Mathematic in Geology

Geomathematics describes all aspects of geophysics, geo-

sciences, or geoengineering that require the development of mathematical
tools for the modeling of the underlying problem, the analysis of the
model, or the numerical solution. In our group, we are particularly
involved in the following topics:
• potential field methods in (geo)magnetism and gravitation
• inverse problems in geoscience
• constructive approximation with spherical function systems.

Geomathematics, applications of mathematics to the studies earth's crust.

Geologists need a variety of geomathematical techniques in the following
fields of activity: (1) data acquisition and processing, (2) data analysis, (3)
sampling, (4) hypothesis testing, and (5) quantitative prediction in applied
geology. This chapter discusses the difficulties in the application of
mathematics to geological problems. These difficulties stem from: (1) the
nature of geological phenomena, for example, paucity of exposure and
restriction of observations to the record of past events and (2) from the
nature of traditional geological methods of research that are largely non
mathematical. When mathematics is applied to geological problems, the
parameters must be defined in a manner sufficiently rigorous to permit
nontrivial derivations. The initial hurdle is to choose variables that are
substantially meaningful. Krumbein and Graybill have distinguished three
types of models in geology:
(1) scale-models,
(2) conceptual models,
(3) mathematical models.

Traditionally, geologists have been concerned with scale-models and

conceptual models mainly. Mathematical models involve use of equations
consisting of variables and constants. They are statistical or deterministic
depending on whether one or more random variables are used in the
equation or system of equations to express

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Introduction

An oxymoron. Mathematical geology has been characterized as such.

Saying so, though, betrays ignorance, not of mathematics, but of geology.
The science is inherently numerical. Minerals, for example, are
quantifiable based on specific gravity, hardness, Miller index, and
abundance. Rock classification in petrology and petrography is inherently
dependent upon mineral frequency, determined in a manner identical to
that which is used by the hematologist when classifying specimens of
blood. Geologic structures are quantified by strike and dip, even
abundance when characterizing the integrity of rock masses. Economic
geologists and geochemists develop complex databases of samples, each
associated with many elements, the analysis of which provides clues to
ore genesis, water origin, environmental stresses, and rock classification,
to name but a few applications. Geophysics and remote sensing provide
enormous sets of numbers visualized as digital images. Far from being an
oxymoron, mathematical geology is broadly defined as the application of
theoretical and applied mathematics to the assessment of geologic data to
aid in the interpretation of earth evolution. equation, no calculator, no
computer, can substitute for the human ability to infer and interpret.
Where equations, calculators, and computers can help with geologic
interpretation is in the conversion of numbers to pictures, such as the case
when converting numbers comprising a digital image into what mimics a
photograph on a computer screen. Scientific visualization is the process
of converting numerical information of any kind into a picture, hopefully
improving its interpretation. The responsibility of interpretation remains,
always, with the human analyst. There tends to be an element of distrust
of numbers. The quote, attributed to Benjamin Disraeli, is well known,
"There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics."
Apparently, there is uncertainty regarding whether Disraeli actually made
this quote. This saying was, however, widely used by the end of the 19th
Century. Mark Twain, for example, writing in 1906: “Figures often
beguile me, particularly when I have the arranging of them myself; in
which case the remark attributed to Disraeli would often apply with justice

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and force: "There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics."-
Autobiography of Mark Twain. Perhaps mistrust of numbers is not as
accurate as saying that there exists a reverence of numbers duePerhaps
mistrust of numbers is not as accurate as saying that there exists a
reverence of numbers due to a fundamental insecurity about mathematical
understanding. The presentation of a statistical analysis can be quite
intimidating to those whose confidence in understanding the analytical
methods is weak. Of course, the weak confidence can be taken advantage
of by those less scrupulous, stating interpretations of numbers for which
there is no clear justification. Thus the skepticism surrounding statistics-
lies worse than damned lies. Despite this ignorance, statistical analysis of
data is the most widely applied mathematical method in the geological
sciences. Geologists draw maps, with geostatistics, geographic
information systems (GIS), and remote sensing fundamentally
contributing to the process. Mine geologists are increasingly charged with
ore reserve estimation and ore control using geostatistics. Other examples
of applied statistics included bivariate and multivariate methods important
for understanding the correlation between two or more variables. Other
numerical methods of importance to geologic understanding are finite
difference modeling for understanding ground water flow, geostatistical
simulation for modeling uncertainty of spatial data, time-series (Fourier)
analysis for identifying cycles in data strings over time or space, linear
algebra for modeling landform ad geologic structure.

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 Fig 1 Example of geomathematics

When Math in geology

A geologist is a scientist who studies the solid and liquid matter that
constitutes the Earth and terrestrial planets. Geologists usually engage
studying geology, and approach this using mathematics, physics,
chemistry, and biology as well as other sciences. Math is becoming more
and more useful to geologists. Mathematical geology can be an essential
aid in formulating models and scientific theories to bring together
different geological phenomena. Geomagnetic field models are used in
navigation, geophysical surveys, oil production, and in scientific studies
ranging from the upper atmosphere to Earth's deep interior.

Geophysical Surveys

Geophysics is one of the most math heavy disciplines of Earth Science.

There are many applications which include gravity, magnetic, seismic,
electric, electromagnetic, resistivity, radioactivity, induced polarization,
and well logging. Gravity and magnetic methods share similar
characteristics because they're measuring small changes in the
gravitational field based on the density of the rocks in that area While

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similar gravity fields tend to be more uniform and smooth compared to
magnetic fields. Gravity is used often for oil exploration and seismic can
also be used, but it is often significantly more expensive. Seismic is used
more than most geophysics techniques because of its ability to penetrate,
its resolution, and its accuracy.

Fig 2 math in geophysical

Math in Oil Production

Mathematics is used for example to estimate the volumes of oil and gas
in reservoirs to optimist performance of wells and pumps that get the oil
and gas to the surface, to improve the quality of the fossil fuel projects,
and to minimize vessel transportation and final delivery costs. Philip
Emeagwali said "my mathematics came from oilfields". He further stated
that "I invented 36 partial derivatives and used them to reinvent nine
partial differential induct to raquations that can be used by the petroleum
recover oil. His equations were the most advanced and the most seful form
the algebraic formula, force equals mass times acceleration (F=ma)

USE OF MATHEMATICS IN DRILLING

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 • Mathematics is used for improvement in mathematical computer
modeling, probability analysis, and new technologies like
horizontal drilling and enhanced oil recovery, etc. All this has
drastically improved the toolbox of the petroleum engineer
• Assess costs and estimate production capabilities and economic
value of oil and gas wells
• Evaluate viability of potential drilling sites
• Develop plans for oil and gas field drilling
• Direct and monitor the completion and evaluation of wells, well
testing or well surveys

Math in earthquake and seismology

Use the Richter scale to compare the size and magnitude of earthquakes.
Sometimes earthquakes are strong enough to cause a huge amount of
damage-high- ways crumble and buildings fall in an instant. Other times,
earthquakes can be so slight that people hardly feel them. Scientists use a
mathematical system called the Richter scale to compare the size and
magnitude of earthquakes. An earthquake's magnitude de- pends on the
amplitude of seismic waves, which are recorded by a seismograph. The
greater the amplitude of the waves is, the higher the reading on the Richter
scale is.

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Use What You Know! Use the table above to answer the following
questions.
Remember to show your work.
1. In a given year, how many earthquakes measure 6.0 or greater?

120 + 18 +1=139; In a given year, 139 earthquakes measure 6.0 or

greater.
2. In a given year, what percentage of earthquakes measure 3.0 or
greater are moderate?

Total number measuring 3.0 or greater =1+ 18+ 120 + 800 + 6200 +
49,000 = 56,139; percentage of moderate earthquakes 800/
56,139=0.014 =1.4%

3. Calculate the percentage of earthquakes that measure 5.0 or greater

that are classified as "major" and "great."

Number of earthquakes measuring 5.0 or greater =800 + 120 +

18+1= 939
Percentage of these that are "major" and "great" =
(18 + 1) / 939 = 0.02 = 2%

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 GEOSTATISTICS

Geostatistics is a class of statistics used to analyze and predict the

values associated with spatial or spatiotemporal phenomena. It
incorporates the spatial (and in some cases temporal) coordinates of
the data within the analyses. Many geostatistical tools were
originally developed as a practical means to describe spatial patterns
and interpolate values for locations where samples were not taken.
Those tools and methods have since evolved to not only provide
interpolated values, but also measures of uncertainty for those
values. The measurement of uncertainty is critical to informed
decision making, as it provides information on the possible values
(outcomes) for each location rather than just one interpolated value.
Geostatistical analysis has also evolved from uni- to multivariate
and offers mechanisms to incorporate secondary datasets that
complement a (possibly sparse) primary variable of interest, thus
allowing the construction of more accurate interpolation and
uncertainty models Geostatistics is widely used in many areas of
science and engineering, for example

• The mining industry uses geostatistics for several aspects of a

project: initially to quantify mineral resources and evaluate the
project's economic feasibility, then on a daily basis in order to
decide which material is routed to the plant and which is waste,
using updated information as it becomes available.
• In the environmental sciences, geostatistics is used to estimate
pollutant levels in order to decide if they pose a threat to
environmental or human health and warrant remediation.
• Relatively new applications in the field of soil science focus
on mapping soil nutrient levels (nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, and so on) and other indicators (such as electrical
conductivity) in order to study their relationships to crop yield

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 and prescribe precise amounts of fertilizer for each location in
the field.
• Meteorological applications include prediction of
temperatures, rainfall, and associated variables (such as acid
rain).
• Most recently, there have been several applications of
geostatistics in the area of public health, for example, the
prediction of environmental contaminant levels and their
relation to the incidence rates of cancer.

In all of these examples, the general context is that there is

some phenomenon of interest occurring in the landscape (the
level of contamination of soil, water, or air by a pollutant; the
content of gold or some other metal in a mine; and so forth).
Exhaustive studies are expensive and time consuming, so the
phenomenon is usually characterized by taking samples at
different locations. Geostatistics is then used to produce
predictions (and related measures of uncertainty of the
predictions) for the unassembled locations.