Balanced and Unbalanced Faults 10.1 INTRODUCTION The steady state operating mode ot a power system is balanced 3-phase ac. However, due to sudden external or internal changes in the system, this condition is disrupted. When the insulation of the system fails at one or more points or a conducting object comes in contact with a live point, a short circuit or fault occurs. The causes of faults are numerous, ¢.g., lightning, heavy winds, trees falling across lines, vehicles colliding with towers or poles, birds, line breaks, etc. A fault involving all the three phases is known as symmetrical (balanced) fault while one involving only one or two phases is known as unsymmetrical fault. Single line to ground, line to line and two-line to ground faults are unsymmetrical (unbalanced) faults. Majority of the faults are unsymmetrical. Fault calculations involve finding the voltage and current distribution throughout the system during the fault. It is important to determine the values of system voltages and currents during fault conditions so that the protective devices may be set to detect the fault and isolate the faulty portion of the system so as to minimize the harmful effects of snch contingencies ‘When fault occurs at a point in a power system, the corresponding MVA is referred to as the fault level at that point. 10.2. THEVENIN’S EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT According to Thevenin’s theorem any linear network containing any number of voltage sources and impedances can be replaced by a single emf and an impedance. The emf is the ‘open circuit voltage as seen from the terminals (under consideration) and the impedance is the network impedance as seen from these terminals. This circuit consisting of a single emf and impedance is known as Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. : The calculation of the fault current can be very easily done by applying this theorem. It is only neces- sary to find’ the open circuit emf and network impedance as seen from the fault point. In most of the calculations, the open circuit emf can be assumed to be Ipu.270 Power System Analysis and Design RICAL FAULT which has been made safe for main- le alive or when, due to slow fault nical excavator cuts ynen a mechal t its in an easy calculation and 10.3 SYMMETI le, when a line, fault occurs infrequently a fr exam nbn ng all the three phases (0 earth, is accidentally cross to the other (Wo phases ov ch ‘nportant type of fault in that it res ane : The ti rou breaker rated MVA breaking capacity is ain Phase reakers are manufactured in preferred standard sizes, - a , ), sary when calculating the 3-phase fault level at a pol : spore are also never known accurately. In view of this, the following This type of tenance by clamy clearance, an earth fault sprea quickly through a whole cab generally, a pessimistic answer fault MVA. Since circuit bt MVA high precision is not neces cover the system impedances stem. Mores ss is are made in fault calculations. ae A Cee can oti nit. This means that the system voltage is at its nominal is is that all generators 1. The emfs of all generators are 1 Zo per ‘stem is operating on no load at the time of fault. The effect of thi ator since all emfs are equal and in phai ata later stage, by superposition. jodel that account for ma; se, When desirable the load value and the s can be replaced by a single gene current can be taken into account, 2. Shunt elements in the transformer m gnetizitfg current and core loss are neglected. 3. Shunt capacitances of the transmission line are n¢ : 4, System resistance is neglected and only inductive reactance of the system 1s taken into account. ‘This assumption is generally made only for hand calculations and educational purposes. For computer solution this approximation is not necessary. The sub-transient reactances of the generators are generally eed in caloulations, However, if transient current isto be determined, then transient reactance should be used. _ The calculations for a symmetrical fault are easy because the circuit is a completely symmetrical circuit and calculations can be made only for one phase. The steps in the calculations are as under: 1. Draw a single line diagram of the system. 2. Select a common base and find out the per unit reactances of all i yenerators, etc., as referred to common base. ences 3. From the single line diagram draw a single line reactance dit i fn ¢ diagram showi jj betes all the reactances, etc., on the reactance diagram. “ eae eee eed . Reduce the reactance di i : k identity of the fault mol tee Bd ts cated ot ti Ean ce nea le (ienaaeaey of the system as seen from the fault point 5. Find the fault current and fault MVA it it & Betas te spe calculation iid xcuranant ange a ek Voltage distribution throughout the network. eglectea. Example 10.1 Figure 10.1 shows a generating stati i mine the total rrent, fal ig station feeding a 132 kV it Lo i Ig system, Det at current supplied by each alternator for a 3-phase fault at the rece ae nats . ig end bus. The line is Solution Take a base of 100 MVA, 11 KV for LV side and 132 KV for HV si per unit reactance of G, = j015 2Balanced and Unbalanced Faults 271 | 100 MVA, 11/132 kV X= 10% 100 MVA, 11 kV, 7, X= 0.20Phese/km X= 15% wie h in X= 0.20/Phase/km SO MVA, 11 kV, 50 MVA, 11/132 kV X= 10% X= 8% Fig. 10.1 System for example 10.1 per unit reactance of G, = j01x4B- joa per unit reactance of 7; = j0l per unit reactance of T = j0.08 x ~ = j016 ' : 40.2 x 200 x 100 _, yf sh i = j0’ per unit reactance of each line 132 x132 §0.23 The single line reactance diagram is shown in Fig. 10.2 (a). This can be reduced to the diagram shown in Fig. 10.2 (b) and then to Fig. 10.2 (c). Base current for 132 KV side = 100% 1000 «457.4 4 V3 x 132 =a Os jOl —Gtir—o— j0.23 vo 088 0 jon jos. | JO. j ti =(@) 299. — 98° 7028272 Power System Analysis and Design 120 __ 73,8095 pu 70. = 3,095 x 437.4 2-90" A = 1666.27 2 -90° A Fault level = 3.8095 pu or 3.8095 * 100, i. 100 x 1000 _ 548.8 A kV side of transformers =F 11 5248. Total fault current = 6, 380.95 MVA Base current for 11 ‘Total fault current supplied by the two generalors = j 3.8095 x 5248.8 = 19995 £-90°A From Fig. 10.2 (b) ‘ _ (19995 4 = 90°)(j0.36) _ 1190.32 -90° A Fault current supplied by Gi = 59,25 + j0.36 Fault current supplied by G)= (19995 4-90") = 0 1900.32 -90° ) = 8194.7 2-90° A ample 10.2 kV, 50 MVA and each having a sub- Figure 10.3 shows a system having 4 alternator each rated at 11 transient reactance of 15%. Find (a) fault level for a fault on one of the feeders (near the bus) with zero value of reactance X, (b) the reactance of the current limiting reactor X to limit the fault level to 800 MVA for a fault on one of the feeders (near the bus). (G, 50 MVA kv X= 15% each B jo.1s 5 jos x r @ (b) Fig. 10.3 System for example 10.2 (a) One line diagram (b) Reactance diagram. Solution (a) Take base MVA = 50, Base KV = 11 Cs ve ‘The reactance diagram is shown in Fig. 10.3 (b) we j015_ ES = 50.0375 120 00375 = 26.67 pu or 26,67 x 50, ie., 1333.5 MVA~—— Balanced and Unbalanced Faults 277 1: tag — croton aemators Gy and Gy will supply . . e., 666.75 MVA directly to un ‘Therefore, the fault MVA from-Gy and G, must’be limited to 800 — 666.75 = 133.25 MVA. Thee, 15 tance of. G, and G, together is os .075 pu 1 133,25 Thus, -—= X +0075 ~~ 59 = 2-665 or X + 0.075 = 0.3752 or X= 0.3002 pu. Base reactance = (Base Line Voltage in kV)*/Base MVA lixit = 22 on 42 ohms Therefore, 0.3002 pu reactance = .3002 x 2.42 = 0.726 ohms ‘The reactor X should have a reactance of 0.726 ohms. , s Example 10.3 Figure 10.4 shows a power system. Bach of the alternators G-and G, is rated at 100 MVA, 11 KV and has a sub-transient reactance of 20%. Each of the transformers is rated at 100 MVA, 11/132 kV and has a leakage reactance of 5%. The line L, has an inductance of 1.2 mH/phase/ km and a length of 100kms. Lines L, and L, have an inductance of 1 mH/phase/km and a length of 50 kms each, Find the fauit MY. and fault current for a fault at bus 5, : j 4 Ly eget oH 3 iG Fig. 10.4 System for example 10.3 lution Base MVA = 100 ; 4 Base voltage 11 KV for LT side of transformer and 132 kV for HT side of transformer 132 x 132 Base impedance for HT side of transformer = ————— = 174.24 ohms Reactance of line Ly= 24x 50 x 1.2 * 10° x 100 = 37.72 : aTe P.u, reactance of line Ly = ==1°7; = 0.216 pu (21x 50 x 1 x 107 x 50)/174,24 = 0.09 pu. / P.u. reactance of line L, = P.u. reactance of line L; = 0.09 pu.272. Power Sunto—-Aeatuet= - © bane: ig. 10.5 (c duces to Fig. 10.5 (b). Series-parallel combinations simplify the diagram to Fig. 10.5 (c) Fig. 10.5 i ition this di: Te- The reactance diagram is shown in Fig. 10.5 (a). Using a delta-star transformatior jagram Fault MVA=—1_ 5.9 pu or 590MVA 1695 ct 1 current = —1___59 Fault Gurrent = 7 pu 100 x 10° poy PSone aa Fault current = 5.9 x 437.4 = 2580.66 A. =4374A ample 10.4 the system of any installation, distur- Infinite ithin the installation do not affect the volt. bes — (my) {nd frequency of the external system. In such a D gation, the external power source is known as an bus and is represented by an ideal voltage 1.€., a constant voltage with zero internal mal power system is very large as com- & F Fig. 10.6 System for example 10.4Balanced and Unbalanced Faults 275 i i can be as- impedance. Every power system has a number of such points whose voltage and frequency ‘sumed to be constant. Base MVA = 10 MVA Base kV for LT side = 6.6kV For each motor X” = 0.2 x 2 = 0.4 pu Xf =03% a = 0.6 pu (a) The reactance diagram for Sub-transient conditions is shown in Fig. 10.7 (a). This can be reduced to that of Fig. 10.7 (b) and then to Fig. 10.7(c). (oy (@ Fig. 10.7 \ 120: Sub-transient fault current = 0857 =-j 11.67 pu 10 x 108 ==, = 8748 A Bhse cumeat = 66 x10" Sub-transient fault-current = 11.67 x 874.8 = 10209 A (©) The distribution of fault current can be found from Fig, 10.7(2 120 ‘ Fault current from infinite bus = Fis = ~4 6.67 pu mew. O15 20 current trom each motor = —£° = _ 2.5 pyy.— JL > 76 Power System Analysis and Design and motor Mj, 1.€.5 (46.671) +G 2.5) Fault current through breaker Dis the current from infinite bus or -j 9-17 pu or 9.17 x 874.8 = 8022 A. (¢) For finding the momentary current i rent, An empirical method to include this ef metrical fault current. Momentary current rating itis necessary to calculate dc offset cur- hrough the breaker, I ry current as 1.6 times the sym- ffect is to take the momentar, of breaker = 1.6 8022 = 12835A (a) To find the current 0 be interrupted by the breaker, it is necessary (0 consi tance of the motors. The reactance diagram with transient reactance of motors is sh From this diagram symmetrical current to be interrupted by breaker D der the transient reac- own in Fig. 10.7 (4). 8.33 pu offset can be included by using a multiplying factor of or 8.33 874.8, i.e., 7287 A. The effect of d 11. 7287 = 8015.7A. 11. Therefore, current to be interrupted by the breaker = 10.4 CONSIDERATION OF PRE-FAULT LOAD CURRENT Generally i fault currents are much larger than load currents and, therefore, the load currents can be ne luring fault calcu ations. However, in some situations it may be necessary to consider the fees of load current. This an be done through the use of superposition theorem. eamnet the fw of load curent, the voltages at different points in the power network depart sa penis bene an cero Lal neery to calculate the prefault voltage at the fault point. The ined using this value of ¥ tha perdi aan itr pale lue of the pre-fault voltage. The total current is the the load is a synchronous motor, the fault P 5 It would cause the mi a 0 \ tor to su i en is = Ge as The current in the motor circuit, under fault conditions, eH Sie a uret rng pre-e condon andthe fut cuent contribution Gasca ite bered load current and fault squchamel ered ees caret i" current are the same “| generator terminals). However, the directions of the fy Steven te urrents are opposite each other for the motor because the motor termi the load current flows i hi \ : ki it th ure, flows out of the motor terminals. Example 10.5 istrates this aah eae point, ; Example 10.5 having a sub-transient reactance of ce of 0.25 pu i i ince of 0.2 pu through a transmission line, eon flying a50MVA motor ead s \e reactance is 0, leading with a terminal voltage of we Vv Solution ‘The circuit is shown in Fig. 108 Base MVA = 100. MVABalanced and Unbalanced Faults 277 Base voltage = 11 kV 100 x 108 = 100% 10" = 5248.88 A Base current = x11 10° 40 x 10° Load current = ——40*10" 9636.4 A cument= Fx 10.95 x 10 x08 2636.4 26364 _ 9 599 es 52488 e Fig. 10.8, Circuit for example 105 Taking the motor terminal voltage as thie reference phasor, the"load current is T= 0.502 (8 +j 6) = 402 + j 301 pu Motor terminal voltage = aa =0.995 pu. Prefault voltage at alternator terminals (fault location )V is V=.995 + j0+ (402 +5 301) (0.05) =.9799 +j 0201 pu Sub-transient reactance of motor on 100 MVA base = 0.4 pu Thevenin’s reactance when seen from fault terminals PQ = 40.25) (50.45) 50.7 =]. 1607 pu Total fault current J,= tim = 125 -j 6.09 pu Fault current supplied by generator, i... Ig is 7 JAS - Ip, = (.125 -j 6.09) Fas + 725) = 9.08 -j 3.91 pu Fault current supplied by motor, i.e, Ijq is j.25 Tin = (125 —j 6.09) mnt . »(5 IS + j. 3) = 0.045 ~j2.18 pu Total post fault generator current, i.e., J, is 1, = I +1 = (08 -j 3.91) + (0.402 + 0.301) * 0.482 ~ j 3.609 = 3.64 Z -82.4° pu = 5248.8 x 3.64, i.e., 19105.6 Z— 82.4° A Total post fault motor current, i.e., J, is In = Hy 1 = (045 —j 2.18) - (.402 +j.301) = ~.357 — j 2.48 = 2.505 2 261.8° pu =- = 5248.8 x 2.505, ie, 13148 Z 261.8° A278 Power System Analysis and Design 10.5 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS ‘The majority of faults in power systems are asymmetrical, To analyze an asymmetrical faut, a anced 3-phase circuit has to be solved. The direct solution of such a circuit is very difficult, The can be more easily obtained by using symmetrical components since this yields thee (Fittiousy 8” phase networks, only one of which contains a driving emf. Since the system reactances are balanay three fictitious networks have no mutual coupling between them, Due to this fact the method of ang” is quite simple. The method, proposed by C. L. Fortescue in 1918, is valid for any number of phawy the three-phase system is of main interest. 1 10.5.1 General Principles Any set of unbalanced 3-phase voltages (or currents) can be transformed into 3 balanced sets. Tr, three balanced sets are: 1. A positive sequence set of three symmetrical voltages (i.e, all numerically equal and all disp. from each other by 120°) having the same phase sequence abc as the original set and denoted by V,, and V,, as shown in Fig. 10.9 (a). Va she a V, Ver 2 Vig Vy Veo KN va SN In Va (b) © @ sitive sequence components (b) Negative sequence components (c) Zero nce components (d) Addition of sequence components to give phase voltages @ Fig. 10.9 (a) Pc sequei 2. Annegative sequence set of three symmetrical voltages having the phase sequence opposite tots" sthe original set and denoted by Via, Vs2 and V,2 as shown in Fig. 10.9 (b). 3, A zero sequence set of three voltages, all equal in magnitude and in phase with each othet™ denoted by Vag, Vio and Vig (Fig. 10.9c), "The positive, negative and zero Sequence sets are known as symmetrical components. Fig. 109 shows the three-phase voltages obtained by adding the symmetrical components shown in Fig. 10.9 c). Thus, Vi = Var + Yao + Veo iol Vu = Vin + Vi + Yoo cio cose V.= Ver + Veo + Vio ‘The application of symmetrical components to power system analysis is of fundamental import We can transform an arbitrarily unbalanced condition into symmetrical components, compute the 5/9”279 Balanced and Unbalanced Faults :k into ; the results bac! response by straightforward circuit analysis on simple circuit models and cane solution of the the original phase variables. This approach is superior to the direct (and comp! unbalanced three phase circuit 10.5.2 Operator a sd j has the effect of We are familiar with the operator j. In polar form j = 1.290°. The multiplication by H ee Aaglog the rotating a phasor forward through 90° in the positive (anticlockwise) direction wit a ate Magnitude. The operator a is defined as 1 Z 120°, an operator which when multipl vit 5 — Totates it through 120° in the positive (anticlockwise) direction without changing the magnitude. : a@=12120°=1 3 =_0.5 + 50.866 {fa phasor is multiplied by a twice in succession, iis rotated through 240°. Three successive multipli- ations by a rotate the phasor through 360°. Thus, @=12240°=1 Z~ 120° =-0.5 -j 0.866 @ = 12 360° a 2120%=a Some important properties of operator a (which can be easily verified) are: 1+ a= 1260° =0.5 + j0.866 =— a? 1-a= V3 230° = 1.5 — 0.866 1+a?= 12.60" =0.5 -j0.866=-a 1a? = V3.230° = 1.5 + j0.866 l+ata’=0 10.5.3 Matrix Notation The components of phasors b and c can be written in terms of the components of Phasor a by using the operator a. Referring to Fig. 10.9 we see that Vo ? Var Ve =aVa Jouo}suEN ayy 10 wesSeIp s0seyg LT'OT “BL =pIsAH PISAT “BY-O1 ta ur umoys fare uonuaatiog anoge axp Aysies YoryAA 3018 ABEIIOA MOT -yonwaauos axoge 0} WOJUOD 9T°OT “Bid JO SuORDaUOD aU], da EEO ae eae cnc of £4 sannuenb aouanbas aaneSou 981104 MO] tf “ort Bou ap WO 192 OWL “OE Aq apis reou AH au) “ot ‘assanal st douaNbas Onn: Bee i ee tea cg ne = JOA 5 nH 1c] axe saseyd ‘suonoauU0D { ~ y JOY —4 Jatpt9 Joy =u aouanbos annsod wx fem 6 dons UTS -pardope {jjesau08 st wonuaAuoo pre 7 siuazing aut| aouanbes aanisod Suspuodsaxioo sro1p puss Suysoj]OJ PUL “00 pea] apis oBvyOa ysty oy UO Sjwaxm aut] 2oUaNb -roussoysue3} Paysaut0> os aannsod atp ‘pews ‘Wore aures a ted Var Veo Positive Negative Zero uence ee sequence sequence Fig, 10.29 Thevenin equivalent circuits of sequence networks of example 10, és \p! 11 Z, = j0.157, Zy = j 0.157, Zp = j 0.051, Z)=0 120 Tas lg © te eee as 2 ©" * 50157 + j0.157 + j0051 1 74 Pu @ la He) fl 1 1 yy2.747 pa jgar Kl=|1 @ all-ja74}e} 9 HJ Wea a@l-j27m} | 9 100 x 108 Base curent= 200710" 3% 220 x19? = 262.4 A Fault current = 8.22 262.4 = 2156.93 4300 Power System Analysis and Design Generator G, (Bus 1) ‘The component of yi j032 ae (aan + (0.32) A-¥ transformer, a phase shift in the positive sequence Currey 2 ge quantities are to be shifted 30° telardt bese flowing from G, to the bus 2 )=-1139 90 Because of the prese! discussed in section 10.10.2 the low volta; ing HV quantities for the positive sequence. : “Therefore, the component of J, flowing from G, to bus 2 = 1.39 Z (270° - 30°) = 1.39 2 240° pu ‘The component of Jy flowing from G, to bus 2 also equals (~j 1.39 pu). However, the has f this case is +30°. Hence, this component is 1.39 2 (270° + 30°) = 1.39 Z 300° pu. The zero sequence network is open at bus 1, Hence, no zero sequence current flows through g G. The line currents at the terminals of G, are I] fl 11 0 2.40 Z 270° I,]=|1 a? a@ |/139.2240°}=| 2.40 2 90° I.) UL @ a? }[139 2 300° 0 Base current = 5248.8 A Therefore, Z 4 x 5248.8 = 12597 A 2.4 x 5248.8 = 12597 A The sequence voltages at the terminals of G, are Vg =0 Yar = 1- (1.39 2 270) (0.25) = 0.6525 pu (1.39 £270) (0.25 = - 0.3475 pu Taking into account the phase shift .6525 Z (0 30°) = 0.6525 z— 30° pu : 3475 Z (180 + 30°) = 0.3475 z 210° pu The line to neutral voltages at the terminals of G, are ‘a ft | | 8 0.566 2 208° Veg = Y=]1 a? a llo6s05 2 390 Yel Ua a? }Lo3475 2 2199Balanced and Unbalanced Faults 301 ret Vy = fy 0.566 = 3.59 kV 1 x1=6.35kV Example 10.13 A 3-phase, 37.5 MVA, 33 KV alternator having X; = 0.18 pu, X, =0.12 pu and Xq= 0.10 pu, based 08 its rating, is connected to a 33 KV overhead line having X, = 6.3 ohms, Xp = 6.3 ohms and Xo = 12/ ohms per phase. A single line to ground fault occurs at the remote end of the line, The alternator neutral is solidly grounded. Calculate fault current. Solution Base MVA = 37.5 MVA Base voltage = 33 kV . 33 x 33 x 1000 Base ds = = 29 impedance 375xI 29.04 ohm 563 29.04 j63 _. =} 0.337 ohm Jag 210337 0 Total X; =j0.18 + = 0.397 ohm Total X, = 0.12 + : fi26 Poa. =j0. =j05 Total Xp =j 0.10 + 25-5; =/ 0554 ohm 3x1Z0° Fault corent= O97 j0a57+ j0ssa / ™6Pm 37.5x 10° V3 x 33000 Fault current = 2.366 x 656.08 = 1552.3 A Base current = = 656.08 A 40.14 GOMPARISON OF SINGLE LINE TO ULT CURRENT GROUND AND 3-PHASE ‘assuming that the impedance Z,, currents are phree-phasefault J, = - IX, speed t: (10.30) IX, + 7X, 47x, 2, and.Zy are pure rei actances (X,, X, ty X_ and Xo) and Z;=0, the fault Line to ground fault 1, = (10.31)302. Power System Analysis and Design der: ical importance are as un lidly grounded. For a gener, Thre cases of Prat nals wth generator neutral 80 ey and X, are exact Mec (a) Fault at generator termin: (for sub-transient conditions X, 2 Ly equ; 27 al). tp 4, ‘ =X, ; i the current for a single j Moreover = i ee (1030) and 10.31, it a a thata single ne te et valdies are substitu Is hase fault, Therefore, we ng : for a 3-phas severe than a 3-phase fault is more Sri pene ‘vith solidly grounded neutral is more tan at the terminals of \ i th reactance X,,. The methog ie onan vith neutral grounded throug! nr The method of ) Fault at generator biel se fault current, However, the fault current for a single line Wp grounding does fault is: 3E ae ee ReN Ox) F(X, + Xq + Xo + 3X, The relative severity of 3-phase fault and the line to ground fault depends on the value of x, yy i i: large, the current fra line to ground fault is lesser than the current for a 3-phase fault. If, is very aoa for a line to ground fault may be more than that for a 3-phase fault. Since a term3 x, in the denominator of Eq. (10.32) even a small value of X,, is sufficient to make the value of the tag | (ny, fine to ground fault current lesser than 3-phase fault current. IfX,, = a (X, -Xo), the line currents forty two cases are equal. IfX, < 4a, ~ Xo), single line o ground fault is more severe than a 3-phase fa if X> ta, ~ %o), a 3-phase fault is more severe than a single line to ground fat (c) Fault on transmission line. For a transmission line Xp >> X, so that for a fault on a line sufficiently away from the generator terminals, 3 phase fault current is more than the current for a single line» ground fault. a | 10.15 LINE TO LINE FAULT b The termination of the three-phase access port as £ shown in Fig. 10.31 simulates a line to line fault tat through a fault impedance Z. ZL . ‘The terminal conditions are we Ve 1=0 (10.33a) ae I=-I, . (10.33b) v= Ve+Zl, (10.33¢) The Sequence curens at the ful point are Fig. 1031 Line to line fault ‘ Teo at loo In =} 1a al] ;, ) 0 Toa 1a all_; .Balanced and Unbalanced Faults 303 Whence (10.35a) (10.35b) Replacing the actual quantities by their symmetrical components, we can write Eq. (10.33c) as Vag + a? Vat + AV aa = Vag + @ Vay + 0? Van + Z (Igy + a? Iq + 4 leg) (10.36) Since Zoo = 0 (and Vag = 0) and I, =~ Iq, Eq. (10.36) can be simplified as (a? = a) Vay = (@? ~ a) Ve + (@? = a) fy Z or Vai = Vaz + dat Zp (10.37) Equations (10.35 and 10.37) are simultaneously satisfied by connecting the sequence networks as shown in Fig. (10.32a). The simplified equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 10.32(b) From Fig. 10.32 (b) tag tay | Fo, Zero ‘sequence Va Zi network | ___o ta vf] Positive :|——= 9 sequence ¥ network st 2 h Negative . $ sequence ‘2 network @) ) Fig. 10.32 Connection of sequence networks for line to line fault Fe E 1 Dy + 2y+Zy 2 -iV3E Ty + 2 gy + @ Typ = (a? ~ a) Toy "Zine (10.39) Example 10.14 A line to line fault occurs on the terminals of the generator of example 10.10, Find the line currents and line to neutral voltages under fault conditions. Solution E=120° pu,Z,=Z= 0.2 pu, Z/20ysis and Design 120__ __j25pu =-j25 pt Jas * 502+ 02) +0.2) lg eta 2525 PH sos. Power system ae tine currents are 2 1,=0 Jean i VS ay = 4.33 Z 180° pu [.=- f= 4.33 20° pu Base current = 1574.6 A 1,=0 I, = 1574.6 x 4,33 Z 180° = 6818 Z 180° A ' | I, = 1574.6 x 4.33 Z 0° = 6818 2 0° Vey = Ven = 1 — (-j 2.5) (0.2) = 0.5 pu Vig = 0 ‘The line to neutral voltages at fault point are V, 1. ©] 1 Vy f=|1 a? a |/05|=|-05 ve} li a a?jlos} |-05. Since the line to neutral voltage has been taken as 1 pu in the calculation of sequence currents, the actual values of line to neutral voltages are ail Va= py S635 KV v, ul 6= 5) Fe = 3.15 KV view tl c= OS) BATS KV 10.16 DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT The termination of the three-phase access port as shown in Fig, 10.33 simulates a double line to ground fault through fault impedance Z, The terminal conditions are: aoe (10.40a) Vy=Ve=(,+1)Z — (10.40b) it follows from Eq. (10.40a) that Tag + Ter + Lan = 9 (10.41)Balanced and Unbalanced Faults 305 From Eq. (10.40b) Vag + a Ve) + aVq2.= Vag + aVq, + @Vq (10.42a) or Ver = Veo (10.426) Replacing V,, J, and I, by their sequence components we can write Eq. (10.40b) as Veo + 4°Vey + agg = (lag + yy + Lug + lag + Lay + Lyn) Zy (10.43a) Combining Eqs (10.42b), (10.43a) and (10.41) and simplifying, we have Vao~ Var = (2lyo + (a? + a) (gr + Iaa)] Zy poe or Veo - Vat = 3 leo Zy (19.43¢) Equations (10.41), (10.42b) and (10.43c) are simultaneously satisfied by connecting the sequence networks as shown in Fig. (10.34a). The simplified equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. (10.34b). From © this circuit we can write f , Z 10.44) fares Here = Tan os 2 (29 *3Z;) SE ¢ ; ot (Zo 4a +3z, 3%, I, la no ¢ | ° Zero sequence Veo 2% network Tay + Positive sequence Va network | eal eas. tea (fade 5. Negative h sequence Vea i network LO | ve 2 ult Fig, 10.34 Connections of sequence networks ror double line to ground fat : a ‘an be found from Fig, 10.34(b). Then Vay» Veo and Vao can oe be ae i Se a ee sequence currents and voltages, the line curents and voltages, can be calculated. Fro! determined.06 306 Power System Analysis and Design Example 10.15 A double li 2 Gouble line to ground fant occurs onthe terminals of generator of example 10.10. Determine the line , fault current and line to neutral voltages under fault conditions. Solutions Fi igure 10.35 shows the sequence networks connected for a double line to ground fault when Z= 0 = j 0.8334 pu Iq = - (-j 4.167) = J : j0.2 Ip =-(-j 4.167) 202 — #3: q la =~ (54.16) 55 703 j 3.3336 pu. % lo ‘j0.05 Veo Za oO ° § j02 Vai tip? j02 Ven Fig. 10.35 Connection of sequence networks for Example 10.18 ‘The line currents are I,] [1 1 1]f+s33336 0 1,|=]1 a? @ |) ~34.167 |= 6.61 2130.9° 1.) [1 @ a? JL+j0.8334] [| 6.61 2 49.1° ‘The actual values ofiliné currents are 1,=0 I, = 6.61 x 1574.6 2130.9° = 10408.1 2 130.9° A 1, = 6,61 1574.6 249.1° = 10408.1 2 49.1° A Fault current to ground =, +1, = 10 2 90° pu or 15746 290° A The sequence voltages are Vai = Vea = Veo = 1 ~ (4 4.167) (j 0.2) = 0.1666 The line to neutral voltages areBalanced and Unbalanced Faults 307 Va] [1 1 1[0.16667 [0.4998 Vs|=|1 a? a |/0.1666|=| 0 Vel Ua a? jl 0.166. 0 Actual values of line to neutral voltages are * 0.4998 = 3.174 kV WY=V,=0 Example 10.16 A double line to ground fault occurs at bus 2 of the system in examples 10.9 and 10.11. Find the line currents under fault conditions. Assume that the System is on no‘load at the'time of fault. Solution Z, = 0.157 pu, Z =} 0.157 pu, Zy =) 0.051 pu, Z/=0 The connection of sequence networks to represent a double line to ground fault is shown in Fig. 10.36. §0.051 Ip Yeo JOIST I | Var ‘© 0.157 j leg Veo Fig. 10.36 Connection of sequence networks for example 10.16 120 gens 9157 + OISTHIO.OS) 45.15 pu JO19T*" 50157 + j0.051 j 0.051 } 7 254 a 13309 (saa pu j 151, lg=- C1519) (al ago Toned 3 ‘The line currents are aes é I,|=|1 a a ||-J5115)=|8.2133.6° 1.) Ua a jl+j2s4} [82 46.4°308 Power System Analysis and Design Base current for 220 KV system = 262.4 A The actual values of line currents are fa 1, = 8X 262.4 2133.6" = 2099.2 2 133.6° 1, = 8X 262.4 2 46.4° = 2099.2 2 46.4° A Example 10.17 ASO MVA, IL KV, 3-phase alternator was subjected to different types. of faults. The fault currents were: ‘3-phase fault 1870 A, tine to line fault 2590 A, single line to ground fault 4130 A The alternator neutral is solidly grounded. Find the pu values of the three-sequence reactance of the alternator. Solution For 3-phase fault Line to neutral voltage, i.e. E xX Fault current = = 1000/V3_ 1 or X, = 3.396 ohms For line to line fauit 1870 VBE X, +X, — ¥3-x11000/¥3 Xi +X Fault current = 2590 o Xy+X,= 200 4.247 ohms X, = 4.247 — 3.396 = 0.851 ohms For single line to ground fault Fault current = 32 ____¥3x11000_ 1+ 4X Xi 4% 4X, _ _¥3x11000 4130 = 4 X +X +h, V3 x 11009 or X, +X, +Xy= a0 4Balanced and Unbalanced Faults 309 Xq = 4.613 — 4.247 = 0.366 ohms xi Base impedance = = 2.42 ohms 4 pu = 0.35 pu _ 0366 Xy= > = 2.42 15 pu 10.17 CONSIDERATION OF PRE-FAULT LOAD CURRENT IN UNSYMMETRICAL FAULT ANALYSIS. As in the case of symmetrical faults, the prigciple of superposition can be used to include the effect of load current in unsymmetrical fault analysis. It is first necessary to calculate the pre-fault voltage at the fault point. Then the sequence networks are drawn and properly inter-connected depending on the type of fault. The sequence components of fault current and their distribution in different parts of the network are then calculated. The sequence components of fault current are then superimposed on the sequence com- ponents of load current. It must be remembered that the load current is completely of positive sequence character. Then the currents in different phases can be calculated. The phase shift introduced by Y-A transformer must be taken into account. Example 10.18 illustrates the procedure. Example 10.18 ‘An 11 KV, 100 MVA, alternator with solidly grounded neutral has positive sequence and negative sequence reactances of 0.2 pu each and zer0 sequence reactance of 0.05 pu. Itis supplying an 11kV, 50 MUA motor with positive and negative sequence reactances of 0.2 pu and zero sequence reactance of 0.05 pu through a shor line, The neutral of the motoris also solidly grounded, The transmission line has positive and negative sequence reactances of 0.05 pu and zero sequence reactance of 0.15 pu on 100 DIVA base. The motor is drawing 40 MW, at 0.8pf leading with a terminal voltage of 10.95 kV when a single line to ground fault occurs at the generator terminals of phase a Calculate the ‘otal current in the phase a of generator ‘and motor under fault conditions. Solution Base MVA = 100 MVA, Base voltage = 1! kV 100 x 10° = 100 = 5284.8 A Base current = [775 0° ‘Taking the motor terminal voltage as the reference phasor 10.95 motor terminal voltage = 77 ~ = 0.995 20 puBalanced aw wismmen-— Component of positive sequence fault current through generator = (0.06 - j 3.075) (282) = 0.04 —j 2.13 pu j0.65 Component of positive sequence fault current through motor = (0.06 ~j 3.075 ) — (0.04 — j 2.13) = 0.02 - j 0.945 pu ‘The negative sequence fault current components through the generator and motor are the same as the respective positive sequence components. ‘Component of zero sequence fault current through generator = (0.06 - j 3.075) (233) = 0.05 -j 2.56 pu 503 Component of zero sequence fault current through motor = (0.06 - j 3.075) - (0.05 - j 2.56) = 0.01 - 0.515 pu To the above fault currents must be added the load current which is wholly positive sequence. The total positive sequence current in generator = (0.04 — j 2.13) + (0.402 + j 0.301) = 0.442 -j 1.829 The current in phase a of generator = 0.442 —j 1.829 + 0.04 - 7 2.13 + 0.05 -j 2.56 = 0.532-j 6.519 pu or 6.54 2 -85.3° pu or 6.54 x 5284.8 i.e., 34562.6 Z — 85.3° A The fotal positive sequence current in motor j = (0.02 — j 0.945) — (0.402 + j 0.301) = - 0.382 —j 1.246 pu The current in phase a of motor = (— 0.382 — j 1.246) + (0.02 - 0.945) + (0.01 - 0.515) =—0.352 —j 2.706 pu or 2.73 Z 262.6° pu (2.73) Z 262.6) (5284.8) = 1427.5 2 262.6 A or Example 10.19 ‘A generating station A has a short circuit capacity of 1000 MVA. Another station B has a short cireuit capacity of 650 MVA. They are operating at 11 KV. Find the short circuit MVA if they are inter con- nected by a cable of 0.5 ohm reactance per phase. Solution Let Base MVA = 100 MVA Base kV = 11 kV pureactance of A= 10 =0.1 pu312 Power System Analysis and Design J 0.1538 100 - 9,1538 pu 7 pureactance of B= Gq =O! P ; uxt 1 Base impedance = 59 = 1.21 ohm — pu 05 pu reactance of cable = 7-55 = 0.413 pu Ay pu “oe Fig. 10.38 shows the reactance diagram. : It is evident that a 3-phase fault at bus A will Fig. 10.38 give maximum short circuit MVA (0.1)(0.1538 + 0.413) from bus A = = = 0.085 Reactance as seen from bus. 01 +01538+ 0413 pu Short circuit MVA = 200 = 1176.47 MVA 0.085 Example 10.20 A station operating at 33 KV is divided into two sections A and B interconnect a ted throu; SectionA has thee generators cach 15 MVA having 15% reactance. Section Bis fed Rania a75 MVA transformer with 8% reactance. The circuit breakers have a rupturing capacity of 750 MVE Find the reactance of reactor X to prevent the breakers beit if doclralenasslahenray ing overloaded if a 3-phase fault occurs on Solution Let Base MVA = 75 MVA Reactance of each generator on 75 MVA base ib = 7g X05 = 75 pu The circuit (on a common base) is shown in Fi u shown in Fig. 10.39. The i i reactano ‘i oe .39. The internal impedance. id = -e diagram is shown in Fig. 10.40. Since fault level is 750 M' of the gd sea point is 750 MVA, reactance as seen from fault ~35 750 0-1 PH 75 MVA .75 pu reactance each aniBalanced and Unbalanced Faults 313 From Fig. 10.40, reactance 0.25 + 0.084 X Therefore £025)(0.08 + X) 9, 0.25+0.08+ x ~ or, X = 0867 pu 2 Base impedance = KV)" _ 33 x3: MVA~95~ 7 1452 ohm X = 14.52 x 0.0867 = 1.259 ohm Example 10.21 Three 6.6 kV 3-phase 10 MVA alternators are connected to a common bus. Each alternator has a posi- tive sequence reactance of 0.15 pu. The negative and zero sequence reactances are 75% and 30% of Positive sequence reactance. A single tine to ground fault occurs on the bus. Find the fault current if (a) all the alternator neutrals are solidly grounded (b) one alternator neutral is solidly grounded and the other two neutrals are isolated (c) one alternator neutral is grounded through 0.3 ohm resistance and the other two neutrals are isolated. Solution Base MVA = 10MVA. Base voltage = 6.6 kV 10x 106 Current = —————_,, = 874.8 A — V3 x 6.6 x 10° 2 Base impedance = co = 4,356 ohm X,=J0.15 pu Xp = (0.15) (0.75) = j 1125 pu Xi Xp = (J 0.15) (0.3) = j .045 pu (@) The connections of sequence networks are as shown in Fig. 10.41 x Baus jis jus Fault current = YX, + Xp Xo 3 J04S 3 J04S 0.045 eee + Fig. 10.41 Interconnection of sequence networks for example 10.21(a)14 Power System Analysis and Design 3 320 _ 29,268 pu = 50.1025 = 29.268 x 874.8 = 25603.6 A connections of sequence networks are shown in Fig. 10.42, 3E 320 —E _ a 1 +X, + Xo (> NG (Th Fault current = 320 30.1325 = 22.64 x 874.8 = 19805.5 A (c) Neutral resistor = 0.3 ohm = <2 4.356 : ‘The connection of sequence networks is shown in Fig. 10.43. The neutral resistor appears as 3 times its value in the zero sequence network as discussed in section 10.8. 320 = 22.64 pu 069 pu Fault ci 7 ‘ault current 70: 2 +0.207 + 70.045 3 s20e 0.207 + 70.1325 = 12.206 x 874.8 = 10677.8 A = 12.206 pu Interconnection of sequence Fig. 10.43 Int ‘networks for example 10.21(b) Fig. 10.42 terconnection for example 10:21 Setuence RetworksBalanced and Unbalanced Faults 315 Example 10.22 e+ a ‘A 3-phase generator is connected to a star/delta transformer as shown in Fig. 10.44. The positive, negative and zero sequence impedances of alterna- tor are j 0.1, j 0.1 and j 0.05 pu respectively and those for the transformer are j 0.05 pu each. The Fig. 10.44 positive, negative and zero sequence reactances of the line are j 0.4, 0.4 andj 0.8 pu. respectively. Determine the fault current and voltages at fault point when a single line to ground fault occurs at point P at mid point of line and the alternator neutral is (a) grounded (b) isolated. Solution (a) Since the fault is at mid point of ine, the positive, negative and zeru sequence impedances from point Po cach bus are j 0.2, j 0.2, and j 0.4 respectively. The positive and negative sequence currents flow from generator to point P only. Therefore, only the generator reactance and line reactance (from genera- tor bus to point P) appear in the positive and negative sequence diagrams as shown in Fig. 10.45 (a) and (b) respectively. The zero sequence currents flow to ground from point P and return partly through generator neutral and partly through transformer neutral. The zero sequence diagram is shown in Fig. 10.45(c). The connection of sequence networks is shown in Fig. 10.45(d). Vai j03 (005° : , @ jl j02 j03 Ta, 860 joa Van ) j.05 j04 j04 j.05 40225 9 50.225 I hope ae So OF - v, 0 © @ Fig. 10.45 (a) Positive sequence network (b) Negative sequence network (c) Zero sequence network (d) Interconnection of sequence networks for example 10.22(a) 120 ba = 10 ™ F654 703+ JO j 1.212 pu Fault current = lat + Lap + Taq = — j 3.636 pu At the fault point Vg = 12 0~ Igy Zy = 1 Z0—(~J 1.212) (j 0.3) = 0.6363 pu Veo = — Typ Zy= (~J 1.212) (0.3) — 0.3636 puy 316 Power System Analysis and Design : nao 2727 4 > q || 0.6363 |=] ~ 0.4091 = {0.866 7 7 i : a? ||-0.3636} L~ 0.4091 + 0.866. v,=0 i _goot =) 866 = 0.958 2 244.71° pu V V ‘| 866 = 0.958 Z 115.29° pu 4091 + : ks are the same as in part (a). Since the ge (b) The positive and fe sequence networ i tn . tral is isolated, the ae sequenée Mogram is as shown in Fig, 10.46(2). The connections of ‘eau neutral is isolated, s etworks are shown in Fig. 10.46(b)- 0 j0.3 j0.3 ] j00S j04 pj04 j0.05 G04 Ig 40.45 erat peed ed a te " i mh 8 a @ © Fig. 10.46 (a) Zero sequence network (b) Interconnection of sequence networks for example 1022 (b) 120 Lel —_—_————_. = -j 0: al 03+ 703+ j0.450 J.0.952 pu Fault current Ta + Ian + Igo = — j 2.856 pie At the fault point Voy = 1 £0~Iyy Z) = 1 Z0~(-j 0.952 ) (0.3) = 0.714 pu Tug Zy = ~ (-j 0.952 ) (j 0.3) = - 0.2856 Vig = ~ lag Zq =~ (-j 0.952 ) (j 0.45) = - 0.4284 1 1 1 4f-0.4284 0 2 la e 0.714 |=! - 0.6426 - 50.8656 1 a a’)}|-0,2856} |- 0.6426 + 0.8656. 0.6426 — j 0.8656 = 1.078 4 233.41° pu 0.6426 + j 0.8656 = 1.078.2126,59° pu Example 10.23 A generator with grounded neutral has sequence i single line to ground fault occurs on terminals otpiteee ear 2 ad Zpand generated emf .If* ’ b .. Assume Z,= 0. e efnd SLO ="X 40 4p=1 4 . ae soo =x ‘0 = "x ‘vo ='X : 1=4'07 1=4(@) wonnyos ‘asodind oures ay) 9Ass 0} JINOII TeNNOU agp UT payauuos 0q 0} douRIS|SOI JO ONTEA Ip) PUL (q) quaxino uty pores pavoxe jou soop (sourpeduit yney oraz JO) yey punosS 0} auTT o[ZuIs w 10} JUaLIND y[NeJ Jey) OS NoJ}9 TeNNIU oy) UI payouu0D aq 0} aouejoeal JO aNwA ay PUL (8) ATaanoadsos %¢ PUB %OE “Or OB soouvIOvaT aouanbes o10z pur aaneSou ‘oantsod sy “TexNau papunoud ATpryos e sey AX Z'ET “VAIN ST Paves soyes9ue8 oseyd-¢ y veOL atdurexg (7% + *Z4'Z\ og 10 Zq-n)+ Z,p-v)|7~ 4 C242 p+ign) ZAZ4 2 —go= (Z+Z p+'Z0) "1 -q0= (2°) + (ZPP) p+(Z"1-g v= OA +A D+ PAD="A 2 RZ AE [aa 2+ Zo— s}e=% (z+%Zv4'z p) 24 Zt'Z_ Z 7 ap= (2+Z0+'2 0) "1-9 p= C21) +2") 0402") 3) = OAM DEA Dah 07M — = 4 ye 2, 'Z")-g='% Zs zag St oro 20, a £101 wonsas ut poauop sy’ ATE siineg paouejequy, pue pasuejeg uoHnyos90 =%y _ Merit ‘wd, A = = VAW 001 Wu SUH AY Zer v & To=% ———3 & Z10=% i = D ‘0=% SUH AY ZET v a AXIT (eer Tosi 3¢ ae) on VAW 001 “a wd yO=% AxzEI el VAWOOT wont *Aroyeuejdxa asne99q pay z 3198 SY twes8eyp Surureuras ayy, ae mo S19 J0 souejoeas aouanbas o1ez ayy, nd g'| f= ater ye $170 30 eanou a 17d 9'0 Jo aoueyse01 Jennou ayy, “@ Ly OI iq w Umoys 51 ages a —— uonnyog ond . 1 928 sgouv}owaL [TY *(B)Lp ‘OT “Shy UI UMOYs UID)SKs JoMod o1p Jo WeIZeIp soUInbas ie, ana S701 ajdurexg OPT = 91911 X 8960 = “Y 40 nd 9960 = "N30 E= SLO! + "YE Myex(oo+ E04 | @ € BcIL's VII x SLO="X st aourpadurt ast g O9I9TT weet 40 uSisaq pue stsciPuy wiayshg amMod BIEExample 10.26 Balanced and Unbalanced Faults 319 itive, negati Draw posi -gative and zero sequence reactance diagrams for the system shown in Fig. 10.48 (a). ‘The system data is as under Negative sequence f0.12 j09 —_j0l 40.65 jot jo. j0.12 LL Lo 4 jot 0.65 j0d SSS tet Zero sequence (b) Fig. 10.48 Generator G,: X, = Xp = 1.0, Xp=0.1, X, = 0.3 pu. ‘Transformer 7): X= X_=Xp=0.1320 Power System Analysis and Design Lines (each) : X, = X, = 0.2, Xp = 0.65 = Xp =Xy = 0.12 1 1 Xy = 0.1 Transformer 7,; Generator Gy; X; = Xp = 1.0, Xp Generator G3, G4; X, = 0.4, X; Solution The sequence diagrams are shown in Fig. 10.48 (b). For generator G, the neutral reactor appear 3X, in the zero sequence circuit. The generated emfs appear only in positive sequence circuit, Example 10.27 Figure 10.49 (a) shows a system with 4 generators interconnected through lines. The reactances are in, of their respective MVA base. All generators are solidly earthed. Find short-circuit MVA fora 3 phae fault at point F. Solution Let base MVA = 50 MVA Reactance of G, = j 0.05 x a = 70.125 pu Reactance of G; = j 0.06 x 7 = {0.1 pu. Reactance of L, = j 0.04 x = = j0.0667 pu Reactance ot Ly, Ly = 0.05 x a =} 0.0625 pu ‘The reactance diagram is shown in Fig. 10.49 (b). The pu reactances are to a common base of 50 MVA (The prefix j for reactances has been omitted). It can be simplified to Fig. 10.49 (c) by using star delta transformation. It can be further simplified to Fig. 10.49 (d) by using another star delta transforma- tion and finally to Fig. 10.49 (e) 50 F VA = 0 = 1282.05 MVA ‘ault M’ 0.039 Example 10.28 ‘A 33 kV bus bar has a 3-phase fault level of 1000 MVA. The negative and zero sequence source reactances are 2/3 and 1/3 of positive sequence reactance. The zero sequence source resistance is 602. 130 MVA. 33/132 KV solidly grounded A /Y transformer having a reactance of 0.1 puis fed from33 KV bus, Find fault current and fault MVA at 132 KV bus for following faults (a) 3-phase (b) single ine 0 ground (c) line to line (d) double line to ground. Solution Let base MVA = 30MVA 30 Positive sequence reactance of source = aoe 0.03 puBalanced and Unbalanced Faults Fig. 10.49 Negative sequence reactance of source = 0.02 pu Zero sequence reactance of source = 0.01 pu ; _ 33? Base impedance on 33 kV side = Fp 73630 Zero sequence resistance of source 2 = 1.653 pu 30 x10° V3 x 132 x 10° = 131.22A System is shown in Fig. 10.50(a). Fig. 10.50 (b) shows the sequence diagrams X, = 0.13, Xp=J 0.12, Xy=j 0.1 (a) 3-Phase fault. X,=j0.13 pu Base current for 132 kV side = 30 = = 230.77 MVA Fault MVA 7013 —is and Design Power Svstem Analysis and BR rowenses 4.0.03 501 SVT BF. @ j0.02 J01 Positive sequence ————— oy | _Neeative seqnente 33/132 kV ul j0.01 J0.1 { I A 4 7 1.653 es @ = Fig. 10.50 sequence ) 1 Fault current = —1_ = 7,692 "= F0u3 ” = 7.692 x 131.22 = 1009.34 A (b) Single line to ground fault 3x1Z0 fps meen 0 ngs 4* 7013+ 012+ 01) = 857! pu = 8571 x 131.22 = 1124.69 A . 3 Fault level = Ba 1469 x10? =257.13 MVA = 30% 8.571 = 257.13 MVA (c) L-L fault ¥3x1Z0 (0.13 +012) = 6.928 x 131.22 = 909.1 A = 6.928 pu 132 x 10° . Fault-level = erste? x01 = 207.84 MVA, = 30 x 6.928 = 207.84 MVABalanced and Unbalanced Faults me qyDouble line to ground fault 1<6 5.419 Sh 0 slp a ious 4p Ol2xOr 01240. = 5.419 x 131.22 = 711.08 A M3 x 132x103 x 711. eS 160.57 MVA = 30x 5.419 = 162.57 MVA. Fault level = Example 10.29 A33 kV source has a 3-phase fault level of 2000 MVA and has x, = x) = xp. It supplies a 45 MVA 33/ 132kV, A/Y, solidly earthed transformer T, with a leakage reactance of 10%. The transformer feeds a 60 im, 3-phase, 132 KV line having x, = x) = 0.4 Q/km and xp = 1.0 O/km, At the far end of the line is a transformer T, similar to that at the sending end. The remote 33 kV end is open. A single line to earth fault occurs at middle of line (a) Find fault current (b) Find currents in the three-phase lines and show them on a diagram (c) Find currents in the lines connecting source to T,, and show them on the diagram (@) Show the currents in the IV are hV winding of T, and T; on diagrams. Solution (a) The system is shown in Fig. 10.51 (a). Let base MVA = 45 MVA and base kV for line = 132 kV Forsouree 417% =%9= GAS, = 00225 pu F py 321322 Base impedance for line = i * 387.2. Forline {0.4 x 60 J04 x60 _ 59,962 BD x =H= sf OS X= Ggqg 7/0155 pH Since the fault is at the middle of line, the positive, negative and zero sequence reactances from fault Point P to each transformer are 50% of total values. The positive and negative sequence currents flow ftom source to point P. Therefore the reactances of source, T, and line from 7, to P appear in the positive and negative sequence circuits. The zero sequence currents flow from point P to ground and return hough earthed star points of both transformers. In view of this the positive, negative and zero sequence Citeuits are shown in Fig. 10.51 (b). The interconnections of sequence networks is shwon in Fig. 10.51(c) From faut point P to earth324 Power System Analysis-and Design ‘e—_+—36+~— ry A @) 0.0225 j0.1 0.031 j0.031 f0.1 0.1535 Pp UT In y (2 Positive sequence (2 Vas 0.0225 JO1 70.031 Pp §0.031 jO1 0.1535 TI Negative sequence 1 Vig L___ 400225 j01 j007IS | j00775 j01 —_jo08g75 tora b nee] nA ee Zero sequence ° Fig. 10.51 120 Fat = Fea = Jag = ga ow ae 301535 + 01535 4 0.08875 — 12°27 P' Fault current lat + laa + Tog =-/7.581 pu 45 x 106 Base current= "X10" _ i VB%132 x 19> ~ 196.834 Fault current = 7.581 x 196.83 = 1492.17 A (b) From T, to P Igy =~ 52.527 = 2.597 oe Ina = 2.527 2 ~90° p Ino = (2.527 2-90) ; J01775 j0.1775 4 = 1.2635 2-99 ai ‘The currents in the lines from T to P are hela t lat loo = 2.527 LPO? +2.527 2 990, 1.2635 2-99"From 7; to P Balanced and Unbalanced Faults 325 = 6.3175 290° or ~j6.3175 pu In= aI, tag + Mpg = 2.527 Z(-90 + 240)° + 2.527 (-90 + 120)° + 1.2635 2-90° = 2.527 2150° + 2.527 230° + 1.2635 Z-90° = 1.2635 290° or j 1.2635 pu. = 2 [o= Ig + @ Ign + Igy = 2.527 Z (-90 + 120)° + 2.527 Z(-90 + 240)° + 1.2635 2-90° = 1.2635 290° or j 1.2635 pu. Ta = Ig. = 0 Ing = 2.527 £-90° | se ns j0.1775 + j0.1775, = 1.2635 2-90? pu Ig = Tp = Te = 1.2635 2-90? or — j1.2635 pu ‘The line currents are shown in Fig. 10.52. (c) As discussed in section 10.10.2 a phase shift occurs between line currents on low voltage and high voltage side of a star-delta transformer. The positive sequence line currents on Jow voltage side lag the corresponding positive sequence line currents on high voltage side by 30°. ‘The negative sequence line currents on low voltage side lead the corresponding negative sequence line currents on high voltage side by 30°. Therefore currents from source to T, are Tag =0 Iq, = 2.527 £(-90-30)° = 2.527 Z-120° pu Iq = 2-527 £(-90 + 30) = 2527 £-60° pu T= Tog + Fay * Hag = 2527 £-120° + 2.527 2-60" = 4.377 2-90? of —j 4.377 pu Ty = Tag Fay + 4 Aon 1, = 2.527 £120 + 240)" + 2.527 Z(-60 + 120)° 24.377 290° or j 4.377 pu [a lg+ alt Ota 22527 L(-120 + 120)° + 2.527 £(-60 + 240)° = 2.527 + 2.527 £180° = 0 ‘The currents are shown in Fig. 10.521, =~ 1, = 120.84 261.119 4 M2 = —Zyhr=- (1 +). = 42.42 yn naa 7 Vata = Va, + Vg, + Vg =3 Vay = 127.26 251.65° V Von = Zi lay + Za lag = (Zy ~ 22) ly = (2.7 + j.4) (69.77 2-28,89°) = 190.44 2-28.46° V Von =a°Z, Ta +aZ,lq= (a2, -aZ,) 1, = 189.1 Z-118.13° V bh Ve = 4 Zy Igy + @ Zy Io = (a Z, - a? Z,) = 218.38 2121.84° V . Von = Pay = Vay = 42.42 £51.65 °V REVIEW QUESTIONS 10.1 Give reasons: (a) For a fault at alternator terminals, a single line to ground faults is generally more severe than a 3- phase fault. (b) For faults on transmission lines, a 3-phase favit is more severe than other faults. (©) The neutral grounding impedance Z, appears as 3 Z,, in the zero sequence equivalent circuit. (@ The positive and negative sequence equivalent circuits are not affected by the method of neutral grounding. (© The analysis of unsymmetrical faults can be more easily done with the help of symmetrical components than by a direct solution of the unbalanced circuit (f) The phase shift in the positive sequence and negative sequence qua transformer are opposite to each other. 102 Distinguish between symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults. List the steps in the symmetrical fault calculations. How can the load current be taken into account in fault calculations ? 10.3 Discuss the principle of symmetrical components. Derive the necessary ‘equations to convert (a) phase ‘quantities into symmetrical components (b) symmetrical components into phase quantities. ~ 10.4 Draw a general circuit which can be used to determine the zero sequence network of a two-winding transformer. Using this circuit, draw the zero sequence networks of (a) star-star transformer with star ints grounded -delta transformer. 10s Derive the pea pa to determine the fault cio for a single line to ground fault. Draw a dis ing the inter-connection of sequence networks; i 10.6 Show pipe en pr negative sequence currents are equal in magnitude but out of phase by 10 ine line to line fault. Draw a diagram showing inter-connection of sequence networks for this type of fault. jai Sa tities through a star delta334. Power System Analysis and Design 10.7 10.8 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 Draw a diagram showing interconnection of sequence networks for a double lin to ground faut. Dey, uations for sequence currents. a Inwhat respects are the faut calculations, for a fault on the alternator terminals, different from the fy calculations for a fault in a power system network? PROBLEMS i 0.2 pu are operating in parallel. They f Three 10 MVA generators each having a reactance of : feed g transmission Tine through a 30 MVA transformer having. per unit reactance of 0.05. Find te fault MvA 120 MvAy for a fault at the sending end of line. . Iti ted through a 6 MV, -phase, 6 MVA, 6.6 kV generator has a reactance of 0.1 pu. It is connect ‘A, 6.6133 Wy.309 f transmission line having a resistance of 0.09 ohm and a reac KV, 0.09 pu reactance transformer to a . ‘of 0.36 ohm per km. A 3-phase dead short circuit occurs at a distance of 10 kms from the transformer. The generator voltage atthe time of fault is 7.2 KV. Find the fault current in the generator. (2726 Aj ‘Three 6.6 kV alternators of ratings 8 MVA, 2 MVA and 5 MVA have per unit reactances of 0.16, 0.08 and 0.12 respectively and are connected to acommon bus bar. A 3-phase fault occurs on a feeder which takes off from the bus. The reactance of the feeder from the bus to the fault point is 0.125 ohm. Find the fault MVA. (87.2 Mva} ‘A power station has three section bus bars with 11 kV generators on the ring system as under: Section 1: Two generators of 30 MVA and 20 MVA with 0.15 and 0.12 pu reactance respectively. Section 2: One generator of 60 MVA and 0.2 pu reactance. Section 3: Two generators of 30 and 60 MVA with 0.18 and 0.2 pu reactance respectively. Sections 1 and 2, 2 and 3 and 3 and 1 are connected through reactors of ratings 60, 90 and 80 MVA with reactances of 0.2, 0.3 and 0.24 pu respectively. Determine the fault current when a 3-phase symmetrical fault occurs at the far end of a feeder, with a 0.05 pu reactance and 0.01 pu resistance on 30 MVA base, connected to section bus number three. Also calculate the current supplied by the 60 MVA generator on section 3 bus under the fault condition. [17800 A, 6760 A] A power station contains 3 similar, 3-phase, 50 Hz alternators each of 200 MVA, 11 kV and 0.9 pu Teactance. Each machine is connected to an 11/132 kV transformer of 200 MVA and 0.09 pu reactance. ‘The transformer secondaries feed a common 132 kV bus from which a short line takes off. Each phase of the line has a resistance of 0.5 ohm and an inductance of 8 mH. Find the fault MVA for a 3-phase fault at the far end of the line, (557.4 MVA] Two 22 KV, 3-phase, 50 Hz alternators are connected to a common bus bar. One alternator is 60 MVA. 0.18 pu transient reactance and the other is 100 MVA, 0.2 pu transient reactance. A step up transformer aie ev, 130 MV A012 pasate 7 Connected to the sation bus. The transformer feed a 132kV transformer with 0.09 pu reactance. The following loa oan = he oa ‘ iar ag Hive bar (1a balanced 3 phase oad of 40 MW a0. flagging 2) a 20 MVA synshrovors mater wth 16 pu transient reactance and taking 20 MVA at 0.9 pfleading. The voltage of the receiving end bus is 10.55 proportion to their ratings, A 3-phase fault with an arc resistancé of 0.9484 ohm between each occurs at the motor terminals when the system is loaded as above, Calolas the comers trond one the ih machines. Seen ee For 60 MVA generator, 1 = 1186 - {3398 A For 100MVA generator, I = 1850 J 397A For synchronous motor, J = 143 -j6453Ai Ba tine currents in a 3-phase system are: J. = anced and Unbalanced Faults 335 : i 604. 307 | smetrical components of line current. 440, 1, =~ 80+) 20 and 1, = 4. nein © neural voltages in 3-phase system are lle 69=) 887A i = safe Cate 108 7/970° V. Pind the symmetrical components of the volame, 1” © Yow = 600. 100? and 1 i (Way = 211. 0, Analternator has the following sequence impedances; 32197", Vay = 370 20°, Voq = 71.2 2 63.3° VJ 109 Pn 94] 1.0, Z2=0.1+j.20,2)=04j1 ae 0 ohm. The line to V.A flr between yellow and blu phases oc, Tyne voltage atthe generator emia of healthy Pe, 37 current and line to neutral voltage it ABBis® 33K 3 5 MVA alternator is connected to 4.33 kV overhead line which develo to fault on one phase remote end. The positive, negative and re ‘ad line which develops an earth 0.18, 0.12 and 0.1 per unit ofits rating while those for the line are 64 6.3 and tne oc cer Find (a) fault current (b) line to neutral voltages at alternator terminals, 6.3 and 12.6 ohm per conductor. fv te os 1,555 kA (b) Vyq = 13 ZOKV ine to line fault occurs between two phi Hc ahd Olas of Oe hee aoe Ore 1 Aline to | 0 phases at the remote end of lit i 101 ad (a) fault current (b) line to neutral voltage of the healthy phase neni eee . (a) 1.545 kA'(b) 17. ur 42 MVA, 11 KV, 3-phase alternator having a transient reactance of 0.2 teed a20 ‘iva, ff w 3.phase synchronous motor having a transient reactance of 0.5 pu through a short line. The line has a reactance of 0.3025 ohm. A 3-phase fault occurs at the motor terminals when the motor is taking an input of 15 MW at unity Pf. The line voltage across motor terminals at the time of fault is 10.45 kV. Find the {otal current supplied by the generator and motor to the fault. [787.3 -j 3989 A, - 787.3 ~j 1994.5 A] jn13. Figure 10.57 shows a power system fed by two generators. The ratings and reactances ofthe equipments are shown, A 3-phase fault occurs at the receiving end bus of 132 kV. Find (a) fault level and fault current (6) fault current supplied by generators G, and G,. [(@) 155.55 MVA, 680.37 A (b) 3401.875 A, 4762.625A} 35 MVA, 11/132 kV 3 E 132 kV Line 35 mA, i KV tin pon 2 pt 25MVA,11kV 25 MVA, 132 KV Line es 02 pu 11132 aaa a a : O.i pu Fig. 10.57 tts The ine currents in a 3-phase supply are 1, = 12-+/24 A eae Sequence is abe, Calculate the sequence components sea tl, pul a . 2 OS ay, : ivided into 4 sections. Bach section *$ SMVA it i ‘bus bars divided 1 ity of ae pees ceases .ce. Each section is connected to a generation capaci J,2-4-]6 A. The phase 15,1 Acleg #475 Av k= 951 A}er System Analysis and Design Pow 336 tance. Find the fault MVA when a fault occurs on the bus bars of one section yi having 0.2 pm ene (by short circuited és ___[(a) 250 MVA (6) 509 mvt reactors (a) conne generator has 0.3, O.! ‘and 0.65 pu positive, negative and zero 10.16 A 10 MVA 50 He aphase rine having, | cm diameter conductors in equilateral triangle confe® reaiances feds TN, the generator has an oon circuit emf of 30 kV when a line to ine 10% The interphase saci A am generator bus. Find cura in the lines. (555.55 A, 555 sec Le NA 20 MVA and 20 MVA rating. Their sesero 0! cot hree generators: of 1OMVA, J rating. Their re sao cot eve. ‘They have separate bus bars A, B, C. Bus bars A and B coms See reactor on 10 MVA base. Bus ‘bars Band C are connected through a 4% reactor on 8 ae 5 ea age is LL KY. Take 100 MVA base and draw reactance diagram, Find fat MA base ure current fora 3-phase fault a bus A. ' (203.25 MVA, 10668 a} 10.18 Inthe system of example 10.22 find the current circulating in the delta windings of the transformer at the receiving end. 2 fol da anh (0.35 puy example 10.30, the three-winding transformer at the receiving end is replaced 10.9 ae ero sort auton bot side. Ths tanto, nding transformer connected in starstar with solidly 50 MVA, 132/33 kV, 5% reactance. Find the fault current for a single line to ground fault at ‘occurs al 10.17 Apowel 10%. | terminals of this transformer. ’ (1946.45 4} 10.20 Inthe system of example 10.22 find fault current for a line to line fault. (2.8867 pul 10.21 Inthe system of example 10.22, find positive seavence current for a double line to ground fault. 12.333 pul 10.22. A 3-phase 10 MVA, 6600 V alternator with earthed neutral has Z, = 0.5 +j4.7, Z,=0.2+j 0. bande 0.48 ohm, Tt supplies a3-phase 3-wire cable having 21 = 0.36 + j. 25, 2 = 0.36 + j 25 and Zy=2.9+ 4.95 ohm. Find (a) fault current (b) voltages of healthy phases at fault point for a single line to ground fault ‘at the far end of cable. [1364.2 A, 2633.1 V, 3252.8V] 10.23 A 3-phase generator A having positive, negative and zero sequence Teacher of 0.3, 0.2 and 0.05 pu has Ae Piped neutral, It feeds a 3-phase lin through a transformer 7, The transformer hasx=%)=%)= 0.12 pe and is connected star-star with both neutrals earthed. For the Tine y= a= 1.15 and x9 = 0.35 pu. The Piher end of line is connected toa transformer 7, having x; =%)=%9= 0.1 pu. A ‘generator B feeds T,. The Sequence reactances of generator B are 0.25, 0.15 and 0.03 pu. The transformer 7g is also connected star~ saath both neutrals earthed. Aline to lie fault occurs on secondary side of 7), Find fault umes inpu. All the reactances are on the same base. (4.224 pul 10.24 Find currents flowing into fault from the three ines for a double line to ground fault at the same location in problem 10.22. [0, 4.78 pu, 4.78 pul 10.25 ‘A20MVA generator having 15% reactance and a 10 MVA generator having 10% reactance are to a common bus. The'bus feeds a 30 MVA, 11/33 kV transformer with 5% reactance. A ‘33 KV feeder see cet from transforiner and has an impedance of (3+ j 15) Q. Ifa 3-phase fault occurs at frend of ‘ozs feeder, find fault MVA and fault current. The generators ae rated at 11 KV. [50.207 MVA, 878.42 Al .26 A single line to earth fault occurs on a feeder. The sequence impedances upto fault point are 03 +j 06 03 +4055 and 1 + [0.78 pu. The fault resistance is 0.66 pu. If voltage is 1.20, find fault cure and ow voltage of faulty phase at fault point. {0.738 pu, 0.429 ~ 0.23 Pl 1027 A Spee 15 KV, 30 MVA star connected generator has a subtransient reactance of 0.15 pu: Ie feeds sen sy tana former consisting of three single phase units each 10 MVA, delta-star, 1 3,2 - 6.41115 KV having leakage ecianeof 0.77 and resistance 0.05 pu The wanformer supe 8 waste 0 kan Jong ha 4 esiaance of 02 O/km and postive sequence reactance 0.8 CVs ‘The step dow" re OEE AV, seltanae og aett Of 3:aingle phase units each 8.333 MVA, connected delts-sf synchronous motor 25 MVA, 6.6 kY and leakage reactancé 0.08 pu. The load consists of @ 3.phast Or ingging pl ssa impedanen toed coy tsg cue uansteatrosctance of 0.25 pu and 8 aoghase OME 2d EY, the motor is drawing 1G yes curent in Line and voltages at its two ends Whe? voline 4 3-phase fault occurs at motor ternal pf and the shunt impedance load is connected wl + find initial symmetrical line cureng in the generat0t. 69 4) {(a) 123 A, 110 kV, 115 kV ©) 5