli t
y , 1 74 i
Me re d th , G e o rg e 5 1 7 ,

L ay S e r m on s , 5 5 9 lll e r li n a n d th e Gle a m , 4 5 7
L ay a m o n , 5 3 y i l
Me tap h s c a p o e ts , 1 9 1 , 1 9 3
L ay s of A n c i e n tR om e , 5 2 4 Me tr c a ro m a n c e s 5 4 5 5
i l , .

L e a d , I ti u d /y L i gh t, 5 5 4 i l
M dd e to n , T h o m as , 1 64
'

L e c tu r e s on S h a h e sp e a r e , 3 9
3 lll i t
es
’
Glor i os u s ( m e e s g lO ri o l - -
s us ) ,

L eg e n d e of Good e I s m en , 74 1 2
3
L ev i a th a n , 2 5 1 lV/i ll on th e F los s , 5 1 0
w
L e e s , G e o rg e H e n r , 0 6
5 y Mil to n , 20 2 ; life , 20 4; ly
e ar H or or
L i be r t
y o f P r op h e sy i n g , 2 3 0 to n p o e m s , p ro s e or s , 20 9 w k 21 2
if
L e c o m p a re d to a s e a o a e ,
,
g 37 v y lat e r p oe tr , 2 1
3 ; an d a y s S h k e pe a re ,

L ife of j oh n s on , 2 93 , 2 96 20 2 ; W o rd s o r th ’
s s o n n e to n , w 20 2
5 80 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
Re ltof I s la m , 4 1 3 , 4 1 6
P r a is e o f F olly , 9 3 vo

P r e lu d e , Th e , 3 7 7 : Re v l i
o u to n , F re n c h , 3 7 0 , 3 72 ; o f
P r e R ap h a e li t e s ( ra ae te s ) , 4 8 3
'
’
f li -
1 68 8 , 2 3 8 ; a g e o f , 3 69

P r id e a n d P r ej u d i c e , 4 3 7 , 4 3 9 i
R c h a rd s o n , S am u e , 3 5 o ; l no v e ls o f,

P r i n c e s s , Th e , 4 6 1 , 4 6 3 51
P r om e t h e u s U n bou n d ( p rO Ri ht gs o
f M a n , 2 99, 3 7 1
R i m e of th e A n c i e n ti lI a r i n e r , 3 9 2 /

2d
4 1

P1 0 5 e v l op m e n ti
e n e i gh t e enth cen i
R m e R o a , 79 y l
tu r y , 2 6o R i ng a n d t h e B ooh , Th e , 4 7 9
P se u d o c as s c s m-
l 2 63i i R ob i n H ood , 5 6, 6 1
P u rc h as , S a m u e , 1 7 8 ; P u r c h a s H i s l R obi n s on C r u s oe , 3 4 5 , 3 4 9
P ilg r i m e s , 1 7 8 R od e r i c h , 3 9 5
P i ur t an A ge : h s to r , 1 8 6 ; te ra r i y li y R od e r i c h R a n d om , 3 5 5
c h a ra c te r s tc s , 1 89 ; i i
p oe ts , 1 90 ; R o m an c e , 3 3 9 ; G re e R o m an c e s , k
p ros e r t wi
e rs , 2 1 9 ; c o m p a re d th wi 34 I
li
E zab e th an , 1 96 ; s u m m a r , 2 3 2 ; y l
R o m a n c e a n gu ag e s , 4 6
l i
s e e c to n s fo r re ad n g , 2 3 3 ; b ib li i R om a n c e of th e R os e , 7 2
o rap h ,
g y 23 3 ; u e s to n s , 23 4 ; q i i
R o m a n tc c o m e d a n d tra ge d , 1 3 6 y y
c h ro n o o g , 2 5
3 l y i
R o m an tc e n th u s as m , 3 7 2 i
P i ur t an m o e m e n t , 1 86 v i
R o m a n tc p o e tr , 3 0 4 y
P i ur t an s , ro n w
g d e a s o f , 1 86 i i i
R o m an tc s m , A ge o f, 3 69 ; h s to r , i y
370 ; te ra r lic h a ra c t y
e ri s tc s , 3 7 2 ; i
Q u e e n Mab i n R om e o , an d j u li e t
, 1 41 p o e ts , 3 7 6 p r o s e r te rs , 4 2 wi
5 s um
’
Qu e e n s Ga r d e n s 5 4 2 , y l i
m a r , 4 4 2 ; s e e c to n s f o r r e a d n g , i
i li
4 4 3 ; b b o g ra p h , 4 44 ; y
u e s to n s , q i
R a bbi B e n E z r a , 4 7 7 44 8 ; c h ro n o o g , 4 5 1 l y
R a d c f e , Mrsli f nn e ,
3 74 . A i i
R o m a n tc s m , m e an n g , 3 0 4 i
R a e gh , Wa te r, 1 7 5
l i l R om ola , 5 0 7 , 5 0 9, 5 1 2
R a lp h R oy s t e r D oy s t er , 1 2
3 R osa ly n d e , 3 4 3
R a m ble r e s s a s , 2 8 8 , 2 90 , 29 2 y i
R o ss e tt, C h ri s tn a ( ro s i 4 86
R ap e of th e L oc h , 2 66 i
R o s s e tt, D an te G a b ri e , 4 8 3 l
R e ad e , C h a r e s , 5 1 3 l R ow ley P ap e r s , 3 3 6
li
R e a s m , 240 y l
R o a S oc e t , 24 1 i y
R e c lu se , Th e , 3 8 6 R un e s, 3 6
R efl e c ti on s on th e F r e n c h R ev olu t
i on , ki
R us n , 5 3 7 ; e , 5 38 ; lif
or s,
541 ; w k
2 99 c h a ra c t e ri s tc s , i
5 4 4 ; m e s s age , 5 4 4
R e lig i o L a ic i , 2 4 5
R e lig i o i ll e d i c i 2 29 . S ac kvill
e , Th o m as , 1 1 3
li i
R e g o u s p e r o d o f th e d ra m a , 1 1 6 i S t Ca th e r i n e , P lay of , 1 1 7
.

R e li q u e s of A n c i e n t E n g li s h P oe try , S t G e o r ge s G u d , 5 3 8 , 5 4 1
.

’
’
il
33 7 S ain ts E v e r la s tin g R e s t, 2 3 1
R e m i n i sc e n c es , C a r e lyl ’
s,
5 30 S a m s on Ag on i s te s ( a g o -
21 8
R e m or s e , 3 8 9 S art or
’
R e s a r tu s ( s a r to r re
i
R e n a s s a n c e , th e ( re o
n a s an s ,
’
re n as
’

s an s ,
91 S a ti re , 2 60 ; o f S w f t 274 ;
i , of Th k ac
R e s to ra to n i P i e r od : h i stor y , 23 6 ; li t c ra y , 50 3
c ra r y w it
c h a ra c te ri s tc s , i 23 8 ; r e rs , S a on x S ee
. n
g o —S a o nA l x
2
43 ; mm y 2 5 5 ; l c ti
su f ar , se e ons or S c h ool of S h oot i ng , 9 2
e di g
r a 256 ; b i b li g p h y 2 5 6 ;
n , o ra i i
S c e n c e , i n V c to r a n A g e , 5 5 8 , 5 60 i
q s ti
,

ue
56 ; c h o lo y
on s, 2 ro n 2 S c o p , or p o e t ( s o p ) 20 k
g 57 ,

i g P e ri d h i t ry
,

R viv a l o f L
e e a rn n o : s o , S c o tt, W a te r, 3 9 5 ; f e , 3 96 ; p o e tr ,
l li y
89 ; l it t s m m a ry v l ii J
2 ;
96 ;
e ra u re , u .
40 1 n o e s , 4 0 2 ; c r tc is m o f an e
el ct i ad i g
s fo
e on s
9 7 ; b ib li r re n A us ten 4 39
gra p h y 97 ; q e ti o s 97 ; c h
, ,

o , u s n , ro S c ot
ti s h C h i ef s , 3 7 5
n o lo
gy, 98 yl
S c d ( s k ild ) , s to r y o f, 10
 I NDE X
S e a, n am e s o f , in A gl n o- S a x on, 2
5 S tag e , i n e ar ly p l y s a , 1 1 9 ; E li z ab e th a n ,
S e af a r e r , Th e , 20 1 29

S e a s on s , Th e , 3 3 3 l i
S te e e , R c h a rd , 2 8 3
l i
S e e c to n s f o r re a d i n
g A gl
n o -
Sa x on S te p h e n , L e s e , 5 5 8 li
i
p e r od , 4 3 ; N
o rm a n , 6 4 ; C h a u c e r , w
S te rn e , L a r e n c e , 3 5 6
86 ; R e v iv l
a o f L e a rn n g , 9 7 ; E za i li v
S te e n s o n , R ob e r t L o u s , 5 1 9 i
b e th a n , 1 8o ; ur t an , 2 P i
3 3 ; R e s to ra yl
S t e , a te s t o f te ra tu re , 6 li
i
to n , 2 5 6 ; E g h te e n th i
C e n tu r , y S uc kli n ,
g J
oh n , 20 1

3 5 9 ; R o m a n tc s m , 4 4 3 ; V c to r a n , i i i i y y
S u rre , H e n r H o a rd , E a r o f , 9 5 w l
s6 1 S w a n , Th e , 3 7
S ei i tim e n t a l j ou r n ey , 3 5 6 S wif t, 2 7 o ; e, 27 1 lif or s, 27
3; w k
S esa m e a n d L ili es ( s e s a m é ) , 5 4 1
’
-
i
s a tre , 2 7 4 ; c h a rac t e r s tc s , 2 7 7 i i
k
S h a e s p e a re , 1 3 7 ; e, 139; or s, lif w k wi
S n b u rn e , 4 8 5
1 48 ; f i
o u r p e r o d s , 1 4 9 ; s o u rc e s o f S y lv a , 2 5 3
l y
p a s , 1 5 0 ; c a s s c a to n o f p a s , l ifi i l y y
S m o n ds , oh n J
d d n g to n , 5 5 8A i
1 5 1 ; d o ub tu f l l y
p a s, 1 5 2 ; poe m s,
l
1 5 2 ; p a c e an d n u e n c e , 1 5 3 i fl T ab a rd I n n , 7 5
S h e S toop s to C on q u e r , 3 1 5 Ta le of a Tu b , 27 5

She e , 410 ; ll y e, 4 1 2 ; lif

or s, 4 1
5 ; w k Ta le of Tw o C i ti e s , 4 9 5
c o m p a re d th W o rd s o rth , 4 1 7
wi w Ta le s f r om S h a h e sp e a r e , 4 2 9
Ta le s i n Ve r s e , 3 3 4
’
S h ep h e r d s B oo/e , 4 1
Ta le s of t h e H a ll, 3 3 4
’
S h ep h e r d s Ca le n d a r , 1 0 8 , 1 0 9
il y J
S h r e , a m e s , 1 66
’
Ta m o S h a n t er ,
3 28
S h oe m a h e r s H oli d ay , Th e , 1 6 5 Ta m b u r la i n e
’
1 3 2, 1 3 3
S h o r t Vi e w of th e E n g li s h S tag e , 2 3 9 Ta s h , Th e ,
i
S dn e hy P ili
p, 1 1 3 , 1 7 5
, Ta tle r , Th e , 2 7 9 , 2 8 4 , 3 4 4
S igu r d t h e Vols u n g , 4 8 5 Te m or a ( te 335
S i la s M a r n e r , 5 1 1 Te m p e s t, Th e , 1 4 7
S i le n t Wom a n , Th e , 1 6 1 Te m p le , Th e , 1 98
S i r C h a r le s G r a n d i s on , 3 5 2 y
Te n n son , 4 5 7 e, 4 8
5 lif
o r s, 4 62 w k
k l
S e to n , o h n , 1 2 2 J c h a rac t i i
e r s tc s , 4 6 7 p ac e an d m e s l
S h e tc h e s by B 0 2 , 4 8 9 s ag e , 4 68
ll
S m o e tt, T o b a s , 3 5 5 i Te n u r e of [{ i n g s a n d M ag i s tr a t e s , 20 6

S oc a i l v l
d e e o p m e n t i n e g h te e n th i Te r r a , 2 5 3
cent ur , 2 8
5 y li
T e s ts o f te ra tu re , 5
S oh r a b a n d R u s tu m (
’
s o o rh ab , or T e u fe ls d ro e c k h ( to y f e lz d ro c ) , 5 3 5
’
-
k
’
s O h r ab ) ,
5 48 k
T h a c e r a , 4 96 ; y e, 4 97 ; lif or s, w k
S on g s of I n n oc e n c e , a n d S on g s of E x 4 99 ; c h a r ac t e r s tc s , i i
50 3 ; st e, yl
p e r ie n ce , 3 3 1 5 0 4 ; a n d D c e n s , 4 96 i k
i
S o n n e t, n tro d u c to n o f , 9 5 i Th a dd e u s of Wa r s a w , 3 7 5
S on n e t s , o f S h a e s e a re , 1
p k
5 3 ; o f M il
~
Th a la ba ( tal 3 94
to n , 2 1 2 T h e a te r, th e rs t , fi
1 28
S on n e t s
f r om th e P or tug u e s e , 4 7 2 , 4 8 2 J
T h om s o n , a m e s , 3 3 2
4 84 Th y r s i s 5 49
S o u th e , 3 93 ; y
o r s , 3 94 w k Ti m be r , 1 6 2
Sp a n i s h Gy p sy , 5 0 7 Ti n t e r n A bb ey ,
3 76
S p a n i s h Tr ag e dy , 1 3 1 Ti r oc i n i u m ( ti ré s n i u m ) , or A R e
’
- -
i -

Sp e c i m e n s o
f E n g li s h D r a m ic
at P oe t v i e w o S c h ools ,
f
s,
317
43° Tom j on e s , 3 5 4
Sp ec t
ator , Th e , 2 7 9, 2 8 4 ,
344 T o r e s a n d Wh g s , 2 3 8
i i
S p e n s e r, 10 1 ; life , 10 2 ; wo k r s, 10 5 ; Tot te l s M i s c e lla n ,
’

y 94
c h a rac te ri s tc s , 1 1 0 ; c o m i p a re d wi th w l y l y
To n e p a s , 1 1 8
C h a u c e r, I 1O Tox op h ilu s ( to k s o i lu s ) , 9 2
’
-
f -

S p e n se r i an
p o e ts , 1 92 i
T ra c tar an m o e m e n t, 5 5 4 v
S pe n se r i an s tan z a , 107 Tr a c t s
f or th e Ti m e s , 5 5 4
5 82 E NG L I S H L IT E R ATU R E
y fi ii
Tra ge d , d e n to n , 1 5 1 ; o f b l oo d , Vi e w of th e S ta t f I r e la n d ,
e o 10 3
1 36 Villag e , Th e , 3 3 3
ii f th e R ood , 3 8
'

Tra n s to n p o e ts , 1 90 i s i on o

Tr a v e le r , Th e , 3 1 3 , 3 1 4 Volp on e ( v o l 1 60
Voy ag es , H a k lu y ts , 1 7 8
’

Tr e a s u r e I s la n d , 5 1 9
Tr e a ti s es on Gov e r n m e n t, 2 5 2
Tr i s tr a m S h a n dy , 3 5 6 Wa k e fi e l d p l a y s , 1 18

Tr oi lu s a n d C r e s s i d a ( trO i lu s ,
’
-
k re s
’
l Va ld e r e ( v al d a re-
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i d a) 7 3
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Wa ll e r E d m u n d 1 93
, , , 24 2

Tro o p e ll nt , A
h on , 5 1 3 y Wa l to n I z a a k 2 3 1
, ,

y
Tro e s , Tre a t o f, 8 9 y Wa v e r ley 3 98 ,

hVe a /t h of A a tion s , 3 7 1
'

Tr u th , o r Good Cou n s e l 7 2 ,

T n da e , W
y l am illi 94 Wea th e r , Th e , p a o f , 1 2 3 l y
We b s te r, o h n , 1 63
J
U da , ll Ni
c h o as l 1 23 We d m o re , T re a t o f , 4 0 y
( d olp h o ( fi
’
374 We s tw a r d H o I 5 1 6 .

U nf or tu n a te Tr a v e lle r , Th e , 3 4 3 Wh gs a n d To r e s , 2 3 8
i i
iv li y
U n e rs a t , a te s to f te ra tu re , 5 li W h tb i y 2,
33
iv
U n e rs t i y wi
ts , 1 2 7 l Vi d s i t/i 1 8, 1
9
U n to Th i s L a s t, 5 4 0 , 5 4 2 Wiglaf ( v ig la f ) , 1 5
Ut op i a , 9 ,
3 342 W s o n , o h n ( C h r s to p h e r
il J i N o rth ) ,

37 5
Wi th e r G e o rg e 1 92
.

Va n i ty F a i r , 5 0 1 , ,

Va n i ty of H u m a n Wis h e s 288 , Wo m e n i n li te ra tu re 3 7 3 3 7 4
, , ,

Va u g h a n , H e n r , 1 93 y Wo rd s wo rth 3 7 3 3 7 6 ; life , 37 7 ; , ,

Ve r c e lli B ooh , 3 9 p o e try , 3 8 1 p o e m s o f n a tu re , 3 8 2 ;

Vi c a r of lVa h e/i e ld , 3 1 5 , 3 5 7 p o e m s o f l ife 3 8 4 ; l as t w o rk s , 3 8 6
,

i
V c e , th e , i n o ld p a s , 1 2 1 l y \Vo rd s w o rth D o ro th y , 3 7 6
,

i
V c to ri a n A ge 4 5 2 ; h s to r , 4 5 3 ;
, i y Wor th ie s of E ng la n d 2 2 9 2 3 0 , ,

tli
e ra r y
c h a ra c te r s tc s , 4 4 ; p o e t
5 i i
s, Wu th e r i ng H e igh ts ( w u th e r in g) ’
-
, 514
v li
4 5 7 ; n o e s ts , 4 8 7 ; e s s a s ts , e tc , yi . Wy a tt Th o m as 9 4 ,

i
5 20 ; s p ri t o f , 5 5 9 ; s u m m a r , 5 60 ; y Wy c lif 83
l i
s e e c to n s f o r re ad n g
5 6 1 ; b ib lii Wy rd ( v i rd ) o r f ate 1 2
q
, , ,

o g ra p h ,
y 5 62 ; u e s to n s ,
5 66 ; i
c h ro n o o g ,
5 68 l y Y o rk p l ysa , 1 18