UG - B.Lib.I.Sc. - Library Information Science - 109 21 - ICT in Libraries

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Bachelor of Library & Information Science YTISREVINUALAGAPPA

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INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES IN LIBRARIES

INFORMATION COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGIES IN LIBRARIES
II - Semester
Bachelor of Library & Information Science

109 21
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ISREVINUALAGAPPA
APPAGALAUNIVERSITY
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TACUDE ECNATSIDDIRECTORATE
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RIDDISTANCE EDUCATION TECHNOLOGIES IN LIBRARIES
II - Semester
ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY
[Accredited with ‘A+’ Grade by NAAC (CGPA:3.64) in the Third Cycle
and Graded as Category–I University by MHRD-UGC]
(A State University Established by the Government of Tamil Nadu)
KARAIKUDI – 630 003
Directorate of Distance Education

II - Semester
109 21
Authors
Sanjay Saxena, Director, Total Synergy Consulting Pvt Ltd, New Delhi
Units (2.2, 5.4, 6)
Paulomi M Jindal, Academic Writer and Consultant
Units (3, 8.3, 12, 13.2, 14.2.1)
Rajneesh Agrawal, Senior Scientist, Department of Information Technology, Ministry of Communications and Information
Technology, Government of India
Units (4.2, 5.2, 5.3)
Bharat Kumar, Assistant Librarian, Management Development Institute, Gurgaon
Units (7, 10)
Richa Bhargava, Associate Professor, IILM Gurgaon
Units (9, 13.3)
Vikas® Publishing House, Units (1, 2.0-2.1, 2.3-2.8, 4.0-4.1, 4.3-4.8, 5.0, 5.1, 5.5-5.9, 8.0, 8.1-8.2, 8.4-8.9, 11, 13.0-13.1,
13.4-13.8, 14.0-14.1, 14.2, 14.3-14.7)
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SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE
Information Communication Technologies in Libraries
Syllabi Mapping in Book
BLOCK I: INTRODUCTION TO ICT

Unit I: Information Technology: Definition and their major components. Unit 1: Information Technology
(Pages 1-11)
Unit II: Introduction to computers, Components, Types, Advantages Unit 2: Introduction to Computers
(Pages 12-36)
BLOCK II: NETWORKING

Unit III: Networking: Concepts, objectives and Types. Unit 3: Networking
(Pages 37-51)
Unit IV: Telecommunications, Wireless Communication, Wi-Fi Unit 4: Telecommunication

(Pages 52-84)
BLOCK III: COMPUTER HARDWARE & SOFTWARE

Unit V: Hardware and Software, Programming Language Unit 5: Hardware and Software
(Pages 85-105)
Unit VI: System Software and Application Software Unit 6: Types of Software
(Pages 106-118)
BLOCK IV: LIBRARY AUTOMATION

Unit VII: Nature and type of Software packages and their use, Library Unit 7: Software Packages
and Information Software packages, Features of India Software packages. (Pages 119-144)
Unit VIII: Open Sources software – GSDL, KOHA, Dspace Unit 8: Open Source Software
(Pages 145-156)
Unit IX: Library Automation of Library housekeeping operations Unit 9: House-keeping Operations
(Pages 157-183)
BLOCK V: DIGITAL LIBRARY
Unit X: Computerized Information Service management of Computerized Unit 10: Computerized
Library. Information Services
(Pages 184-204)
Unit XI: Digitization – Definition, Need, Purpose – process – methods Unit 11: Digitization
and Equipment (Pages 205-216)
Unit XII: Library and Information Networks, INFLIBNET - DELNET Unit 12: Library and Information
Networks
(Pages 217-238)
Unit XIII: Resource Sharing Networks, Internet. Unit 13: Resource Sharing Networks
(Pages 239-268)
Unit XIV: Metadata Standards – Doublincore – Z39.50 Unit 14: Metadata Standards
(Pages 269-276)
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
BLOCK I: INTRODUCTION TO ICT

UNIT 1 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY 1-11
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction to Information Technology
1.2.1 Information Systems: Definition and Characteristics
1.2.2 Information Systems: Components, Applications and Types
1.2.3 Information Technology Act
1.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
1.4 Summary
1.5 Key Words
1.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
1.7 Further Readings
UNIT 2 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS 12-36

2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Computers and their Components
2.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Computers
2.2.2 History of Computers
2.2.3 More Parts of a Computer System
2.3 Types of Computer
2.5 Summary
2.6 Key Words
BLOCK II: NETWORKING
UNIT 3 NETWORKING 37-51
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Concepts and Objectives
3.3 Types of Network
3.5 Summary
3.6 Key Words
UNIT 4 TELECOMMUNICATION 52-84

4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Wired and Wireless Communication
4.2.1 Transmission Concepts and Terms
4.2.2 Twisted Pair (Copper Conductors)
4.2.3 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
4.2.4 Shielded Copper or STP
4.2.5 Coaxial Cable
4.2.6 Optical Fibre
4.2.7 Unguided Media
4.3 Wi-Fi
4.5 Summary
4.6 Key Words
BLOCK III: COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

UNIT 5 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE 85-105
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Hardware of a Computer System
5.3 Software of a Computer System
5.4 Programming Language
5.4.1 Machine Language
5.4.2 Assembly Language
5.4.3 High-Level Languages
5.4.4 4 GL and 5 GL
5.4.5 Merits and Demerits of Various Programming Languages
5.6 Summary
5.7 Key Words
UNIT 6 TYPES OF SOFTWARE 106-118

6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 System and Application Software
6.2.1 Types of Computer Software
6.2.2 System Software
6.2.3 Application Software
6.4 Summary
6.5 Key Words
BLOCK IV: LIBRARY AUTOMATION

UNIT 7 SOFTWARE PACKAGES 119-144
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Library and Information Software: Selection Criteria
7.2.1 Features of Good Library Software Packages
7.2.2 Evaluation of Software
7.2.3 Selection Criteria for Software
7.3 Library Automation System Selection Guidelines
7.3.1 Technology
7.3.2 Features and Functions
7.3.3 Services
7.3.4 System Support and Maintenance
7.4 Library Software Packages: Nature and Types
7.4.1 Hardware and Operating System Requirements
7.4.2 Programming Language of Software
7.4.3 Search Response Time and Data Storage Techniques
7.4.4 Types
7.6 Summary
7.7 Key Words
UNIT 8 OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE 145-156

8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 GSDL: Greenstone Digital Library Software
8.3 Koha
8.4 DSPACE
8.6 Summary
8.7 Key Words
UNIT 9 HOUSE-KEEPING OPERATIONS 157-183

9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Use of Computers for Housekeeping Operations
9.2.1 Library Automation
9.2.2 Objectives and Need of Library Automation
9.2.3 Various Housekeeping Activities in a Library
9.3 Automated Serials control system
9.3.1 Types of Serials
9.3.2 Identification of Serials
9.3.3 Functions
9.3.4 Management and Workflow in Serials Control System
9.5 Summary
9.6 Key Words
BLOCK V: DIGITAL LIBRARY

UNIT 10 COMPUTERIZED INFORMATION SERVICES 184-204
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Computerized Information Services: Definition
10.3 Alerting
10.3.1 Types of Alert Services
10.3.2 Importance of Alert Service
10.4 Bibliographic Service
10.5 Document Delivery Service
10.5.1 Categories of Document Delivery Services
10.5.2 Efficiency of Document Delivery Service
10.5.3 Historical Perspective
10.5.4 Increase in Demand
10.5.5 Recent Trends
10.5.6 Electronic Document Delivery Systems
10.6 Problems of DDS and Role of International Organization
10.7 Document Delivery Service of Niscair
10.7.1 Reference Services
10.7.2 Meaning and Definition
10.8 Need and Purpose of Reference Service
10.8.1 User’s Information Needs
10.10 Summary
10.11 Key Words
UNIT 11 DIGITIZATION 205-216

11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Definition, Need and Purpose of Digital Libraries
11.3 Process and Methods of Digitization
11.3.1 Framework for Building Digital Library
11.5 Summary
11.6 Key Words
UNIT 12 LIBRARY AND INFORMATION NETWORKS 217-238

12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Library and Information Networks
12.2.1 Definitions and Objectives
12.2.2 Brief History of Library and Information Networks
12.2.3 Library Networks at the International Level
12.2.4 Existing Data Networks in India
12.2.5 Library and Information Networks: Indian Scenario
12.4 Summary
12.5 Key Words
UNIT 13 RESOURCE SHARING NETWORKS 239-268

13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Resource Sharing Technology
13.2.2 Need for Resource Sharing
13.2.3 Areas of Resource Sharing
13.2.4 Prerequisites for Resource Sharing
13.3 Internet based Library and Information Services
13.5 Summary
13.6 Key Words
UNIT 14 METADATA STANDARDS 269-276

14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Dublin Core
14.2.1 Role of Standards
14.4 Summary
14.5 Key Words
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
We live in the age of information. The development and propagation of electronically

NOTES communicated information has augmented economic and social change across all
areas of human activity worldwide and it continues to do so at a quick pace.
Information and communications technology (ICT) has become, within a very
short time, one of the basic building blocks of modern society. Many countries
now regard understanding ICT and mastering the basic skills and concepts of ICT
as part of the core of education, alongside reading, writing and numeracy. ICT
permeates the business environment, it underpins the success of modern
corporations and it provides governments with an efficient infrastructure.
Increase in the use and access to Information and Communication
Technologies (ICT) is playing a pivotal role in Library and Information Science
(LIS). The technological revolution paved the challenges for the Library and
Information Science (LIS) not only in India but also in the west. Increase in the use
and access to Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) for LIS
education is now more evident. LIS education and training facilities in India are
undergoing rapid changes.
Library automation is the application of ICTs to library operations and
services. The functions that may be automated are any or all of the following:
acquisition, cataloging, public access, indexing and abstracting, circulation, serials
management and reference. An integrated library system is an automated library
system in which all of the functional modules share a common bibliographic
database.
This book, Information Communication Technologies in Libraries, is
written with the distance learning student in mind. It is presented in a user-friendly
format using a clear, lucid language. Each unit contains an Introduction and a list of
Objectives to prepare the student for what to expect in the text. At the end of each
unit are a Summary and a list of Key Words, to aid in recollection of concepts
learnt. All units contain Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises, and strategically
placed Check Your Progress questions so the student can keep track of what has
been discussed.
Self-Instructional
12 Material
Information Technology
BLOCK - I
INTRODUCTION TO ICT
NOTES
UNIT 1 INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction to Information Technology
1.2.1 Information Systems: Definition and Characteristics
1.2.3 Information Technology Act
1.4 Summary
1.5 Key Words
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Information Technology (IT) is the use of computers to store, retrieve, transmit,

and manipulate data, or information, often in the context of a business or other
enterprise. IT is considered to be a subset of Information and Communications
Technology (ICT). An information technology system is generally an information
system, a communications system or, more specifically speaking, a computer
system – including all hardware, software and peripheral equipment – operated
by a limited group of users.
In other words, IT or Information Technology refers to the development,
maintenance, and use of computer software, systems, and networks. It includes
their use for the processing and distribution of data. Data means information, facts,
statistics, etc., gathered together for reference, storage, or analysis. Information
Technology refers to anything related to computing technology. The Internet, for
example, comes under the umbrella term IT. So does computer hardware, software,
and networking. Software includes all the computer programs – codes and
instructions – within a computer. Computers do not work without software.
Hardware, in this context, refers to the physical components of a computer system.
The screen (monitor), mouse, and motherboard, for example, are hardware items.
In this unit, you will study about information technology, its types and
applications in detail.
Self-Instructional
Material 1
1.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:

NOTES  Understand the meaning of Information Technology (IT)
 Explain the types and applications of IT
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY
Information and Communications Technology or ICT, is often used as an extended

synonym for Information Technology (IT), but is a more specific term that stresses
the role of unified communications and the integration of telecommunications
(telephone lines and wireless signals), computers as well as necessary enterprise
software, middleware, storage, and audio-visual systems, which enable users to
access, store, transmit, and manipulate information.
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) are creating new ways
of communicating, doing business, and delivering services. The term ICT is now
also used to refer to the convergence of audio-visual and telephone networks with
computer networks through a single cabling or link system. There are large economic
incentives (huge cost savings due to elimination of the telephone network) to merge
the audio-visual, building management and telephone network with the computer
network system using a single unified system of cabling, signal distribution and
management.
ICT has become the foundation of every sector of every economy,
everywhere. The various applications of Information and Communications
Technologies (ICT) are:
 It reduces transaction costs and thereby improved productivity.
 It offers immediate connectivity– voice, data, visual–improving efficiency,
transparency, and accuracy.
 It substitutes for other, more expensive means of communicating and
transacting, such as physical travel.
 It increase choice in the marketplace and provide access to otherwise
unavailable goods and services.
 It widens the geographic scope of potential markets, and channel
knowledge and information of all kinds.
Information Systems (IS) are a special class of systems that are used for
data storage, retrieval, processing, communication and security. Information systems
that help management at different levels to take suitable decisions are called
Self-Instructional
2 Material
Management Information Systems (MIS). Information systems are housed in a Information Technology
computerized environment /platform to enable users to get accurate information
immediately.
1.2.1 Information Systems: Definition and Characteristics NOTES
According to Orlikowski (1992), ‘Nothing is more central to an organization’s
effectiveness than its ability to transmit accurate, relevant, understandable
information amongst its employees. All the advantages of an organization’s economy
of scale, financial and technical resources, diverse talents, and contacts are of no
practical value if the organization’s employees are unaware of what other employees
require of them.’
Information Systems Over the Years
Information systems have transformed remarkably in the last forty years of their
existence. Initially, information systems were designed to perform a specific task
quickly with very few errors. The concept of using information systems to take
decisions had not been thought of earlier. Organizations used information systems
only for data processing, be it salaries or bills. Those who worked on these systems
were familiar with the commands and the interface, which was character based. The
output was in the form of salary slips, bills and invoices. These were data processing
systems. These systems used file-based data storage systems on which a programme
would work, i.e., the programme would be able to access the data and organize it,
but it would store the data in a file. The problem with this type of system is that it leads
to replication of data and loss of consistency.
Over the years, information systems have changed. Now the focus is on
helping management by providing information useful for decision-making. Data
processing systems have become obsolete. Delivering the right information to the
right people at the right time is the priority. Information systems have become
faster, more accurate and user friendly. Those who work on information systems
nowadays know little about systems. They are normal users. New concepts, such
as client server architecture, networking, distributed computing, centralized
database, graphical user interface and the Internet, have emerged in the information
systems space to help organizations get better value for their money. Bulky and
expensive mainframe systems have been replaced by expensive software.
Information systems are data processing systems, which collect data from different
sources, process that data and generate information from the data which can further
be used for different applications within the organization. For example, in a business
context, an information system collects data from various systems such as finance
and sales systems from the supplier side. The information system processes the
data and generates information for the customer. Customers provide feedback to
the supplier depending on the information processed by the information system.
Figure 1.1 shows the information system in a business context.
Self-Instructional
Material 3
NOTES
Fig. 1.1 The Information System in a Business Context
Information systems are basically systems that help to maintain and manage
information. An information system helps to manage and store information to
perform various functions such as decision-making, documentation of business
activities and generation of reports for analysis of organizational operations. One
needs to understand the concept of information and system to acquire a basic
knowledge of information systems. Various terms used in information systems are
as follows:
 Data is the raw material that can be a number, a fact, a sound, a picture
or a statement gathered from different sources. In the real world, data
can represent anything related to business processes and employee
details.
 Information is meaningful data or processed data. It defines the relation
between the different data.
 System refers to a collection of components that helps in achieving a
common objective. For example, in a human–machine system, the
machine element consists of hardware and software to perform
computation, and people make decisions based on this computation.
Components of Information Systems
A system consists of two types of components: abstract system components and
physical system components. Abstract system components perform such operations
as collecting input data, processing the data and generating information from that
data. Physical system components consist of various elements such as hardware,
software and human resources. There are a few more components of an information
system, such as:
 Data: Input that the system takes to produce information.
 Hardware: A computer and its peripheral equipment such as input, output
and storage devices.
Self-Instructional
4 Material
 Software: Application programs or a set of instructions that process the Information Technology
input data using computers, generate information and store information for
future use.
 Network: A collection of computer systems connected to each other to
NOTES
share the information.
 Manpower: Information system professionals and users who perform various
organizational operations such as analysis of information, designing and
construction of the information system, and maintenance of the information
system. The workforce could comprise IT experts, managers and workers.
 Graphical User Interface (GUI): This is an interface for the users of an
information system to work with information on the computer system. A
user can operate, process and retrieve information from the computer storage
using GUI.
The components of an information system describe the functioning of the
system. An information system takes the input data from the users of the information
system to perform business operations. The users interact with the computer to
process data using GUI. After processing data, information is retrieved at the
users’ end. Figure 1.2 shows the basic information system to perform business
operations.
Fig. 1.2 The Basic Information System
Applications of Information Systems

There are many application areas that implement information systems in a business
environment to solve business problems and to pursue business opportunities.
Figure 1.3 shows the various application areas of information systems in an
organization.
Self-Instructional
Material 5
Information Technology Marketing
Interactive marketing sales

force automation
Advertising and promotion
market research
NOTES
Production Operations Personnel
Manufacturing resource Compensation analysis

planning Employee skills inventory
Manufacturing execution Personnel requirement
systems forecasting
Accounting Finance
Order processing Cash management

Inventory control Audit management
Accounts receivable Investment management
Accounts payable Capital budgeting
Pay roll Financial forecasting
General ledger
Fig. 1.3 The Application Areas of Information Systems
Types of Information Systems

Information systems manage data and process it to provide operational and managerial
support in an organization. Operations-support systems control business operations,
generate sales orders and determine payment to the employees. Management-support
systems help to take managerial decisions for the development of the organization.
Figure 1.4 shows the classification of information system.
Fig. 1.4 The Classification of Information Systems
Organizations use different types of information systems as per the

requirements of organizational functions. Various types of information systems on
the basis of organizational functions that help in integrating business processes and
information are as follows:
 Management Information System (MIS): It manages the information
Self-Instructional to plan and control the organizational tasks and to make decisions.
6 Material
 Decision Support System (DSS): It supports the low-level and the Information Technology
middle-level workers to take decisions for a better performance of the

organizational functions.
 Executive Information System (EIS): It helps top business executives
NOTES
in decision-making using key business information.
 Expert Systems: It helps in analyses of business information and
provides solutions to those business problems already defined in its
implementations.
 Knowledge Work System (KWS): It takes inputs as designing
specifications, models them and generates pictures and graphics. The
output of the system helps technical staff and professionals to understand
the business operations visually. KWSs generate, share and distribute
knowledge and help in decision-making.
 Transaction Processing System (TPS): It is an essential business
system that assists the functional plane. An inbuilt system, it plays a vital
role in the execution and documentation of routine dealings for the smooth
running of the business.
 Office Systems (OS): It helps to keep records and manage various
office operations such as accounting and sales. These systems process
word documents and generate electronic information.
Different types of information systems are used for different types of functions.
For example, an EIS is used for strategic planning. Strategic planning helps to take
decisions for future plans. Figure 1.5 shows various types of information systems,
their functions and the level of the system in which they are used.
TYPES OF SYSTEMS Strategic-Level Systems
Executive Support 5-year 5-year 5-year Profit Personnel
Systems (ESS) sales trend operating budget planning planning
forecasting plan forecasting
Management-Level Systems
Management Sales Inventory Annual Capital Relocation
Information management control budgeting investing analysis
Systems (MIS) analysis
Decision-Support Sales region Production Cost Pricing/profitability Contract cost
Systems (DSS) analysis scheduling analysis analysis analysis
Knowledge-Level Systems
Knowledge Work Engineering Graphics Managerial
Systems (KWS) workstations workstations workstations
Office Word Document Electronic
Systems processing imaging calenders
Operating-Level Systems
Machine control Securities Payroll Compensation
Transaction trading
Order tracking Plant scheduling Accounts Training and
Processing payable development
Systems Order processing Material Cash Accounts Employee
(TPS) movement control management receivable record keeping
Sales and Manufacturing Finance Accounting Human
Marketing Resources
Fig. 1.5 Various Types of Information Systems, their Levels and Functions Self-Instructional
Material 7
Information Technology 1.2.3 Information Technology Act
The Information Technology Act, 2000, is an Act of the Indian Parliament that
addresses the following issues:
NOTES  Legal recognition of electronic documents, digital signatures, cyber offenses
and contraventions.
 Dispensation of justice for cyber offenses and contraventions.
E-commerce has come in for severe security risks, which calls for proper
security. To ensure this, mechanisms like data encryption using digital signatures,
passwords, encrypted smart cards, bio-matrices and firewalls are to be employed.
For this reason, the IT Act, 2000, has made detailed provision on digital signatures.
Section 2(1)(p) of the Act has defined digital signatures as ‘digital signature means
authentication of any electronic record by a subscriber by means of an electronic
method or procedure in accordance with provisions of Section 3’. Section 2(1)(zc)
and Section 2(1)(zd) have defined ‘private key’ and ‘public key’ as ‘private key
means the key of a key pair used to create digital signature’ and ‘public key means
the key of a key pair used to verify a digital signature and listed in the Digital
Signature Certificate’.
E-World
E-World was an online service operated by Apple Inc. The services included e-
mail, news and a bulletin board system (community center). Users of E-World
were often referred to as E-People. E-world offers domain name registration
service as part of Web design, Web development and Web hosting packages and
also carries it out as an independent service. It is important to choose the right
kind of domain name for business. The domain name is selected in such a manner
that it reflects the company and encourages trust and professionalism. Any kind of
domain name can be registered with extension such as .com, .net, .org, .biz, .info
etc. E-World provides economical Web hosting solutions for Budget, Business
and enterprise clients.
Check Your Progress

1. List some of the applications of ICT.
2. Define data.
3. What does information mean?
4. What is the role of MIS?
5. Expand the term TPS and write its role.
Self-Instructional
8 Material
1.3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS
1. Some of the applications of Information and Communications Technologies NOTES

(ICT) are as follows:
 It reduces transaction costs and thereby improved productivity.
 It offers immediate connectivity– voice, data, visual–improving efficiency,
 It substitutes for other, more expensive means of communicating and
transacting, such as physical travel.
 It increase choice in the marketplace and provide access to otherwise
unavailable goods and services.
2. Data is the raw material that can be a number, a fact, a sound, a picture or
a statement gathered from different sources. In the real world, data can
represent anything related to business processes and employee details.
3. Information is meaningful data or processed data. It defines the relation
between the different data.
4. Management Information System (MIS) manages the information to plan
and control the organizational tasks and to make decisions.
5. Transaction Processing System (TPS) is an essential business system that
assists the functional plane. As an inbuilt system, it plays a vital role in the
execution and documentation of routine dealings for the smooth running of
the business.
1.4 SUMMARY
 Information and Communications Technology or ICT, is often used as an

extended synonym for Information Technology (IT), but is a more specific
term that stresses the role of unified communications and the integration of
telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless signals), computers as
well as necessary enterprise software, middleware, storage, and audio-
visual systems, which enable users to access, store, transmit, and manipulate
information.
 ICT reduces transaction costs and thereby improved productivity.
 ICT offers immediate connectivity– voice, data, visual–improving efficiency,
 According to Orlikowski (1992), ‘Nothing is more central to an
organization’s effectiveness than its ability to transmit accurate, relevant,
understandable information amongst its employees. All the advantages of
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Information Technology an organization’s economy of scale, financial and technical resources, diverse
talents, and contacts are of no practical value if the organization’s employees
are unaware of what other employees require of them.’
 System refers to a collection of components that helps in achieving a common
NOTES
objective. For example, in a human–machine system, the machine element
consists of hardware and software to perform computation, and people
make decisions based on this computation.
 Data is the raw material that can be a number, a fact, a sound, a picture or
a statement gathered from different sources. In the real world, data can
represent anything related to business processes and employee details.
 Graphical User Interface (GUI is an interface for the users of an information
system to work with information on the computer system. A user can operate,
process and retrieve information from the computer storage using GUI.
 Information systems manage data and process it to provide operational
and managerial support in an organization.
 Decision Support System (DSS) supports the low-level and the middle-
level workers to take decisions for a better performance of the organizational
functions.
1.5 KEY WORDS
 Data: Input that the system takes to produce information.

 Hardware: A computer and its peripheral equipment such as input, output
and storage devices.
 Software: Application programs or a set of instructions that process the
input data using computers, generate information and store information for
future use.
 Network: A collection of computer systems connected to each other to
share the information.
 Manpower: Information system professionals and users who perform
various organizational operations such as analysis of information, designing
and construction of the information system, and maintenance of the
information system. The workforce could comprise IT experts, managers
and workers.
 Graphical User Interface (GUI): This is an interface for the users of an
information system to work with information on the computer system. A
user can operate, process and retrieve information from the computer storage
using GUI.
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1.6 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES
Short Answer Questions NOTES
1. What is IT?
2. List any three applications of ICT.
3. What is information system?
4. Define the following terms:
 Data
 Information
 Network
 Manpower
5. What is KWS?
Long Answer Questions
1. Give a detailed note on IT and ICT along with their applications.
2. Write a general account on IS.
3. What are the components of IS?
4. Write in detail about the applications of information software.
5. Elaborate a note on the types of IS.
6. Explain about information technology act and E-world.
1.7 FURTHER READINGS
Williams, Brian and Stacey Sawyer. 2009. Using Information Technology, 6th
edition. New Jersey: McGraw-Hill.
Silberschatz, Abraham, Peter B. Galvin and Greg Gagne. 2012. Operating System
Concepts, 9th edition. New Delhi: Wiley.
Black, Uyless D. 1993. Computer Networks: Protocols, Standards, and
Interfaces, 2nd edition. New Jersey: PTR Prentice Hall.
Nagpal, D.P. 2006. Web Design Technology (Theory and Techniques on the
Cutting Edge), 1st edition. New Delhi: S.Chand & Company.
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Introduction to Computers
UNIT 2 INTRODUCTION TO
COMPUTERS
NOTES
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Computers and their Components
2.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Computers
2.3 Types of Computer
2.5 Summary
2.6 Key Words
2.0 INTRODUCTION
A computer is a programmable machine. The two principal characteristics of a

computer are: It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner
and it can execute a pre-recorded list of instructions, i.e., a program.
Computers are used as control systems for a wide variety
of industrial and consumer devices. This includes simple special purpose devices
like microwave ovens and remote controls, factory devices such as industrial
robots and computer-aided design, and also general purpose devices like personal
computers and mobile devices such as smartphones.
Conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing
element, typically a Central Processing Unit (CPU), and some form of memory.
The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a
sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations in response to
stored information. Peripheral devices include input devices like keyboards, mice,
joystick, etc., output devices like monitor screens, printers, etc., and input/output
devices that perform both functions, for example, the 2000s-
era touchscreen. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an
external source and they enable the result of operations to be saved and retrieved.
In this unit, you will study about computers and their components and types
of computers in detail.
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2.1 OBJECTIVES

 Understand what computers are NOTES
 Explain the types of computers
 Discuss the components of the computers
2.2 COMPUTERS AND THEIR COMPONENTS
Computers have undergone great transformation over the past decade; however,
the basic logical structure remains the same. A computer primarily constitutes of
three integral components, viz. input unit, Central Processing Unit (CPU) and
output unit. The CPU constitutes of the main memory, the Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU) and the control unit.
Apart from these three basic components, computers have secondary storage
devices known as auxiliary storage or backing storage that store data and instructions
on a long-term basis.
The following are the primary functions of a computer:
 Inputting: The process in which the user specify a set of commands to
process data into the computer system.
 Storing: The process of recording data and information so that it can be
retrieved for use whenever required.
 Processing: This process implies performing arithmetic or logical
operations on data to convert them into useful information. Arithmetic
operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, and
logical operations include comparisons, such as equal to, less than and
greater than.
 Outputting: This is the process of providing results to the user. These
can be in the form of visual display and/or printed reports.
 Controlling: This refers to directing the sequence and the manner in
which all the previous functions are carried out.
A detailed description of the components that perform these tasks is as follows:
Input Unit
Programs and data are required to be present in a computer system before any
operation can be performed. A program denotes the set of instructions which the
computer has to carry out and data is the information on which these instructions
are to be operated. If the task is to rearrange a list of telephone subscribers in
alphabetical order, the sequence of instructions that will guide the computer through
this operation is the program, while the list of names to be sorted is the data. Self-Instructional
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Introduction to Computers The input unit is responsible for transferring data and instructions from the
external environment into the computer system. Instructions and data enter the
input unit through the particular input device (such as keyboard, scanner and card
reader). These instructions and data are then converted into binary codes (computer
NOTES acceptable form) and sent to the computer system for further processing.
Central Processing Unit
The central processing unit is known as the brain of the computer. It is an important
part of the computer and includes the control unit, the ALU and the primary memory
that are described as follows:
 Main Memory (Primary Storage): The main memory or the primary
storage of the computer system is responsible for storing all the instructions
and data temporarily. The data is then transferred to the arithmetic logical
unit for processing. After this, the final output is again stored back in the
primary storage, until it is further sent to the output device.
The primary storage also temporarily stores any intermediate result generated
by the ALU. So data and instructions move frequently between the ALU
and the primary storage before the processing is complete. It should be
noted that no processing occurs within the primary storage.
 Arithmetic Logic Unit: In addition to the basic four arithmetic operations,
viz. addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, the ALU also performs
logic comparison operations including equal to, less than and greater than.
 Control Unit: The function of the control unit is to ensure that according to
the stored instructions, the right operation is done on the right data at the
right time. The control unit receives instructions and commands from the
programs in the primary memory, processes them and ensures that the
commands are executed in the desired order by all the other units of the
computer system. In fact, the control unit is comparable to the central nervous
system of the human body.
Output Unit
Computers understand, process data and return the output in a binary form. The
basic function of the output unit is to convert these results into a human readable
form before providing the output through various output devices, such as terminals
and printers.
The storage capacity of the primary memory of the computer is limited.
Often, it is necessary to store large amounts of data. So, additional memory, called
secondary storage or auxiliary memory, is used in most computer systems.
Secondary storage is storage other than the primary storage. These are
peripheral devices connected to and controlled by the computer to allow permanent
storage of data and programs. Usually, hardware devices, such as magnetic tapes
and magnetic disks, fall in this category.
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2.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Computers Introduction to Computers
The increasing popularity of the computer has proved that it is a powerful and
useful tool. Its usefulness is due to its following features:
 Speed: Computers are very fast. They can process millions of instructions NOTES
every second. The speed is related to the amount of data it processes and
the time it takes to complete the processing task.
 Storage: Computers can store vast amounts of information in the form of
files which can be recalled at any time. These files help in easy and speedy
retrieval of information. This type of storage is known as electronic storage
system.
 Accuracy: In addition to being fast, computers are also accurate. The degree
of accuracy for a particular computer depends upon its design. Most errors
in computers are not of a technical nature but are human. Usually,
programmers are responsible for these errors.
 Diligence: Computers can perform any complicated task accurately without
making any error. Computers do not suffer from carelessness, boredom or
tiredness. Moreover, their efficiency does not decrease with age.
 Versatility: Computers perform various tasks depending upon the
instructions given to them and their hardware characteristics. They are
capable of performing any task, provided the task is reduced to a series of
logical steps. A computer can be used to prepare a Word document and in
between called to search for another document that is stored in its memory.
It can perform both tasks simultaneously.
Though computers can do better than human beings in terms of accuracy, speed
and memory, there are certain disadvantages of computer systems as they depend
on human beings for their operations and functions. The following are some of the
disadvantages of computers:
 They depend on human beings who program them for efficient, accurate
and fast functioning.
 Computers do not have their own intelligence and, thus, cannot think
intelligently or work independently like human beings. They can just follow
instructions given by programs or by users.
 They can neither take decisions nor can correct wrong instructions.
Programmers or users maintain and update them.
 As with many other modern appliances, computers also need electric power
to run.
The first mechanical adding machine was invented by a French mathematician,
physicist, inventor, writer and chritian philosopher Blaise Pascal in 1642. Later, in
1671, a German philosopher, mathematician and political advisor Baron Gottfried Self-Instructional
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Introduction to Computers Wilhelm von Leibniz invented the first calculator. Around this time, an American
inventor Herman Hollerith developed the concept of punched cards, which were
extensively used as an input medium in mechanical adding machines.
A mathematician, philosopher, inventor and mechanical engineer, Charles
NOTES
Babbage, a 19th century professor at Cambridge University, is considered the
father of the modern digital computer. During this period, mathematical and statistical
tables were prepared by a group of clerks. However, utmost care and precaution
could not eliminate human errors.
In 1842, Babbage came up with a new idea of the Analytical Engine, which
was meant to be completely automatic. This machine was capable of performing
basic arithmetic functions. However, these machines were difficult to manufacture
because the precision required to manufacture them was not available at that time.
The following is a brief description of the various generations of computers.
 Mark I Computer (1937–44): This was the first fully automatic
calculating machine designed by an American physicist and a pioneer
in computing Howard H. Aiken, the design of which was based on
the technique of punching card machinery. In this technique, both
mechanical and electronic components were used.
 Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939–42): This computer was
developed by an American physicist and inventor Dr John Atanasoff
to solve certain mathematical equations. It used forty-five vacuum
tubes for internal logic and capacitors for storage.
 The Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (ENIAC)
It (1943–46): It was the first electronic computer developed for
military requirements and was used for many years to solve ballistic
problems.
 EDVAC (1946–52): One of the drawbacks of ENIAC was that its
programs were wired on boards, which made it difficult to change
them. To overcome the drawbacks of ENIAC, the Electronic Discrete
Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) was designed. The basic
idea behind this concept was that sequences of instructions could be
stored in the memory of the computer for automatically directing the
flow of operations.
 EDSAC (1947–49): A British computer scientist Professor Maurice
Wilkes developed the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator
(EDSAC), by which addition and multiplication operations could be
accomplished.
 The UNIVersal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) (1951): It was
the first digital computer to be installed in the Census Bureau in 1951
and was used continuously for 10 years. In 1952, International
Business Machines (IBM) introduced a commercial computer IBM
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16 Material
Generations of Computer Introduction to Computers
The history of computer development can be divided into different phases which
are often referred to as generations of computing devices. ‘Generation’ in computer
terminology is a ‘step’ in technology. Each generation of computers is characterized NOTES
by a major technological development that fundamentally changes the way
computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful, efficient
and reliable devices which has decreased the energy consumption and the heat
decipation.
Originally, the term ‘generation’ was used to distinguish between varying
hardware technologies, but nowadays, it includes both hardware and software.
The following are the characteristics of each generation of computers:
First Generation (1940–1956): Vacuum Tubes
The first generation computers used vacuum tubes in their electronic circuits and
magnetic drums for memory. A vacuum tube was a delicate glass device that used
filaments as a source of electrons, and could control and amplify electronic signals.
Figure 2.1 displays a vacuum tube.
Fig. 2.1 A Vacuum Tube
These computers could perform computations in milliseconds but were

enormous in size, occupying almost an entire room. They were very expensive to
operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat
resulting in malfunctioning.
First generation computers relied on machine language (binary-coded
programs) to perform operations and could solve only one problem at a time.
Input was based on punch cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on
printouts.
Early computers, such as ENIAC, EDVAC and UNIVAC I, all can be
classified as first generation computers.
Second Generation (1956–1963): Transistors
Transistors, developed in 1947, replaced vacuum tubes in the second generation
computers. The transistor was far superior compared to vacuum tube, making
computers smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy efficient and more reliable than
their first generation predecessors. Although transistors also generated a great
deal of heat that could damage the computer, it was a great improvement over the
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Introduction to Computers vacuum tube. Second generation computers still relied on punched cards for input
and printouts for output.
The cryptic binary machine language was followed by the symbolic or
assembly language that allowed programmers to specify instructions in words.
NOTES
High-level programming languages, such as COBOL and FORTRAN, were also
being developed at this time.
These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in the
memory, which advanced the technology from magnetic drum to magnetic core.
The first computers of this generation were specifically developed for the atomic
energy industry.
Third Generation (1964–1971): Integrated Circuits (ICs)
Transistors were clearly an improvement over the vacuum tube but still generated
a lot of heat resulting in computer damage.
Fig. 2.2 An IC Chip
The development of integrated circuit (Refer Figure 2.2) by Jack Kilby in

1958, an electrical engineer with Texas Instruments, was the greatest achievement
for initiation of the third generation of computers. The invention of IC chips made
it possible to greatly reduce the size of computers with improvement in operation
speed and reliability.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation
computers through devices, such as keyboards and monitors. They also interfaced
with an operating system that allowed the device to run many different applications
at one time with a central program that monitored the memory.
Now, the computers became accessible to the masses because they were
substantially smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
Fourth Generation (1971–Present): Microprocessors
Large Scale Integration (LSI) were developed which could fit hundreds of
components onto a single chip. By 1980s, Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
squeezed thousands of components onto a single chip. Ultra Large Scale Integration
(ULSI) increased that number to millions.
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The ability to fit so much processing capability in an area so small, helped to Introduction to Computers
reduce the size and price of the computers. It also increased its power, efficiency
and reliability.
Initially, the IC technology was used only for constructing the processor,
NOTES
but it was soon discovered that the same technology could also be used for the
construction of memory. The first memory chip was constructed in 1970 and could
hold 256 bits. Figure 2.2 displays an IC chip.
As more and more components were fabricated on a single chip, fewer and
fewer chips were needed to construct the processor. The Intel 4004 chip, developed
in 1971, located all the components of the computer — from Central Processing
Unit and Memory to Input/Output controls—on a single chip. This was the first
microprocessor. Figure 2.3 displays the Intel pentium microprocessor chip.
Fig. 2.3 The Intel Pentium Microprocessor Chip
IBM introduced its first personal computer in 1981 and in 1984 Apple also
introduced a personal computer, the Macintosh. Microprocessors also advanced
from the realm of desktop computers to advanced technologies, and many areas
of life as more and more everyday devices began to use microprocessors.
As computers increased in computing power, it was possible to connect
them together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the
Internet. Fourth-generation computers also marked the development of Graphical
User Interfaces (GUIs), the mouse and various handheld devices.
Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond): Artificial Intelligence
The fifth generation computers are being developed using the technology of artificial
intelligence; for instance, voice recognition systems. Parallel processing and
supercomputers have lead to the further development of artificial intelligence. In
the future, quantum computation and molecular technology will tremendously
transform computers. The fifth generation aims at creating devices that respond to
input in natural language and are capable of learning and self organization. Table
2.1 provides a list of various computer generations.
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Introduction to Computers Table 2.1 Generation of Computers
Generation Time Hardware Features Examples
I 1942- Vacuum Tubes High-speed electronic switching ENIAC,
1955 device; memory type was EDVAC,
electromagnetic; bulky in size; EDSAC,
NOTES generated a large amount of heat; UNIVAC I
frequent technical faults; required
constant maintenance; used for
scientific purposes; air-conditioning
required
II 1955- Transistors Better electronic switching devices Livermore
1964 than vacuum tubes; made of Atomic
germanium semiconductors; Research
memory type was magnetic cores; Computer
powerful and more reliable; easy to (LARC),
handle; much smaller than vacuum IBM
tubes; generated less heat as
compared to vacuum tubes; used for
business and industries for
commercial data processing; air-
conditioning required
III 1964- Integrated ICs were smaller than transistors; Mainframe,
1975 Circuits (ICs) consumed less power; dissipated less Minicomputers
made up of heat as compared to transistors;
transistors, more reliable and faster than earlier
resistors and generations; capable of performing
capacitors fixed on about 1 million instructions per
single silicon chip second; large storage capacity; used
for both scientific and commercial
purposes; air-conditioning required
IV 1975- Microprocessor Microprocessor had control on Personal
1989 made up of Large logical instructions and memory; Computers
Scale Integration semiconductor memories; personal (PCs),
Circuits (LSI) and computers were assembled; used in LAN,
Very Large Scale LAN and WAN to connect multiple WAN,
Integration computers at a time; used graphical
Circuits (VLSI) user interface; smaller, more reliable CSCW
and cheaper than third-generation
computers; larger primary and
secondary storage memories; had
Computer Supported Cooperative
Working (CSCW); air-conditioning
not required
V 1989- Ultra Scale Large PCs were assembled – portable and Portable PCs,
Present Integration (USLI), non-portable, powerful desktop PCs Palmtop
Optical Disks and workstations; less prone to Computers,
hardware failure; user-friendly Laptop
features – Internet, e-mailing; air-
conditioning not required

In order to transfer data to the memory of the computer, input devices are used.
The ALU is responsible for calculations. Once the calculations are done, the data
is transferred back to the memory. The memory is responsible for storing data,
according to which different functions are carried out. This memory is also known
as the main memory or the Immediate Access Store (IAS).
The control unit is responsible for controlling various computer operations,
which involves accepting instructions, interpreting and processing of this information
in the correct parts of the computer. The main function of the control unit is to
make sure that the instructions are correctly followed and all operations are done
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exactly according to the instructions at the correct time. This process leads to Introduction to Computers
outcomes that are stored in memory. Figure 2.4 displays a computer system.
NOTES
Fig. 2.4 A Computer System
Motherboard
The main PCB (Printed Circuit Board) is sometimes alternatively known as a
logical board or a main board of a personal computer. In fact, any complex electronic
system is known as a motherboard. It includes a flat fibreglass platform which
hosts the CPU, the main electronic components, device controller chips, main
memory slots, slots for attaching the storage devices and other subsystems. Figure
2.5 displays a motherboard.
Fig. 2.5 A Motherboard
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Introduction to Computers Sockets and Ports
 Main Power Socket: The top part of the rear of the computer locates the
main power cable socket, which supplies power from the electric mains to
NOTES the computer system. This socket is the part of the main power supply unit
of the computer.
 Monitor Power Socket: The socket that supplies the power from the
computer system to the computer monitor and is located below the main
power cable socket. However, you might not find this socket in all computers
and you can plug in the monitor directly in main power supply.
 PS/2 Mouse Port: Next you will find a small, round, green colored port
with seven holes and a small logo of the mouse printed next to it. This is
where your PS/2 mouse will be plugged in.
 PS/2 Keyboard Port: Right next to mouse port you will find another similar
purple colored port with the keyboard logo printed next to it. This is where
your PS/2 keyboard will be plugged in.
 Fan Housings: You will notice two fan housings at the back of your
computer. One fan housing is a part of the power supply unit and the other
will be somewhere below it to cool off the heat generated by the CPU.
 Serial Ports: It is a 9-pin connector normally used to attach the old serial
port mouse, hand-held scanners, modems, joysticks, game pads and other
such devices.
 Parallel Port: It is a 25-pin connector used to attach parallel port printers,
modems, external hard disk drives and other such devices.
 Audio Jacks: There are three audio jacks in your computer system. One
jack is used for connecting your speakers or headphones, the second is
used to connect the microphone and the third to connect to another audio
device, such as a music system.
 LAN Port: The LAN port (where LAN is Local Area Network) is where
the RJ45 connector of your LAN cable is plugged-in to connect your
computer to other computers or the Internet.
 USB Ports: The USB port (where USB is Universal Serial Bus) is designed
to connect multiple peripheral devices in a single standardized interface,
and has a plug and play option that allows devices to be connected and
disconnected without having to restart the computer. It has replaced many
serial and parallel ports for devices, such as mouse, printers, modems,
joysticks, game pads, scanners, digital cameras and other such devices.
 VGA Port: This is a 15-pin connector that connects the signal cable of the
monitor to the computer. Here VGA means Video Graphics Array.
Figure 2.6 displays power cables and sockets of monitor and CPU,
respectively.
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Monitor Cable
Cable Socket
NOTES
Mouse Cable
Cable Socket
Keyboard Cable
Cable Socket
Monitor Power Cable
Cable Socket
Fig. 2.6 Monitor and CPU: Power Cable and Sockets
Figure 2.7 displays a LAN cable and a printer cable with its socket.
LAN Cable
Cable
Printer Cable and Socket
Fig. 2.7 LAN Cable and Printer Cable with Socket
Memory
Storage and retrieval of instructions and data in a computer system is the
responsibility of the memory. In order to store data and instructions, the CPU
constitutes many registers, though these are capable of storing very few bytes. All
computers need storage space for temporarily storing instruction and data during
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Introduction to Computers the execution of the program as the CPU can process data at a higher speed than
the speed at which data can be transferred from disks to registers. This could lead
to the idle CPU which remains free most of the time. The primary or the main
memory is the temporary storage located in the computer hardware. Secondary
NOTES storage or auxiliary memory constitutes devices that can give backup storage,
such as magnetic tapes and disks. The memory is classified as follows:
(i) Internal Processor Memory: A small set of high-speed registers placed
inside a processor and used for storing temporary data while processing.
(ii) Primary Storage Memory: The main memory of the computer which
communicates directly with the processor. This memory is large in size and
fast, but not as fast as the internal memory of the processor. It comprises a
couple of integrated chips mounted on a printed circuit board plugged directly
on the motherboard. Random-Access Memory (RAM) is an example of
primary storage memory.
(iii) Secondary Storage Memory: This stores all the system software and
application programs, and is basically used for data backups. It is much
larger in size and slower than primary storage memory. Hard disk drives,
floppy disk drives and flash drives are a few examples of secondary storage
memory.
(iv) Memory Capacity: Capacity, in computers, refers to the number of bytes
that it can store in its main memory. This is usually stated in terms of Kilobytes
(KB) which is 1024 bytes or Megabytes (MB) which is equal to 1024 KB
(10,48,576 bytes). The rapidly increasing memory capacity of computer
systems has resulted in defining the capacity in terms of Gigabytes (GB)
which is 1024 MB (1,07,37,41,824 bytes). Thus, a computer system having
a memory of 256 MB is capable of storing (256 × 1024 × 1024)
26,84,35,456 bytes or characters.
Processors Used in PCs
The most significant part of the computer is the CPU. The CPU is mostly a
microprocessor-based chip located on a single or sometimes a multiple printed
circuit boards and is an internal component of the system. It is directly connected
to the motherboard; however, the compatibility of the motherboard and the CPU
depends on the specific series of the latter. Due to the tremendous amount of heat
generated by the CPU, it contains a heat sink and a cooling fan.
Popular microprocessors include Intel and AMD, which are compatible
with IBM CPUs.
The brands of CPUs are not the only differentiating factors between different
processors, there are various technical aspects to these processors which allow
us to differentiate between CPUs of different power, speed and processing
capability. Accordingly, each of these manufacturers sells numerous product lines
offering CPUs of different architecture, speed, price range and so on. The following
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are the most common aspects of modern CPUs that enable us to judge their Introduction to Computers
quality or performance:
 32 or 64-bit Architecture: A bit is the smallest unit of data that a computer
processes. 32 or 64-bit architecture refers to the number of bits that the
NOTES
CPU can process at a time.
 Clock Rate: The speed at which the CPU performs basic operations,
measured in Hertz (Hz) or in modern computers Megahertz MHz or
Gigahertz GHz.
 Number of Cores: CPUs with more than one core are essentially multiple
CPUs running in parallel to enable more than one operation to be performed
simultaneously. Current ranges of CPUs offer up to eight cores. Currently,
the Dual-core (i.e., two cores) CPU is most commonly used for standard
desktops and laptops, and Quad-core (i.e., four cores) is popular for entry-
level servers.
 Additional Technology or Instruction Sets: These refer to unique features
that a particular CPU or range of CPUs offer to provide additional processing
power or reduced running temperature. These range from Intel’s MMX,
SSE3, and HT to AMD’s 3DNOW, and Cool n Quiet.
These technical factors are the basic way to judge how a CPU will perform.
It is important to consider multiple factors when looking at a CPU rather than just
the clock speed or any one specification on its own. It is easy for a single-core
processor to run music videos, Internet applications or games individually, but
when multiple applications are run together, it starts to slow down. A system running
on a dual-core processor would be able to multitask better then a single-core
processor, while it is very easy for an 8-core processor to run all these applications
plus a lot more without showing any signs of slowing down. However, Intel's 4-
core processors are actually two dual-core processors combined in a single
processor, whereas AMD's 4-core processors are actually four processors built
in a single chip.
A combination of the above mentioned specifications, along with the operating
systems that the processor supports and the specific purpose for which the
computer is to be used, are the factors to be considered when deciding which
CPU is the most suitable for your needs.
Check Your Progress

1. What is processing?
2. What tasks does computers perform?
3. What is LAN port?
4. How is the speed measured at which CPU performs the basic operations?
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2.3 TYPES OF COMPUTER
Computers can be classified on the basis of their size, processing speed and cost.
NOTES The various types of computers are as follows:
 Personal Computers (PC)
 Workstations
 Notebook/laptop Computers
 Tablet PC
 PDA (Personal Digital Assistant)
 Mainframe Computers
 Supercomputers
Some other types of computers are discussed as follows:
Analog Computers
These types of computers are involved in industrial process controls and measure
physical quantities, such as pressure, temperature, and so on. These computers
do not use binary digits but use electrical signals to provide output with electrical
resistance, voltage, and so on. The memory of these computers is not much and
they can be used only for specific calculations; however, their speed is more than
digital computers.
These electrical properties allow calculations to be performed in real time
or even faster at the speed of light. The main mathematical operations it applies
include summation, inversion, exponentiation, logarithm, integration, differentiation,
multiplication and division.
Digital Computers
These types of computers are primarily involved in data processing and problem
solving for specific programs. In digital computers, data is stored as digits (numbers)
and processes. Letters, words, symbols and complete texts are digitally represented,
that is, using only two digits 0 and 1. Digital computers have a lot of memory for
storing data.
Digital computers constitute input-output devices, main memory, control
unit and arithmetic logic unit. Data is processed with logical circuits, also known
as digital circuits. All the circuits processing data inside a computer function in an
extremely synchronized mode; this is further controlled using a steady oscillator
acting as the computer’s ‘clock’. Hence, the digital computers operate on very
high speed and are able to perform trillions of logical or arithmetic operations per
second to provide quick solution to problems, which is not possible for a human
being to do manually.
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Hybrid Computers Introduction to Computers
Hybrid computers are a mixture of digital and analog computers. A hybrid computer
uses the best characteristics of digital and analog computers. It helps the user to
process both continuous and discrete data. Hybrid computers are generally used NOTES
for weather forecasting and industrial process control.
The digital component basically functions as a controller to provide logical
operations, whereas the analog component provides solutions of differential
equations. Remember that the hybrid computers are different from hybrid systems.
A hybrid system is a digital computer equipped with an analog-to-digital converter
for input and a digital-to-analog converter for output. The term ‘hybrid computer’
represents a combination of different digital technologies to process specific
applications with the help of various specific processor technologies.
General Purpose Computers
Workstations are high-end, general-purpose computers designed to meet the
computing needs of engineers, architects and other professionals who need
computers with greater processing power, larger storage and better graphic display
facilities. These are commonly used for Computer Aided Design (CAD) and for
multimedia applications, such as creating special audio-visual effects for television
programmes and movies. A workstation looks like a PC and can be used by only
one person at a time. The characteristics of a workstation, which are often used to
differentiate it from a PC, are as follows:
 Display Facility: Most workstations have a large screen monitor (21 inches
or more) capable of displaying high resolution graphics as compared to
PCs, which have a small screen monitor (19 inches or less).
 Storage Capacity: Workstations have a larger main memory than PCs,
which have only a few hundred MB of main memory. The hard disk capacity
of workstations is also more than that of PCs.
 Processing Power: The processing power of workstations is several times
greater than that of PCs.
 Operating System: PCs can run on any of the five major operating
systems—MS DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System), MS-Windows,
Windows-NT, Linux and UNIX—but all workstations generally run the
UNIX operating system or a variation of it, such as AIX (used in IBM
workstations), Solaris (used in SUN workstations) and HPUX (used in HP
workstations).
 Processor Design: PCs normally use CPUs (Central Processing Units)
based on the Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC) technology,
whereas workstation CPUs are based on the Reduced Instruction Set
Computer (RISC) technology.
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Introduction to Computers Special Purpose Computers
These types of computers are digital or an analog computers which are specifically
designed to perform desired specific tasks. These are high performance computing
NOTES systems with special hardware architecture, which is dedicated to solve a specific
problem. This is performed with the help of specially programmed FPGA (Field
Programmable Gate Array) chips or custom VLSI (Very-Large-Scale Integration)
chips. They are used for special applications, for example, astrophysics
computations, GRAPE-6 (for astrophysics and molecular dynamics), Hydra (for
playing chess), MDGRAPE-3 (for protein structure computations), and so on.
Micro, Mini, Mainframe and Supercomputers
These are as follows:
Microcomputers
Microcomputers are developed from advanced computer technology. They are
commonly used at home, classroom and in the workplace. Microcomputers are
called home computers, personal computers, laptops, personal digital assistants,
and so on. They are powerful and easy to operate. In recent years, computers
were made portable and affordable. The major characteristics of a microcomputer
are as follows:
 Microcomputers are capable of performing data processing jobs and solving
numerical programs. Microcomputers work rapidly like minicomputers.
 Microcomputers have reasonable memory capacity which can be measured
in megabytes.
 Microcomputers are reasonably priced. Varieties of microcomputers are
available in the market, which can be as per the requirement of smaller
business companies and educational institutions.
 Processing speed of microcomputers is measured in megahertz. A
microcomputer running at 90 MHz works approximately at 90 MIPS.
 Microcomputers have drives for floppy disks, compact disks and hard disks.
 Only one user can operate a microcomputer at a time.
 Microcomputers are usually dedicated to one job. Millions of people use
microcomputers to increase their personal productivity.
 Useful accessory tools, such as clock, calendar, calculator, daily schedule
reminders, scratch pads, and so on, are available in a microcomputer.
 Laptop computers, also called notebook computers, are microcomputers.
They use the battery power source. Laptop computers have a keyboard,
mouse, floppy disk drive, CD drive, hard disk drive and monitor. Laptop
computers are expensive in comparison to personal computers.
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Minicomputers Introduction to Computers
Minicomputers are a cheaper version of mainframe computers. The processing

power and cost of a minicomputer are less than that of the mainframe.
Minicomputers have big memory sizes and faster processing speed compared to NOTES
the microcomputers. Minicomputers are also called workgroup systems because
they are well suited to the requirements of the minor workgroups within an
organization. The major characteristics of a minicomputer are as follows:
 Minicomputers have great problem-solving capabilities.
 Minicomputers have reasonable memory capacity which can be measured
in megabytes or gigabytes.
 Minicomputers have quick processing speeds and operating systems
facilitated with multitasking and network capabilities.
 Minicomputers have drives for floppy disk, magnetic tape, compact disk,
hard disks, and so on.
 Minicomputers can serve as network servers.
 Minicomputers are used as a substitute of one mainframe by big
organizations.
Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computers are generally used for handling the needs of information
processing of organizations, such as banks, insurance companies, hospitals and
railways. This type of system is placed in a central location with several user
terminals connected to it. The user terminals act as access stations and may be
located in the same building (Refer Figure 2.8).
Fig. 2.8 Mainframe Computer
Mainframe computers are bigger and more expensive than workstations.

They look like a row of large file cabinets and need a large room with closely
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Introduction to Computers monitored humidity and temperature levels. A mainframe system of lower
configuration is often referred to as a minicomputer system. The various
components of a mainframe computer are as follows:
 Host, Front-End and Back-End Computers: A mainframe system
NOTES
consists of several computers, such as a host computer that carries out
most of the computations and has direct control over all other computers.
The front-end portion is used for handling communications to and from all
the user terminals connected to the mainframe computer. The back-end
portion is used to handle data input/output operations. The host computer
and other computers are located in the systems room, to which entry is
restricted to system administrators and maintenance staff only.
 Consoles: Console terminals are directly connected to the host computer
and are mainly used by the system administrator to perform certain
administrative tasks, such as installing new software on the system, taking
system backups and changing the configuration of the system.
 Storage Devices: A mainframe computer has several magnetic disk drives
directly connected to the back-end computer. The host computer, via the
back-end computer, gets all data from these magnetic disks. In addition, a
mainframe computer also has a few tape drives and a magnetic tape library
(located in the systems room) for restoration and backup of data. The tape
drives are present in the users’ room, so that users’ tapes can be used for
input and output.
 User Terminals: User terminals are used to access the required stations,
which may be present at different locations. Since mainframe computers
support multiprogramming with time-sharing, they can run different operating
systems for multiple users at the same time.
 Output Devices: A mainframe computer has several output devices, such
as printers and plotters, connected to the back-end computer, so that these
devices can be used for taking outputs by the users.
Supercomputers
Supercomputers are the most powerful and expensive computers available today.
They are mainly used for processing scientific applications that involve tasks with
highly complex calculations and for solving problems with mechanical physics,
such as weather forecasting and climate research systems, nuclear weapon
simulation and simulation of automated aircrafts. Supercomputers are mainly used
by military organizations, major research and development centers, universities
and chemical laboratories.
Supercomputers use multiprocessing and parallel processing technologies
to solve complex problems quickly. They use multiprocessors, which help the
user to divide a complex problem into smaller problems. A parallel program is
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written in a manner that can break up the original problem into smaller modules. Introduction to Computers
Supercomputers also support multiprogramming, which allows simultaneous access

to the computer by multiple users. Some of the manufacturers of supercomputers
are IBM, Silicon Graphics, Fujitsu and Intel.
NOTES
Personal Computers
A PC is a small single user microprocessor-based computer that resides on your
desktop, and is generally used at homes, offices and schools. As the name implies,
PCs were mainly designed to meet the personal computing needs of individuals.
Personal computers are used for preparing normal text documents, spreadsheets
with predefined calculations and business analysis charts, database management
systems, accounting systems, and also for designing office stationary, banners,
bills and handouts.
The configuration varies from one PC to another depending on its usage.
However, it consists of a CPU or system unit, a monitor, a keyboard and a mouse.
It has a main circuit board or motherboard (consisting of the CPU and the memory),
hard disk storage, floppy disk drive, CD-ROM (Compact Disk-Read Only) drive
and some special add-on cards (like Network Interface Card) and ports for
connecting peripheral devices like printers.
PCs are available in two models—desktop and tower. In the desktop model,
the monitor is positioned on top of the system unit, whereas in the tower model,
the system unit is designed to stand by the side of the monitor or even on the floor
to save desktop space. Due to this feature, the tower model is more popular.
Some popular operating systems for PCs are MS DOS, MS-Windows,
Windows-NT, Linux and UNIX. Most of these operating systems can perform
many functions at the same time, which ease operation and save time when a user
has to switch between two or more applications while performing a job. Some
leading PC manufacturers are IBM, Apple, Compaq, Dell, Toshiba and Siemens.
Types of Personal Computers
Different types of personal computers are as follows:
Notebook/Laptop Computers
Notebook computers are battery operated personal computers. Smaller than the
size of a briefcase, these are portable computers and can be used in places, such
as libraries, in meetings or even while travelling. Popularly known as laptop
computers, or simply laptops, notebook computers are usually more expensive as
compared to desktop computers; however, they have almost the same functions.
But since they are sleeker and portable, they have a complex design and are more
difficult to manufacture. These computers have large storage space and other
peripherals, such as serial port, PC card, modem or network interface card, CD-
ROM (Compact Disk-Read Only Memory) drive and printer. They can also be
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Introduction to Computers connected to a network to download data from other computers or to the Internet.
A notebook computer has a keyboard, a flat screen with Liquid Crystal Display
(LCD) (Refer Figure 2.9), and can also have a trackball and a pointing stick.
NOTES
Fig. 2.9 A Laptop Computer
A notebook computer uses the MS DOS or WINDOWS operating system.

The data processing capability of a notebook computer is as good as an ordinary
PC because both use the same type of processor, such as an Intel Pentium
processor. However, a notebook computer generally has lesser hard disk storage
than a PC.
Tablet PC
Tablet PC is a mobile computer that looks like a notebook or a small writing slate
but uses a stylus pen or your finger tip to write on the touch screen. It saves
whatever you scribble on the screen with the pen, in the same way as you have
written it. The same picture can then be converted to text with the help of an HR
(Hand Recognition) software.
PDA
A Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) is a small, palm sized, hand-held computer
which has a small color touch screen with audio and video features. They are
nowadays used as smart phones, Web-enabled palmtop computers, portable media
players or gaming devices.
Most PDAs today typically have a touch screen for data entry, a data storage/
memory card, bluetooth, Wi-Fi or an infrared connectivity, and can be used to
access the Internet and other networks.
Check Your Progress

5. How are computer classified?
6. What are analog computers?
7. What are digital computers involved in?
8. How are console terminals connected to host computers?
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QUESTIONS
1. Processing is the process implies performing arithmetic or logical operations NOTES

on data to convert them into useful information. Arithmetic operations include
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, and logical operations
include comparisons, such as equal to, less than and greater than.
2. Computers perform various tasks depending upon the instructions given to
them and their hardware characteristics. They are capable of performing
any task, provided the task is reduced to a series of logical steps.
3. The LAN port (where LAN is Local Area Network) is where the RJ45
connector of your LAN cable is plugged-in to connect your computer to
other computers or the Internet.
4. The speed at which the CPU performs basic operations, measured in Hertz
(Hz) or in modern computers Megahertz MHz or Gigahertz GHz.
5. Computers can be classified on the basis of their size, processing speed
and cost.
6. Analog Computers are involved in industrial process controls and measure
physical quantities, such as pressure, temperature, and so on.
7. Digital Computers are primarily involved in data processing and problem
solving for specific programs.
8. Console terminals are directly connected to the host computer.
2.5 SUMMARY
 A computer primarily constitutes of three integral components, viz. input

unit, Central Processing Unit (CPU) and output unit.
 The CPU constitutes of the main memory, the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
and the Control Unit.
 Apart from these three basic components, computers have secondary storage
devices known as auxiliary storage or backing storage that store data and
instructions on a long-term basis.
 Inputting is the process in which the user specify a set of commands to
 Storing is the process of recording data and information so that it can be
 Processing is the process implies performing arithmetic or logical operations
on data to convert them into useful information. Arithmetic operations include
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, and logical operations
include comparisons, such as equal to, less than and greater than. Self-Instructional
Material 33
Introduction to Computers  Outputting is the process of providing results to the user. These can be in
the form of visual display and/or printed reports.
 Controlling refers to directing the sequence and the manner in which all the
previous functions are carried out.
NOTES
 Programs and data are required to be present in a computer system before
any operation can be performed.
 A program denotes the set of instructions which the computer has to carry
out and data is the information on which these instructions are to be operated.
If the task is to rearrange a list of telephone subscribers in alphabetical
order, the sequence of instructions that will guide the computer through this
operation is the program, while the list of names to be sorted is the data.
 The input unit is responsible for transferring data and instructions from the
external environment into the computer system. Instructions and data enter
the input unit through the particular input device (such as keyboard, scanner
and card reader). These instructions and data are then converted into binary
codes (computer acceptable form) and sent to the computer system for
further processing.
 The primary storage also temporarily stores any intermediate result generated
by the ALU. So data and instructions move frequently between the ALU
and the primary storage before the processing is complete. It should be
noted that no processing occurs within the primary storage.
 The storage capacity of the primary memory of the computer is limited.
Often, it is necessary to store large amounts of data. So, additional memory,
called secondary storage or auxiliary memory, is used in most computer
systems.
 Computers perform various tasks depending upon the instructions given to
them and their hardware characteristics. They are capable of performing
any task, provided the task is reduced to a series of logical steps. A computer
can be used to prepare a Word document and in between called to search
for another document that is stored in its memory. It can perform both tasks
simultaneously.
 The LAN port (where LAN is Local Area Network) is where the RJ45
connector of your LAN cable is plugged-in to connect your computer to
other computers or the Internet.
 Capacity, in computers, refers to the number of bytes that it can store in its
main memory. This is usually stated in terms of Kilobytes (KB) which is
1024 bytes or Megabytes (MB) which is equal to 1024 KB (10,48,576
bytes). The rapidly increasing memory capacity of computer systems has
resulted in defining the capacity in terms of Gigabytes (GB) which is 1024
MB (1,07,37,41,824 bytes). Thus, a computer system having a memory of
256 MB is capable of storing (256 × 1024 × 1024) 26,84,35,456 bytes or
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 The speed at which the CPU performs basic operations, measured in Hertz Introduction to Computers
(Hz) or in modern computers Megahertz MHz or Gigahertz GHz.

 Computers can be classified on the basis of their size, processing speed
and cost.
NOTES
 Analog Computers are involved in industrial process controls and measure
physical quantities, such as pressure, temperature, and so on. These
computers do not use binary digits but use electrical signals to provide output
with electrical resistance, voltage, and so on. The memory of these computers
is not much and they can be used only for specific calculations; however,
their speed is more than digital computers.
 Digital Computers are primarily involved in data processing and problem
solving for specific programs. In digital computers, data is stored as digits
(numbers) and processes. Letters, words, symbols and complete texts are
digitally represented, that is, using only two digits 0 and 1. Digital computers
have a lot of memory for storing data.
 Hybrid computers are a mixture of digital and analog computers. A hybrid
computer uses the best characteristics of digital and analog computers. It
helps the user to process both continuous and discrete data. Hybrid
computers are generally used for weather forecasting and industrial process
control.
 Mainframe computers are generally used for handling the needs of information
processing of organizations, such as banks, insurance companies, hospitals
and railways. This type of system is placed in a central location with several
user terminals connected to it.
 Console terminals are directly connected to the host computer and are mainly
used by the system administrator to perform certain administrative tasks,
such as installing new software on the system, taking system backups and
changing the configuration of the system.
2.6 KEY WORDS
 Storing: It is the process of recording data and information so that it can be

 Processing: It is the process implies performing arithmetic or logical
operations on data to convert them into useful information. Arithmetic
operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, and
logical operations include comparisons, such as equal to, less than and
greater than.
 Outputting: It is the process of providing results to the user. These can be
in the form of visual display and/or printed reports.
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Introduction to Computers  Controlling: It refers to directing the sequence and the manner in which all
the previous functions are carried out.
 Inputting: The process in which the user specify a set of commands to
NOTES

EXERCISES
Short Answer Questions

1. What is an input unit?
2. Give any two advantages of computers.
3. List any two disadvantages of computers.
4. Write about the history of computers.
5. Write a brief note on motherboard.
6. What are the different processors used in PCs?
7. Brief a note on minicomputers.
1. Give a detailed note on computers and its components.
2. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of computers.
3. Write a detailed note on generations of computers.
4. Give an account on the sockets and ports of computers.
5. Discuss in detail about the types of computers.
6. Differentiate between micro and mini computers and also mention their
characteristics.
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Networking
BLOCK - II
NETWORKING
NOTES
UNIT 3 NETWORKING
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Concepts and Objectives
3.3 Types of Network
3.5 Summary
3.6 Key Words
3.0 INTRODUCTION
A computer network is a digital telecommunications network which allows nodes to

share resources. In computer networks, computing devices exchange data with
each other using connections (data links) between nodes. These data links are
established over cable media such as wires or optic cables, or wireless media such
as WiFi.
Network computer devices that originate, route and terminate the data are
called network nodes. Nodes are identified by network addresses, and can
include hosts such as personal computers, phones, and servers, as well as
networking hardware such as routers and switches. Two such devices can be said
to be networked together when one device is able to exchange information with
the other device, whether or not they have a direct connection to each other. In
most cases, application-specific communications protocols are layered (i.e. carried
as payload) over other more general communications protocols. This formidable
collection of information technology requires skilled network management to keep
it all running reliably.
Computer networks support an enormous number of applications and
services such as access to the World Wide Web, digital video, digital audio, shared
use of application and storage servers, printers, and fax machines, and use
of email and instant messaging applications as well as many others. Computer
networks differ in the transmission medium used to carry their signals,
communications protocols to organize network traffic, the network’s size, topology,
traffic control mechanism and organizational intent. The best-known computer
network is the Internet.
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Networking In this unit, you will study about networking, concept and objectives and
types of networks in detail.
NOTES
3.1 OBJECTIVES

 Understand what networking is
 Discuss about the concept and objectives
 Explain the types of networking
3.2 CONCEPTS AND OBJECTIVES
The use of computers and its related technology in the field of communication has
modified the way of storage and transmission of information in the libraries all over
the world. The computers form an integral information machine by linking the
computers and their communication circuits to other terminals or computers, thus,
forming a network of computers and introducing the ‘Network System’. Therefore,
a library, where a group of computers are used to store and exchange information,
may use a network of computers.
A network is defined as, ‘two or more libraries and/or other organizations
engaged in a common pattern of information exchange, through communications,
for some functional purpose. A network usually consists of a formal arrangement
whereby materials, information and services provided by a variety of libraries and
other organizations are available to all potential users. Libraries may be in different
jurisdictions but agree to serve one another on the same basis as each serves its
own constituents. Computer and telecommunications may be among the tools
used for facilitating communication among them.’
The above definition of network was given by the US National Commission
on Libraries and Information Science (NCLIS) in its National Program in 1975.
Another definition of computer networks was given by Information
Technology consultant and author James Martin. He stated that: ‘A network is a
group of individuals or organizations that are interconnected. The linking must
include a communication mechanism, and many networks exist for the express
purpose of facilitating certain types of communication among their members. In
the library world, institutions from network primarily to achieve better sharing of
resources—resources consisting of bibliographic information and of collection—
and better services to patrons.’ It must be emphasized that the particular focus in
this gathering will be on online networks, those using computers and linking members
to the computer resources by means of telecommunication connections.
When two or more libraries exchange information or, as described in the
layman’s language, talk to each other, it leads to the development of a network.
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The main functions performed by a library network where one library provides Networking
some kind of service to another library include bibliographic exchange in different

forms and interlibrary loan. In a library network, a reverse flow of demand takes
place in situations where a librarian places a request for a book or a citation with
his co-librarian honors this request. These days, the repository accessed by a NOTES
librarian may include:
 Books and materials physically possessed by a librarian
 Photocopies of different materials
 Reciprocal borrowing privileges
 Interlibrary loan
Figure 3.1 displays a typical library network used in different models.
Fig. 3.1 Typical Library Network Used in Different Models
In Figure 3.1, A, C, D, F and G are participating libraries, with node A

being the centralized node that performs the main function of operating and
maintaining the centralized databases of books and other pertinent information.
This central node gets all the bibliographical data from the collection of the respective
nodes. These nodes are linked with other nodes by using satellites or telephone
lines. The main functions of such nodes along with the centralized database include
creating, maintaining and operating centralized databases.
Therefore, some of the characteristics of the library networks are as follows:
 Frequent recording of data in the form of bibliographic records or MARC
(MAchine-Readable Cataloging)
 Retrieval of information based on the author of the book, its title, number
of the book based on the subject or its keyword
 Access to different types of networks that can be categorized into hard
wired networks, private networks or telecommunication networks
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Networking Now let us look at some of the main features of the library networks:
 Specific type of library data
 General needs of the users which are not very demanding in nature
NOTES  Specific needs of the users who are highly professional
The library networks aid and help the librarians in identifying and obtaining
materials and services for a client with specific information needs, which are over
and above the information repository in local libraries. The newly approaching
electronic information era enables both technology and networks to work together
and helps in reduction of physical movement of materials related to libraries.
However, all libraries across the world are facing some major problems.
Some of these problems are as follows:
 Increase in prices of library documents
 Increase in cost of library services
 Problems related to information explosion
Over the years, there is a rapid increase in the rate at which you can access
the large number of science and technology publications. According to a recent
study conducted, the main or primary sources of literature available in the fields of
science and technology which was previously getting doubled in every fifteen years
is now doubling itself in only ten years.
Similarly, according to a study conducted by United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the UNESCO statistics of
World Book Production, every year around 3,00,000 books are published. Each
year, around 1,000 journals are added to the existing count of around 60,000
journals in the science and technology fields alone.
Apart from the rapid increase in the number of books, the price of these
library books and documents is increasing at a rapid pace. This is primarily because
of the dependence of Indian libraries on the foreign publications, mainly in the
fields of science and technology. There is a rapid increase in the subscription rates
and the payment of downward charges due to the fall in the value of Indian rupee.
As a result, many information specialists and librarians have decreased the purchase
of number of journals which would have helped them solve a given problem.
The next factor influencing library managers is the constant and rapid increase
in the cost of library services. Sharing of these services among different cooperatives
will help in the procurement of new services. The cost of these services will now
be spread and shared by a number of institutes, thus, meeting the needs of the
library users in a more effective manner.
The concept of resource sharing and cooperation among libraries have helped
the libraries to fight the menace of ever increasing library service cost along with
other problems faced by both the information centers and the libraries. This helps
reduce the burden of handling vast amount of information by any single library
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along with helping in ever increasing price of library services and documents Networking
procured by them.
Creating of library networks helps the member libraries in providing
information services to its users by sharing their various resources. In this manner,
NOTES
the member libraries are mainly dependent on each other for accessing documents.
For example, the librarian of Library A would depend on the documents stored in
Library B or the collection of Library B documents that can be shared over the
library network. The main objectives and aims of a particular library network can
be stated as follows:
 Encourages sharing of resources and cooperation activities among various
libraries. This can be done by following different methods of resource
sharing, both reliable and efficient in nature. Some of these are as follows:
o Maximizing the use of resources by promoting interlibrary loans.
o Helping to establish Document Delivery Services which enables sharing
of copies of those documents which are not available in a specific
library.
o Establishing communication links through interpersonal communication.
o Facilitating training of manpower and enabling refresher courses among
members. The different members of a library network and the library
staff can stand benefited by the various research activities conducted
in this manner.
o Gaining access to a large number of library documents, both national
as well as international.
 Automating the various facilities at individual libraries, thus, helping in
improving utilization of resources along with the various service leveling
the following areas:
o Circulation of documents across libraries
o Fund accounting and acquisition of books and publications
o Helping member libraries with the process of cataloging of books and
non-book materials along with production of catalogs
o Serial control
o Rapid retrieval and communication of information in the libraries as a
result of implementing electronic services
 Coordinating with different international, national and regional networks
that will aid in the exchange of documents and information. This can
then be accessed by various libraries and users.
 Reduction in unnecessary duplication of documents wherever possible
along with proper coordination of efforts towards suitable collection
development process. This helps in:
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Networking o Reducing in the operational cost of the collection development process
o Using mutual cooperation to develop collection process
o Controlling the rate at which the cost of collection development has
NOTES increased over time
 Creating a database of institutions, library specialists and projects that
can be utilized in online information services.
 Developing a bibliographic database of books, non-book materials and
serials that will help in accessing and searching of books.
 Maintaining and monitoring a catalog of search process by establishing
referral centers along with serials and non-book materials.
The main purpose of establishing library networks is to share the resources
to avoid unsolicited wastage of limited finance available. However, you cannot
categorize all the networks as library functions because of the functions they perform.
Some of the important functions so performed include:
 Establishing of a tool that helps in sharing of resources
 Rationalizing the function of acquiring, adapting and adhering to the
international standards for on-time delivery of documents and uniformity
of records
 Creating certain tools that help in sharing resources, such as union
catalogs
 Rationalizing the acquisition process
Based on the functions described above, the library functions can be
categorized as follows:
 Providing Information Services to the Users: These functions are
primarily goal-oriented, thus, fulfilling the primary functions that a network
must perform. Some of the functions that may fall under this category
are as follows:
o Loan services performed across libraries where each member library
should have the facility of photocopying and delivering documents to
other libraries
o Reference and Referral facility where each library should have a
dedicated email facility along with a dedicated telephone line at its
disposal
o Having proper access to relevant databases to help them prepare
retrospective bibliography which will help in finding out if a particular
document is available or not
 Providing Technical Services to the Member Libraries: Some of
the functions that are included in this category are as follows:
o Locating and identifying documents with the help of cataloging and
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o Using a system of circulation control Networking
o Using the process of technical processing involved in acquisition

o Making use of cooperative collection development program
 Management Service to the Network Administration: Some of NOTES
the services that help or aid the functioning of network administration
are as follows:
o Conducting user studies, collecting statistics and analysing the network’s
performance to perform the evaluation of library networks
o Making use of both user-oriented and staff development programs to
conduct various training activities
o Establishing an efficient operational system that aids in conducting
various functions mentioned above
o Holding meetings and ensuring publication of newsletters to effectively
ensure that proper communication of activities takes place
o Carrying out an effective cost analysis for allocating budgets, collecting
fees and determining cost
Check Your Progress

1. Define network.
2. What happens when two or more libraries exchange information?
3. How is creating of library networks helpful?
3.3 TYPES OF NETWORK
Different network models help and aid in performing various network

functions mentioned above. These networks help in simple, cost-effective and
efficient working of libraries. For example, state-based university libraries may
select a decentralized type of network model. On the other hand, certain affiliated
colleges in a university may select a distributed type of library network where they
are linked to a particular university library. Similarly, a hierarchical model may be
most suitable for a public library, while a decentralized model may be selected by
some other special type of libraries. On the basis of the above description, the
three different types of anatomical structures are as follows:
 Star network
 Hierarchical network
 Distributed network
Let us look at each one of them in detail.
 Star Network: In this type of network, a centralized bibliographical
database is created and maintained by one of the member libraries or a
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Networking node. The bibliographic records of each and every member library are
recorded in the database so created. Figure 3.2 shows the configuration
of the member libraries.
NOTES
Fig. 3.2 Configuration of the Member Libraries of Star Network
As shown in Figure 3.2, the central node O contains the records or databases
of all the bibliographic resources and all the other nodes (A, B, C, D and E) make
use of these resources. In the star network, the database is updated and maintained
by node O only.
 Hierarchical Network: In this type of network, each member node
shares the resources at the local level. Therefore, each node, or in other
words the participating library, sends unfulfilled requests to other libraries
which may be at a level higher than this library. The unfulfilled requests
are termed as ‘library of last resort’ and are then shared with other
centers to help find the necessary books and material. Figure 3.3 shows
the configuration of the member libraries.
Fig. 3.3 Configuration of the Member Libraries of Hierarchical Network

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In Figure 3.3, A1, A2 and A3 are users of the hierarchical network. The Networking
members generally find all the required resources at the lower nodes where all the
information is stored and retrieved at their respective libraries. Only the requests
that cannot be met and, hence, are unsatisfied are passed to the upper node A1. If
the requests are not even fulfilled at this level, as a last resort, they are passed to NOTES
the node D which may then check the centers, A2 and A3, respectively.
 Distributed Network: In this type of network, all the members may
store different resources which can be shared with one another as and
when the need arises.
Fig. 3.4 Distributed Network
In Figure 3.4, all the members, namely A, B, C, D and E, own different

types of resources which are then shared with each other according to the need.
Another classification of networks can be as follows:
 Client/Server Based Networks: In the client/server based networks
(Refer Figure 3.5), the clients or computers modify the data or information
stored in the data files and store the same on the computer server from
where it was retrieved originally. Such a system is fool proof and works
efficiently in large computer networks where more than hundred machines
are running at the same time. A very powerful computer server works in
this system to sort and send files to the participating computers. None
of the computers in this network has to wait for the required information
as the server is capable of multitasking, making the nodes to work
independently on separate software programs. However, if the server
stops working, so do all other clients.
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Networking
NOTES
Fig. 3.5 Client/Server Based Networks
 Peer-to-Peer Network: In peer-to-peer type of network (Refer Figure

3.6), each participating computer is capable of processing and accessing
data or information. It is very simple to maintain and design such a network
along with being relatively inexpensive when compared to other
networks. However, such a network has some disadvantages too. It is
not very secure and is also slow when compared to other networks. A
peer-to-peer network, thus, can serve a smaller number of computers
on a particular network.
Fig. 3.6 Peer-to-Peer Network
 Complex Networks: Such a network may consist of a number of

machines with different hardware configurations where the configuration
of one machine is neither compatible nor understood by machines from
other vendors. Each machine has its unique mechanism of handling
electronic information. This complex setup can, therefore, be handled
only by connecting special software and hardware devices to them.
Such devices are known as gateways, bridges or routes. They help in
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transforming the electronic information into a format that can be Networking
understood by the different machine. Figure 3.7 shows a complex

network.
NOTES
Fig. 3.7 Complex Network
 LAN, MAN and WAN: The networks that are classified according to
the geographical or distance coverage fall under this category. Let us
know more about them:
o Local Area Network or LANs: When the computers that form a
part of LAN are located within the same building or at a distance that
ranges less than 1 kilometer from each other.
o Metropolitan Area Network or MANs: The computers connected
within a metropolitan city form a part of MANs. Good examples of
such networks are mobile or cellular phone networks.
o Wide Area Network or WANs: When the computers comprising a
network are distributed over a very large geographical region not only
in a particular state but all over the entire country as well, such a
network is called a Wide Area Network. The range of such networks
is generally more than 30 kilometers. Such networks either use satellite
connections, cable connections or microwave connections to get
connected with other networks. Many such Wide Area Networks are
maintained by large telephone companies. The Internet is a typical
example of a WAN that does not connect a number of LANs and
WANs together.
Check Your Progress

4. Define star network.
5. What is hierarchical network?
6. Explain complex networks.
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Networking
QUESTIONS
NOTES 1. A network is defined as, ‘two or more libraries and/or other organizations
engaged in a common pattern of information exchange, through
communications, for some functional purpose.
2. When two or more libraries exchange information or, as described in the
layman’s language, talk to each other, it leads to the development of a
network.
3. Creating of library networks helps the member libraries in providing
information services to its users by sharing their various resources.
4. Star network is a type of network, a centralized bibliographical database is
created and maintained by one of the member libraries or a node.
5. Hierarchical network is a type of network, that each member node shares
the resources at the local level.
6. Complex networks is a network that consist of a number of machines with
different hardware configurations where the configuration of one machine is
neither compatible nor understood by machines from other vendors.
3.5 SUMMARY
 The use of computers and its related technology in the field of communication
has modified the way of storage and transmission of information in the libraries
all over the world. The computers form an integral information machine by
linking the computers and their communication circuits to other terminals or
computers, thus, forming a network of computers and introducing the
‘Network System’.
 A network is defined as, ‘two or more libraries and/or other organizations
engaged in a common pattern of information exchange, through
communications, for some functional purpose. A network usually consists
of a formal arrangement whereby materials, information and services
provided by a variety of libraries and other organizations are available to all
potential users. Libraries may be in different jurisdictions but agree to serve
one another on the same basis as each serves its own constituents. Computer
and telecommunications may be among the tools used for facilitating
communication among them.’
 When two or more libraries exchange information or, as described in the
layman’s language, talk to each other, it leads to the development of a
network. The main functions performed by a library network where one
library provides some kind of service to another library include bibliographic
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exchange in different forms and interlibrary loan. In a library network, a Networking
reverse flow of demand takes place in situations where a librarian places a

request for a book or a citation with his co-librarian honors this request.
 Frequent recording of data in the form of bibliographic records or MARC
NOTES
(MAchine-Readable Cataloging)
 Retrieval of information based on the author of the book, its title, number of
the book based on the subject or its keyword.
 Access to different types of networks that can be categorized into hard
wired networks, private networks or telecommunication networks.
 Apart from the rapid increase in the number of books, the price of these
library books and documents is increasing at a rapid pace. This is primarily
because of the dependence of Indian libraries on the foreign publications,
mainly in the fields of science and technology. There is a rapid increase in
the subscription rates and the payment of downward charges due to the fall
in the value of Indian rupee. As a result, many information specialists and
librarians have decreased the purchase of number of journals which would
have helped them solve a given problem.
 The next factor influencing library managers is the constant and rapid increase
in the cost of library services. Sharing of these services among different
cooperatives will help in the procurement of new services. The cost of these
services will now be spread and shared by a number of institutes, thus,
meeting the needs of the library users in a more effective manner.
 Creating of library networks helps the member libraries in providing
information services to its users by sharing their various resources. In this
manner, the member libraries are mainly dependent on each other for
accessing documents. For example, the librarian of Library A would depend
on the documents stored in Library B or the collection of Library B
documents that can be shared over the library network.
 Star network is a type of network, a centralized bibliographical database is
created and maintained by one of the member libraries or a node. The
bibliographic records of each and every member library are recorded in the
database so created.
 Hierarchical network is a type of network, each member node shares the
resources at the local level. Therefore, each node, or in other words the
participating library, sends unfulfilled requests to other libraries which may
be at a level higher than this library. The unfulfilled requests are termed as
‘library of last resort’ and are then shared with other centers to help find the
necessary books and material.
 Distributed network is a type of network, all the members may store different
resources which can be shared with one another as and when the need
arises.
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Networking  Client/Server based networks is the client/server based network, the clients
or computers modify the data or information stored in the data files and
store the same on the computer server from where it was retrieved originally.
Such a system is fool proof and works efficiently in large computer networks
NOTES where more than hundred machines are running at the same time.
 Complex networks is a network may consist of a number of machines with
different hardware configurations where the configuration of one machine is
neither compatible nor understood by machines from other vendors. Each
machine has its unique mechanism of handling electronic information.
3.6 KEY WORDS
 Star network: It is a type of network, a centralized bibliographical database

is created and maintained by one of the member libraries or a node. The
bibliographic records of each and every member library are recorded in the
database so created.
 Hierarchical network: It is a type of network, each member node shares
the resources at the local level. Therefore, each node, or in other words the
participating library, sends unfulfilled requests to other libraries which may
be at a level higher than this library. The unfulfilled requests are termed as
‘library of last resort’ and are then shared with other centers to help find the
necessary books and material.
 Distributed network: It is a type of network, all the members may store
different resources which can be shared with one another as and when the
need arises.
 Client/Server based networks: It is the client/server based network, the
clients or computers modify the data or information stored in the data files
and store the same on the computer server from where it was retrieved
originally. Such a system is fool proof and works efficiently in large computer
networks where more than hundred machines are running at the same time.
 Complex networks: It is a network may consist of a number of machines
with different hardware configurations where the configuration of one machine
is neither compatible nor understood by machines from other vendors. Each
machine has its unique mechanism of handling electronic information.

EXERCISES
Short Answers Question

1. List some of the characteristics of the library networks.
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50 Material
3. How does reduction in unnecessary duplication of documents help in Networking
development process?
4. What are the functions performed by library functions?
5. Define the following terms: NOTES
 Star network
 Hierarchical network
 Distributed network
6. Brief a note on Peer-to-Peer network.
1. What are the main aims and objectives of a particular library network?
2. List the library function of library networks.
3. Give an elaborated note on the types of networks.
4. Distinguish between client/server based networks and complex networks.
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Telecommunication
UNIT 4 TELECOMMUNICATION
NOTES Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Wired and Wireless Communication
4.2.5 Coaxial Cable
4.2.6 Optical Fibre
4.3 Wi-Fi
4.5 Summary
4.6 Key Words
4.0 INTRODUCTION
Telecommunications refers to the exchange of information by electronic and electrical

means over a significant distance. A complete telecommunication arrangement is
made up of two or more stations equipped with transmitter and receiver devices.
A single co-arrangement of transmitters and receivers, called a transceiver, may
also be used in many telecommunication stations
In other words, telecommunications, also known as telecom, is the exchange
of information over significant distances by electronic means and refers to all types
of voice, data and video transmission. This is a broad term that includes a wide
range of information transmitting technologies such as telephones (wired and
wireless), microwave communications, fiber optics, satellites, radio and television
broadcasting, the internet and telegraphs.
Telecommunications is a universal term that is used for a vast range of
information-transmitting technologies such as mobile phones, land lines, VoIP and
broadcast networks. In telecommunications, data is transmitted in the form of
electrical signals known as carrier waves, which are modulated into analog or
digital signals for transmitting information. Analog modulation such as that used in
radio broadcasting is an amplitude modulation. Digital modulation is just an updated
form of this. Telecommunications and broadcasting are administered worldwide
by an agency of the United Nations called the International Telecommunication
Union (ITU). Most countries have their own agencies for enforcing
telecommunications regulations.
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In this unit, you will study about telecommunication, wired and wireless Telecommunication
communications, Wifi in detail.
4.1 OBJECTIVES NOTES

 Understand what telecommunication is
 Discuss the wired and wireless communications
 Explain about Wi-Fi
4.2 WIRED AND WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
The guided media includes all wired media, also referred to as conducted or
bounded media.
Unguided media includes all traditional wireless media, also referred to as
radiated, or unbounded.
In the transmission of signal the data is encoded to energy and then energy
is transmitted. Similarly, at the receiving end the energy is decoded back to data.
This energy can be electrical, light and radio, etc. Therefore this transmitted energy
is carried through a medium, which depends upon the type of energy being
transmitted. The energy in different forms have different properties and therefore
cannot be transmitted using the single media. They have different requirements for
transmission including standard specified hardware for data encoding and creating
links to transmission medium. Media can be copper, glass and air as bounded and
unbounded media respectively.
Before discussing the different kinds of transmission medium, it becomes necessary
to know about the basic concepts and terminologies associated with the
transmission of a signal.
Frequency Spectrum
The symbols in Table 4.1 have the following meanings:
K (Kilo) = 1,000,
M (Mega) = 1,000,000 (1 million),
G (Giga) = 1,000,000 (1 billion)
T (Tera) = 1,000,000,000 (1 trillion)
cm = centimeter (1/100 metre)
mm = millimeter (1/1,000 metre)
µ = micron (1/1,000,000 metre) Self-Instructional
Material 53
Telecommunication In the transmission of data the range of carrier frequencies is based on the
nature of the medium and the requirements of the applications supported. Therefore,
frequency spectrum may be defined as the range of frequencies being supported
by a particular transmission medium. The actual range of frequencies supporting a
NOTES given communication is known as a pass band. These are given in Table 4.1.
Bandwidth
In a very general way bandwidth may be defined as the range of frequencies, which
a channel is allowed to pass through the signals between that frequency ranges. In
other words we may say that bandwidth is the difference between the highest and
the lowest frequencies of a band and is expressed in Hertz. In general, the greater
the bandwidth, the higher will be the data transmission rate or throughput. It should
be noted that bandwidth and data transmission rate are very closely interrelated to
each other. Clearly, any transmission system becomes more attractive if the available
bandwidth is greater, introduced errors are fewer, and the maximum distance between
various network elements (amplifiers, repeaters, and antennae) is greater.
Table 4.1 Frequency Spectrums
Name of Band Frequency Wavelength Usage

Range
Audible 20 Hz–20 kHz >100Km Voice
Extremely/Very Low 3 kHz–30 kHz 100–10 Km Radio Navigation, Weather,

Frequency (ELF/VLF) Submarine Communications
Radio
Low Frequency (LF) Radio 30 Hz–300 kHz 10–1 Km Radio Navigation, Maritime
Communications
Medium Frequency (MF) 300 kHz–3 MHz 1 Km–100 m Radio Navigation, AM Radio
Radio
High Frequency (HF) 3 MHz–30 MHz 100–10 m Citizens Band (CB) Radio
Very High Frequency 30MHz–300 10–1 m Amateur (HAM) Radio, VHF

(VHF) Radio MHz TV, FM Radio
Ultra High Frequency 300MHz–3GHz 1 m–10 cm Microwave, Satellite, UHF

(UHF) TV
Super High Frequency 3 GHz–30 GHz 10–1 cm Microwave, Satellite

(SHF) Radio
Extremely High Frequency 30 GHz–300 1 cm–.1 mm Microwave, Satellite

(EHF) Radio GHz
Infrared Light 103–105 GHz 300–3µ Infrared
Visible Light 1013–1015 GHz 1–.3µ Fibre Optics
X-Rays 1015–1018 GHz 103–107 µ N/A
Gamma and Cosmic Rays >1018 GHz <017 µ N/A

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Distances Telecommunication
The higher frequency signals offer greater bandwidth; they also generally suffer to
a greater extent from signal attenuation than lower frequencies. This fact results in
more errors in transmission, unless the amplifiers/repeaters are spaced more closely NOTES
together. It clearly demonstrates the close and direct relationship between
bandwidth, distance, and error performance.
Bandwidth, in this context, refers to the raw amount of bandwidth the medium
supports. Error performance refers to the number or percentage of errors, which
are introduced in the process of transmission. Distance refers to the minimum and
maximum spatial separation between devices over a link, in the context of a
complete, end-to-end circuit.
Propagation Delay
Propagation delay is the time taken by a signal to travel from transmitter to receiver
across a data communication system. The speed of the electromagnetic energy is
roughly the speed of light (30,000 km per second) in free space. The speed of
propagation for twisted pair or coaxial cable is a fraction of this figure. The nature
of the data communication system will have considerable influence on the level of
propagation delay. In other words, the total length of the circuit directly influences
the length of time it takes for the signal to reach the receiver.
Security
Security, in the context of transmission systems, addresses the protection of data
from interception as it transverses the network. Particularly in the case of data
networking, it is also important that access to a remote system and the data resident
on it be limited to authorised users; that so, methods of authentication must be
employed to verify that the access request is legitimate and authentic.
Resistance to Environmental Conditions
Resistance to environmental conditions applies specially especially to wired systems.
Twisted pair, coaxial, and fibre optic cables are manipulated physically as they are
deployed and reconfigured. Clearly, each has certain physical limits to the amount
of bending and twisting (flex strength) it can tolerate, as well as the amount of
weight or longitudinal stress it can support (tensile strength), without breaking
(break strength). Fibre optic cables are notoriously susceptible in this regard.
Cables hung from poles expand and contract with changes in ambient temperature;
while glass fibre optic cables expand and contract relatively little, twisted pair
copper wire is more expansive.
The issue of resistance to environmental conditions also applies to airwave
systems, as reflective dishes, antennae, and other devices used in microwave,
satellite, and infrared technologies must be mounted securely to deal with wind
and other forces of nature. Additionally, the towers, walls and roofs on which they
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Telecommunication are mounted must be constructed and braced properly in order to withstand such
forces.
Physical Dimensions
NOTES The physical dimensions of a transmission system must be considered as well.
This is true, in the case of wired systems. The weight of a cable system must be
considered as one attempts to deploy it effectively. Additionally, the bulk (diameter)
of the cable is of importance, as conduit and raceway space often is at a premium.
The physical dimensions of airwave systems also must be considered, as the size
and weight of the reflective dish and mounting system (for example, bracket and
tower) may require support.
Cost and Ease of Installation
Cost issues abound in the selection of an appropriate transmission medium. Such
issues include the cost of acquisition, deployment, operation, and maintenance
(O&M), and upgrade or replacement. Without a lengthy discussion of each cost
issue, it is particularly noteworthy to compare the costs of deployment of wired
versus wireless media.
Wired transmission systems require a right-of-way and this should be secured.
Wired transmission involves a cost component in the form infrastructure. The
infrastructure includes digging of trenches and boring of holes so that cable can be
pulled and poles may be mounted. In addition, amplifiers or repeaters may be
placed. Such costs are not trivial. Unlike wired system, wireless systems require
secured right-of-way and antennae. It may be inferred that the deployment of
wired systems certainly speak of a set of cost issues that often can be more
problematic.
Selection Criteria
When choosing the most effective transmission media, consider the above
mentioned transmission characteristics which are listed below:
 Bandwidth/Transmission rate
 Distances
 Propagation delay
 Security
 Resistance to environmental conditions
 Physical dimensions
 Cost and ease of installation
Bounded media
Bounded media or wired transmission systems employ physical media, which are
tangible. Also known as conducted systems, wired media employs a metallic or
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56 Material
glass conductor which serves to conduct, electromagnetic energy. The twisted Telecommunication
pair and coaxial cable systems conduct electrical energy through a copper medium.
Fibre optic systems conduct light or optical energy, generally using a glass
conductor. The term bounded or guided media means that the signal is contained
within an enclosed physical path. It also refers to the fact that some form of shield, NOTES
cladding, and/or insulation is employed to bind the signal within the core medium,
thereby improving signal strength over a distance and enhancing the performance
of the transmission system in the process. Twisted pair as unshielded and shielded,
coaxial and fibre optic cable systems fall into this category.
A twisted pair as shown in Figure 4.1 is a pair of copper wires in which each wire
has diameter in the range of 0.4-0.8 mm is used. They are twisted together and
wrapped with a plastic coating. The twisting improves the electrical noise immunity
and decreases the error rate of the data communication system. Each conductor
is separately insulated by some low smoke and fires retardant substance.
Polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, flouropolymer resin and Teflon are some substances
that are used for insulation purposes.
Fig. 4.1 Two Wires Open Lines
This twisting process serves to improve the performance of the medium by

containing the electromagnetic field within the pair. Thereby, the radiation of
electromagnetic energy is reduced and the strength of the signal within the wire is
improved over a distance. Clearly, this reduction of radiated energy also serves to
minimise the impact on adjacent pairs in a multiple cable configuration. This is
especially important in high-bandwidth applications, as higher frequency signals
tend to lose power more rapidly over distance. Additionally, the radiated
electromagnetic field tends to be greater at higher frequencies, impacting adjacent
pairs to a greater extent. Generally speaking, the more twists per foot, the better
the performance of the wire.
These are popular for telephone network. The energy flow is in guided
media. Metallic wires were used almost exclusively in telecommunications networks
for the last 90 years, until the development of microwave and satellite radio
communications systems. Therefore, copper wire has established itself as a well
proven mature technology with ruggedness and cost effective way. In certain
applications, copper-covered steel, copper alloy, nickel- and/or gold-plated copper
and even aluminum metallic conductors are employed.
The maximum transmission speed is limited in this case. The copper conductor
that carries analog data can be used to carry digital data also in association with
the modem. Modem is a device to convert digital signal into analog signal and vice
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Telecommunication versa. The data rate in this category is found to be approximately 28 Kbps. The
widespread use of the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) enabled to
the use of improved modulation and coding schemes and data rate up to 128
Kbps. Local Area Networks (LANs) also use twisted pairs. These networks also
NOTES upgraded to support for high bit rate real time multimedia. The Asymmetric Digital
Subscriber Lines (ADSL) technology is designed to use 2-wire copper loops at
data rates of 1.544 Mbps from Internet to subscribers and about 600 Kbps from
the subscribers to the Internet. The twisted pair cable may be defined in two
categories based upon the shielding and without shielding.
UTP as depicted in Figure 4.2, the copper media, is commonly used in telephone
lines. This is also being used increasingly at higher data rates. The UTP has become
the de facto standard for horizontal wiring. Horizontal wiring specifies the connection
between the outlet and the termination in the communication closet. The horizontal
wiring can span to a maximum of 90 meters. The communication closet does not
depend on media type and is therefore common to all media types.
Fig. 4.2 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
A UTP cable normally may enclose about up to 4200 twisted pairs. The UTP
offers advantages that include flexibility, cost effective transmission medium and
they are subtly used for both voice and data communications. However, the limited
bandwidth offered by UTP is its greatest weakness and therefore it does not find
deployment for long distance transmission and low error rates.
Shielded twisted pair (STP) differs from UTP in that a metallic shield or screen
surrounds the pairs, which may or may not be twisted. As illustrated in Figure 4.3,
the pairs can be individually shielded. A single shield can surround a cable containing
multiple pairs or both techniques can be employed in tandem. The shield itself is
made of aluminum, steel, or copper. This is in the form of a metallic foil or woven
meshes and is electrically grounded. Although less effective, the shield sometimes
is in the form of nickel and/or gold plating of the individual conductors.
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Telecommunication
NOTES
Fig. 4.3 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Configuration
Advantages
Shielded copper offers the advantage of enhanced performance for reasons of
reduced emissions and reduction of electromagnetic interference. Reduction of
emissions offers the advantage of maintaining the strength of the signal through the
confinement of the electromagnetic field within the conductor. In other words,
signal loss is reduced. An additional benefit of this reduction of emissions is that
high-frequency signals do not cause interference in adjacent pairs or cables.
Immunity from interference is realized through the shielding process, which reflects
electromagnetic noise from outside sources, such as electric motors, other cables
and wires, and radio systems.
Disadvantages
Shielded twisted pair, on the other hand, has several disadvantages. First, the raw
cost of acquisition is greater as the medium is more expensive to produce. Second,
the cost of deployment is greater as the additional weight of the shield makes it
more difficult to deploy. Additionally, the electrical grounding of the shield requires
more time and effort.
General Properties of Twisted Pair
 Gauge: Gauge is a measure of the thickness of the conductor. The thicker
the wire, the lesser the resistance, is the stronger the signal over a given
distance, and the better the performance of the medium. Thicker wires also
offer the advantage of greater break strength. The gauge numbers are
retrogressive. In other words, the larger is the number, the smaller is the
conductor.
 Configuration: In a single pair configuration, the pair of wires is enclosed
in a sheath or jacket, made of polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride or Teflon.
Usually, multiple pairs are so bundled in order to minimise deployment costs
associated with connecting multiple devices (e.g., electronic PBX or KTS
telephone sets, data terminals, and modems) at a single workstation.
 Bandwidth: The effective capacity of twisted pair cable depends on several
factors, including the gauge of the conductor, the length of the circuit and
the spacing of the amplifiers/repeaters. One must also recognise that a high-
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Telecommunication bandwidth (high frequency) application may cause interference with other
signals on other pairs in close proximity.
 Error Performance: Signal quality is always important, especially relative
to data transmission. Twisted pair is especially susceptible to the impacts of
NOTES
outside interference, as the lightly insulated wire act as antennae and, thereby,
absorbs such errant signals. Potential sources of Electro Magnetic
Interference (EMI) include electric motors, radio transmissions and
fluorescent light boxes. As transmission frequency increases, the error
performance of copper degrades significantly with signal attenuation
increasing approximately as the square root of frequency.
 Distance: Twisted pair is distance limited. As distance between network
elements increases, attenuation (signal loss) increases and quality decreases
at a given frequency. As bandwidth increases, the carrier frequency increases,
attenuation becomes more of a issue, and amplifiers/repeaters must be
spaced more closely.
 Security: Twisted pair is inherently an insecure transmission medium. It is
relatively simple to place physical taps on UTP. Additionally, the radiated
energy is easily intercepted through the use of antennae or inductive coils,
without the requirement for placement of a physical tap.
 Cost: The acquisition, deployment and rearrangement costs of UTP are
very low, at least in inside wire applications. In, high-capacity, long distance
applications, such as inter-office trunking, however, the relative cost is very
high, due to the requirements for trenching or boring, conduit placement,
and splicing of large, multi pair cables. Additionally, there are finite limits to
the capacity and other performance characteristics of UTP, regardless of
the inventiveness of technologists. Hence, the popularity of alternatives such
as microwave and fibre-optic cable.
 Applications: UTP’s low cost including recently developed methods of
improving its performance has increased its application in short-haul
distribution systems or inside wire applications. Current and continuing
applications include the local loop, inside wire and cable, and terminal-to-
LAN. Generally speaking, UTP no longer is deployed in long haul or outside
the premises transmission systems.
The additional cost of shielded copper limits its application to inside wire
applications. Specifically, it generally is limited to application in high-noise
environments. It also is deployed where high frequency signals are transmitted
and there is concern about either distance performance or interference with adjacent
pairs. Examples include LANs and image transmission.
4.2.5 Coaxial Cable
The main limiting factor of a twisted pair cable is caused by a phenomenon known
as the skin effect. As the frequency of the transmitted signal increases, the current
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flowing in the wires tends to flow only on the outer surface of the wire, thus using Telecommunication
the less of the available cross section. This increases the electrical resistance of the
wires for higher frequency signals leading to higher attenuation. In addition, at
higher frequencies, more signal power is lost as a result of radiation effects. Hence
for applications that demand higher frequencies, another type of transmission NOTES
medium must be used. Coaxial cable minimizes both these effects.
Coaxial Cable as shown in Figure 4.4 is a very robust shielded copper wire
two-conductor cable in which a solid centre conductor runs concentrically (coaxial)
inside a solid outer circular conductor. This forms an electromagnetic shield around
the former that serves to greatly improve signal strength and integrity. The two
conductors are separated by insulation. A layer of dielectric (nonconductive)
material, such as PVC or Teflon then protects the entire cable.
Fig. 4.4 Coaxial Cable Configurations
It comes under the category of a bounded media and is still an effective

medium to use in data communication. Coaxial cable includes shield for improved
performance and therefore is expensive. Cable TV networks use coaxial cable.
Local Area Networks can operate over coaxial cable to the 10BASE5, 10BASE2
and 10BASET specifications. In general, coaxial cable enables longer distance
transmission at higher data rates than twisted pair cable but is more expensive.
There are two types of coaxial cables:
Baseband
It transmits a single signal at a time at very high speed. The signal on baseband
cable must be amplified at a specified distances. It is used for local area networks.
Broadband
It can transmit many simultaneous signals using different frequencies.
General Properties of Coaxial Cable
 Gauge: The gauge of coaxial cable is thicker than the twisted pair. While
this increases the available bandwidth and the distance of transmission, it
also increases the cost. Traditional coaxial cable is quite thick, heavy and
bulky of which Ethernet LAN 10Base5 is an example. Ethernet LAN
10Base2 is of much lesser dimensions but offers less in terms of performance.
 Configuration: Coaxial cables consist of a single, two-conductor wire,
with a centre conductor and an outer shield/conductor, which is of solid
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Telecommunication metal. Sometimes braided or stranded metal is used. Twin axial cables
contain two such configurations within a single cable sheath. As the centre
conductor carries the carrier signal and the outer conductor generally is
used for electrical grounding. Coaxial cable connectivity can be extended
NOTES through the use of twisted pair with a BALUN (Balanced/Unbalanced)
connector serving to accomplish the interface.
 Bandwidth: The effective capacity of coaxial cable depends on several
factors, including the gauge of the centre conductor, the length of the circuit,
and the spacing of amplifiers and other intermediate devices. The available
bandwidth over coaxial cable is very significant; hence it is used in high
capacity applications, such as data and image transmission.
 Error Performance: Coaxial cable performs exceptionally well, due to
the outer shielding. As a result, it is often used in data applications.
 Distance: Coaxial cable is not as limited as UTP, although amplifiers or
other intermediate devices must be used to extend high frequency
transmissions over distances of any significance.
 Security: Coaxial cable is inherently quite secure. It is relatively difficult to
place physical taps on coaxial cable. Radiation of energy is also minimal
hence interception of it is not easy.
 Cost: The acquisition, deployment, and rearrangement costs of coaxial
cables are very high, compared with UTP. In high capacity data applications,
however, that cost is often outweighed by its positive performance
characteristics.
 Applications: Coaxial cable’s superior performance characteristics make
it the favored medium in many short hauls, bandwidth-intensive data
applications. Current and continuing applications include LAN backbone,
host-to-host, host-to-peripheral and CATV.
4.2.6 Optical Fibre
We have seen in the previous section that the geometry of coaxial cable significantly
reduces the various limiting effects, the maximum signal frequency, and hence the
information rate that can be transmitted using a solid conductor, although very
high, is limited. This is also the case for twisted lines. Optical fibre differs from
both these transmission media in that it carries the transmitted information in the
form of a fluctuating beam of light in a glass fibre rather than as an electrical signal
on a wire. This type of transmission has become strong support for digital network
owing to its high capacity and other factors favourable for digital communication.
Fibre optic transmission systems are opto-electric in nature. In other words,
a combination of optical and electrical electromagnetic energy is involved. The
signal originates as an electrical signal, which is translated into an optical signal,
which subsequently is reconverted into an electrical signal at the receiving end.
Thin glass fibre as shown in Figure 4.5 is very clear and designed to reflect light
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internally for efficient transmission carries light with encoded data. Plastic jacket Telecommunication
allows fibre to bend (some!) without breaking. Light emitting diode (LED) or
laser injects light into fibre for transmission. Light sensitive receiver at other end
translates light back into data.
NOTES
Fig. 4.5 Fibre optic cable – General view
The optical fibre consists of a number of substructures as shown in Figure

4.5. In this case, a cladding made of glass with lower refractive index surrounds a
core made of glass, which carries most of the light. This bends the light and confines
it to the core. The core is surrounded by a substrate layer (in some fibers) of glass,
which does not carry light, but adds to the diameter and strength of the fibre. A
primary buffer coating and a secondary buffer coating to provide mechanical
protection cover all these.
Fig. 4.6 Glass Fibre Optic Cable, Side View, and Cross Section
The light pulse travels down the center core of the glass fibre. Surrounding
the inner core is a layer of glass cladding, with a slightly different refractive index.
The cladding serves to reflect the light waves back into the inner core. Surrounding
the cladding is a layer of protective plastic coating that seals the cable and provides
mechanical protection. This is shown in Figure 4.6. Typically, multiple fibers are
housed in a single sheath, which may be heavily armored.
Light propagates along the optical fibre core in one of the following ways
depending on the type and width of core material used.
Multimode Fibre
Here, the core diameter is relatively large compared to a wavelength of light. Core
diameter ranges from 50 micrometers (µm) to 1,000 µm, compared to the
wavelength of light of about 1 µm. This means that light can propagate through the
fibre in many different ray paths, or modes, hence the name multimode. Multimode
fibre is less expensive to produce and inferior in performance because of the larger
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Telecommunication diameter of the inner core. When the light rays travel down the fibre, they spread
out due to a phenomenon known as modal dispersion. Although reflected back
into the inner core by the cladding, they travel different distances and, therefore,
arrive at different times. The received signal thus has a wider pulse width than the
NOTES input signal with a corresponding decrease in the speed of transmission. As a
result, multimode fibre is relegated to applications involving relatively short distances
and lower speeds of transmission, for example, LANs and campus environments.
Two basic types of multimode fibres exist. The simpler and older type is a ‘step
index’ fibre, where the index of refraction (the ability of a material to bend light) is
the same all across the core of the fibre.
Step Index Multimode Fibre
This is shown in Figure 4.7. With all these different ray paths or modes of
propagation, different rays travel different distances, and take different amounts of
time to transit the length of a fibre. This being the case, if a short pulse of light is
injected into a fibre, the various rays emanating from that pulse will arrive at the
other end of the fibre at different times, and the output pulse will be of longer
duration than the input pulse. This phenomenon is called ‘modal dispersion’ (pulse
spreading), and limits the number of pulses per second that can be transmitted
down a fibre and is still recognised as separate pulses at the other end. This,
therefore, limits the bit rate or bandwidth of a multimode fibre. For step index
fibers, wherein no effort is made to compensate for modal dispersion, the bandwidth
is typically 20 to 30 MHz over a length of one kilometer of fibre, expressed as
‘MHz - km’.
Fig. 4.7 Multimode Step Index Fibre
Graded Index Multimode Fibre

In the case of a graded index multimode fibre, the index of refraction across the
core is gradually changed from a maximum at the center to a minimum near the
edges, hence the name graded index. This design takes advantage of the
phenomenon that light travels faster in a low-index-of-refraction material than in a
high-index material. If a short pulse of light is launched into the graded index fibre,
it may spread some during its transit of the fibre, but much less than in the case of
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a step index fibre. Therefore, dispersion can be reduced using a core material that Telecommunication
has a variable refractive index. In such multimode graded index fibre light is refracted
by an increasing amount as it moves away from the core as shown in Figure 4.8.
This has the effect of narrowing the pulse width of the received signal compared
with stepped index fibre, allowing a corresponding increase in the speed of NOTES
transmission. They therefore can support a much higher bit rate or bandwidth.
Typical bandwidths of graded index fibers range from 100 MHz-km to well over
1GHz-km. The actual bandwidth depends on how well a particular fibre’s index
profile minimizes modal dispersion, and on the wavelength of light launched into
the fibre.
Fig. 4.8 Light Propagation in Multimode Graded Index Fibre
Monomode/Singlemode Fibre
This has a thinner inner core. The core diameter of about 9 µm is much closer in
size to the wavelength of light being propagated, about 1.3 µm. This limits the light
transmission to a single ray or mode of light to propagate down the core of the
fibre as shown in Figure 4.9. All the multiple-mode or multimode effects described
above are eliminated. However, one pulse-spreading mechanism remains. Just as
in the multimode fibres, different wavelengths of light travel at different speeds,
causing short pulses of light injected into the fibre to spread as they travel. This
phenomenon is called ‘chromatic dispersion’.
Fig. 4.9 Light Propagation in Single Mode Step Index Fibre

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Telecommunication It performs better than does multimode fibre over longer distances at higher
transmission rates. Due to reduced core diameter all the emitted light propagates
along a single path. Consequently the received signal is of a comparable width to
the input signal. Although more costly, monomode fibre is used to advantage in
NOTES long haul, and especially in high bandwidth, applications.
Singlemode fibres have the very broadest bandwidth, lowest cost and lowest
attenuation of any available optical fibre. Therefore, they are universally used in
long-distance telephony and cable television applications.
Advantages of Optical Fibres
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference and crosstalk
 No electrical ground loop or short circuit problems
 Small size and light-weight
 Large bandwidth for size and weight
 Safe in combustible areas (no arching)
 Immunity to lightning and electrical discharges
 Longer cable runs between repeaters
 Flexibility and high strength
 Potential high temperature operation
 Secure against signal leakage and interference
 No electrical hazard when cut or damaged
General Properties of Optical Fibre
 Configuration: Fibre optic systems consist of light sources, cables and
light detectors, as depicted in Figure 4.10. In a simple configuration, one of
each is used. In a more complex configuration over longer distances, many
such sets of elements are employed. Much as is the case in other transmission
systems, long haul optical communications involve a number of regenerative
repeaters. In a fibre optic system, repeaters are opto-electric devices. On
the incoming side of the repeater, a light detector receives the optical signal,
converts it into an electrical signal, boosts it, converts it back into an optical
signal, and places it onto a fibre, and so on. There may be many such
optical repeaters in a long haul transmission system, although typically far
fewer than would be required using other transmission media.
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Telecommunication
NOTES
Fig. 4.10 Fibre Optic Systems
 Bandwidth: Fibre offers by far the greatest bandwidth of any transmission

system, often in excess of 2 Gbps in long haul carrier networks. Systems
with 40 Gbps have been tested successfully on numerous occasions. The
theoretical capacity of fibre is in the terabit (Tbps) range, with current
monomode fibre capacity being expandable to that level.
 Bandwidth: Fibre offers by far the greatest bandwidth of any transmission
system, often in excess of 2 Gbps in long haul carrier networks. Systems
with 40 Gbps have been tested successfully on numerous occasions. The
theoretical capacity of fibre is in the terabit (Tbps) range, with current
monomode fibre capacity being expandable to that level.
 Error Performance: Fibre being a dielectric (a nonconductor of direct
electric current), it is not susceptible to Electro Magnetic Interference/Radio
Frequency Interference (EMI/RFI). This also does not emit EMI/RFI. The
light signal will suffer from attenuation, although less so than other media.
Scattering of the optical signal, bending in the fibre cable, translation of light
energy to heat, and splices in the cable system can cause such optical
attenuation.
 Distance: Monomode fibre optic systems routinely are capable of
transmitting signals over distances in excess of 325 km. Hence relatively
few optical repeaters are required in a long-haul system. This will reduce
costs, and eliminate points of potential failure.
 Security: Fibre is intrinsically secure, as it is virtually impossible to place a
physical tap without detection because no light is radiated outside the cable.
Therefore, interception of signal is almost impossible. Additionally, the fibre
system supports such a high volume of traffic that it is difficult to intercept
and distinguish a single transmission from the tens of thousands of other
transmissions that might ride the same cable system. The digital nature of
most fibers coupled with encryption techniques frequently used to protect
from interception make fibers highly secure.
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Telecommunication  Cost: While the acquisition, deployment, and rearrangement costs of fibre
are relatively high, the immense bandwidth can outweigh that cost in
bandwidth-intensive applications. At Gbps speeds, a single set of fibers
can carry huge volumes of digital transmissions over longer distances than
NOTES alternative systems, thereby lowering the transport cost per bit and cost per
conversation to fractions of a penny per minute.
 Applications: Applications for fibre optic transmission systems are
bandwidth intensive. Such applications include backbone carrier networks,
international submarine cables, backbone LANs (FDDI), interoffice trunking,
computer-to-computer distribution networks (CATV and Information
Superhighway) and fibre to the desktop (Computer Aided Design).
Bounded Media Comparison Chart
Table 4.2 Bounded Media Comparison Chart
Media Advantages Disadvantages

Twisted Pair Inexpensive, well Sensitive to noise, short
Cable established, easy to add distances, limited bandwidth,
nodes security hazard because of
easy interception
Coaxial Cable High bandwidth, long Physical dimensions, security
distances, noise immunity is better in comparison to
twisted pair cable
Optical Fibre Very high bandwidth, noise Connections, cost
Cable immunity, long distances,
high security, small size

Wireless transmission systems do not make use of a physical conductor, or guide
to bind the signal. In this case, data are transmitted using electromagnetic waves.
Therefore, they are also known as unguided or unbounded systems. Energy travels
through the air rather than copper or glass. Hence the term radiated often is applied
to wireless transmission. Finally, such systems employ electromagnetic energy in
the form of radio or light waves that are transmitted and received across space,
and are referred to as airwave systems. The transmission systems addressed under
this category include microwave, satellite and infrared. There are different
techniques to convert the data suitable for this mode of communication. Radio
waves can travel through walls and through an entire building. They can travel for
long distances using satellite communication or short distance using wireless
communication. Radio waves need attention and caution when this technology is
used for delivery of real time applications like multimedia contents because radio
links are susceptible to fading, interference, random delays, etc.
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Radio Telecommunication
It is a technique in which data is transmitted using radio waves and therefore

energy travels through the air rather than copper or glass. Conceptually radio, TV,
cellular phones, etc., uses radio transmission in one form or another. The radio NOTES
waves can travel through walls and through an entire building. Depending upon
the frequency, they can travel long distance or short distance. Satellite relay is the
one example of long distance communication. Therefore, each frequency range is
divided into different bands, which has a specific range of frequencies in the radio
frequency (RF) spectrum. The RF is divided in different ranges starting from very
low frequencies (VLF) to extremely high frequencies (EHF). Figure 4.11 shows
each band with a defined upper and lower frequency limit.
Fig. 4.11 Radio Frequency Range and Types of Transmission Media
Two transmitters cannot share the same frequency band because of the
mutual interference and therefore band usage is regulated. The International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) regulates international use of the radio spectrum.
Domestic use of the radio spectrum is regulated by national agencies such as
Wireless Planning and Coordination (WPC) in India. WPC assigns each
transmission source a band of operation, a transmitter radiation pattern, and a
maximum transmitter power. The Table 4.1 shows the bands and frequency ranges.
Omni directional or directional antennas are used to broadcast radio waves
depending upon band. The transceiver unit, which is consisted of transmitter and
receiver along with the antenna, determines the power of RF signal. Other
characteristics of radio waves is that in vacuum all electromagnetic waves or radio
waves travel at the same speed, i.e., at the speed of light which is equal to 3 × 108
metre per seconds. In any medium this speed gets reduced and also becomes
frequency dependent. In case of copper the speed of light becomes approximately
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Telecommunication two thirds of the speed of light. The basic features of the radio waves are as
follows:
 They are easy to generate
NOTES  They have the same velocity in vacuum
 They may traverse long distances
 They are omni directional
 They can penetrate building easily so they find extensive use in
communication both indoor and outdoor
 they are frequency dependent. At low frequency they can pass through
obstacles. However, the power falls off sharply with distance from the source
because power is inversely proportional to cube of the distance from the
source. At HF they travel in straight lines and bounce off obstacles.
Very Low Frequency (VLF)
The VLF method takes advantage of electromagnetic radiation generated in the
low frequency band of 3-30 kHz by powerful radio transmitters used in long-
range communications and navigational systems. At large distances from the source,
the electromagnetic field is planar and horizontal and the electric component E lies
in a vertical plane perpendicular to the H component in the direction of propagation
and follow the ground. AM uses VLF band. This band of frequencies cannot be
used for data transfer because they offer relatively low bandwidth.
Microwave Transmission
Microwave transmission is a form of radio transmission which uses extremely high
frequencies. All the specified frequency ranges are in the GHz range and the
wavelength in the millimetre range. Since these types of high frequency signals are
prone to attenuation, hence, amplification is required after a specific distance. The
radio beams are highly focussed in order to increase the transmission distance of
the signals. The transmit antenna is centred in a concave metallic dish which focuses
the radio beam with maximum effect, as illustrated in Figure 4.12. Similarly the
receiver dish is also concave in nature which collects the maximum amount of
incoming signal.
It is a point-to-point transmission system, instead of a broadcast system.
Also each antenna must be within the line of sight of the next antenna. Due to the
curvature of the earth, the microwave signal hops are limited to a maximum of 80
km.
General Properties of Microwave Transmission
 Configuration: Microwave radio consists of an antennae at the center of
a reflective dish which is attached to the structure such as a tower or a
building. Cables connect the antennae to the actual equipment.
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 Bandwidth: Bandwidth in excess of 6 Gbps is common in microwave Telecommunication
transmission.
 Error Performance: Assuming proper design, digital microwave performs
well in this regard. However, environmental interferences such as,
NOTES
precipitation, haze, smog and smoke create troubles for high frequency
transmission, yet microwave performs much better in this regard.
 Distance: At higher frequencies, microwave is distance limited, which can
be overcome through complex arrays of antennae incorporating spatial
diversity in order to collect more signals.
 Security: As is the case with all radio communication systems, microwave
is inherently insecure, which can be improved through encryption.
Fig. 4.12 Point-to-point Microwave
Table 4.3 Microwave Frequency Bands
Frequency Bands Maximum Antenna Analog/Digital

Separation
4–6 GHz 32-48 Km Analog
10-12 GHz 16-24 Km Digital
 Cost: Even though the acquisition, deployment and rearrangement cost

can be very high, yet, microwave compares very favourably with cabled
systems, which require right-of-way, trenching and conduit and splicing.
 Applications: Microwave was originally used for long haul voice and data
communication since it was found to be the most attractive alternative to
cable system. However the recent upsurge of fibre optic communication
system is currently used in this regard. Contemporary applications include
private networks, interconnections of cellular radio switches and an
alternative of cabled communication system in difficult terrain.
Satellite Communication
Satellite radio is a non-terrestrial microwave transmission system utilizing a space
relay station. Satellites have proved invaluable in extending the reach of voice,
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Telecommunication data, and video communications around the globe and into the most remote regions
of the world. Exotic applications such as the Global Positioning System (GPS)
would have been unthinkable without the benefit of satellites. Contemporary satellite
communications systems involve a satellite relay station that is launched into a
NOTES geostationary, geosynchronous, or geostatic orbit. Such satellites are called
geostationary satellite. Such an orbit is approximately 36,000 kms above the
equator as depicted in Figure 4.13. At that altitude and in an equatorial orbital slot,
the satellite revolves around the earth with the same speed as of that the speed of
revolution of earth and maintains its relative position over the same spot of the
earth’s surface. Consequently, transmit and receive earth stations can be pointed
reliably at the satellite for communications purposes.
The popularity of satellite communications has placed great demands on
the international regulators to manage and allocate available frequencies, as well
as the limited number of orbital slots available for satellite positioning are managed
at national, regional and international levels. Generally speaking, geostationary
satellites are positioned approximately 2 apart in order to minimise interference
from adjacent satellites using overlapping frequencies. Such high frequency signals
are especially susceptible to attenuation in the atmosphere. Therefore, in case of
satellite communication two different frequencies are used as carrier frequencies
to avoid interference between incoming and outgoing signals. These can be listed
as follows.
Frequencies Used
 Uplink Frequency: It is the frequency used to transmit signal from earth
station to satellite. Table 4.3 shows the higher of the two frequencies that is
used for the uplink. The uplink signal can be tailored stronger and therefore
can better deal with atmospheric distortion. The antenna at transmitting
side is centered in a concave, reflective dish that serves to focus the radio
beam, with maximum effect, on the receiving satellite antenna. The receiving
antenna, similarly, is centered in a concave metal dish, which serves to collect
the maximum amount of incoming signal.
Fig. 4.13 Satellites in Geostationary Earth Orbit
 Downlink frequency: It is the frequency used to transmit the signal from

satellite to earth station. In other words, the downlink transmission is focused
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on a particular footprint, or area of coverage. The lower frequency, used Telecommunication
for the downlink, can better penetrate the earth’s atmosphere and
electromagnetic field, which can act to bend the incoming signal much as
light bends when entering a pool of water.
NOTES
Table 4.4 Microwave Frequency Bands
Frequency Bands Maximum Antenna Separation Analog/Digital

4–6 GHz 32-48 Km Analog
 Broadcast: The wide footprint of a satellite radio system allows a signal to

be broadcast over a wide area. Thereby any number (theoretically an infinite
number) of terrestrial antennae can receive the signal, more or less
simultaneously. In this manner, satellites can serve a point-to-multipoint
network requirement through a single uplink station and multiple downlink
stations. Recently, satellites have been developed which can serve a mesh
network requirement, whereby each terrestrial site can communicate directly
with any other site. Previously, all such communications were required to
travel through a centralized site, known as a head end. Such a mesh network,
of course, imposes an additional level of difficulty on the network in terms
of management of the flow and direction of traffic.
General Properties of Satellite Communication
 Configuration: Satellite communication systems consist of antennae and
reflective dishes, much as in terrestrial microwave. The dish serves to focus
the signal from a transmitting antenna to a receiving antenna. The send/
receive dishes that make up the earth segment are of varying sizes, depending
on power levels and frequency bands. They generally are mounted on a
tripod or other type of brace, which is anchored to the earth, pad or roof,
or attached to a structure such as building. Cables connect the antennae to
the actual transmit/receive equipment. The terrestrial antennae support a
single frequency band for example, C-band, Ku-band or Ka-band. The
higher the frequency bands the smaller the possible size of the dish. Therefore,
while C-band TV dishes tend to be rather large, Ku-band DBS (Direct
Broadcast Satellite) TV dishes tend to be very small. The space segment
dishes are mounted on a satellite, of course. The satellite can support multiple
transmit/receive dishes, depending on the various frequencies which it
employs to support various applications, and depending on whether it covers
an entire footprint or divides the footprint into smaller areas of coverage
through the use of more tightly focused spot beams. Satellite repeaters are
in the form of number of transponders. The transponders accept the weak
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Telecommunication incoming signals, boost them, shift from the uplink to the downlink
frequencies, and transmit the information to the earth stations.
 Bandwidth: Satellites can support multiple transponders and, therefore,
substantial bandwidth, with each transponder generally providing increments
NOTES
in bandwidth.
 Error Performance: Satellite transmission is susceptible to environmental
interference, particularly at frequencies above 20 GHz. Sunspots and other
types of electromagnetic interference affect satellite and microwave
transmission. Additionally, some satellite frequency bands, for example, C-
band needs careful frequency management. As a result of these factors,
satellite transmission often requires rather extensive error detection and
correction capabilities.
 Distance: Satellite is not considered to be distance limited as the signal
largely travels through the vacuum of space. Further each signal travels
approximately 36,000 kms in each direction.
 Propagation Delay: Geostationary satellites, by virtue of their high orbital
altitude, impose rather significant propagation delay on the signal. Hence,
highly interactive voice, data, and video applications are not effectively
supported via two-way satellite communications.
 Security: As is the case with all microwave and other radio systems, satellite
transmission is inherently not secure. Satellite transmission is especially
vulnerable to interception, as the signal is broadcast over the entire area of
the footprint. Therefore, the unauthorized user must know only the satellite
and associated frequency range being employed. Security must be imposed
through encryption (scrambling) of the signal.
 Cost: The acquisition, deployment, and rearrangement costs of the space
segment of satellite systems can be quite high in several millions dollars.
However, the satellite can be shared by a large number of users, with each
user perhaps connecting a large number of sites. As a result, satellite networks
often compare very favorably with cabled systems or microwave systems
for many point-to-multipoint applications.
 Applications: Satellite applications are many and increasing rapidly as the
traditional voice and data services have been augmented. Traditional
international voice and data services have been supplanted to a considerable
extent by submarine fibre optic cable system. Traditional, applications include
international voice and data, remote voice and data, television and radio
broadcast, maritime navigation, videoconferencing, inventory management
and control through VSATs, disaster recovery and paging. More recent
and emerging applications include air navigation, Global Positioning Systems
(GPS), mobile voice and data because of Low Earth Orbit Satellites (LEOs),
Advanced Traffic Management Systems (ATMS), Direct Broadcast Satellite
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(DBS) TV, Integrated Digital Services Network (ISDN), interactive Telecommunication
Television, and interactive multimedia.

 Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSATs): VSATs or Very Small Aperture
Terminals are a breed of satellite system involving terrestrial dishes of very
NOTES
small diameter (aperture). Operating in the C-band and Ku-band, VSATs
are digital and are designed primarily to support data communications on a
point-to-multipoint basis for large private networks in applications such as
retail inventory management and credit verification and authorisation. While
some newer systems also support mesh networks and voice communications,
they are unusual at this time. Bandwidth is in channel increments of 56/64
Kbps, generally up to an aggregate bandwidth of 1.544 Mbps.
Infrared Transmission
Infrared light transmissions have existed for many years but their use has been
limited to TV remote controls and wireless slide projector remote controls.
However, they are now assuming a position of some, if still limited, importance.
Infrared systems use the infrared light spectrum to send a focused light beam to a
receiver, much, as a microwave system, although no reflective dish is used. Rather,
a pair of lenses is used, with a focused lens employed in the transmitting device
and a collective lens in the receiving device as shown in Figur 4.14. Infrared is an
airwave, rather that a conducted transmission system. Although generally used in
short-haul transmission, they do offer substantial bandwidth, but with risks of
interference.
Advantages include rapid deployment, especially as there are no licensing
requirements as typically is the case with microwave. Additionally, infrared offers
fairly substantial bandwidth at relatively low cost. However, infrared systems require
line-of- sight and suffer from environmental interference, as do microwave systems.
Error performance is also satisfactory. Additionally, infrared is distance limited.
However, infrared often is an attractive alternative to leased lines or private cabled
systems for building-to-building connectivity in a campus environment. Infrared
transmission also is used in certain wireless LAN systems and is incorporated into
some PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants).
Fig. 4.14 Infrared Transmission Systems Self-Instructional

Material 75
Telecommunication Cellular Phones
The development of cellular phones is recent one. This is also known as mobile
phone and as its name implies it is designed for mobile users who need to make
NOTES telephone calls from different locations when they are usually away from home or
office. The rapid development in hardware technology helps in designing such
kind of portable telephone sets so that user may carry it within their office bag or
pocket during movement. Cellular phone uses radio frequencies to establish access
to a nearby cell site which is an access point for cellular calls. The cellular phone
regularly communicates with the nearest cell site to inform the network that it is
connected.
Check Your Progress

1. What does guided and unguided media comprises of ?
2. State the basis of data carrier frequencies in transmission of data.
3. Define frequency spectrum.
4. Differentiate between uplink and downlink frequencies.
4.3 WI-FI
The Wi-Fi stands for Wireless Fidelity. It is used for wireless devices. The Wi-Fi
Alliance represents the wireless standard protocol and basically non-profit
organization. This technology supports interoperability features for communication
devices. It connects the networking system without cables. But for this, Wi-Fi and
regular Internet Service Provider (ISP) services are needed. The Bluetooth
technology has been designed to connect both mobile devices and peripherals
that currently require a wire. The services of Bluetooth are provided by wireless in
which no setup is needed. The transfer speed of data rate is 1.0 Mbps. It holds
radio frequency chips which are plugged into the devices. It maintains 2.45 GHz
frequency. It uses a technique called spread spectrum frequency hopping. The
Bluetooth and wireless networking are closely related to Wi-Fi connectivity through
radio waves. But, the basic difference between Bluetooth and Wi-Fi is that
Bluetooth replaces cables at the primary stage whereas Wi-Fi is completely
considered to be wireless technology. The manufacturers of Wi-Fi Alliance build
the various devices for 802.11 standards. Approximately, 205 companies joined
to the Wi-Fi Alliance and almost 900 products have been certified to the
interoperable system. These companies give assurance that the Wi-Fi devices are
connected by physical layer in reference models. Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)
solution was added recently to the Wi-Fi standard. The physical and access control
layer implement the extra enhanced features, such as Internet security. The Wi-Fi
can be grown by leaps and bounds because it is connected via spectrum. It uses
unlicensed 24 GHz and 5 GHz bands. It provides data throughput for most uses.
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The prime equipment required for Wi-Fi connection is Wi-Fi PC card. It is common Telecommunication
way to connect the computer to the Internet without wires. Wi-Fi PC card is
technically known as Personal Computer Memory Card International Association
(PCMCIA). The two prime solutions included by the Wi-Fi device during data
transmission are as follows: NOTES
 You can work almost anywhere by mobile Wi-Fi device to connect to the
Internet without wires when away from your home or office.
 You can free yourself from the need to drill holes and snake wires by creating
a network at the home or office using Wi-Fi devices.
Fig. 4.15 Wi-Fi Zone
A hotspot is, used in Wi-Fi connection, an area in which Wi-Fi users connect
to the Internet (Refer Figure 4.15). Wireless zone increases the mobility of the
users. These users are represented by numbers, such as 2, 3 and 4. Number 1
represents hotspot through which various users are connected with Wi-Fi zone.
Number 2 represents desktop users, Number 3 represents mobile users and
Number 4 represents laptop users. Following approaches are used to make the
searching information as follows:
 You can use the search tool provided by organization. The branches are
hosted by Wi-Fi hotspots. Let us take an example of Starbucks Coffee
Company. Starbucks chain is channeled across the world with the help
of Wi-Fi zone.
 If you have signed with Wi-Fi provider you can search via ISP.
 You can search many cross provider directories that are available with
Web.
The Wi-Fi hotspots are created around the antennas to outlet the radio
waves of wireless networking. It is confined to almost 10,000 hotspots in crowded
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Telecommunication areas, such as airport lounges, cafes, etc. A series of antennas are set up into the
city wide zones. The Internet connection is facilitated by Wi-Fi chips. The long
calls are possible with Wi-Fi technology. They are by bypassed network using
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) technologies. The Wi-Fi assembled mobiles
NOTES and laptops are connected to these hotspots can be accessed frequently by paying
a certain fee. This amount can be paid by credit card on the login page provided
by Web browser. Users can hold their accounts provided by service providers,
such as BT Openzone, Skypezone, Nintendo Wi-Fi, T-Mobile,
O2, etc.
Internet
DSL
Cable, etc...
Modem
Wi-Fi
Wired Network
Access Router
Client
Point
Wired Network
Wireless
Client
Wi-Fi Wi-Fi
Devices Devices
Fig. 4.16 Wi-Fi Network Setup
In Figure 4.16, the Wi-Fi access point is interconnected with Wi-Fi devices
that are configured with router. Modem is also used to make connection between
router and Internet Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) cable. The main role of router is
to connect the Wi-Fi access point and wired network clients. The VoIP software
enables data, fax calls and voice across IP networks and represents Internet
telephony allowing a communication between two PCs over the packet switching
Internet. It is worked by encoding the voice information. Then, it is changed to
digital format. It provides cost benefits by converging data and voice over IP
network into the mobile phones. Many of the latest mobiles are connected with
Wi-Fi via VoIP technology. Between the Internet connection and Wi-Fi access
point, hardware design is needed to connect with the Internet and share the
internetworking connectivity. Following guidelines are required for connecting the
Wi-Fi with system unit:
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 The WPA2 encryption is required for the communications. Telecommunication
 The shared keys and certificates are encrypted.

 The Service Set Identification (SSID) should be used for broadcasting.
This ID can be set as 89cyr65g6vwe or n08345cvb4wq. The default NOTES
SSID is not used and also do not use your phone number, last name or
address.
 The MAC address authentication must be used for specific system that
accesses the Wi-Fi link.
 The infrastructure mode must be used for Internet connectivity.
After getting the Wi-Fi connection, you can know about your shared WPA2
key, Media Access Control (MAC) address and SSID. The infrastructure mode
is used to set the wireless network card and firewall. The connection of Internet
via Wi-Fi involves the following equipments:
 Wi-Fi device (the client).
 A Wi-Fi broadcast unit (the access point).
 Network connectivity hardware (router and modem).
 Fast Internet connection (usually via cable or DSL).
The Wi-Fi technology is best known for its fast connectivity and speed.
Figure 4.17 shows the various wireless standards along with their speed.
(Actual Estimated)
10B450T Wired
B02, 11a Wi-Fi

B02,11b Wi-Fi
(Theoretic)
Bluetooth
Ethernet
Throughput
(in Mbps) .38 6 10 11 24 54
802, 11b Wi-Fi
802, 11g Wi-Fi

(Theoretic)
(Theoretic)
Fig. 4.17 Speed of Wireless Standards
Figure 4.17 shows the various wireless connections that are set with speed
respectively, for example 802.11b Wi-Fi is 11 Mbps and 802.11gs Wi-Fi is 54
Mbps. Wi-Fi has alleviated the need to connect the communication devices
physically in a mesh of hundreds of cables.
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Telecommunication
Check Your Progress

5. What is Wi-Fi?
NOTES 6. How is Bluetooth service provided?
7. What is WPA?
8. What is the prime equipment required for Wi-Fi connection?

QUESTIONS
1. The guided media includes all wired media, also referred to as conducted
or bounded media while the unguided media includes all traditional wireless
media, also referred to as radiated, or unbounded.
2. In the transmission of data the range of carrier frequencies is based on the
nature of the medium and the requirements of the applications supported.
3. Frequency spectrum may be defined as the range of frequencies being
supported by a particular transmission medium. The actual range of
frequencies supporting a given communication is known as a pass band.
4. Uplink frequency is the frequency used to transmit signal from earth station
to satellite, whereas downlink frequency is the frequency used to transmit
the signal from satellite to earth station.
5. Wi-Fi stands for Wireless Fidelity. It is used for wireless devices. The Wi-
Fi Alliance represents the wireless standard protocol and basically non-
profit organization.
6. The services of Bluetooth are provided by wireless in which no setup is
needed. It holds radio frequency chips which are plugged into the devices.
7. Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) solution was added recently to the Wi-Fi
standard. The physical and access control layer implement the extra
enhanced features, such as Internet security.
8. The primary equipment required for Wi-Fi connection is Wi-Fi PC card. It
is common way to connect the computer to the Internet without wires. Wi-
Fi PC card is technically known as Personal Computer Memory Card
International Association (PCMCIA).
4.5 SUMMARY
 The guided media includes all wired media, also referred to as conducted
or bounded media, while unguided media includes all traditional wireless
media, also referred to as radiated, or unbounded.
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 In the transmission of signal the data is encoded to energy and then energy Telecommunication
is transmitted. Similarly, at the receiving end the energy is decoded back to

data. This energy can be electrical, light and radio, etc. Therefore this
transmitted energy is carried through a medium, which depends upon the
type of energy being transmitted. NOTES
 The energy in different forms have different properties and therefore cannot
be transmitted using the single media. They have different requirements for
transmission including standard specified hardware for data encoding and
creating links to transmission medium. Media can be copper, glass and air
as bounded and unbounded media respectively.
 In the transmission of data the range of carrier frequencies is based on the
nature of the medium and the requirements of the applications supported.
 Frequency spectrum may be defined as the range of frequencies being
supported by a particular transmission medium. The actual range of
frequencies supporting a given communication is known as a pass band.
 In a very general way bandwidth may be defined as the range of frequencies,
which a channel is allowed to pass through the signals between that frequency
ranges.
 Any transmission system becomes more attractive if the available bandwidth
is greater, introduced errors are fewer, and the maximum distance between
various network elements (amplifiers, repeaters, and antennae) is greater.
 The higher frequency signals offer greater bandwidth; they also generally
suffer to a greater extent from signal attenuation than lower frequencies.
This fact results in more errors in transmission, unless the amplifiers/repeaters
are spaced more closely together.
 Security, in the context of transmission systems, addresses the protection of
data from interception as it transverses the network. Particularly in the case
of data networking, it is also important that access to a remote system and
the data resident on it be limited to authorised users; that so, methods of
authentication must be employed to verify that the access request is legitimate
and authentic.
 Resistance to environmental conditions applies specially especially to wired
systems. Twisted pair, coaxial, and fibre optic cables are manipulated
physically as they are deployed and reconfigured.
 Wired transmission systems require a right-of-way and this should be secured.
Wired transmission involves a cost component in the form infrastructure.
The infrastructure includes digging of trenches and boring of holes so that
cable can be pulled and poles may be mounted.
 Bounded media or wired transmission systems employ physical media, which
are tangible. Also known as conducted systems, wired media employs a
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Telecommunication metallic or glass conductor which serves to conduct, electromagnetic energy.
 The twisted pair and coaxial cable systems conduct electrical energy through
a copper medium. Fibre optic systems conduct light or optical energy,
generally using a glass conductor. The term bounded or guided media means
NOTES
that the signal is contained within an enclosed physical path.
 UTP the copper media, is commonly used in telephone lines. This is also
being used increasingly at higher data rates. The UTP has become the de
facto standard for horizontal wiring. Horizontal wiring specifies the connection
between the outlet and the termination in the communication closet.
 A UTP cable normally may enclose about up to 4200 twisted pairs. The
UTP offers advantages that include flexibility, cost effective transmission
medium and they are subtly used for both voice and data communications.
However, the limited bandwidth offered by UTP is its greatest weakness
and therefore it does not find deployment for long distance transmission
and low error rates.
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) differs from UTP in that a metallic shield or
screen surrounds the pairs, which may or may not be twisted.
 Microwave transmission is a form of radio transmission which uses extremely
high frequencies. All the specified frequency ranges are in the GHz range
and the wavelength in the millimetre range. Since these types of high frequency
signals are prone to attenuation, hence, amplification is required after a
specific distance.
 Uplink frequency is the frequency used to transmit signal from earth station
to satellite, whereas downlink frequency is the frequency used to transmit
the signal from satellite to earth station. In other words, the downlink
transmission is focused on a particular footprint, or area of coverage.
 The Wi-Fi stands for Wireless Fidelity. It is used for wireless devices. The
Wi-Fi Alliance represents the wireless standard protocol and basically non-
profit organization. This technology supports interoperability features for
communication devices. It connects the networking system without cables.
 Wi-Fi and regular Internet Service Provider (ISP) services are needed.
The Bluetooth technology has been designed to connect both mobile devices
and peripherals that currently require a wire.
 The services of Bluetooth are provided by wireless in which no setup is
needed. The transfer speed of data rate is 1.0 Mbps. It holds radio
frequency chips which are plugged into the devices. It maintains 2.45 GHz
frequency. It uses a technique called spread spectrum frequency hopping.
 The Bluetooth and wireless networking are closely related to Wi-Fi
connectivity through radio waves. But, the basic difference between
Bluetooth and Wi-Fi is that Bluetooth replaces cables at the primary stage
whereas Wi-Fi is completely considered to be wireless technology.
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 The manufacturers of Wi-Fi Alliance build the various devices for 802.11 Telecommunication
standards. Approximately, 205 companies joined to the Wi-Fi Alliance and

almost 900 products have been certified to the interoperable system.
 Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) solution was added recently to the Wi-Fi
NOTES
standard. The physical and access control layer implement the extra
enhanced features, such as Internet security. The Wi-Fi can be grown by
leaps and bounds because it is connected via spectrum. It uses unlicensed
24 GHz and 5 GHz bands. It provides data throughput for most uses.
 The prime equipment required for Wi-Fi connection is Wi-Fi PC card. It is
common way to connect the computer to the Internet without wires. Wi-Fi
PC card is technically known as Personal Computer Memory Card
International Association (PCMCIA).
4.6 KEY WORDS
 Telecommunications: Telecommunications refers to the exchange of

information by electronic and electrical means over a significant distance.
 Gauge: Gauge is a measure of the thickness of the conductor. The thicker
the wire, the lesser the resistance, is the stronger the signal over a given
distance, and the better the performance of the medium.
 Configuration: A configuration of a system refers to the arrangement of
each of its functional units, according to their nature, number and chief
characteristics.
 Bandwidth: Bandwidth is the maximum rate of data transfer across a given
path.
 Microwave transmission: It is a form of radio transmission which uses
extremely high frequencies.
 Uplink frequency: It is the frequency used to transmit signal from earth
station to satellite.
 Downlink frequency: It is the frequency used to transmit the signal from
satellite to earth station.

EXERCISES

1. What is bandwidth?
2. What is propagation delay?
3. What is the criteria for the selection of effective transmission media?
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Telecommunication 4. Write a short note on STP.
5. What are coaxial cables?
NOTES
1. Write a descriptive note on transmission concepts and terms.
2. Elaborate a note on twisted pair.
3. Differentiate between shielded copper and unshielded twisted pair.
4. Explain optical fibres in detail.
5. Give an elaborate note on microwave transmission mentioning its general
properties also.
6. Discuss about satellite communication in detail.
7. Write in detail about Wi-Fi.
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Hardware and Software
BLOCK - III
COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
NOTES
UNIT 5 HARDWARE AND
SOFTWARE
Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Hardware of a Computer System
5.3 Software of a Computer System
5.4 Programming Language
5.4.4 4 GL and 5 GL
5.6 Summary
5.7 Key Words
5.0 INTRODUCTION
Hardware is best described as a device, such as a hard drive, that is physically

connected to the computer or something that can be physically touched. A CD-
ROM, computer display monitor, printer, and video card are all examples of
computer hardware. Without any hardware, a computer would not function, and
software would have nothing to run on. Hardware and software interact with one
another: software tells hardware which tasks it needs to perform.
Software is a general term used to describe a collection of computer
programs, procedures, and documentation that perform some task on a computer
system. Practical computer systems divide software systems into three major
classes: system software, programming software, and application software, although
the distinction is arbitrary and often blurred. Software is an ordered sequence of
instructions for changing the state of the computer hardware in a particular sequence.
Software is typically programmed with a user-friendly interface that allows humans
to interact more efficiently with a computer system.
Software performs a specific task by giving an ordered set of programmatic
instructions to hardware. Hardware serves as the delivery system for software
solutions. While it is common to switch to new software or use multiple kinds of Self-Instructional
Material 85
Hardware and Software software at a time, hardware is less frequently changed. Software can easily be
created, changed, or deleted, but switching out hardware takes greater skill and is
usually a more expensive endeavour.
In this unit, you will study about hardware and software of a computer
NOTES
system and programming languages in detail.
5.1 OBJECTIVES

 Discuss the about hardware and software of a computer system
 Understand about the programming languages
5.2 HARDWARE OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
Computer hardware refers to the physical components that make up a computer

system. They are the building blocks of personal computers. These are typically
installed into a computer case, or attached to it by a cable or through a port. In the
latter case, they are also referred to as peripherals. Various hardware components
are as follows:
1. Case: A computer case (also known as a computer cabinet, tower, system
unit or simply case) is the box that contains most of the components of a
computer (excluding the monitor, keyboard and mouse).
2. Power Supply Unit (PSU): It converts AC electric power to low voltage
DC power for the internal components of the computer. A power supply
unit provides regulated power at the several voltages required by the
motherboard and accessories, such as disk drives and cooling fans.
3. Motherboard: The motherboard is the main component inside the case. It
connects the other parts of the computer including the CPU, the RAM, the
disk drives (CD, DVD, hard disk, etc.) as well as any peripherals
connected via the ports or the expansion slots. Components directly
attached to the motherboard include:
 CPU: It performs most of the calculations which enable a computer to
function. It is also known as brain of the computer.
 Chip Set : It mediates communication between CPU and other
components of system.
 RAM: RAM stands for Random Access Memory. It stores the data
and commands that is actively used by CPU.
 ROM: ROM stands for Read Only Memory. It stores the BIOS
(Basic Input Output System) instructions. It includes process of booting
of the system.
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 Buses: Bus connects the CPU to other internal components and also Hardware and Software
to expansion cards slot for graphics and sound card.

 Ports: It is used for connecting external peripherals.
Secondary Storage Devices NOTES
Computer data storage refers to computer components and recording media that
retain digital data.
Fixed Media
 Hard Disk Drives: A Hard Disk Drive (HDD) is a device for storing and
retrieving digital information, primarily computer data. It consists of one or
more rigid rapidly rotating discs, coated with magnetic material and with
magnetic heads arranged to write data to the surfaces and read it from
them.
 RAID Array Controller: It is a device to manage several internal or
external hard disks and optionally some peripherals in order to achieve
performance or reliability improvement in what is called a RAID array.
Removable Media
 Optical Disc Drives: Optical disc drives are used for reading from and
writing to various kinds of optical media, including Compact Discs, such as
CD- ROMs, DVDs, DVD-RAMs and Blu-ray Discs. Optical discs are
the most common way of transferring digital video, and are popular for data
storage as well.
 Floppy Disk Drives: Floppy disk drives are used for reading and writing
to floppy disks, an outdated storage media consisting of a thin disk of a
flexible magnetic storage medium.
 Zip Drives: They are an outdated medium-capacity removable disk
storage system, for reading from and writing to Zip disks.
 USB: USB flash drives are plugged into a USB port and do not require a
separate drive. USB flash drive is a small, lightweight, removable and
rewritable flash memory data storage device integrated with a USB
interface.
 Memory Card Readers: They are used for reading from and writing to
memory card. Memory card is a flash memory data storage device used to
store digital information.
 Tape Drives: They are drives to read and write data on a magnetic tape
and are used for long term storage and backups.
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Check Your Progress

1. What is case in computer?
NOTES 2. What is the function of PSU?
3. What is RAID array controller?
4. Give the function of Optical disc drives.
5.3 SOFTWARE OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
A computer cannot operate without any instructions and is based on a logical

sequence of instructions in order to perform a function. These instructions are
known as a ‘computer program’, and constitute the computer software. The
sequences of instructions are based on algorithms that provide the computer with
instructions on how to perform a function. Thus, it is impossible for a computer to
process without software, a term attributed to John W. Tukey in 1958.
Different kinds of software designs have been developed for particular
functions. Popular computer software include interpreter, assembler, compiler,
operating systems, networking, word processing, accounting, presentation,
graphics, computer games, etc. The computer software is responsible for
converting the instructions in a program into a machine language facilitating their
execution.
Softwar e eng ineer s develop compu ter softw are d epend ing on b as ic
mathematical analysis and logical reasoning. Before implementation, the software
undergoes a number of tests. Thus, the programming software allows you to
develop the desired instruction sequences, whereas in the application software
the instruction sequences are predefined. Computer software can function from
only a few instructions to millions of instructions; for example, a word processor
or a Web browser. Figure 5.1 shows how software interacts between user and
computer system.
Fig. 5.1 Interaction of Software between User and a Computer System

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On the functional basis, software is categorized as follows: Hardware and Software
 System Software: It helps in the proper functioning of computer hardware.

It includes device drivers, operating systems, servers and utilities.
 Programming Software: It provides tools to help a programmer in writing NOTES
computer programs and software using various programming languages. It
includes compilers, debuggers, interpreters, linkers, text editors and an
Integrated Development Environment (IDE).
 Application Software: It helps the end users to complete one or more
specific tasks. The specific applications include industrial automation,
business software, computer games, telecommunications, databases,
educational software, medical software and military software.
Types of Computer Software
Today, software is a significant aspect of almost all fields including business,
education, medicine, etc. The basic requirement for software is a distinct set of
procedures. Thus, software can be used in any domain that can be described in
logical and related steps and every software is developed with the aim of catering
to a particular objective, such as data processing, information sharing,
communication, etc. Software is based on the type of applications that are as
follows:
 System Software: This type of software is involved managing and
controlling the operations of a computer system. System software is a group
of programs rather than one program and is responsible for using computer
resources efficiently and effectively. Operating system, for example, is
system software, which controls the hardware, manages memory and
multitasking functions and acts as an interface between applications
programs and the computer.
 Real-Time Software: This is based on observing, analysing and controlling
real life events as they occur. Manually, a real-time system guarantees a
response to an external event within a specified period of time. The real-
time software, for instance, is used for navigation in which the computer
must react to a steady flow of new information without interruption. Most
defence organizations all over the world use real time software to control
their military hardware.
 Business Software: This kind of software is functional in the domain of
management and finance. The basic aspect of a business system comprises
payroll, inventory, accounting and software that permits users to access
relevant data from the database. These activities are usually performed with
the help of specialized business software that facilitates efficient framework
in the business operation and in management decisions.
 Engineering and Scientific Software: This software has developed as a
significant tool used in the research and development of next generation
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Hardware and Software technology. Applications, such as study of celestial bodies, study of
undersurface activities and programming of orbital path for space shuttle,
are heavily dependent on engineering and scientific software. This software
is designed to perform precise calculations on complex numerical data that
NOTES are obtained during real-time environment.
 Artificial Intelligence (AI) Software: Certain problem solving techniques
are non-algorithmic in nature and primarily require this type of software.
The solutions to such problems normally cannot be arrived at using
computation or straightforward analysis. Such problems need particular
problem solving techniques including expert system, pattern recognition and
game playing.
Also, it constitutes various kinds of searching techniques, such as the
application of heuristics. The function of AI is to add certain degree of
intelligence into the mechanical hardware to have the desired work done in
an agile manner.
 Web Based Software: This category of software performs the function of
an interface between the user and the Internet. There are various forms in
which data is available online, such as text, audio or video format, linked
with hyperlinks. For the retrieval of Web pages from the Internet a Web
browser is used, which is a Web based software. The software incorporates
executable instructions written in special scripting languages, such as
Common Gateway Interface (CGI) or Active Server Page (ASP). Apart
from providing navigation on the Web, this software also supports
additional features that are useful while surfing the Internet.
 Personal Computer (PC) Software: This software is primarily designed
for personal use on a daily basis. The past few years have seen a marked
increase in the personal computer software market from normal text editor
to word processor and from simple paintbrush to advance image editing
software. This software is used mostly in almost every field, whether it is
database management system, financial accounting package or a multimedia
based software. It has emerged as a versatile tool for daily life applications.
Software can also be classified in terms of the relationship between software users
or software purchasers and software development.
 Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS): This comprises the software
without any committed user before it is put up for sale. The software users
have less or no contact with the vendor during development. It is sold
through retail stores or distributed electronically. This software includes
commonly used programs, such as word processors, spreadsheets, games,
income tax programs, as well as software development tools, such as
software testing tools and object modelling tools.
 Customized or Bespoke: This software is designed for a specific user,
who is bound by some kind of formal contract. Software developed for an
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aircraft, for example, is usually done for a particular aircraft making Hardware and Software
company. They are not purchased ‘off-the-shelf’ like any word processing
software.
 Customized COTS: In this classification, a user can enter into a contract
NOTES
with the software vendor to develop a COTS product for a special
purpose, that is, software can be customized according to the needs of the
user. Another growing trend is the development of COTS software
components—the components that are purchased and used to develop new
applications. The COTS software component vendors are essentially parts
stores which are classified according to their application types. These types
are listed as follows:
o Stand-Alone Software: A software that resides on a single computer
and does not interact with any other software installed in a different
computer.
o Embedded Software: A software that pertains to the part of unique
application involving hardware like automobile controller.
o Real-Time Software: In this type of software the Operations are
executed within very short time limits, often microseconds, e.g., radar
software in air traffic control system.
 Network Software: In this type of software, software and its components
interact across a network.
Figure 5.2 Illustrates the various types of customized COTS.
Fig. 5.2 Types of Customized COTS

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Check Your Progress

5. What is computer program?
NOTES 6. What does programming software provide?
7. For what customized or bespoke software is designed for?
5.4 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
A computer language is a language that can be understood by the computer. It is

the computer’s native language. Computer languages serve the same purpose as
human languages. They are a means of communication. Let us understand the
similarities and differences between computer languages and human languages.
A natural or human language is the language that people like us speak daily,
such as English, Hindi, French or German. It is made up of words and rules known
as lexicon and syntax, respectively. These words are joined to make meaningful
phrases according to the rules of the syntax. A computer language also consists of
lexicon and syntax, i.e., characters, symbols and rules of usage that allow the user
to communicate with the computer.
The main difference between a natural language and computer language is
that natural languages have a large set of words (vocabulary) to choose from
while computer languages have a limited or restricted set of words. Thus, fewer
words but more rules characterize a computer language.
Each and every problem to be solved by the computer needs to be broken
down into discrete logical steps before the computer can execute it. The process
of writing such instructions in a computer or programming language is called
programming or coding.
Just as computer hardware has improved over the years, programming
languages have also moved from machine-oriented languages (that used strings of
binary 0s and 1s) to problem-oriented languages (that use common English terms).
All computer languages can, however, be classified under the following categories:
 Machine Language (first-generation language).
 Assembly Language (second-generation language).
 High-Level Language (third-generation language).
The computer can understand only a binary-based language. This is a combination
of 0s and 1s. Instructions written using sequences of 0s and 1s are known as
machine language. First- generation computers used programs written in machine
language.
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Machine language is very cumbersome to use and is tedious and time Hardware and Software
consuming for the programmer. It requires thousands of machine language

instructions to perform even simple jobs like keeping track of a few addresses for
mailing lists.
NOTES
Every instruction in machine language is composed of two parts – the
command itself, also known as the ‘operation code’ or opcode (like add, multiply,
move etc.), and the ‘operand’ which is the address of the data that has to be acted
upon; for example, a typical machine language instruction may be represented as
shown here.
OP Code Operand
001 010001110
The number of operands varies with each computer and is therefore computer
dependent.
It is evident from the above that to program in machine language, the
programmer needs information about the internal structure of the computer. He
will also need to remember a number of operation codes and will also need to
keep track of the addresses of all the data items (i.e., which storage location has
which data item). Programming in machine language can be very tedious, time
consuming and still highly prone to errors. Further, locating such errors and effecting
modifications is also a mammoth task. Quite understandably, programmers felt the
need for moving away from machine language.
Assembly language was the first step in the evolution of programming languages. It
used mnemonics (symbolic codes) to represent operation codes and strings of
characters to represent addresses. Instructions in assembly language may look as
shown in the accompanying example.
Opration Opration address
READ M
ADD L
Assembly language was designed to replace each machine code by an

understandable mnemonic and each address with a simple alphanumeric string. It
was matched to the processor structure of a particular computer and was therefore
(once again) machine dependent. This meant that programs written for a particular
computer model could not be executed on another one. In other words, an assembly
language program lacked portability.
A program written in assembly language needs to be translated into machine
language before the computer can execute it. This is done by a special program
called ‘Assembler’ which takes every assembly language program and translates
it into its equivalent machine code. The assembly language program is known as
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Hardware and Software the source program, while the equivalent machine language program is known as
the object program. It may be useful to know that the assembler is a system
program supplied by the computer manufacturer. Second-generation computers
used assembly language.
NOTES
The lack of portability of programs (written using machine or assembly
languages) between various computer systems led to the development of high-
level languages. Since they allowed a programmer to overlook a lot of low-level
particulars of the hardware of the computer system, they were called high-level
language programs. And it was obvious that if the syntax, mnemonics and rule and
regulations of the programming language were closer to the natural language, it
would be easier for the programmer to program and the lesser the possibility of
introducing errors (or bugs) into the program. Hence, third-generation languages,
which were algorithmic and procedural, came into being in the mid-1950s. They
were designed to solve a particular problem. They contained commands that are
particularly suited to one type of application. For example, a number of languages
were designed to process scientific or mathematical problems. Others emphasized
on commercial applications. These languages varied very little between different
computer systems, unlike machine or symbolic languages. But a complier or an
interpreter program was required to translate these machine codes. Once again,
the high-level program is called the source code while its equivalent machine
language program is referred to as the object code.
Easy-to-learn feature, machine independence, easier maintenance and
portability contributed to the popularity of high-level languages. Slow program
execution was the main disadvantage since programs needed to be converted into
machine language (by an interpreter or a compiler) before they could be executed.
 FORTRAN: FORTAN (FORmula TRANslation) was the first high -level
language developed by John Backus at IBM in 1956.
FORTRAN has a number of versions with FORTRAN IV being one of the
earlier popular versions. In 1977, the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) published standards for FORTRAN with a view to standardizing
the form of the language used by manufacturers. This standardized version
is called FORTRAN 77.
 COBOL: COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language), the first
language used for commercial applications, was developed under the
leadership of Grace Hopper, a US Navy programmer, with a group of
computer manufacturers and users in 1959. The maintenance and further
growth of the language was handed over to a group called CODASYL
(COnference on Data Systems Languages).
It is written using statements that resemble simple English and can be
understood easily; for example, to add two numbers (stored in variables A
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94 Material
and B), a simple statement in COBOL would be: ADD A TO B GIVING Hardware and Software
C.
COBOL was standardized by ANSI in 1968 and in 1974. COBOL became
the most widely used programming language for business and data processing
NOTES
applications.
 BASIC: BASIC (Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was
developed as a teaching tool for undergraduate students in 1966 by John
Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz, two professors at Dartmouth College.
Eventually BASIC was used as the main language amongst the personal
computer users.
A minimum version of BASIC was standardized by ANSI and is so simple
that it has been incorporated in every subsequent version of BASIC. Some
versions of BASIC include MBASIC (Microsoft BASIC), and CBASIC
(Compiler based BASIC).
One of the newer versions of BASIC, commonly known as Visual Basic,
has also evolved from the original BASIC language. It contains various
statements and functions that can be used to create applications for a
Windows or GUI environment.
 PASCAL: PASCAL was designed by Nicholas Wirth, a Swiss professor,
in 1971. It was developed as a more structured language used for teaching
which Wirth named after the French mathematician Blaise Pascal, who also
designed the first successful mechanical calculator. His primary aim was to
provide a language that supported beginners learning good problem solving
and programming techniques.
In addition to manipulation of numbers, PASCAL supports manipulation of
vectors, matrices, strings of characters, records, files and lists, thereby
supporting non-numeric programming. Hence, it has proved to be an
attractive language for professional computer scientists.
PASCAL has been standardized by ISO (International Standards
Organization) and ANSI.
 PL/1 (Programming Language 1) was developed by IBM in the 1960s and
was the first language that was attempted to be used for a variety of
applications rather than one particular area like business or science or artificial
Intelligence.
 LISP (LISt Processing) was developed in the early 1950s but was
implemented in the 1959 by John McCarthy at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology. It became a standard language with the artificial intelligence
community and was a program that could easily handle recursive.
 C language was developed by Dennis Ritchie of Bell Laboratories in order
to implement the operating system UNIX.
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Hardware and Software  C ++ was developed by the Bjarne Stroustrup of Bell Laboratories by
enhancing C. C++ is also used to write procedural programs like C but the
reason for its increased popularity is perhaps because of its capability to
handle the rigours of object-oriented programming. C and C++ are the
NOTES most extensively used general-purpose languages amongst programming
experts.
 JAVA: Java is again an object-oriented language like the C++ but is a
simplified version with extra features. It is less prone to programming errors.
It was developed for writing programs that could be safely and easily
executed through the Internet. It is free from any kind of common virus
threats. It is basically a network-oriented language that can develop Website
pages with enhanced multimedia features using small java programs known
as java applets, Java is a secure to use over the Internet and is a platform
independent language.
5.4.4 4 GL and 5 GL
Fourth-Generation Languages
Fourth-generation languages are non-procedural. This means that they signify what
needs to be accomplished but do not specify how to do it. Fourth-generation
languages are characterized by simple English-like instructions and a quick and
easy learning process. They are so user-friendly that with little training and practice
an individual can write his/her own programs and generate the desired reports. It
does not require the services of a professional programmer to do the same. The
first fourth-generation language, called FORTH, was developed by Charles Morre,
an American astronomer, in 1970. FORTH is mainly used for industrial and scientific
control applications. FOCUS is another commonly known fourth-generation
language.
Fifth-Generation Languages
Fifth-generation languages are an outgrowth of research in the area of artificial
intelligence. They are, however, still in their infancy.
PROLOG (PROgramming LOGic): It is a logic programming language. It is a
general purpose language often associated with artificial intelligence and
computational linguistics. It has a purely logical subset, called pure Prolog, as well
as a number of extralogical features.
Prolog was developed in the early 1970s by two French computer scientists,
Alain Colmerauer and Philippe Roussel.
Some of other popular languages include:
 GPSS (General Purpose System Simulator): Used for modelling
physical and environmental events.
 SNOBOL (String-Oriented Symbolic Language): Designed for
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96 Material
 LOGO (a Version of LISP): Developed in the 1960s to help children Hardware and Software
learn about computers.

 PILOT (Programmed Instruction Learning, Or Testing): Used
in writing instructional software.
NOTES
Programming languages are known as programmer’s tools. These tools can develop
various applications that are useful for communication between a user and a
computer system. The programming language helps programmer to give a technical
solution of real-life problems using computers, for example, developing programs
for artificial intelligence, remote sensing programs, weather forecasting software
development, etc. The program statements tend to increase the logic development
to find solutions of complex equations, subroutines, etc. The computer languages
solve given problems using suitable computer languages, for example, quadratic
equation problem can be solved by using ‘C’ language. Figure 5.3 (marked by
double-headed arrow) shows how distance is decreasing through various computer
languages between real-world problems and programming languages.
Programming languages help a programmer to be perfect. Programmers
can get solutions if they use suitable logic and convert them into computer syntax
appropriate for a selected language. The logic is changed into code that is easy to
debug for errors.
The various programming computer languages that are used to solve complex
problems are as follows:
C
C allows input and output control. This language makes it easy to access hardware
devices and to do ‘bit twiddling’, i.e., manipulating individual bits in hardware
registers. C is a very powerful language that is used for optimization and efficient
faster code execution. It is the first choice of embedded technology development.
Table 5.1 explains the advantages and disadvantages of C language.
Fig. 5.3 Distance between Real World Problems and Programming Languages
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Hardware and Software Table 5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of C
Advantages Disadvantages
C supports pointers that basically refer to It has no runtime checking and is a case-
records, the address or location of function sensitive language.
NOTES or object in a memory.
It is used especially in game programming,
There is no strict checking in C code, for
and it is faster than C++. example, you can pass an integer value for
the float data type value.
It is a structured language, and it If the code extends, it is very difficult to fix
extensively uses pointers for memory, the bugs.
array, structures and functions.
JavaScript
JavaScript is a scripting language used in client-side script programming on the
Web. It makes dynamic updates to a HTML document in a browser. It interacts
between browsers and users. Table 5.2 explains the merits and demerits of the
JavaScript language.
Table 5.2 Merits and Demerits of the JavaScript Language
Merits Demerits
It runs fast because it is a client-side All browsers do not recognize JavaScript.
language. Some JavaScript versions limit the old
browsers.
The JavaScript code runs fast in a browser It depends on the compatibility of a
and makes quick connection with a server. browser. Different JavaScript versions are
available for different browsers. For
example, Netscape browser supports
JavaScript 1.5, Microsoft supports Jscript
and Internet Explorer 6.0 supports Jscript
5.6.
To write the JavaScript code, no extra tools It is limited to access and manipulate with
are required. Any HTML editor or notepad HTML code.
support it.
Common Business Oriented Language (COBOL)

COBOL applications run in critical areas of business. The syntax of COBOL is
based on English clauses, such as verbs, sentences, clauses, sections, divisions,
etc. In fact, finance and insurance data is processed with COBOL. Table 5.3
explains the merits and demerits of the COBOL language.
Table 5.3 Merits and Demerits of the COBOL Language
Merits Demerits
COBOL is a robust, understandable, It has a rigid hierarchical structure where
readable and self-documenting language. items are restricted to the environment
division.
It is a simple language having no pointers, In COBOL coding, programmers cannot
no user defined functions, and functions are write code for mobile devices or screen
used in a limited scope. readers.
It is portable, scalable and maintainable, This language cannot be used for
which reduces maintenance cost. It can developing web applications.
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98 Material
ActionScript Hardware and Software
ActionScript is the programming language of Adobe Flash platform. It is an object-

oriented programming language based on European Computer Manufacturers
Associations (ECMA) script. The applications are used to play the browser. Table NOTES
5.4 explains the merits and demerits of the ActionScript language.
Table 5.4 Merits and Demerits of the ActionScript Language
Merits Demerits
It is best used for animating movies. It is not suitable for non-web application.
It provides interactive and visual effects of It is not well versed with low-level
the web browser. programming.
It is widely and popularly used on the It mainly resides inside the HTML code.
index.html for commercial websites.
C++
C++ is also an object-oriented language that uses virtual functions, multiple
inheritance, exception handling, polymorphism, etc. Its object-oriented structure
allows the code to be reused that cuts down the development time. C++ provides
comprehensive coverage of abstract classes as interfaces, regular error handling,
standard strings, I/O streams, etc. Table 5.5 explains the merits and demerits of
the C++ language.
Table 5.5 Merits and Demerits of the C++ Language
Merits Demerits
This language works on graphic user It is complex for very large high-level
interface programming on a computer. programs and difficult to debug for web
applications.
It is well-suited language to write codes A library set is used with this
for OS drivers that are able to develop programming language that restricts a
platform-dependent applications. single platform or OS.
It provides various new operators, such as Program execution is a little bit slower
new, scope resolution operator (:: ). than C language.
C#
C# is a portable programming language and is used in Microsoft.NET framework.
It is used to create applications and the output is displayed on a black window
referred to as black window or DOS window. Table 5.6 explains the merits and
demerits of the C# language.
Table 5.6 Merits and Demerits of the C# Language
Merits Demerits
This language is used for Web It is restricted only for Microsoft
application under the .NET platform. platform.
The cost of maintenance is much lower Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF)
than C++. All features of WPF, such as applications run a little bit slow.
base class libraries, ADO.NET, etc., are
available.
C# is safer to run because OS always It is always slow to run because after
checks or verifies malicious coding. launching the programs animation effects
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Hardware and Software Visual Basic
Visual Basic (VB) creates educational, financial and accounting applications and
is supported by the latest Microsoft OS. Windows Vista supports VB5.0 version.
NOTES Table 5.7 explains the merits and demerits of the VB language.
Table 5.7 Merits and Demerits of the VB Language
Merits Demerits
Online help is available for coding. Applications developed in VB can work
only on Windows OS.
It provides rapid application environment More memory space is required to work
that easily facilitates drag and drop with and install VB, because it is based on
components. GUI tools that contain graphical
components.
The syntax is simpler than other high-level It is not a suitable language to develop
languages. codes for video games applications.
Java
Java technology has become a complete software ecosystem that represents
different values to different types of consumers and business users. Table 5.8
explains the merits and demerits of the Java language.
Table 5.8 Merits and Demerits of the Java Language
Merits Demerits
Java is a simple, object oriented, secure, Java uses swing toolkit that is very
robust, multi-threaded and platform- different from native applications.
independent language. Java programs are
interpreted and then compiled into Java
Virtual Machine (JVM) code called
bytecode.
It is a single-paradigm language and static It is slow and consumes more memory.
imports are available. It supports three Java
platform editions, such as Java technology
in mobile devices, in desktops and medium
to large business.
Java language is designed to make There are some hardware and software
distributed computing easy that provides requirements in Java language, for
networking capability for system unit via example, hardware requirements (512 MB
programs. of RAM, 1000 MHz of processor speed,
Pentium III) and software requirements
(Microsoft Windows OS, Java Runtime
Environment and Internet Explorer).
Check Your Progress

8. What is computer language?
9. What is the difference between natural language and computer language?
10. What is C++?
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QUESTIONS
1. A computer case (also known as a computer cabinet, tower, system unit or NOTES
simply case) is the box that contains most of the components of a computer
(excluding the monitor, keyboard and mouse).
2. Power Supply Unit (PSU) converts AC electric power to low voltage DC
power for the internal components of the computer.
3. RAID array controller is a device to manage several internal or external
hard disks and optionally some peripherals in order to achieve performance
or reliability improvement in what is called a RAID array.
4. Optical disc drives are used for reading from and writing to various kinds of
optical media, including Compact Discs, such as CD- ROMs, DVDs, DVD-
RAMs and Blu-ray Discs. Optical discs are the most common way of
transferring digital video, and are popular for data storage as well.
5. A computer cannot operate without any instructions and is based on a logical
sequence of instructions in order to perform a function. These instructions
are known as a ‘computer program’, and constitute the computer software.
6. Programming software provides tools to help a programmer in writing
7. Customized or bespoke software is designed for a specific user, who is
bound by some kind of formal contract. Software developed for an aircraft,
for example, is usually done for a particular aircraft making company. They
are not purchased ‘off-the-shelf’ like any word processing software.
8. A computer language is a language that can be understood by the computer.
It is the computer’s native language.
9. The main difference between a natural language and computer language is
that natural languages have a large set of words (vocabulary) to choose
from while computer languages have a limited or restricted set of words.
Thus, fewer words but more rules characterize a computer language.
10. C++ is also an object-oriented language that uses virtual functions, multiple
inheritance, exception handling, polymorphism, etc. Its object-oriented
structure allows the code to be reused that cuts down the development
time.
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Material 101
5.6 SUMMARY
 Computer hardware refers to the physical components that make up a

NOTES computer system. They are the building blocks of personal computers. These
are typically installed into a computer case, or attached to it by a cable or
through a port. In the latter case, they are also referred to as peripherals.
 A computer case (also known as a computer cabinet, tower, system unit or
simply case) is the box that contains most of the components of a computer
(excluding the monitor, keyboard and mouse).
 Power Supply Unit (PSU) converts AC electric power to low voltage DC
power for the internal components of the computer. A power supply unit
provides regulated power at the several voltages required by the
motherboard and accessories, such as disk drives and cooling fans.
 The motherboard is the main component inside the case. It connects the
other parts of the computer including the CPU, the RAM, the disk drives
(CD, DVD, hard disk, etc.) as well as any peripherals connected via the
ports or the expansion slots.
 A Hard Disk Drive (HDD) is a device for storing and retrieving digital
information, primarily computer data. It consists of one or more rigid rapidly
rotating discs, coated with magnetic material and with magnetic heads
arranged to write data to the surfaces and read it from them.
 RAID Array Controller is a device to manage several internal or external
 Optical disc drives are used for reading from and writing to various kinds of
optical media, including Compact Discs, such as CD- ROMs, DVDs, DVD-
RAMs and Blu-ray Discs. Optical discs are the most common way of
transferring digital video, and are popular for data storage as well.
 Floppy disk drives are used for reading and writing to floppy disks, an
outdated storage media consisting of a thin disk of a flexible magnetic storage
medium.
 Zip Drives: They are an outdated medium-capacity removable disk storage
system, for reading from and writing to Zip disks.
 USB flash drives are plugged into a USB port and do not require a separate
drive. USB flash drive is a small, lightweight, removable and rewritable
flash memory data storage device integrated with a USB interface.
 Memory Card Readers are used for reading from and writing to memory
card. Memory card is a flash memory data storage device used to store
digital information.
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 Tape drives are drives to read and write data on a magnetic tape and are Hardware and Software
used for long term storage and backups.

 A computer cannot operate without any instructions and is based on a logical
NOTES
are known as a ‘computer program’, and constitute the computer software.
 The sequences of instructions are based on algorithms that provide the
computer with instructions on how to perform a function. Thus, it is impossible
for a computer to process without software, a term attributed to John W.
Tukey in 1958. Different kinds of software designs have been developed
for particular functions.
 Popular computer software include interpreter, assembler, compiler,
graphics, computer games, etc.
 Programming software provides tools to help a programmer in writing
 Application software helps the end users to complete one or more specific
tasks. The specific applications include industrial automation, business
software, computer games, telecommunications, databases, educational
software, medical software and military software.
 System Software is involved managing and controlling the operations of a
computer system. System software is a group of programs rather than one
program and is responsible for using computer resources efficiently and
effectively. Operating system, for example, is system software, which controls
the hardware, manages memory and multitasking functions and acts as an
interface between applications programs and the computer.
 Customized or Bespoke software is designed for a specific user, who is
bound by some kind of formal contract. Software developed for an aircraft,
for example, is usually done for a particular aircraft making company. They
are not purchased ‘off-the-shelf’ like any word processing software.
 A computer language is a language that can be understood by the computer.
It is the computer’s native language. Computer languages serve the same
purpose as human languages. They are a means of communication. Let us
understand the similarities and differences between computer languages and
human languages.
 The main difference between a natural language and computer language is
that natural languages have a large set of words (vocabulary) to choose
from while computer languages have a limited or restricted set of words.
Thus, fewer words but more rules characterize a computer language.
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Hardware and Software  Machine language is very cumbersome to use and is tedious and time
consuming for the programmer. It requires thousands of machine language
instructions to perform even simple jobs like keeping track of a few addresses
for mailing lists
NOTES
 Assembly language was the first step in the evolution of programming
languages. It used mnemonics (symbolic codes) to represent operation codes
and strings of characters to represent addresses.
 FORTRAN has a number of versions with FORTRAN IV being one of the
earlier popular versions. In 1977, the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) published standards for FORTRAN with a view to standardizing
the form of the language used by manufacturers. This standardized version
is called FORTRAN 77.
 COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language), the first language used
for commercial applications, was developed under the leadership of Grace
Hopper, a US Navy programmer, with a group of computer manufacturers
and users in 1959.
 C++ is also an object-oriented language that uses virtual functions, multiple
inheritance, exception handling, polymorphism, etc. Its object-oriented
structure allows the code to be reused that cuts down the development
time. C++ provides comprehensive coverage of abstract classes as
interfaces, regular error handling, standard strings, I/O streams, etc.
5.7 KEY WORDS
 Hardware: Hardware is best described as a device, such as a hard drive,

that is physically connected to the computer or something that can be
physically touched.
 Software: Software is a general term used to describe a collection
of computer programs, procedures, and documentation that perform
some task on a computer system.
 Case: A computer case is the box that contains most of the components of
a computer.
 Motherboard: The motherboard is the main component inside the case. It
connects the other parts of the computer including the CPU, the RAM, the
disk drives (CD, DVD, hard disk, etc.) as well as any peripherals connected
via the ports or the expansion slots.
 RAID Array Controller: It is a device to manage several internal or external
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EXERCISES
1. List the various components of hardware.

2. What are the removable media?
3. How is software categorized on functional basis?
4. Brief a note on web based software.
5. What is a machine language?
6. Write brief note on fourth generation languages.
1. Elaborate on hardware of a computer.
2. Discuss software of a computer and its types.
3. Distinguish between machine and assembly languages.
4. Explain high level languages.
5. Write a note on 4GL and 5GL.
6. Elaborate a detailed note on merits and demits of various programming
languages.
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Types of Software
UNIT 6 TYPES OF SOFTWARE

NOTES Structure
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 System and Application Software
6.4 Summary
6.5 Key Words
6.0 INTRODUCTION
Computer software, or simply software, is a collection of data or computer

instructions that tell the computer how to work. This is in contrast to physical
hardware, from which the system is built and actually performs the work.
In computer science and software engineering, computer software is all information
processed by computer systems, programs and data. Computer software
includes computer programs, libraries and related non-executable data, such
as online documentation or digital media. Computer hardware and software require
each other and neither can be realistically used on its own.
The majority of software is written in high-level programming languages.
They are easier and more efficient for programmers because they are closer
to natural languages than machine languages. High-level languages are translated
into machine language using a compiler or an interpreter or a combination of the
two. Software may also be written in a low-level assembly language, which has
strong correspondence to the computer’s machine language instructions and is
translated into machine language using an assembler.
In this unit, you will study about software and its types in detail.
6.1 OBJECTIVES

 Understand software in detail
 Explain the types of software
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Types of S oftware
6.2 SYSTEM AND APPLICATION SOFTWARE
A computer cannot operate without any instructions and is based on a logical

sequence of instructions in order to perform a function. These instructions are NOTES
known as a computer program and constitute the computer software. The
sequences of instructions are based on algorithms that provide the computer with
instructions on how to perform a function. Thus, it is impossible for a computer to
process without a software, a term attributed to John W. Tukey in 1958.
Different kinds of software designs have been developed for particular
functions. Popular computer software include interpreter, assembler, compiler,
graphics, computer games and so on. The computer software is responsible for
converting the instructions in a program into a machine language facilitating their
execution.
Software engineers develop computer software depending on basic
mathematical analysis and logical reasoning. Before implementation, the software
undergoes a number of tests. Thus, the programming software allows you to develop
the desired instruction sequences, whereas, in the application software the instruction
sequences are predefined. Computer software can function from only a few
instructions to millions of instructions; for example, a word processor or a Web
browser. Figure 6.1 shows how software interacts between user and computer
system.
Users
Application Software
Operating System Software
Hardware System
Fig. 6.1 Interaction of Software between User and a Computer System

On a functional basis, software is categorized as follows:
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Types of Software  Programming Software: It provides tools to help a programmer in writing
NOTES
 Application Software: It helps the end-users to complete one or more
specific tasks. The specific applications include industrial automation, business
software, medical software and military software.
Types of Computer Software
Today, software is a significant aspect of almost all fields including business,
education, medicine and various others. The basic requirement for software is a
distinct set of procedures. Thus, software can be used in any domain that can be
described in logical and related steps, and every software is developed with the
aim of catering to a particular objective, such as data processing, information
sharing and communication. Software is based on the type of applications that are
as follows:
 System Software: This type of software is involved in managing and
controlling of the operations of a computer system. System software is a
group of programs rather than one program and is responsible for using
computer resources efficiently and effectively. Operating system, for example,
is system software, which controls the hardware, manages memory and
multitasking functions, and acts as an interface between applications programs
and the computer.
real-life events as they occur. Manually, a real-time system guarantees a
response to an external event within a specified period of time. The real-
time software, for instance, is used for navigation in which the computer
must react to a steady flow of new information without interruption. Most
defence organizations all over the world use real-time software to control
their military hardware.
relevant data from the database. These activities are usually performed with
the help of specialized business software that facilitates efficient framework
in the business operation and in management decisions.
 Engineering and Scientific Software: This software has developed as a
significant tool used in the research and development of next generation
technology. Applications, such as study of celestial bodies, study of
undersurface activities and programming of orbital path for space shuttle,
are heavily dependent on engineering and scientific software. This software
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is designed to perform precise calculations on complex numerical data that Types of S oftware
are obtained during real-time environment.

 Artificial Intelligence (AI) Software: Certain problem solving techniques
are non-algorithmic in nature and primarily require this type of software.
NOTES
The solutions to such problems normally cannot be arrived at using
computation or straightforward analysis. Such problems need particular
problem solving techniques including expert system, pattern recognition and
game playing. Also, it constitutes various kinds of searching techniques,
such as the application of heuristics. The function of AI is to add certain
degree of intelligence into the mechanical hardware to have the desired
work done in an agile manner.
 Web-based Software: This category of software performs the function of
an interface between the user and the Internet. There are various forms in
which data is available online, such as text, audio or video format, linked
with hyperlinks. For the retrieval of Web pages from the Internet, a Web
browser is used which is a Web-based software. The software incorporates
executable instructions written in special scripting languages, such as
Common Gateway Interface (CGI) or Active Server Page (ASP). Apart
from providing navigation on the Web, this software also supports additional
features that are useful while surfing the Internet.
 Personal Computer (PC) Software: This software is primarily designed
for personal use on a daily basis. The past few years have seen a marked
increase in the personal computer software market from normal text editor
to word processor and from simple paintbrush to advance image editing
software. This software is used mostly in almost every field, whether it is
database management system, financial accounting package or a multimedia
based software. It has emerged as a versatile tool for daily life applications.
Software can also be classified in terms of the relationship between software
users or software purchasers and software development.
 Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS): This comprises the software without
any committed user before it is put up for sale. The software users have less
or no contact with the vendor during development. It is sold through retail
stores or distributed electronically. This software includes commonly used
programs, such as word processors, spreadsheets, games, income tax
programs, as well as software development tools, such as software testing
tools and object modeling tools.
 Customized or Bespoke: This software is designed for a specific user,
who is bound by some kind of formal contract. Software developed for an
aircraft, for example, is usually done for a particular aircraft making company.
They are not purchased ‘off-the-shelf’ like any word processing software.
 Customized COTS: In this classification, a user can enter into a contract
with the software vendor to develop a COTS product for a special purpose,
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Types of Software that is, software can be customized according to the needs of the user.
Another growing trend is the development of COTS software components,
i.e., the components that are purchased and used to develop new applications.
The COTS software component vendors are essentially parts stores which
NOTES are classified according to their application types. These types are listed as
follows:
o Stand Alone Software: A software that resides on a single computer
and does not interact with any other software installed in a different
computer.
o Embedded Software: A software that pertains to the part of unique
application involving hardware, like automobile controller.
o Real-Time Software: In this type of software, the operations are
executed within very short time limits, often microseconds, e.g., radar
software in air traffic control system.
o Network Software: In this type of software, software and its
components interact across a network.
System software constitutes all the programs, languages and documentation
provided by the manufacturer in the computer. These programs provide the user
with an access to the system, so that he can communicate with the computers and
write or develop his own programs. The software makes the machine user-friendly
and makes an efficient use of the resources of the hardware. Systems software
are permanent programs on a system and reduce the burden of the programmer
as well as aid in maximum resource utilization. MS DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating
System) was one of the most widely used systems software for IBM compatible
microcomputers. Windows and its different versions are popular examples of
systems software. Systems software are installed permanently on a computer system
and used on a daily basis.
Classification of an Operating System
An Operating System (OS) is the main control program for handling all other
programs in a computer. The other programs, usually known as application
programs, use the services provided by the OS through a well-defined Application
Program Interface (API). Every computer necessarily requires some type of
operating system that instructs the computer about operations and use other
programs installed in the computer. The role of an OS in a computer is similar to
the role of the manager in an office for the overall management of the college.
Any computer system can be broadly classified in terms of four component
dimensions:
 Hardware
 Operating System
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 Application Programs (like MS Word, Games, Calculator) Types of S oftware
 Users (people who work on the computer)

Figure 6.2 displays the various components of the computer system.
User-1 User-2 .......... User-N
NOTES
Calculator Games MS Word

Application Programs
OPERATING SYSTEM
Hardware
Fig. 6.2 Components of a Computer System
Components of an Operating System

An operating system has three primary components:
 Control Programs: As the name implies, these control and maintain the
operations of a computer. There Initial Program Loader (IPL) is located in
the form of firmware and is stored in the Read Only Memory (ROM) section
of the Memory Unit. When the computer is switched on, the electronic chip
is automatically activated and the IPL reads the Boot Sector Routine (BSR),
which resides in the primary memory of the computer.
 System Service Programs: These support the control programs. Each of
these is divided into three portions: Linkage Editor, librarian and input/output
control system.
A linkage editor is an editor program that establishes a single module from
many modules by resolving cross-references among the modules.
 Utility Programs: These programs run on the operating system in order to
carry out various user related commands to manage the software linking the
user and the operating system. In MS DOS, for example, the utility programs
are FDISK, FORMAT, ATTRIB, BACKUP, FIND and others.
Booting Process: In computing, a bootstrapping process called booting (booting
up) starts the OS when the computer system is switched on. The first set of
operations performed by the computer when switched on is called boot sequence.
The main operating system for the computer is loaded by the bootloader.
One can boot an operating system in two conditions: (i) Where there is a single
OS installed, and (ii) Where there are multiple OSs installed on the computer.
Utilities: Utilities are useful software for the smooth working of the computer. These
software will assist the user to perform activities, like editing a text file, backing up
data, removing the outdated files, recovering the data and protecting the computer
from virus. Most of these utilities are also available along with the operating system.
Utilities are also available separately. A few utilities are discussed as follows:
Text Editors: Text editors are used to text from keyboard and save in a storage
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Types of Software Antivirus Programs: Antivirus programs are used to protect your computer from
virus. Computer virus is nothing but a computer program which will rearrange the
stored data or programs in such a way that the user will not be able to use it. The
virus programs make the computer work abnormally. Some virus programs called
NOTES friendly virus programs will not cause any damage to the data or hardware. Other
viruses will cause heavy damage to the resources and the hardware.
The antivirus program scans the storage devices checking for virus. Antivirus
programs are also available to protect the computer online.
Language Processors: A language processor is a system program that converts
the English-like instructions used by computer programmers into the machine-
readable code used by the hardware. Programs written in languages, such as C,
C++, Pascal, BASIC, FORTRAN, or COBOL must be converted into the
appropriate machine language.
Assembler, interpreter and compiler are language processors. An assembler
converts an assembly language program into machine language. An interpreter
converts a high-level language program line by line into a machine language. The
machine language program is called object program. A compiler also converts an
error free high-level language program into object program, however, in one step.
Operating systems are discussed in detail in next section of this unit.
Users install specific software programs based on their requirements; for instance,
accounting software (like Tally) used in business organizations and designing
software used by architects. All programs, languages and utility programs constitute
software. With the help of these programs, users can design their own software
based on individual preferences. Software programs aid in achieving efficient
application of computer hardware and other resources.
A few types of application programs that are widely accepted these days are:
Word Processing
A word processor is an application program used for the production of any type
of printable text document, including composition, editing, formatting and printing.
It takes the advantage of a Graphical User Interface (GUI) to present data in a
required format. It can produce any arbitrary combination of images, graphics
and text. Microsoft Word is the most widely used word processing system.
Microsoft Word can be used for the simplest to the most complex word
processing applications. Using Word, you can write letters and reports, prepare
bills and invoices, prepare office stationery, such as letterheads, envelopes and
forms, design brochures, pamphlets, newsletters and magazines, and so on.
Spreadsheet
Microsoft Excel is the most commonly used spreadsheet. It is ideal for a task that
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good for organizing different kinds of data, however, it is numerical data that is Types of S oftware
best suited. Thus, Excel can be used when you not only need a tool for storing and
managing data, but also analysing and querying it. In addition to providing simple
database capabilities, Excel also allows you to create documents for the World
Wide Web (WWW). NOTES
The menus, toolbars and icons of MS Excel are very similar (though not the
same) to MS Word. This is in keeping with Microsoft’s much hyped philosophy
and strategy of offering users a totally integrated office suite pack. From the user’s
point of view, this means less time spent in learning the second package once you
know the first, and almost effortless and seamless exchange of data between various
components.
Presentation Graphics
PowerPoint is a presentation tool that helps create eye-catching and effective
presentations in a matter of minutes. A presentation comprises individual slides
arranged in a sequential manner. Normally, each slide covers a brief topic. The
term ‘Free’ software specifies the freedom of using the software by various
computer users (private individuals as well as organizations and companies) granting
them freedom and control in running and adapting the computing and data
processing as per their needs. The key objective of free software is to grant freedom
rights to users so that the users are free to run, copy, distribute, study, change and
improve the software. For example, you can use PowerPoint software for preparing
presentations and adding notes to the specific slides. Similarly, you have the option
of either printing the slides—in case you want to use an overhead projector, simply
attach your computer to an LCD display panel that enlarges the picture several
times and shows the output on a screen.
You have three options for creating a new presentation:
 Begin by working with a wizard (called the AutoContent Wizard)
that helps you determine the theme, contents and organization of your
presentation by using a predefined outline
 Start by picking out a PowerPoint Design Template which determines
the presentation’s color scheme, fonts and other design features
 Begin with a completely blank presentation with the color scheme,
fonts and other design features set to default values
If you decide to choose the third option, PowerPoint designers have provided
a wide assortment of predefined slide formats and Clip Art graphics libraries.
Through these predefined slide formats, you can quickly create slides based on
standard layouts and attributes.
PowerPoint shares a common look and feel with other MS Office
components, and having once mastered Word and Excel, learning PowerPoint is
almost like playing a game. In addition, it is also easy to pick up data from Word
and Excel directly into a PowerPoint presentation and vice versa.
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Types of Software Database Management Software
Nowadays, all large businesses require database management. When managing a
large customer base, it is important to examine vital information, like the busying
NOTES pattern, cheap suppliers and the number of orders being received. In order to
efficiently manage all these functions, MS Access is required.
As a first step, plan and create your database structure, identify the required
fields based on the type of data (numbers, alphanumeric, data, and so on), and the
maximum width of each field. After determining the structure, you can create a
table either in the design mode (which is customized), or you can use the table
wizard and any of the predefined tables, with the required modifications.
Creating the tables through the table wizard is much faster and easier than
through the design mode. However, if you use wizards you are somewhat restricted
with the predefined settings already available.
Once you have created the table, you can then use the form’s wizard to
create user-friendly and aesthetically pleasing layouts for data entry. Creating forms
for data entry also ensures that the user inputs only the right kind of information
and both data entry errors as well as typing work is minimized.
Once the forms have been created and relevant data has been entered,
using these you can then use the report wizard to generate any kind of report.
Using reports, you can not only organize and present your data in a more meaningful
manner, but also use various standard functions, like subtotals, totals and sorting,
to summarize your data.
Now to really fine-tune this access application, you can create data access
pages to enable people spread over a large geographical area to share and compile
information using the Internet.
Check Your Progress

1. What constitutes the system software?
2. Give a role of programming software.
3. What are language processors?
4. Define business software.

QUESTIONS
1. System software constitutes all the programs, languages and documentation

provided by the manufacturer in the computer. These programs provide the
user with an access to the system, so that he can communicate with the
computers and write or develop his own programs.
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2. The programming software allows you to develop the desired instruction Types of S oftware
sequences, whereas, in the application software the instruction sequences

are predefined. Computer software can function from only a few instructions
to millions of instructions; for example, a word processor or a Web browser.
NOTES
3. A language processor is a system program that converts the English-like
instructions used by computer programmers into the machine readable code
used by the hardware. Programs written in languages, such as C, C++,
Pascal, BASIC, FORTRAN, or COBOL must be converted into the
appropriate machine language.
4. Business Software is functional in the domain of management and finance.
The basic aspect of a business system comprises payroll, inventory,
accounting and software that permits users to access relevant data from the
database. These activities are usually performed with the help of specialized
business software that facilitates efficient framework in the business operation
and in management decisions.
6.4 SUMMARY
 A computer cannot operate without any instructions and is based on a logical

are known as a computer program and constitute the computer software.
The sequences of instructions are based on algorithms that provide the
computer with instructions on how to perform a function.
 Different kinds of software designs have been developed for particular
functions. Popular computer software include interpreter, assembler,
compiler, operating systems, networking, word processing, accounting,
presentation, graphics, computer games and so on.
 The computer software is responsible for converting the instructions in a
program into a machine language facilitating their execution.
 Software engineers develop computer software depending on basic
mathematical analysis and logical reasoning. Before implementation, the
software undergoes a number of tests.
 Programming Software: It provides tools to help a programmer in writing
 Application Software: It helps the end-users to complete one or more specific
tasks. The specific applications include industrial automation, business
software, medical software and military software. Self-Instructional
Material 115
Types of Software  System Software: This type of software is involved in managing and
controlling of the operations of a computer system. System software is a
group of programs rather than one program and is responsible for using
computer resources efficiently and effectively.
NOTES
real-life events as they occur. Manually, a real-time system guarantees a
response to an external event within a specified period of time. The realtime
software, for instance, is used for navigation in which the computer must
react to a steady flow of new information without interruption. Most defence
organizations all over the world use real-time software to control their military
hardware.
relevant data from the database. .
 Stand Alone Software: A software that resides on a single computer and
does not interact with any other software installed in a different computer.
 Embedded Software: A software that pertains to the part of unique application
involving hardware, like automobile controller.
 Real-Time Software: In this type of software, the operations are executed
within very short time limits, often microseconds, e.g., radar software in air
traffic control system.
interact across a network.
 System software constitutes all the programs, languages and documentation
provided by the manufacturer in the computer. These programs provide the
user with an access to the system, so that he can communicate with the
computers and write or develop his own programs.
 The software makes the machine user-friendly and makes an efficient use
of the resources of the hardware. Systems software are permanent programs
on a system and reduce the burden of the programmer as well as aid in
maximum resource utilization. MS DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating\
System) was one of the most widely used systems software for IBM
compatible microcomputers.
 Windows and its different versions are popular examples of systems software.
Systems software are installed permanently on a computer system and used
on a daily basis.
 System Service Programs: These support the control programs. Each of
these is divided into three portions: Linkage Editor, librarian and input/output
control system.
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 Utility Programs: These programs run on the operating system in order to Types of S oftware
carry out various user related commands to manage the software linking the
user and the operating system.
 Language Processors: A language processor is a system program that
NOTES
converts the English-like instructions used by computer programmers into
the machine readable code used by the hardware. Programs written in
languages, such as C, C++, Pascal, BASIC, FORTRAN, or COBOL must
be converted into the appropriate machine language.
6.5 KEY WORDS
 Stand Alone Software: A software that resides on a single computer and

does not interact with any other software installed in a different computer.
 Embedded Software: A software that pertains to the part of unique
application involving hardware, like automobile controller.
 Real-Time Software: In this type of software, the operations are executed
within very short time limits, often microseconds, for example, radar software
in air traffic control system.
interact across a network..
 Utility Programs: The programs that can run on the operating system in
order to carry out various user related commands to manage the software
linking the user and the operating system.
 Language Processors: A language processor is a system program that
converts the English-like instructions used by computer programmers into
the machine readable code used by the hardware.

EXERCISES

1. What is a software? How many types of software are there?
2. Define real time software.
3. What is engineering and scientific software?
4. What are customized COTS?
5. Define booting process.
6. Write a brief a note on anti-virus programs.
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Types of Software Long Answer Questions
1. Elaborate on software and its different types.
2. Discuss the types of computer software types.
NOTES 3. Write a detailed note on system software.
4. Explain the components of operating systems.
5. Describe in detail about application software.
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Software Packages
BLOCK - IV
LIBRARY AUTOMATION
NOTES
UNIT 7 SOFTWARE PACKAGES
Structure
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Library and Information Software: Selection Criteria
7.3 Library Automation System Selection Guidelines
7.3.1 Technology
7.3.3 Services
7.4 Library Software Packages: Nature and Types
7.4.1 Hardware and Operating System Requirements
7.4.2 Programming Language of Software
7.4.4 Types
7.6 Summary
7.7 Key Words
7.0 INTRODUCTION
The term software package has multiple uses in IT. It is most common use is to
refer to multiple software programs bundled together and sold as a set. There is
also the use of software package to describe a set of software that fulfils a particular
function, for example, installation on the desktop.
In a traditional sense, a software package is simply multiple applications or
code modules that work together to meet various goals and objectives. One of the
most prominent examples is something like the Microsoft Office package, which
includes individual applications such as Word, Excel, Access and PowerPoint.
In some ways, a software package today is similar to what it was 20 years
ago. In other key ways, the software package is decidedly different. The Microsoft
example is a good one. Although the Microsoft Office suite is still sold as a package,
and still includes many of the same branded components, the ways in which it is
sold are very different. In the past, users had a single option—to purchase a software
package off the shelf and install it. That same option is still available, along with Self-Instructional
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Software Packages other options including web-delivered software packages and subscriptions on an
annual or monthly basis.
In this unit, you will study about software packages its types, nature and
uses. Library and information software packages, features of India software
NOTES
packages in detail.
7.1 OBJECTIVES

 Understand the concept of software packages along with its types, nature
and uses
 Discuss about library and information software packages
 Explain the features of India software packages
7.2 LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SOFTWARE:

SELECTION CRITERIA
The criteria for the selection of library software packages are as follows:
 The hardware requirement to run the software has to be determined precisely,
Moreover, it also has to be decided whether the existing hardware of the
library would suffice or any modification. The software must run under the
operating system available in the hardware.
 The software must be compatible with the computers on which it has to
run. Some packages use special peripheral devices, such as modem, hard
disk, and so on. A few others are designed to be used with DBMS (Database
Management System) or spreadsheets. While buying software, the
concerned library should verify whether any companion program or a special
device/hardware are required or not.
 It should be user-friendly to the people with little or no knowledge of
computer use.
 It should provide sophisticated online input, data management and retrieval
facilities appropriate for the efficient handling of a relatively large
bibliographies database.
 The software package should provide full documentation on all aspects,
such as reference manual, instructions, online help, and so on, for assisting
the librarian while using it.
 The vendor must support the installation aid and provide training to the
operating personnel.
 It should be flexible in allowing the end-users to easily write their specification
for local variations.
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 It should accept machine readable files in the RM (Reference Manual), Software Packages
UNIMARC ((Universal Machine—Readable Cataloging) and eventual

CCF (Common Communication Format) formats to directly generate
bibliographic description for local use and generate an output file, from its
own internal bibliographic description, which is formatted in accordance NOTES
with the RM and/ or UNIMARC and/or CCF specifications.
 Most important of all these criteria is the cost of package, which must be
within budgeted amount. It should include vendors charge for training,
installation, maintenance and update.
 The selection of a good and perfect software package is not an easy job.
First make yourself clear of your short-term and long-term needs of the
software which you intent to buy the software. Then develop functional
specifications for each job that you want to do with the software.
The library should have the best software for fulfilling the entire activity and to
satisfy the users. Besides storage and retrieval, there are other housekeeping
functions which should also be there in the software. Computerization of operation
requires procurement of hardware and software.
The first step towards this will be the automation of the individual libraries
and information centers. For this, each organization has to follow and maintain
certain standards. Several options are available for acquiring and upgrading a
library management system. Some of these are as follows:
 Buy or license a commercial software package
 Join or make use of the system of a cooperative
 Develop its system
Different types of libraries require library software packages with different
dimensions and capabilities. For example, in the university library where big
collections and heavy circulation work has to be performed, a fully integrated
software package is required with good response time and strong searching facilities.
On the other hand, for research libraries or other special libraries where the
collections are limited but the readers have very specific requirement, a software
with good searching capability is needed, which will enhance the search and present
the result what is exactly required.
Even though the software directories with the names and commercial details
are available, it does not help librarians for the critical selection. It is obvious that
by looking into the brochure or by the demonstration of the software for picture,
inside capabilities and drawbacks of the software cannot be identified. Some of
the most important and basic things, such as the ease of inputting records, editing,
cursor navigation, response time and user friendliness, can be experienced only by
using the software. The software should be tested by taking actual examples, and
by entering and manipulating several dozens of records into the packages. Self-Instructional
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Software Packages Before the purchase of library automation software, it is very essential to
ascertain which software package is relevant to the maximum level for the library.
A software package for library automation should be evaluated on the following
criteria:
NOTES
 DBMS
 High-level integration
 Data entry and updation/editing
 Report generation and their display and print
 User-friendly
 Compatibility
 Reputation of the company/agency
 Scope of local variation
 DBMS
DBMS is a system software for creating, organizing, manipulating and arranging
data in databases. In other words, it is a software with a facility that allows the
operator to define structure, data items and fields, and also to organize, manipulate,
arrange and retrieve data. DBMS provides users and programmers with a
systematic way to create, retrieve, update and manage data. For library
housekeeping operations, DBMS will be required.
 High-Level Integration
Application software package for library work should incorporate various modules
for different types of activities, such as acquisition, cataloging, circulation, serial
control, and so on. As we know, in each module, more or less the same information
is handled in one way or the other. The information relates to bibliographical details
of books and articles, and details of library users/members. Therefore, for
connecting all the modules, the package should have high-level integration so that
the data entered in one module can be accessed and used in another module of
the software.
 Data Entry and Updating/Edition
In each module of the software, there should be a provision for data entry and
updation/editing. There should be a provision that only the authorized person can
update or edit data.
 Report Generation and their Display and Print
A library automation software package should have very efficient and effective
search and enquiry facility in each module so that the user can make query. For
example:
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 The number and the names of the titles by a given author or on a subject Software Packages
 How many and which book(s) are overdue with a particular user/member?
 Which is latest edition of a title?
 Which issues have been received by the library of a particular journal? NOTES
 User-friendly
A library automation software package should be user-friendly. In other words, it
should be developed in such a manner that it can be used after a short training and
practice. Help message shall also be provided in the case of confusion. Details
about menus and sub-menu should be provided. A detailed and an elaborative
user manual should also be provided.
 Compatibility
Compatibility refers to the quality of adoptability or quality to transfer/merge the
database created by other standard software. In other words, it should facilitate
the exchange of data between two or more software adhered to CCF and
international standards.
 Reputation of the Company/Agency
Before making the final decision to purchase library automation software, the
reputation of the company/agency that developed the software should be checked.
The reputation can be ascertained on points, such as location and support center,
quality of the software, updating and support service as communicated by the
customer base.
 Scope of Local Variation
The software should have provision for local variation. Different libraries may like
to provide different records differently. For example, one library may assign
continuous system generated membership number, invariable class and branch,
while another library may assign different number at their own. In order to meet
the requirement of an individual library for its local variation, there should be a
provision for it.
The software to be chosen will generally be application software—databases,
word processing, library housekeeping, and so on. Little opportunity will be generally
available for evaluating and choosing system software, since this will often be
determined either by available hardware or by the needs of application hardware.
If there is any choice, then choose that which gives the widest choice of suitable
application software.
A software evaluation is done for someone who wants to know about the
state of a particular package, and may even be paying you to look into it. So, at
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Software Packages the outset, you should agree with this ‘someone’ for the scope of the evaluation.
This includes what software and other project resources will be evaluated and
the user classes from whose perspective the evaluation will be done. The user
classes determine the tasks that will form the basis of any evaluation, especially a
NOTES tutorial-based evaluation. The following classes of the user can be assumed:
 User: The user is a person, who, depending on the artifact, downloads,
installs, configures and uses the artifact but does not write any code to
use in conjunction with it. The software may be a Web portal, a GUI or
a command-line tool. Within this class, there could be different types of
users, for example, for the journal TOCs’ portal, the users could be
researchers wanting to use the service or journal publishers wanting to
find out how the service used their RSS (Rich Site Summary) feeds.
 User-Developer: A user-developer refers to the user who writes code
that extends but does not change the software, for example, a client to
some service endpoints, or a pluggable component coded against some
extensibility point. As an analogy, it refers to a developer of Web services
using Apache Axis.
 Developer: A developer is a user who writes code that changes the
software, for example, fixes bugs, makes the software more efficient or
extends its functionality. As an analogy, it refers to someone who changes
Apache Axis to make WSDL2 Java easier to use.
 Member: A member is a developer who is a project member and has
access to the source code repository. Unlike a developer, a member
has to be aware of such issues as which policy is on upgrading for using
new versions of prerequisite packages and coding standards, who owns
copyright and licensing, how changes are managed, if they are expected
to support components they develop, how the project is run, and so on.
As an analogy, it refers to a member of the Apache Axis developer
team.
In terms of how much time to spend on an evaluation to get useful information,
the rule of thumb is that an ideal period is 1–2 weeks in duration (or 3–5 days of
effort) depending on the complexity of the software and the nature of the evaluation
tasks.
The detailed factors to be considered in any software evaluation will depend
on the particular circumstances and the type of software under evaluation.
However, there are several main categories which are generally applicable.
 Functionality: Does the software do what is expected? Does it meet
the needs of the users? Is it easy to use? Is it for everyone or for
specialists?
 Performance: Is it effective? Does it operate quickly enough, even at
peak load? Can large records and files be handled?
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 Hardware: Will it work on existing hardware? Are special peripherals Software Packages
or add-on memory needed? Does it constrain future modifications to

hardware? Is the system software appropriate?
 Integration: Can it be integrated with other software systems, if
NOTES
necessary? Can data be exchanged easily? Is a common interface
feasible? Are communication facilities adequate? Can any existing data
file be included easily?
 Customization: Can the software be adopted to local needs, either by
the user or the supplier? How much control is there over such things as
input forms and output layout?
 Upgrading: Will the software be developed further? Will upgrades be
automatically available or at what cost?
 Support: Is there adequate training back up available from the supplier?
How effective is it? How good is the documentation?
 Price: Purchase or license, price and costs of upgrade, support, and so
on.
 Vendor Validity: The reputation of the software development group
or the vendor is very important. The following questions should be raised
to judge the validity:
o Is the vendor also the software developer, or is the vendor a distributor
or an agent for the software developer?
o Is there an international presence or is the company localized?
o How long has the software developer been in the library systems
industry?
o How long has the library software you are interested in been in the
market?
o Who uses this software? (Look for someone in close proximity and
contact him or her with questions. If possible, make an on-site visit to
see the product in action.)
 Services Availability Checklist: The services and utilities of any LMS
(Library Management System) should be checked for the availability of
the following core, enhanced and value-added services:
o Core Services: Acquisition, cataloging, circulation, OPAC (Online
Public Access Catalog), serials control, bibliographic format support,
data exchange format support, article indexing, retroconversion,
standard reports and system administration
o Enhanced Services: Customized report generation, GUI-based user
interface, reservation facility, interlibrary loan module, multilingual
support, union catalog, authority file support and controlled vocabulary,
online help, online tutorial, power search facility, Internet support,
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Software Packages Intranet support, Web access OPAC, multimedia interface, barcode
support, and backup utility
o Value-Added Services: Patron self-service through RFID (Radio-
Frequency Identification) and smart card (self-circulation, self-
NOTES
reservation, and so on), online use training/orientation, stock verification
facility, members photo ID card generation, barcode generation, fine
calculation and receipt generation, gate pass generation, bulletin board
services and email reports, electronic SDI (Selective Dissemination
of Information), CAS (Current awareness service) support, digital
media archiving support
 Functional Checklist: The following general features are part of the
software module testing. Each feature should be tested or conducted
during the evaluation process:
o Searching Capabilities (All Modules)
o Fines and Fees (Circulation)
o Data Entry and Editing (All Modules)
o Notice Production (Circulation)
o Holds (Circulation)
o Check-In (Circulation)
o Recalls (Circulation)
o Renewal (Circulation)
o Patron File (Circulation)
o Reserves (Circulation)
o Inventory (Circulation)
o Check-Out (Circulation)
o Self-Registration
o Interlibrary Loan
o Bibliographic/Item File and Maintenance
o Authority Control
o Portable Backup Units
o Report Generation
o Acquisitions
o Bibliographic Interface Software
o Serials
o Electronic Databases
o Network Operations
o Z39.50 Server
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o Web Accessibility Software Packages
o Export and Import of Data

o Integrated Archiving
o Fund Accounting NOTES
 Data Conversion and Backup Utility: The ability of the package in
terms of support for data conversion from other library systems and
adherence to the international bibliographic data standards and protocols
should be checked extensively. At this age of shared cataloging systems
and Web integration, the LMS should also support metadata schemas
and interoperability issues, such as XML (Extensive Markup Language),
RDF (Resource Description Framework) and OAI/PMH (Open
Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting). Backup facility
in suitable media is also to be checked in view of data recovery at the
time of need.
Software selection is not an easy task but selection should always be reflective of
the mission. The quantity of commercially available software is vast and grows
every day. Even fifteen years ago, it was estimated that in the field of educational
software alone, there were more than 10,000 current titles. The success of
automation depends on the selection of the right software and its correct
implementation. A very few library software packages can meet all the requirements
of a particular library. Each package has its own unique feature and limitations.
Hence, it is necessary to evaluate the library automation software with varying
facilities according to the requirement. To determine the best package, analysing
and identifying the needs and matching it with the features and functions of integrated
library systems is important. Moreover, the library software should be selected to
satisfy the present and prospective needs of the library.
To assess the value of the software based on certain important checkpoints,
a comparative study is essential to understand any software. Therefore, this study
is carried out using the important checklist to be used for the evaluation of software.
It would help a librarian to know the benefits and limitations of a particular software
and to decide about the selection of a software package suitable for their own
requirements.
Check Your Progress

1. What is DBMS?
2. Give a function of DBMS.
3. What should application software package for library work incorporate?
4. What features should library automation software package have?
5. Why is evaluation of software done? Self-Instructional
Material 127
Software Packages
7.3 LIBRARY AUTOMATION SYSTEM SELECTION
GUIDELINES
NOTES The library automation software must be developed and designed based on the
best practices that are internationally adopted in the library profession. These
include:
 Adoption of MARC-based bibliographic record. Record can be imported,
created, updated and exported using the MARC 21 and ISO 2709
standards. (MARC stands for MAchine-Readable Cataloging and ISO
stands for International Organization for Standardization.)
 Bibliographic and item information must be stored separately in two different
types of record so that more than one item record can be attached to one
bibliographic record.
 Support of internationally adopted library standards, including ISBD
(International Standard Bibliographic Description), AACR2 (Anglo-
American Cataloguing Rules), subject heading scheme, classification scheme,
and so on.
 Automation of library operations and activities, including circulation, public
catalog searching, cataloging, ordering, serials control and reporting.
The library automation software must be supported by a team that processes
library experience and qualification. This is essential to ensure that the team
understands the library requirements and at the same time is able to provide
professional advice to the libraries.
The software vendor (or developer) must have long-term commitment on
the further development of the software. The vendor should, in particular, take the
following into consideration:
 The vendor should be quick to integrate emerging library standards and
new technology to the software. These include Web and the Internet-
based access to the library catalog, XML and Dublin Core technology,
Unicode, and so on.
 The vendor must be financially stable.
 The vendor must be specialized in library applications.
 The vendor must have periodical upgrade release with new enhancements.
The library automation software must be able to support Hong Kong school
library environment. These include the following:
 Support bilingual interface and bilingual data.
 SAMS (Hong Kong Education Department’s School Administration
Management System) student data can be imported to the library
database.
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 Support sharing of cataloging records among Hong Kong school libraries. Software Packages
 The software must run on computer and networking equipment commonly

used in Hong Kong school libraries.
 The initial purchase cost and the annual upgrade cost must be priced at NOTES
a level affordable by Hong Kong school libraries.
Methods to Select the Software
Struggling with software selection process is extremely taxing on the average library
professionals. In particular, technology, feature and functions, security and
authentication issues, long-term cost, vendor viability, services and support, for
example, maintenance considerations, as well as training and documentation are
to be considered for software selection with greater attention. They are discussed
in the following section.
7.3.1 Technology
Here, technology refers to hardware and software. A suitable hardware and software
is a must for proper functioning of any library automation package. Each software
package should carefully examine the memory requirements and the required
system software, taking the type of hardware into consideration. The technology
should be able to determine whether additional peripheral hardware, such as
speakers, scanners, earphones, and so on, will be necessary to make the program
perform. Moreover, it will require regularly upgrading of the equipment. The
technology should be strong and capable enough to handle current and future
transaction load. The system speed should be acceptable for daily usage. Software
should support multi-company, multidivisional and multi-currency environments.
It can be seen that software package written in higher order programming
language, such as COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language), FORTRAN
(Formula Translating System), BASIC (Beginner’s All-Purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code), and so on, generally face problems in their maintenance,
upgrading, customization, and so on, due to non-availability of suitable hardware.
When reviewing potential software suppliers, many companies tend to focus only
on the potential product’s functionality and features. These are discussed below.
 Features
The factors including data storage techniques used in development of software,
database structure file organization, and so on, must be taken into consideration.
It is also necessary to inspect the facilities of importing, exporting and downloading
the data from one’s own computer to disk or CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-
Only Memory), and so on, and its compatibility with CCF/MARC standard format.
Many librarians are confronting the issue of language by identifying the
programming language in which software is very important at the time of procurement Self-Instructional
Material 129
Software Packages or development of the package. This is due to the fact that many facilities, such as
fixed length, variable field length, variable format, search facility, and so on, are
provided in the packages by using suitable programming language. Generally,
customers or users have to face problems in the maintenance, upgrading and
NOTES customization due to inappropriate programming language in any library automation
software.
Functions
A good library software package should be an integrated modular software for
the entire range of library activities. The main functions of software packages can
be listed as follows:
 Acquisitions
 Cataloging
 Circulation
 Online-Public Access Catalog
 Serial Management
 Report Generator
 Interlibrary Loan
 Community Information
 Import/Export
 Providing Reference Service
Besides this, some other factors also should be considered as the functional level
in selecting the software. These factors are as follows:
 Does this package meet the overall requirements listing?
 The menu structure should be easy to follow and understand.
 Are the help files easily assessable and easy for users to understand?
 Can the user customize help to meet the individual needs of the organization?
 Is the product overly complex or too sophisticated for the average user?
 Are there standard reports available and are they useful?
Cost
The cost of commercial software package varies considerably across the range of
packages available except open source and free software. Most of the library
automation software is costly. Commercial software has initial purchase fees,
licensing fees as well as upgrade fees. Moreover, the software designers also
claim additional charges for customization, on-site training and data conversion
from other DBMS/data sources, annual maintenance contract and customer support
service. However, the software developed locally might be cheaper in price as
compared with foreign software. Some software package developed using open
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source and free software is available free of cost and offers only on the distribution Software Packages
charge. There are some other factors to be considered while selecting the software.
 Are the license costs justified given the functionality offering?
NOTES
 Is the required database affordable?
 Are annual maintenance charges reasonable?
 What is the ratio of software cost to the implementation cost?
Supplier Longevity
Supplier longevity is also a very important factor to be considered before selecting
the software. This factor generally considers the numbers of years a company has
been actively engaged in the software industry, when was the product first released
and what is the current release version being quoted. The reliability, customization
and durability of the software depend on the stability of the software designer and
supplier. If the company has been consistently profitable over the years the recent
turnover has been on the management staff, there is no doubt on the company’s
longevity. Similarly, the costumer’s reference is also a supportive factor for taking
a decision regarding the selection of the software.
7.3.3 Services
The most important factor is the service part of any software package for the
library. The librarian can serve the people effectively, efficiently as well as rapidly
with the help of automation using good library software package, which is integrated
by all required services. In fact, the entire range of services available in selected
packages can be divided into three groups, which are as follows:
Core Services
Core services are the basic services necessary for library routines and are
recommended to be available with library automation packages. The existence of
any automation software depends on the available services, facilities, and coverage
of library and information activities in various modules. The different facilities in the
library automation package are acquisition, cataloging, classification, OPAC,
circulation, serial control, information services, management, technical services
and maintenance, and so on.
Academic libraries acquire not only the English language documents but
also acquire documents available in various foreign languages for the research
purpose. Therefore, the software should have the facility of multiple script
acceptances.
Enhanced Services
It includes the additional services of the modern library which make work of the
librarians easy, comfortable and smooth. Customized report generation, GUI-
based user interface and color, interlibrary loan, multilingual support, union catalog, Self-Instructional
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Software Packages and so on, are the examples of these type of services. Therefore, any software
package having more facilities are certainly treated more suitable and advanced in
comparison to those having limited facilities.
NOTES Value-Added Services

Value-added services are those types of services that are not generally included
within a general scope of software packages. With the emergence of advanced
technology, these types of services also became essential for the libraries of
developed countries for the users’ easiness. Moreover, with the development of
the software package, these type of services are provided. Therefore, the best
software is that which have these types of services and facilities. Self-circulation,
self-reservation, online user training, stock verification facility, barcode generation,
gate pass generations and RFID are some examples of value-added services.
Customer support services mainly include the training, maintenance and
documentation. It also includes publications (for example, manual and newsletter)
which contain information about the latest development of the software. It helps to
keep the users up-to-date in the latest development of the library software.
Training
The training of the library staff in computer operation is of vital importance. Every
library staff member should be given a training and orientation about the computer
system. The responsibility of the software designer or supplier does not end by
selling the software without training until and unless people learn the operations of
the software completely. This is because the most important people in making
library computerization successful are the librarians. It must be realized that librarians
will not be able to make any use of computer equipment until they are provided
with the know-how required to use it. So, it is necessary to make training
arrangements for the professional development of the librarians.
Maintenance
One should very carefully examine the support and maintenance arrangements
being offered by the vendor/ supplier. Maintenance may include removing the
bugs or errors that might become evident in the software as it is used for a greater
variety of applications and improving the software. Regarding maintenance, the
following points should be kept in mind in the software selection process:
 Does the software has debugging facility and scope of proper error message
while executing the software?
 How quickly are non-critical software bugs fixed for upgrading the software
to adopt a new technology?
 Is there any supplier for annual maintenance contract in discounted rate?
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Documentation Software Packages
The reference manual with detailed written instruction (step-by-step) is necessary

for using software package after a training program. The language of the manual
should be easy to understand and should have a table of contents, glossary and NOTES
index. It is also important to know whether they have any regular newsletter, user
information or updated publication regarding the library software.
Performance
The provision for searching the OPAC and Web simultaneously (metasearch) using
a single word search, search response time, search options, backup facilities,
database security, and so on, shows the performance of any library automation
software. The functions of packages are interrelated to each other. The response
time of the search module depends on different factors, such as file organization,
operating system, hardware platform, numbers of records in database, and so on.
Search Options
The search option includes simple search, Boolean search, (AND, OR, NOT)
advanced search, string search, keyword search, field limitation search, truncation,
use of related terms in searching, and so on. The provision for multiple manipulations
and adequate searching capabilities must be in good characteristic software.
Security
Security mechanism prevents the software from misusing the database by the users
and other people. For the safety purpose, the software should have the following:
 Provision of user ID /barcode, and so on
 Provision of access restriction to certain records/ fields
 Provision for students and staff to log in and log off on their own
 Modification/new version of the software obtained by the librarian
User-Friendliness
The system should be easy to use. It should be checked whether the system
empowers the experienced user with short cuts and flexible tools. The system
should be easy to learn, menu driven and command mnemonic based. Besides the
above criteria, copyright and licensing consideration is also important for the
evaluation of the software.
Copyright and Licensing Considerations
All commercial software is copyright protected. The purchased package will contain
a licensing statement to which the purchaser agrees by the action of opening the
package. An advantage of the licensing agreement is that a registered owner
(registration cards are also included in the software package) can usually obtain
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Software Packages upgrades at far less than the full market price. Free software is not copyright
protected. Usually referred to as ‘Public Domain Software’, such packages are
freely copy-able and/or transferable. Another software called ‘shareware’ is offered
freely to everyone through user groups or over the Internet with the suggested
NOTES provision that someone copying or downloading such a program voluntarily sends
a small amount of money to the creator/developer of the software.
7.4 LIBRARY SOFTWARE PACKAGES: NATURE

AND TYPES
A number of library software packages have been developed and designed

indigenously. These are being used in various Indian libraries and information
centers. Some of the library software packages are given in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 Some Library Software Packages and their Developing Agencies
No. Software Package Developing Agency
1. Archives (1, 2, 3) Microfax Electronic Systems, Bombay
2. Acquas, Ascat, Ascir, Asire, Seras Ober information System, Calcutta
3. Basisplus and Techlibplus Information Dimension Inc. (IDI), USA (Marketed in India by
NIC)
4. Catman INSDOC, New Delhi
5. Defence Library Management System DESIDOC, New Delhi
6. Golden Libra Golden Age Software Technologies, Bombay
7. Granthalaya INSDOC, New Delhi
8. Krvger Library Manager Blitz Audio Visuals, Pune
9. Libman Datapro Consultancy Services, Pune
10. Libra Ivy System Ltd., New Delhi
11. Librarian Soft-Aid, Pune
12. Library Management Raychan Systematic, Bangalore
13. Library Manager System Data Control Pvt. Ltd., Bombay
14. Libris Frontier Information Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Secunderabad
15. Lib Soft ET&T Corporation, New Delhi
16. Libsays, Micro-Libsys Libsys Corporation, New Delhi
17. List plus Computer Systems, Bangalore
18. Loan Soft Computek Computer Systems, Hyderabad
19. Maitrayee CMC, Calcutta (for the CALIBNET Project)
20 MECSYS MECON, Ranchi
21. NILIS Asmita Consultants, Bombay
22. Nirmals Nirmal Institute of Computer
23. Salim Expertise, Tiruchirapalli, Uptron India Ltd., New Delhi
24. Sanjay DESIDOC, Delhi (Under a NISSAT Project)
25. Slim 1.1 Algorythms, Bombay
26. Suchika DESIDOC, Delhi
27. Trishna NISTADS, New Delhi. (Under NISSAT Project)
28. Tulib Tata Unisys Ltd., Bombay
29. Ulysis WIPRO Information Technology Ltd., Secunderabad
30. Wilisys Wipro India, Bangalore
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7.4.1 Hardware and Operating System Requirements Software Packages
For implementing software in a library, a suitable hardware is needed according to

the OS of the software. A library selects software either according to hardware
facility available at the organization or software which requires less costly hardware. NOTES
The operating system of the software is also selected according to the needs of
library, skill of manpower, availability of hardware, and so on. Hardware
requirements and operating systems of some of the software packages are given
in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2 Library Software Packages, their Operating Systems and
Minimum Hardware Requirements
No. Software Operating System Minimum Hardware Requirements
Packages
1. Basisplus and UNIX SVR 4.0 or above 1. Basis server
Techlibplus Intel 80X86, Pentium
RAM 16 MB, 150 MB
Cartridge
2. Basis Client
Intel 80386
MS-Window 3.1
RAM 4 MB but 8 MB preferred,
HD 16 MB, 20 MB,TCP/IP, PC-NFS
Granthalaya 1. MS DOS 6.0 & above PC-AT 486

2. SCO UNIX ver 5.3.2 RAM 8 MB
3. Ingres ver 6.2 or above HD 540 MB
4. Oracle ver 6.2 or above
3. Krveger Library MS DOS PC XT/AT
Manager
4. Librarian XENIX PC-AT 386
LAN
5. Libsys 1. MS DOS 6.0 and above PC-AT
2. SCO XENIX PC-AT
3. SCO UNIX PC-AT 386/486, Motorola 68000/
4. VMS or ULTRIX Intel 386/486 based mini
5. NOVEL LAN Micro VAX
6. Maitrayee UNIX 3.2 PC-AT 386
7. Sanjay (ver 2.0) 1. MS DOS ver 3.2 or above PC-AT
(developed by augmenting 1 MB RAM and
CDS/ISIS (V 2.3) 40 MB HD
8. Suchika 1. MS Dos 6.0 on higher PC-AT 486
8 MB RAM
540 MB HD
2. UNIX PC-AT 486 or above
8 MB RAM
540 MB RAM
3. LAN
9. Tulib UNIX PC-AT 386
10 Ulysis XENIX Wipro PC-AT
UNIX Wipro S-682 & Wipro 5.386
11. Wilsys UNIX PC-AT 386ss
XENIX
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Software Packages 7.4.2 Programming Language of Software
Programming language is also important for the development or procurement of
software because many facilities, such as fixed field, variable field length, variable
NOTES format, search facility, and so on, are provided in a software by using a suitable
programming language. Every language or Relational Database Management
System (RDBMS) has some special features. Table 7.3 shows some of the software
packages and their language of development.
Table 7.3 Some of the Library Software Packages, their Programming
Language/RDBMS and Data Storage Techniques
No. Software Package Programming Language Data Storage Technique

1. Archives FOXPRO Relational database
2. Basisplu & Techlibplus Visual Basic Relational database
3. DELMS Cobol B-tree
4. Delsis Visual Basic (developed on Relational database
Basisplus)
5. Granthalaya FOXPRO Relational database
6. Libman Dbase III Relational database
7. Librarian Clipper & Foxbase Relational database
8. Libris Ingres, C Relational database
9. Libsys C Inverted file and B-tree
10 Maitrayee Ingres Relational database
11. Sanjay CDS/ISIS, PASCAL Inverted file
12. Suchika C++ B-tree
13. Tulib Oracle with C Relational database
14. Ulysis C B-tree
15. Wilisys Unify RDBMS and C Relational database

The response time of the search module of the software depends on the following
factors:
 File Organization/File Access
 Operating System
 Hardware Platform
 Backend Software used
 Number of Records in the Database
Data storage techniques also play a vital role in search response time. It is found
that an inverted file structure is faster than a B-tree structure and a B-tree structure
is faster than an RDBMS.
7.4.4 Types
A number of software packages are available which may be used in libraries for
Self-Instructional various activities. Some of the packages are described as follows:
136 Material
Alice for Windows Software Packages
Alice for Windows is an international software package and is marketed worldwide

through a number of agencies based in several countries including India under
different names. Recently, it has been named ‘Alice for Windows’ all over the NOTES
world to maintain consistency in nomenclature. Alice for Windows is a complete,
integrated library and information management system which brings powerful
automatic document and resource control within the reach of all organizations,
regardless the size of the organization. The package has four distinct versions.
o Public Library Version
o Special Library Version
o Academic Library Version
o School Library Version
The software package is modular. The modules are grouped as follows:
o Standard Modules
o Advanced Modules
o Special Modules
Features
The software package has the following features:
o Menu-driven package
o ‘Search Screen’ with password
o Runs on Barcode Technology
o Incorporates Multimedia and Internet
o Runs on Single as well as Multi-User environment
o Inbuilt communication function
o Special data protection function
o Tutorial Modules in the systems
o 7-digit data capacity; this facilitates holdings 99 lakh records
o Graphical User Interface (GUI)
 Basisplus and Techlibplus
Basisplus software, designed and developed by Information Dimensions, Inc.,
IISA, is being marketed in India by the National Informatics Center (NIC), New
Delhi. The Basisplus provides facilities for the storage, retrieval and electronic
management of documents. It is based on relational database technology and
supports client-server architecture. The software has the following integrated
features:
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Software Packages o Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)
o Full text capability with free text searching and thesaurus
o Object management
NOTES o Converter technology for document interchange
o Library automation
Techlibplus is built on Basisplus and designed to streamline and facilitate all the
day-to-day operations of a fully electronic library. Techlibplus provides patron
access, catalog maintenance, circulation, serials management, acquisition,
processing and MARC cataloging.
 CDS/ISIS
CDS/ISIS stands for Computerized Documentation System/Integrated Set of
Information System. It is a menu-driven generalized information storage and retrieval
system, designed especially for computerized management of structured non-
numerical databases. It has been designed and developed by United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO) Division of
Software Development and Applications Office of Information Program and
Services. The national distributor of this software in India is National Information
System for Science and Technology (NISSAT).
System Functions
The major functions provided by CDS/ISIS allow:
o Definite databases containing the required data elements
o Enter new records into a given database
o Modify, correct or delete existing records
o Automatically build and maintain fast access files for each database in order
to maximize retrieval speed
o Relative records by their contents, through a sophisticated search language
o Displays the records or portions according to the requirements
o Sort the records in any sequence desired
o Print partial or full catalogs and/or indexes
o Develop specialized applications using the CDS/ISIS integrated
programming facility.
Features
The major features CDS/ISIS are as follows:
o Database can contain over 1,60,000, 000 records.
o Maximize size of display format is 4,000 characters.
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138 Material
o There are menus and sub-menus which provides options. Software Packages
o Its indexing capabilities are extremely dependable and fast.
Check Your Progress NOTES

6. What is the importance of programming language?
7. Expand CDS/ISIS. What is CDS/ISIS?
8. Who designed CDS/ISIS?

QUESTIONS
1. DBMS is a system software for creating, organizing, manipulating and

arranging data in databases. In other words, it is a software with a facility
that allows the operator to define structure, data items and fields, and also
to organize, manipulate, arrange and retrieve data.
2. DBMS provides users and programmers with a systematic way to create,
retrieve, update and manage data.
3. Application software package for library work should incorporate various
modules for different types of activities, such as acquisition, cataloging,
circulation, serial control, and so on.
4. A library automation software package should be user-friendly. In other
words, it should be developed in such a manner that it can be used after a
short training and practice. Help message shall also be provided in the case
of confusion. Details about menus and sub-menu should be provided. A
detailed and an elaborative user manual should also be provided.
5. A software evaluation is done for someone who wants to know about the
state of a particular package, and may even be paying you to look into it.
So, at the outset, you should agree with this ‘someone’ for the scope of the
evaluation. This includes what software and other project resources will be
evaluated and the user classes from whose perspective the evaluation will
be done. The user classes determine the tasks that will form the basis of any
evaluation, especially a tutorial-based evaluation.
6. Programming language is also important for the development or procurement
of software because many facilities, such as fixed field, variable field length,
variable format, search facility, and so on, are provided in a software by
using a suitable programming language. Every language or Relational
Database Management System (RDBMS) has some special features
7. CDS/ISIS stands for Computerized Documentation System/Integrated Set
of Information System. It is a menu-driven generalized information storage
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Software Packages and retrieval system, designed especially for computerized management of
structured non-numerical databases.
8. CDS/ISIS has been designed and developed by United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO) Division of Software
NOTES
Development and Applications Office of Information Program and Services.
The national distributor of this software in India is National Information
System for Science and Technology (NISSAT).
7.6 SUMMARY
 The hardware requirement to run the software has to be determined precisely,

Moreover, it also has to be decided whether the existing hardware of the
library would suffice or any modification. The software must run under the
operating system available in the hardware.
 The software must be compatible with the computers on which it has to run.
Some packages use special peripheral devices, such as modem, hard disk,
and so on. A few others are designed to be used with DBMS (Database
Management System) or spreadsheets. While buying software, the concerned
library should verify whether any companion program or a special device/
hardware are required or not.
 The software package should provide full documentation on all aspects,
such as reference manual, instructions, online help, and so on, for assisting
the librarian while using it.
 It should accept machine readable files in the RM (Reference Manual),
UNIMARC ((Universal Machine—Readable Cataloging) and eventual
CCF (Common Communication Format) formats to directly generate
bibliographic description for local use and generate an output file, from its
own internal bibliographic description, which is formatted in accordance
with the RM and/ or UNIMARC and/or CCF specifications.
 Most important of all these criteria is the cost of package, which must be
within budgeted amount. It should include vendors charge for training,
installation, maintenance and update.
 The selection of a good and perfect software package is not an easy job.
First make yourself clear of your short-term and long-term needs of the
software which you intent to buy the software. Then develop functional
specifications for each job that you want to do with the software.
 The library should have the best software for fulfilling the entire activity and
to satisfy the users. Besides storage and retrieval, there are other
housekeeping functions which should also be there in the software.
Computerization of operation requires procurement of hardware and
software.
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 DBMS is a system software for creating, organizing, manipulating and Software Packages
arranging data in databases. In other words, it is a software with a facility

that allows the operator to define structure, data items and fields, and also
to organize, manipulate, arrange and retrieve data. DBMS provides users
and programmers with a systematic way to create, retrieve, update and NOTES
manage data.
 Application software package for library work should incorporate various
modules for different types of activities, such as acquisition, cataloging,
circulation, serial control, and so on. As we know, in each module, more or
less the same information is handled in one way or the other. The information
relates to bibliographical details of books and articles, and details of library
users/members. Therefore, for connecting all the modules, the package
should have high-level integration so that the data entered in one module
can be accessed and used in another module of the software.
 A library automation software package should be user-friendly. In other
words, it should be developed in such a manner that it can be used after a
short training and practice. Help message shall also be provided in the case
of confusion. Details about menus and sub-menu should be provided. A
detailed and an elaborative user manual should also be provided.
 The software should have provision for local variation. Different libraries
may like to provide different records differently. For example, one library
may assign continuous system generated membership number, invariable
class and branch, while another library may assign different number at their
own. In order to meet the requirement of an individual library for its local
variation, there should be a provision for it
 A software evaluation is done for someone who wants to know about the
state of a particular package, and may even be paying you to look into it.
So, at the outset, you should agree with this ‘someone’ for the scope of the
evaluation. This includes what software and other project resources will be
evaluated and the user classes from whose perspective the evaluation will
be done. The user classes determine the tasks that will form the basis of any
evaluation, especially a tutorial-based evaluation.
 The ability of the package in terms of support for data conversion from
other library systems and adherence to the international bibliographic data
standards and protocols should be checked extensively.
 Adoption of MARC-based bibliographic record. Record can be imported,
created, updated and exported using the MARC 21 and ISO 2709
standards. (MARC stands for MAchine-Readable Cataloging and ISO
stands for International Organization for Standardization.
 Bibliographic and item information must be stored separately in two different
types of record so that more than one item record can be attached to one
bibliographic record.
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Software Packages  The factors including data storage techniques used in development of
software, database structure file organization, and so on, must be taken
into consideration. It is also necessary to inspect the facilities of importing,
exporting and downloading the data from one’s own computer to disk or
NOTES CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read Only Memory), and so on, and its
compatibility with CCF/MARC standard format.
 A good library software package should be an integrated modular software
for the entire range of library activities.
 The cost of commercial software package varies considerably across the
range of packages available except open source and free software. Most
of the library automation software is costly. Commercial software has initial
purchase fees, licensing fees as well as upgrade fees.
 The software designers also claim additional charges for customization, on-
site training and data conversion from other DBMS/data sources, annual
maintenance contract and customer support service. However, the software
developed locally might be cheaper in price as compared with foreign
software. Some software package developed using open source and free
software is available free of cost and offers only on the distribution charge.
 Core services are the basic services necessary for library routines and are
recommended to be available with library automation packages. The
existence of any automation software depends on the available services,
facilities, and coverage of library and information activities in various modules.
The different facilities in the library automation package are acquisition,
cataloging, classification, OPAC, circulation, serial control, information
services, management, technical services and maintenance, and so on.
 Value-added services are those types of services that are not generally
included within a general scope of software packages. With the emergence
of advanced technology, these types of services also became essential for
the libraries of developed countries for the users’ easiness. Moreover, with
the development of the software package, these type of services are
provided.
 The reference manual with detailed written instruction (step-by-step) is
necessary for using software package after a training program. The language
of the manual should be easy to understand and should have a table of
contents, glossary and index. It is also important to know whether they
have any regular newsletter, user information or updated publication regarding
the library software.
 Programming language is also important for the development or procurement
of software because many facilities, such as fixed field, variable field length,
variable format, search facility, and so on, are provided in a software by
using a suitable programming language. Every language or Relational
Database Management System (RDBMS) has some special features
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 Basisplus software, designed and developed by Information Dimensions, Software Packages
Inc., IISA, is being marketed in India by the National Informatics Center

(NIC), New Delhi. The Basisplus provides facilities for the storage, retrieval
and electronic management of documents. It is based on relational database
technology and supports client-server architecture. NOTES
 CDS/ISIS stands for Computerized Documentation System/Integrated Set
of Information System. It is a menu-driven generalized information storage
and retrieval system, designed especially for computerized management of
structured non-numerical databases. It has been designed and developed
by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s
(UNESCO) Division of Software Development and Applications Office of
Information Program and Services. The national distributor of this software
in India is National Information System for Science and Technology
(NISSAT).
7.7 KEY WORDS
 DBMS: DBMS is a system software for creating, organizing, manipulating

and arranging data in databases.
 Compatibility: Compatibility refers to the quality of adoptability or quality
to transfer/merge the database created by other standard software.
 User-developer: A user-developer refers to the user who writes code that
extends but does not change the software.
 Developer: A developer is a user who writes code that changes the
software.
 Member: A member is a developer who is a project member and has
access to the source code repository.

EXERCISES

1. What is a software package? List any three criteria for the selection of
library software packages.
2. What are the options available for acquiring and upgrading a library
management system?
3. List the criteria for evaluating a software package for library automation.
4. Write a brief note on high-level integration.
5. What is scope of local variation?
6. What is the criteria for selection for software? Self-Instructional
Material 143
Software Packages Long Answer Questions
1. Elaborate a note on criteria for the selection of library software packages.
2. What are the features of a good library software packages?
NOTES 3. Discuss in detail the criteria for evaluating a software package for library
automation.
4. How is evaluation of software done?
5. Explain the selection criteria for softwares.
6. What are the guidelines on which the selection of library automation system
done?
7. Discuss the features, functions and the services of library automation system.
8. Give a detailed note on library software packages its nature and types.
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Open Source Software
UNIT 8 OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE

Structure NOTES
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 GSDL: Greenstone Digital Library Software
8.3 Koha
8.4 DSPACE
8.6 Summary
8.7 Key Words
8.0 INTRODUCTION
Open Source Software (OSS) is a type of computer software in which source

code is released under a license in which the copyright holder grants users the rights
to study, change, and distribute the software to anyone and for any purpose. Open
Source Software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. According
to scientists who have studied it, Open Source Software is a prominent example
of open collaboration. The term is often written without a hyphen as ‘Open Source
Software’.
Open Source Software development, or collaborative development between
multiple independent contributors, generates an increasingly more diverse scope
of design perspective than any company is capable of developing and sustaining
long term. A 2008 report by the Standish Group states that adoption of open-
source software models has resulted in savings of about $60 billion (£48 billion)
per year to consumers.
In this unit, you will study about GSDL, Koha and DSpace in detail.
8.1 OBJECTIVES

 Understand what Open-source software is
 Explain Koha
 Discuss DSpace
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8.2 GSDL: GREENSTONE DIGITAL LIBRARY
SOFTWARE
NOTES GSDL: Greenstone Digital Library Software is a suite of software for building and
distributing digital library collections. It provides a way of organizing information
and publishing it on the web or on removable media such as DVD and USB flash
drives.
Greenstone, or GSDL is produced by the New Zealand Digital Library
Project at the University of Waikato, and developed and distributed in cooperation
with UNESCO and the Human Info NGO. It is open-source, multilingual software,
issued under the terms of the GNU General Public License.
The aim of the GSDL software is to empower users, particularly in
universities, libraries, and other public service institutions, to build their own digital
libraries. Digital libraries are radically reforming how information is disseminated
and acquired in UNESCO’s partner communities and institutions in the fields of
education, science and culture around the world, and particularly in developing
countries.
Check Your Progress

1. What is GSDL?
2. Where is GSDL produced?
3. What is the aim of GSDL software?
8.3 KOHA
Koha is a web-based multilingual integrated library system (ILS) that caters to the
automation needs of medium and large libraries. It is an open-source ILS. DELNET
uses a customized version of Koha. All the functional requirements of a library
management system can be fully met by Koha as it provides all necessary features
of MARC-based ILS to cater to the needs of libraries.
Features of Koha
 MARC Import/Exports
 MARC 21compatible
 Z39.50 search
 Comprehensive advance search
 Multilingual Web OPAC
 Printing functions for barcode labels, and reports
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 Flexibility to customize according to your library needs Open Source Software
 Barcode and spine label printing

 Virtual book shelf
 Branch Libraries Management and Items transfers NOTES
 Copy Cataloguing
 Customizable Data Entry Sheet
 Budget Management
 No platform dependence
 Uses MySQL as backend RDBMS and Apache Web server. Both these
software are also open source. It can be run on Linux or Windows
Modules
 Cataloguing
 Acquisition
 Patron Management
 Authorities Control
 Circulation
 Reports
 FAQ
Why Koha?
It is a Full-Featured ILS: Koha is a true enterprise-class ILS that provides
comprehensive functionality of basic as well as advanced options. It has been
successfully used worldwide in libraries of all sizes. Koha includes modules for
cataloguing, circulation, serials, acquisitions, reservation, branch relationships and
user management.
It uses a Dual Database Design: Koha utilizes the strengths of the two major
industry-standard database types, text-based and RDBMS. Because of this design
feature, Koha is scalable enough to meet the transaction load of small as well as
big libraries.
It is Library Standards Compliant: Koha is built using library standards and
protocols that ensure inter-operability between Koha and other technologies, while
supporting the existing workflows and tools.
It uses Web-Based Interfaces: Koha’s OPAC uses state-of-the-art self-
checkout interfaces and circulation management which are based on standards
compliant with WWW technologies—such as XHTML, CSS and Javascript. This
makes Koha a truly platform-independent solution.
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Open Source Software It is Free/Open Source: Koha is available for use and can be distributed under
the open-source general public license.
Check Your Progress

NOTES
4. Define Koha.
5. List some features of Koha.
6. What are the modules of KOHA?
8.4 DSPACE
DSpace is an open source repository software package typically used for

creating open access repositories for scholarly and/or published digital content.
While DSpace shares some feature overlap with content management
systems and document management systems, the DSpace repository software
serves a specific need as a digital archives system, focused on the long-term
storage, access and preservation of digital content.
There are over 1000 digital repositories worldwide using the DSpace
application for a variety of digital archiving needs. DSpace is most often used as
an institutional repository - a platform that provides access to research output,
scholarly publications, library collections, and more.
It has three main roles:
 Facilitates the capture and ingest of materials, including metadata about
the materials
 Facilitates easy access to the materials, both by listing and searching
 Facilitates the long-term preservation of the materials
The DSpace application has many customizable features and tools for
managing digital content, enabling digital preservation and providing accessibility
to your materials. As an open source application, there is a very
active community of developers, researchers and users worldwide that contribute
their expertise to enhance the DSpace application.
The first public version of DSpace was released in November 2002, as a
joint effort between developers from MIT and HP Labs. Following the first user
group meeting in March 2004, a group of interested institutions formed the DSpace
Federation, which determined the governance of future software development by
adopting the Apache Foundation’s community development model as well as
establishing the DSpace Committer Group. In July 2007 as the DSpace user
community grew larger, HP and MIT jointly formed the DSpace Foundation a
not-for-profit organization that provided leadership and support. In May 2009
collaboration on related projects and growing synergies between the DSpace
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Foundation and the Fedora Commons organization led to the joining of the two Open Source Software
organizations to pursue their common mission in a not-for-profit called DuraSpace.

Currently the DSpace software and user community receives leadership and
guidance from DuraSpace.
NOTES
DSpace is constructing with Java web applications and many programs and
an associated metadata store. The web applications provide interfaces for
administration, deposit, ingest, search, and access. The asset store is maintained
on a file system or similar storage system. The metadata, including access and
configuration information, is stored in a relational database and supports the use
of PostgreSQL and Oracle database. DSpace holdings are made available
primarily via a web interface, more recent versions of DSpace also support faceted
search and browse functionality using Apache Solr.
DSpace software runs on Linux, Solaris, UNIX, Ubuntu and Windows. It
can also be installed on OS X. Linux is by far the most common OS for DSpace
Features
Some most important features of DSpace are as follows:
 Free open source software
 Completely customizable to fit user needs
 Manage and preserve all format of digital content (PDF, Word, JPEG, MPEG,
TIFF files)
 Apache SOLR based search for metadata and full text contents
 UTF-8 Support
 Interface available in 22 languages
 Granular group based access control, allowing setting permissions down to
the level of individual files
 Optimized for Google Scholar indexing
DSpace Applications
DSpace can be used to store any type of digital materials, including:
 Documents, such as articles, preprints, working papers, technical reports,
conference papers
 Books
 Theses
 Data sets
 Computer programs
 Visualizations, simulations, and other models
 Multimedia publications
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Open Source Software  Administrative records
 Published books
 Overlay journals
NOTES  Bibliographic datasets
 Images
 Audio files
 Video files
 e-formatted digital library collections
 Learning objects
 Web page
Benefits of DSpace
DSpace is a turnkey repository application it may be deployed “out-of-the-box”
as an institutional repository. The majority of DSpace users do little to no
customization of the application beyond adding local branding. DSpace allows
you to:
 Organize, describe and store your content easily through the built-in structure
 Archive and distribute material you would currently put on your personal
website
 Get your materials out quickly, to a worldwide audience through exposure
to search engines such as Google
 Have a persistent network identifier for your work, which never changes or
breaks
Additionally, DSpace allows institutional repositories to:
 Preserve reusable teaching materials that you can use with course
management systems
 Store examples of students’ projects (with the students’ permission)
 Showcase students’ theses (again with permission)
 Keep track of your own publications/bibliography
Dspace Software License
DSpace is free open source software. That means that you can download, use,
and modify DSpace for free. The software is shared under a Berkeley Software
Distribution (BSD) license. We have also tried to find good open-source tools to
package with the DSpace application, all freely available under an open-source
license (although not all the same license as the one for DSpace itself), so that you
get a complete system along with the part that we created. Users are also allowed
to modify DSpace to meet an organization’s specific needs.
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Open Source Development Model used for Dspace Open Source Software
The code for DSpace is kept within a source code control system from Source
Forge. This system allows code to be added or modified over time, while maintaining
a track of all changes and a note of why the change was made and who made it. NOTES
This assists with the development of the software and ensures the quality and
traceability of the code. Any past version of DSpace can be downloaded from the
system in an identical state as originally distributed.
Control of the source code repository is delegated to a small group
of ’committers’. Only the committers have the ability to change the code and
release new versions. The committers work with the wider community of DSpace
users to fix bugs and improve the software with new features.
Anyone who wants to is welcome to submit big fixes, new features or feature
requests. The can all be done through the Source Forge administrative
system Source Forge administrative system.
Support is provided on an informal basis via email lists. There are three
DSpace email lists:
 General for general questions and announcements
 Technical for technical support
 Development for developers and to discuss development issues
Check Your Progress

7. What is DSpace?
8. What are the roles of DSpace?
9. Which platforms can DSpace work on?
10. Give some important features of DSpace.

QUESTIONS
1. GSDL: Greenstone Digital Library Software is a suite of software for building

and distributing digital library collections. It provides a way of organizing
information and publishing it on the web or on removable media such as
DVD and USB flash drives.
2. Greenstone, or GSDL is produced by the New Zealand Digital Library
Project at the University of Waikato, and developed and distributed in
cooperation with UNESCO and the Human Info NGO. It is open-
source, multilingual software, issued under the terms of the GNU General
Public License.
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Open Source Software 3. The aim of the GSDL software is to empower users, particularly in
universities, libraries, and other public service institutions, to build their own
digital libraries.
4. Koha is a web-based multilingual integrated library system (ILS) that caters
NOTES
to the automation needs of medium and large libraries. It is an open-source
ILS. DELNET uses a customized version of Koha. All the functional
requirements of a library.
5. Some of the features of Koha are:
 MARC Import/Exports
 MARC 21compatible
 Z39.50 search
 Comprehensive advance search
 Printing functions for barcode labels, and reports
 Flexibility to customize according to your library needs
 Barcode and spine label printing
6. Modules of KOHA are as follows:
 Cataloguing
 Acquisition
 Patron Management
 Authorities Control
 Circulation
 Reports
 FAQ
7. DSpace is an open source repository software package typically used for
creating open access repositories for scholarly and/or published digital
content. While DSpace shares some feature overlap with content
management systems and document management systems, the DSpace
repository software serves a specific need as a digital archives system,
focused on the long-term storage, access and preservation of digital content.
8. DSpace has three main roles:
 Facilitates the capture and ingest of materials, including metadata about
the materials
 Facilitates easy access to the materials, both by listing and searching
 Facilitates the long-term preservation of the materials
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9. DSpace software runs on Linux, Solaris, Unix, Ubuntu and Windows. It Open Source Software
can also be installed on OS X. Linux is by far the most common OS for

DSpace
10. Some most important features of DSpace are as follows:
NOTES
 Free open source software
 Completely customizable to fit user needs
 Manage and preserve all format of digital content (PDF,Word, JPEG,
MPEG, TIFF files)
 Apache SOLR based search for metadata and full text contents UTF-8
Support
8.6 SUMMARY
 Greenstone Digital Library Software is a suite of software for building and

distributing digital library collections. It provides a way of organizing
information and publishing it on the web or on removable media such as
DVD and USB flash drives.
 Greenstone, or GSDL is produced by the New Zealand Digital Library
Project at the University of Waikato, and developed and distributed in
cooperation with UNESCO and the Human Info NGO. It is open-
source, multilingual software, issued under the terms of the GNU General
Public License.
 The aim of the GSDL software is to empower users, particularly in
universities, libraries, and other public service institutions, to build their own
digital libraries. Digital libraries are radically reforming how information is
disseminated and acquired in UNESCO’s partner communities and
institutions in the fields of education, science and culture around the world,
and particularly in developing countries.
 Koha is a web-based multilingual integrated library system (ILS) that caters
to the automation needs of medium and large libraries. It is an open-source
ILS. DELNE uses a customized version of Koha.
 All the functional requirements of a library management system can be fully
met by Koha as it provides all necessary features of MARC-based ILS to
cater to the needs of libraries
 It is a full-featured ILS. Koha is a true enterprise-class ILS that provides
comprehensive functionality of basic as well as advanced options. It has
been successfully used worldwide in libraries of all sizes.
 Koha includes modules for cataloguing, circulation, serials, acquisitions,
reservation, branch relationships and user management.
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Open Source Software  It uses a dual database design. Koha utilizes the strengths of the two major
industry-standard database types, text-based and RDBMS. Because of
this design feature, Koha is scalable enough to meet the transaction load of
small as well as big libraries.
NOTES
 It is library standards compliant. Koha is built using library standards and
protocols that ensure inter-operability between Koha and other technologies,
while supporting the existing workflows and tools.
 It uses web-based Interfaces. Koha’s OPAC uses state-of-the-art self-
checkout interfaces and circulation management which are based on
standards compliant with WWW technologies—such as XHTML, CSS
and Javascript. This make Koha a truly platform-independent solution. It is
free/open source. Koha is available for use and can be distributed under
the open-source general public license.
 DSpace is an open source repository software package typically used for
creating open access repositories for scholarly and/or published digital
content. While DSpace shares some feature overlap with content
management systems and document management systems, the
 DSpace repository software serves a specific need as a digital archives
system, focused on the long-term storage, access and preservation of digital
content.
 There are over 1000 digital repositories worldwide using the DSpace
application for a variety of digital archiving needs.
 DSpace is most often used as an institutional repository - a platform that
provides access to research output, scholarly publications, library collections,
and more.
 The DSpace application has many customizable features and tools for
managing digital content, enabling digital preservation and providing
accessibility to your materials. As an open source application, there is a
very active community of developers, researchers and users worldwide that
contribute their expertise to enhance the DSpace application.
 DSpace is constructing with Java web applications and many programs and
an associated metadata store. The web applications provide interfaces for
administration, deposit, ingest, search, and access. The asset store is
maintained on a file system or similar storage system.
 The metadata, including access and configuration information, is stored in
a relational database and supports the use of PostgreSQL and Oracle
database.
 DSpace holdings are made available primarily via a web interface, more
recent versions of DSpace also support faceted search and browse
functionality using Apache Solr.
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 The code for DSpace is kept within a source code control system from Open Source Software
SourceForge. This system allows code to be added or modified over time,

while maintaining a track of all changes and a note of why the change was
made and who made it. This assists with the development of the software
and ensures the quality and traceability of the code. Any past version of NOTES
DSpace can be downloaded from the system in an identical state as originally
distributed.
8.7 KEY WORDS
 DSpace: DSpace is an open source repository software package typically

used for creating open access repositories for scholarly and/or published
digital content.
 Koha: Koha is a web-based multilingual integrated library system (ILS)
that caters to the automation needs of medium and large libraries.
 GSDL: Greenstone Digital Library Software is a suite of software for
building and distributing digital library collections. It provides a way of
organizing information and publishing it on the web or on removable media
such as DVD and USB flash drives.

EXERCISES

1. Write a brief note on GSDL.
2. Brief a note on Koha.
3. Give a short note on DSpace.
1. Discuss about GSDL in detail.
2. Write a detailed note on Koha mentioning its features and modules.
3. Explain about DSpace in detail.
4. Write the roles and features of DSpace.
5. Give applications and benefits of DSpace in detail.
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NOTES edition. New Jersey: McGraw-Hill.
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House-keeping Operations
UNIT 9 HOUSE-KEEPING
OPERATIONS
NOTES
Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Use of Computers for Housekeeping Operations
9.3 Automated Serials control system
9.3.3 Functions
9.5 Summary
9.6 Key Words
9.0 INTRODUCTION
Computers are now being used in housekeeping department for room management,
inventory control, linen management and so on. Many software packages are
available in India that provide specific applications for housekeeping operations.
Computers can now be linked to the telephone system in each guestroom. This
technology greatly reduces the cost of individual wiring in each guestroom. Many
hotels have invested heavily in information technology (IT) infrastructure and
networking that use the latest technical advances in their operations.
Wireless connectivity is developing rapidly, enabling whole world to stay
networked and connected. Business travellers are always looking for ways to stay
connected while on move and expect wireless connectivity at their hotels. Hotels
are aware of the benefits of enabling broadband access throughout their facilities
as wireless connections improve a guest experience by providing complete mobility.
WLANs allow guests to share high speed internet connections, browse the web,
access their corporate networks remotely yet securely, access the business centre
from their room, organize video conference, play games online, etc.
In this unit, you will study about what housekeeping is and library automation
of library housekeeping operations.
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9.1 OBJECTIVES

NOTES  Understand what housekeeping is
 Discuss about library automation of library housekeeping operations
9.2 USE OF COMPUTERS FOR HOUSEKEEPING

OPERATIONS
In this section, we will discuss the use of computers for housekeeping operations.
Since the society is becoming complex, there is an increasing need for timely
organization, communication and dissemination of information and, therefore, the
reliability on technology is obvious. The present era is an age of information
technology and there is a great explosion in information provision. This indicates
the time for modernization of library operations and is becoming essential for
effective and efficient working of libraries and information centers. Automation is
a technique to make a system self-active. This technology of library automation is
defined as the use of Information Communication Technology (ICT) to perform
traditional library housekeeping activities, such as acquisition, circulation, cataloging,
serial control and references. In simple terms, library automation is a term where
computers and its utility based products and services are used to improve the
performance of different library operations. Today, the term ‘library automation’
significantly marks the mechanization of library activities using the computer. The
traditional activities of library are no longer performed in a traditional way; rather
they are performed with the help of computers. The objective of this transformation
from traditional way to technological way is to change, without any lose of their
identity, to a better performance. Automation reduces the pressure of workload
in libraries to a great extend. Use of computers technology for library keeping
operations, such as acquisition, administrative work, cataloging, circulation, serial
control, OPAC (Online Public Assess Catalog), and so on, is called as
computerization of library and is a part of library automation.
Since this era is considered as ‘information age’, there is a vast amount of
information that is being generated every moment. There is an increment in the
research activities and specialization in different fields. The information so generated
is considered to be stored in libraries so as to retrieve by the users for the reference.
There are various methods of handling theses information and the traditional
methods of accessing the information are becoming inadequate generating the
need for automation. The objectives of library automation are speedy disposal of
library work, well structured storage and retrieval system, proper use of human
resources, preparing reports and correspondence, time and human power saving
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158 Material
There are many reasons for having automation for the library system. It House-keeping Operations
helps in maintaining bibliographic records of all materials in a computerized form

and provides detail in a single enumerative access point. It also helps in reduction
of repetition of information while performing various housekeeping activities. It
provides a faster access to the information and also shares resources through NOTES
library network. Apart from housekeeping operations, it helps in report generation,
statistics, and so on. Due to the speed and storage capacity of computers, it helps
in handling any amount of data in an efficient manner and the speedy processing
and retrieval of information. Network and resource sharing capability of computers
help in standardization of library procedures and provides flexibility in information
searching. It also helps to overcome the geographical barrier in communication.
The objectives and need of library automation are as follows:
 To maintain the bibliographic records of the library collections in a
computerized format
 To provide bibliographic details of the holding of library through a single
access point
 To eliminate the repetition of the processes involved in housekeeping
operations
 To facilitate the access of information at faster rate
 To facilitate the resource sharing using the networking among the libraries
 To provide high quality of information
 To provide high capacity to store a large amount of data and information
 To provide flexibility to search for an information
 To standardize the library procedures
 To facilitate the faster processing and retrieval of information
 To overcome the geographical barrier in communication
We may conclude that the need for automation in libraries is the result of
information explosion, increment of collections in the libraries, inability of the users
to explore the unlimited literature and information of their interest, avoiding wastage
of time of library staff to locate the information, resource sharing, wide access of
resources within the library and elsewhere, improved service quality and so on. It
also has dynamic and complex search functions as spell check for a user’s mistake,
facilitates keyword and partial searches, and link variants of the same title or authors
name.
Reasons for Automation of Housekeeping Operations in Libraries
When some automated information retrieval systems are available, the question
arises what is the need for automation of housekeeping operations? There are
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House-keeping Operations many reasons for automating housekeeping operations in libraries which are
discussed in brief next few sections.
NOTES For efficiently performing day-to-day activities, there is an area called housekeeping
operations. Housekeeping activities of a library include all functions, such as
acquisition, cataloging, circulation and serial control.
We will only discuss acquisition and cataloging in this section. we will study
the serial control function in the next section.
Computer Based Acquisition Control
The term ‘acquisition’ is use for the procurement of library materials, such as
books, reports, periodicals, publications, audio-visual material, and so on. This is
one of the most important activities of any library. The acquisition system is
considered to be a service unit for public services and should satisfy the users
need by acquiring the reading materials on user’s demands. It involves the process
of getting material for library. It is also responsible for effective and efficient
development of collection of any library. The acquisition and ordering systems of
a library is concern with the identification of books, ordering, receiving and
accessioning of items into library collection, claims and cancellation, vendor
assignment, gifts and exchange. It also sometimes become important to collate the
information about the number of books on order, value of money spent and so on.
These activities can be categorized in five major groups: selection, ordering,
accessioning, management information and gifts and exchange. Since it is an
important activity of library operations, it needs to be done carefully and also need
high labor intensity. Thus this is the most important operation of library housekeeping
which requires automation. It is the base for automating the other activities in
library automation system.
Fundamental Capabilities of Automated Acquisition System
Some of the functions of the acquisition department can be identified as follows,
although there are many more:
 Development of procedures to meet library needs
 Consulting other departments for concerned books order
 To handle problems related to ordering of books, serials, non-book
materials (charts, maps, models, and so on.) and other material
 To notify the faculties of non-expenditure of book funds
 To keep a careful watch on the auction catalogs for opportunities to
purchase items on desired list
 To maintain order files, in process files and other records required for
acquisition work
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 Preparation of bills for payment, book-keeping, financial activities and House-keeping Operations
other activities assigned to the department

 Preparing accession list
 Perform pre-order bibliographic search to avoid duplication NOTES
 Receiving, unpacking, sorting and checking for books
 Informing individuals for the status of their recommendations
 To follow up for the items that has not been received
Keeping in view the above-mentioned functions, the acquisition system can
be divided into the following modules:
 Request processing
 Order data entry and updating
 Order production and transmission
 Received item processing
 Received invoice processing
 Claims and cancellations
Computers can be used for the following activities of the acquisition system:
 To place new order for all the required materials
 To modify any existing orders
 To generate order slips and chasers for unacknowledged and overdue
orders to send them to the booksellers
 To generate the list of books that has been ordered
 To keep track of the finances that has been spent on the material
 To generate the accession list for all the books that has been acquired in
the past
 To generate the report of any kind about the booksellers
 To generate the slip of acknowledgement of the receipt of material in the
library
 To generate the list of all the orders already placed by different categories
such as by author, by department, by subject and so on
 To generate the list of all the new accessions recently
 To notify individuals about the receipt of material who have
recommended it
 To keep checks on accounts
 To produce any relevant statistics for the decision-making by the
management
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House-keeping Operations There are two files that are maintained in a computer-based acquisition
system. One is the file containing the records of the current orders and is known
as main file, while the other file contains the names and addresses of the booksellers
used by the library. The two files are linked with a code number for each bookseller
NOTES in order to avoid repetition of record in an order file.
There is also a provision for sending a chaser to the bookseller if there is no
information from the bookseller regarding the order is received within a time limit.
The chaser can be sent on the basis of the date of order or on the basis of a
particular bookseller depending upon the features available in a particular system.
There are options available to take printout of approval letters to send to the
requester as per requester wise, date wise, department wise and so on. List can be
generated for the requested books date wise, department wise, publisher wise,
supplier wise, and so on. Reports can also be generated for invoice, payment, refunds,
and so on. In fact, all reports and statistics can be viewed as per requirement.
As stated above, an acquisition system involves the activities concerned
with identification of books, ordering, receiving and accessioning. An initial receipt
of suggestion of a book involves numerous tasks to be carried out. In addition, it
is sometimes required to get the information about the number of books to be
ordered, fund values, and so on. Fundamental capabilities of automated acquisition
system can be stated as:
 To eliminate the efforts in maintaining the files manually, which is a time
consuming activity
 To eliminate the duplication of records which results in errors in reporting,
control, and so on. by automatic check up of requested/recommended
items with the existing records
 To automatically generate the order notes
 To maintain records and performance figures of vendors
 To handle the claims and cancellation more effectively and efficiently
 To send purchase order
 To maintain details of items on order
 To provide accurate and timely financial data recording, accounting and
reporting
 To keep track of orders, receipts and invoice
The objectives to automate the acquisition system in the libraries are as
follows:
 To perform auto-check of requested or recommended items with the
already existing stocks available in the library to avoid any duplication
 To generate order notes automatically
 To maintain detailed order of an item
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 To generate claims for those items which have been already ordered but House-keeping Operations
have not received yet

 To maintain accounts
 To keep a check on the performance and record of vendors NOTES
 To provide accession number to the item as soon as it is arrived
 To generate various statistical reports
Automation in acquisition operation helps in decision-making with the help
of improved statistical analysis and generating reports for procurement activities.
Automated Cataloging System
Catalog have always been a significant part of library activities as it assists individuals
to search and locate information according to their need. Library includes books,
journals, reports, videos and many other materials. From the library’s perspective,
cataloging is a technical process, which can be evaluated in terms of books
processed, number of items added, expansion of shelf lists with the help of catalogers
employed. The objective of the library is to provide the holding accession efficiently
and expeditiously. As so many items are accumulated in a library, it becomes
difficult for the users to know about the availability of the materials and its location.
The cataloging service can become a bottleneck in providing newly acquired
materials to the users if not handled in a structured way. It also represents as an
assurance for the staff resources. A catalog system can manage the problem. The
library catalog is an important for any library as it acts as a mirror and depicts the
collection of the library. By looking at the catalog of a system, one can identify
about the collection as good, bad or satisfactory. The catalog of a library is consulted
in other activities of the library, such as acquisition, so as to avoid duplication of
any material. Library catalog is a complete and organized record of library content
which includes:
 Maps
 Periodical archives
 Art work
 Computer files
 Microfilm
 Books
The catalog is a multiple access point to a library’s collection enabling library
material to be located easily. It is considered to be list of all bibliographic items
that can be found in the library. The objective of a cataloging system is to letting
know the library patron about the library collection. It is analog to the index of a
book. It lets the users to find a library material by a given author, subject or type of
literature. We may summarize the objectives of having a catalog system as:
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House-keeping Operations  To enable a user to find a book either by the author, the title, the subject
and the category
 To show the content of the library by a given author, on a given subject
and in a given kind of literature
NOTES
 To assist in a choice of material as to its edition (bibliographical) and as
to its character (literary or topical)
Initially, the functions of discovery and location of material was performed
through card catalog system, but now has been replaced by the OPAC system. It
allows keyword searching for the fields, such as authors, subject, and so on,
which has an advantage over the exact full phrase searching that is being required
in case of any other forms of the cataloging system. Moreover, a computerized
cataloging system is an effective and efficient way that provides its user a speedy
search to locate the needed resource material. The users can access the same
database if the catalog is made available in a networking environment with the
help of LAN. This will eliminate the job of library staff of printing cards, filing the
cards, keeping the catalog up-to-date, and so on. The space in the library can
also be conserved by automating the library system, which in contrast occupies a
lot of space in case of maintaining physical cataloging system. Automation of
cataloging process is an opportunity to facilitate the searching and identification of
materials more effective and flexible, to reduce cost and, hence, can be considered
as a foremost concern for the libraries.
Some of the benefits of using automated catalog systems are as follows:
 Almost all items of information can be searched in the database in
accordance to the user’s need.
 Retrieval of information in variety of ways.
 Speedy search.
 Remote access of national and international cataloging database.
Authority Control and Standard Formats in Cataloging
The need for cataloging is to have an access point where we can find bibliographic
description of the materials available in the library so that we may get the location
of the document or (nowadays) the document itself. The access point helps us to
lead towards the record; the description helps us to decide whether the sought
item is the one we desired and the location helps in taking us to the desired
document. This is the purpose of cataloging and is a simple and profound
formulation. Cataloging cannot exist without standardizing access points. This
necessary degree of standardization can be achieved with the mechanism called
as authority control. This is an important aspect of library cataloging and facilitates
access to a library’s holding by means of organizing, standardizing, accuracy and
consistency. This is important for seamless and effective searching of the catalog
of any library. The attributes that are concerned with cataloging are order, logic,
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objectivity, precise denotation and consistency. The denotation for same name, House-keeping Operations
title or subject should always be same, every time it occurs in a bibliographic

record no matter how many times. This standardization is not achieved until or
unless there is no record of authorized denotation including the variant of that
denotation, citations of precedents and the rule on which the denotation is based NOTES
(i.e., authority control).
Thus, we may have a basic definition of authority control as a process of
maintaining consistency by establishing standardization in the access points showing
the relationships among names, subjects and works. It also provides cross-
references in the catalog (‘see’ and ‘see also’) with the help of authority records
in the local system. There are two basic functions of access point: i) it enables the
user to search the record and ii) it groups together all the records with some
common characteristics. To carry out these functions, it is necessary to standardize
the access point. This standardization of presenting every name (personal or
corporate), uniform title, series and subject denotation in a single form is known as
vocabulary control.
According to American librarian Charles Cutter, the purpose of authority
control is to help users to search an item from some known information, to locate
an item with limited information, to collocate the items using a controlled vocabulary,
to evaluate and select the item, and to locate synonyms to aid subject searching.
This helps us in organizing the objects into sets or collections so as to create a
relationship among entities. For example, the set of all the work done by some
author, say, ‘X’ or the set of all the editions of a given work, or the set of work
done in a given subject. The set may be organized apart from these traditional
ones based on some other criteria.
Authority control is important for effective searching. It provides consistency
in terms of place names, series and subject, uniform titles and headings to identify
authors. Authority control considers the library catalog as a series of unrelated
bibliographic records. The function of authority control is to standardize the catalog
entries so that like and related items can be linked or gathered and the items in a
collection or set are easily accessible. It ensures the uniformity in names and titles
so as to provide greater opportunity to the user of finding the desired item. For
example, if a user is searching for a title proper Huckleberry Finn, the user may
find the title proper The Adventure of Huckleberry Finn and will find all related
titles, forms, editions, and so on. Thus, authority control ensures related and like
records to be linked thereby having a closely controlled and more accurately
measured inventory in a catalog. With the development of Internet, there is a
demand for resource sharing, cooperative ventures such as NACO and outsourcing
techniques services operation. These trends argue strongly for libraries to ensure
headings adhere to national bibliographic standards.
In 1841, a lawyer and assistant librarian at the British Museum, Antony
Panizzi, defined a set of rules for the catalog creation with a high level of bibliographic
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House-keeping Operations details. In his attempt, he codified the cataloging and provided multiple access
point to literature. In 1850, Cutter gave a rule for a dictionary catalog which
emphasized the importance of subject access to information and there was a
development on standardization for subject headings. He formalized the most
NOTES important objectives and categorized them in three groups. Published in 1841, his
91 rules were the basis for cataloging standards and were evolved primarily to
handle textual, published resources.
The three groups were:
1. To enable a person to find a book of which either:
 The author
 The title
 The subject
2. To show what the library has:
 By a given author
 On a given subject
 In a given kind of literature
3 To assist in the choice of book:
 As to its edition (bibliographically)
 As to its character (literary or tropical)
In 1908, Anglo American Rules were defined to encourage the use of library
of congress catalog cards. There was an international conference on cataloging in
1961, which was concentrated on author/title access and was commonly known
as ‘Paris Principle’. Catalogs have been developed, revised, updated and recreated
over the time in order to meet users need. To ensure consistency within and across
the catalogs, standards have been created for making the information discovery
easier for the users. There are number of cataloging standards that have been
defined to provide consistency in the cataloging of various libraries across the
world. The main objective of standardizing cataloging is to offer uniformity to the
varying information. It usually follows a system of rules. It is the way to organize
bibliographic information in a systematic way and provide an order and consistency
to the information with disorder and inconsistent. With the development of
computers and machine-readable data, there was a change in cataloging philosophy.
The OPAC became the dominant way of accessing library catalog by 1990s. The
OPAC was a concept of having card catalog in a database format. Very soon,
World Wide Web became the primary means to access library catalog and enabling
users to connect to the library. With online catalog, there was not only a change in
the delivery of catalog data to users but also change in the way of thinking about
using the catalog entries. Cataloging is no longer appeared as an alphabetic listing
of heading. Instead, the key words are used to search the terms and a set of
catalog entries are retrieved. Users now are not restricted with left-anchored search
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on a text string. The users are now able to search the catalog by any word that House-keeping Operations
appears anywhere in the heading or even appearing anywhere in catalog entry

including notes.
With the revolution in computers and Internet in every field, the libraries are
NOTES
also affected making it possible for the changes in the nature of knowledge
production. The publications are no longer in the form of book or any physical
form but in the form of different documents or other creative work and can be
made public on the Internet. The online publications are given preferences due to
the speedy delivery, access and wide geographical coverage. So, there is a need
of much simpler yet standard way to describe the new forms of information so as
to make it more easily accessible. A standard is an agreement on how to carry out
some activity to reach to a predictable result. The objective developing and using
these standards in libraries, information services and publishing is to create an
easy information system that is not expensive to operate. The adoption of these
standards will offer the expansion in domestic and international markets for those
who are developing and selling the products and services to the users. The benefit
of adopting these standards from the user’s perspective is to ensure that the products
and services meet a certain level of quality which are available from various sources.
Although there are numerous standards available, some of the internationally
accepted standards are as follows:
Anglo American Cataloguing Rules (AACR)
This is an international standard for catalog creation of collections and includes
consistent description of the materials with the formation and assignment of access
points under which the descriptions are arranged and is accepted for all kind of
collection by the general libraries of all size. The rules were created in 1967 with
card catalogs in mind. The objective was to update the American Anglo rules with
the rules that were based on Rules for Descriptive Cataloging in the Library of
Congress that were published in 1949. Since it was a joint publication of The
American Library Association, The Canadian Library Association, and
The Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals in the UK, there
were two different editions of these rules, one for the UK and one for the USA.
The second edition was published in 1978, and was known as AACR2. The third
edition was AACR2R and was published in 1988 which was revised in 2002.
These rules are designed for the construction of cataloging of published
works and other materials such as maps, music, sound recording, manuscripts,
still and moving images, and so on. The rules in AACR are provided for the title
and the statement of responsibility, type of publication specific details, publication
and distribution, series, physical description, notes, edition and standard numbers
and terms of availability. The rules are also provided for the main entry, added
entries and the forms of those entries. The rules are not provided for creating and
assigning subject headings. These are rather covered under Subject Cataloguing
Manual.
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House-keeping Operations The AACR rule was consisted of three parts:
 Part I: Entry and Heading
 Part II: Description
NOTES  Part III: Non Book Material
In 1969, AACR was incorporated with International Standard
Bibliographic Description (ISBD) to identify the components in a bibliographic
description, their preferred order and the necessary punctuation. The first standard
was produced for Monographs. ISBD was a card based cataloging. The description
of all material is outlined uniformly as:
 Eight elements for describing a material.
 Elements should appear in an order in the catalog.
 There is a system for the punctuation of elements.
In 1974, a committee was established for the revision of AACR and was
known as Joint Steering Committee (JSC). The members of this committee were
the members from The American Library Association, The British Library
Association, The Canadian Library Association, and The Library of Congress.
The committee incorporated the North American and British text into one version
with a publication in 1978. The main objective of moving to AACR2 was to
develop an international cataloging code so as to exchange the bibliographic data.
AACR2 was divided into two parts:
 Part I: Description, which was based on ISBD (G) for general
framework and including chapters for individual formats, machine
readable data files, and three-dimension artefacts and realia. It deals
with the information that describes the item being cataloged.
 Part II: Entry and Headings including uniform titles and references.
The revised edition of AACR2 is AACR2 which is used with MARC
(MAchine Readable Cataloguing). It reflected the changes in information format.
Machine Readable Cataloguing (MARC)
This is an internationally digitally standards the representation and description of
bibliographic items and related information in machine readable format. It was
developed by Library of Congress in 1960 in consultation with various user
communities in order to create and disseminate the computerized catalog from
one library to another and between countries. The use of MARC standards has
helped the users and, hence, libraries to avoid duplication of records and, therefore,
in their efforts. It has helped in acquiring predictable and reliable catalog. It has
also made it possible to share bibliographic resources and use of library automation
system that are commercially available. The use of MARC format has also ensured
that one automation system is replaced by another by making bibliographic data
compatible. It has also ensured that there is integrity of storage and retrieval of
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168 Material
Now the question arises why we need record in MARC format? Since the House-keeping Operations
online cataloging system was becoming popular, it was necessary to maintain the
catalog that could be read by machine. The information from a simple card catalog
could not be typed into a computer to create an automated catalog. A means of
interpreting the information on a cataloging record was required by the computer. NOTES
There are signposts available on MARC record before bibliographic information.
Also, a common standard was needed to be followed by all libraries in order to
share bibliographic resources. By adopting MARC format, the libraries are able
to use commercially available library automation system to manage various library
operations. There are many automation systems available that are designed to
work with MARC format. The MARC components consist of three digit field
code, two indicator codes, and at least one subfield indicator.
Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR)
Functional Requirement for Bibliographic Record (FRBR) is a recommendation
by the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA)
based on the study from 1992–1995. The objective was restructuring of catalog
databases in order to obtain the conceptual structure of information resources.
Technically, it is a concept based on entity-relationship model which depicts a
generalized view of the bibliographic universe that independent of any cataloging
code or implementation. It includes the description of the conceptual model, such
as the entities, the attributes (or metadata) and the relationship between entities,
bibliographic records for all types of items and users’ task associated with the
bibliographic resources. Instead of using flat record concept that is being used in
current cataloging standards, FRBR focuses on entity-relationship model of
metadata for information. It helps us to understand the structure and relationships
of bibliographic and authority records. It also provides a precise vocabulary for
the future cataloging rules.
FRBR concept is based on three groups of entities:
 Group 1 entities include work, expression, manifestation and Item
(WEMI) and comprised the products of intellectual or artistic endeavor.
 Group 2 entities consisting of person, family or any corporate entity
who owns the custody of the intellectual or artistic endeavor in group 1.
 Group 3 entities consist of the subjects of both the groups 1 and 2
including objects, concepts, events, and places.
The foundation of FRBR model is Group 1 that mainly consists of work,
expression, manifestation and item. Let us understand these in details with the help
of examples.
When we talk about a physical object that has some description in terms of
papers with page number and even a binding, we may call it as ‘book’, and FRBR
calls this as ‘item’. That means, an item something with concrete entity. Now, this
‘book’, being a publication, has some ISBN and a particular copy of a book does
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House-keeping Operations not matter as long as that copy is in a good condition with no missing pages.
FRBR calls this as ‘manifestation’. When we talk about ‘book’, we can talk about
the particular text and the language used in the ‘book’. FRBR calls this as
‘expression’. Associated with a ‘book’ is the author who wrote the book with
NOTES which we mean the content, the idea, the story, which FRBR called ‘work’.
We may in particular relate these four entities of group 1 as:
 Work: Distinct intellectual and artistic creation.
 Expression: The realization of work intellectually or artistically.
 Manifestation: The expression, physical embodiment of work.
 Item: A single exemplar of a manifestation.
Resource Description and Access (RDA)
With the revolution in computers, the searching included keywords and the display
search became innovative and interactive with the broadened resource formats
including electronic and digital technologies with no physical presence but a link to
a computer file. Planning for the revision of AACR revision 3 was needed in
2004. But soon it was realized to the JSC that only revision was not required but
a transformation was needed. In 2005, planning for RDA started with an objective
to create new standards designed for the digital world. RDA can be considered as
a replacement of longstanding AACR2 and is a successor of AACR2. It was
released in 2009. It is a new descriptive cataloging standard with a goal to facilitate
rules for resource discovery in a consistent and powerful way through library
catalog. It is a principle based standard based on FRBR (Functional Requirements
for Bibliographic Records) which focuses on users need to find, identify, select
and obtain and FRAD (Functional Requirements for Authority Data) which focuses
on what the users need to find, contextualize and justify cataloging principles and
are considered as the back bone of RDA. The reason for using FRBR and FRAD
as the principle model was that the two models were the result of the efforts put by
international cataloging community where they addressed constantly changing
information environment. In this environment, the new forms of information
resources were emerging with a increased density of networked information system.
A Joint Steering Committee was formed for the development of RDA. They review
on the several drafts of the new rules including submission and incorporating
comments and edit when and wherever possible.
In AACR2, chapters were arranged by the type of information resources
and then by type of main or added access points. Part I of AACR2 was focused
on different formats stating only the description of the resources. Part II focused
on choice and formation of personal, corporate body and title access point. The
main and added access points were also discussed. But the code was weak on
access point. AACR2 was based on the unit record system (item) rather than
idea of a work.
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RDA provided a wider scope and is extensible. It puts more emphasize on House-keeping Operations
visual and online resources and on authority control. It has a vast structure from its
predecessor. It also provides the facility to incorporate new resource type as they
emerge. The type of record created that was initially based on the format is shifted
to description of the record as comprehensive, analytical or multi-level (an analytical NOTES
description of a record includes a description or analysis of sub-parts of the resource
being catalogd). This implies, RDA provides various resource formats in a library
catalog. The main focus is on user tasks with the more meaningful and clustered
display of the data produced. With RDA, it is possible to create records that can
represent more than one resource as compared to AACR2 where one record
represents only one resource. It also provides the option for cataloger to group
and display single-item records to show how the items are related. There is a line
of separation between presentation and recording of data.
RDA is designed for Web environment that is able to produce data that are
readily used by Web-based catalogs and resource discovery services. The RDA
data (including model, elements and controlled vocabulary) are freely available
online in a machine readable format and also are consistent with semantic Web
standards.
RDA basically focuses on content standard instead of display standard or
metadata schema. It represents a set of guidelines that defines the description of
resources and the main focus is the piece of information that the user is most likely
looking for. It also focuses on the description of the relationships between the
resources that are related to each other and between the resources and the persons
(or bodies) who contributed in the creation of the resources. The new conventions
used are as follows:
 No use of Latin abbreviation
 Less abbreviation used
 Local catalog standards for the need of the community
 Format descriptions are specified for non-book and electronic resources
 Record information same as presented on the item
 Records of all authors and contributors
Z39.50
Z39.50 formally refers to the Information Standard Protocol, ISO 23950:
Information Retrieval: Application Service Definition and Protocol
Specification, ANSI/NISO Z39.30, used by the networked computer systems
for information retrieval. This facilitates users to search information on different
systems connected through network or on the Internet using a single user interface.
The access to information are offered through diversity of unique systems with
different software and hardware interface and database search commands provided
by software and system vendors. Since the Internet is providing access to the
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House-keeping Operations database that is growing daily, the challenge is to find the right information by the
users without any efforts from the vast knowledge.
The objective of Z39.50 is to eliminate the complexities and difficulties to
search and retrieve information. It facilitates the access of the wealth of information
NOTES
resources on the Internet easy. With Z39.50 enabled system, a user can search
for any electronic document lying in another Z39.50 compliant system without
worrying and knowing about the working of the system.
The working of Z39.50 protocol is analog to client-server environment with
specific data structure and interchange rules which allows a client machine to search
information on server machine to retrieve the records as a result. The essential
requirement for communication and interoperation is that the client and server
machines are Z39.50 compliant systems and are able to understand Z39.50
language. The implementation of Z39.50 uses TCP/IP protocol and software which
is Z39.50 compliant to search and retrieve information. To perform the
interoperability, the message is standardized to be communicated between client
and server, regardless of the use of underlying software, systems or the platform.
Moreover, Z39.50 is a vendor independent that is the standard is non-proprietary.
The systems (servers) implementing this protocol are searchable by all other systems
(client) developed by different vendors and are allowed to communicate with
different systems (servers) implemented with this protocol. The Z39.50 manages
the translation of search request into standard format to send it to the servers.
After receiving, the server transforms the query into local database recognized
format using Z39.50 rules. The server then performs the search and returns the
result back to the client which in turn processes the result using user interface
software and Z39.50 rules and displays the result as closely as possible similar to
the user’s local system.
The purpose for designing the standard was to search large bibliographic
databases such as OCLC and the Library of Congress. But today, it has been
used in wide range of activities involved in library that involve searching of database,
cataloging, interlibrary loan and references. This has been accepted universally for
the retrieval of information including text, images, and digitized documents. It is
also been using to search online database. The protocol provides a seamless access
to the information from diverse and variety of database through a single interface.
It also allows the information systems to preserve their uniqueness during the
provision of unique interface to the users because of its standard operability.
Libraries are required to espouse to a single standardized interface to allow their
users to access the library’s catalogs, their procured CD-ROMs, subscribed online
database and Internet resources. It also facilitates the extraction of data from
variety of resources in a common format to be used offline or to import to a local
database.
Apart from resource sharing, it provides the library community with following
features:
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 Broadcast searching of the library catalogs located anywhere in the world House-keeping Operations
through Internet
 Standard approach for interlibrary loan for delivery of information
 Placing online orders of items and document delivery NOTES
The original Z39.50 for resource page internet searching was established
by Mark Kelly and approved by National Information Standards Organization
(NISO) in 1988. It has made the search interface on different system transparent;
it is no longer important to know how to use each database. It has made the
access to electronic document so easy that the time spent by users in searching for
relevant information has reduced remarkably. Z39.50 has been recognized
worldwide as the international standard for networked information search and
retrieval.
Workflow in Catalogues
In order to integrate the enormous volumes of digital resources, libraries have
found ways to include them into their existing workflows.
The traditional services workflows focused on the acquisition and processing
of print article, but have changed over the years with the automation of libraries
and shifting bibliographic information from the card format to the use of union
catalogs.
9.3 AUTOMATED SERIALS CONTROL SYSTEM
Serial is a term that is commonly seen in any library. It is a frequently appeared

term and used by librarians daily. Defining serial is not an easy task. This is because
of the existence of several types of serials with dual personality as they behave
both as a book and a serial. According to AACR2, serials are successively
published issues one after other bearing designation for each issue which can be
any number such as volume 1, number 1 or it can be in chronological order, such
as 2015, 2016, and so on. Many serials assign both the number and chronological
designation. It also states that serials are continuous publication and was intended
to publish indefinitely once launched by a publisher,
Based on this, serials can be defined as any publication that can be published
in successive parts at a regular interval (definite time schedule: quarterly, half-yearly
or annually) and bear some number or chronological designations and are intended
to be continued indefinitely. Serials include magazines, all publications of newsletters,
newspapers, proceedings, transactions, annual reports or annual yearbooks, and so
on. apart from scholarly journals and popular periodicals. A number of issues form a
volume. Publication of serial can be any medium. Some common media are paper,
audio and video, tapes and films, microform and electronic transmission. The term
‘format’ is used often for medium. There are two distinct aspect of serial control
system. One is bibliographic control and other is processing control. Preparation
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House-keeping Operations and maintenance of a central master list of all serial publications (full title, short title,
any variation from previous or some earlier title, publishers, ISSN, and so on) are
the activities involved in bibliographic control of serials. Processing control of serials
consists of the other various activities, such as acquisition, claims, cataloging, binding,
NOTES weeding out, circulation, and so on.
Serial publications are considered to be most important source because of
their size and the other numerous values they present which generally books are
failed to offer. They also provide the latest and up-to-date information including
the announcement of scientific discoveries, research-in-progress and so on. The
time lag is also shorter for a serial publication. Therefore, they have an advantage
over book for the recent information. For example, an important announcement
about some scientific discovery will appear in a newspaper the same day. Thus,
serial publications are an important source of reference material when one is concern
with the latest discoveries or relevant events.
There are five types of serials and most of the libraries will offer most, if not all
types.
The most popular type of serial is periodical, which is a collection of articles
written by various authors. Periodical and serial are often considered as synonyms
and are used interchangeably. A periodical is further defined by its frequency as
mentioned in the definition of serial. A periodical is published more than once in a
year with frequency as semiannually, quarterly, monthly, weekly or even daily. All
journals and magazines are periodical. Newspapers are also considered as
periodicals.
The serials which are non periodical are termed as continuation. They are
mainly published once in a year, i.e., annually. However, there are few continuations
which are published more than once and are biennials, triennials, and so on. There
are irregular serials which have unpredictable frequencies and the issues are
published at irregular intervals. Publications are classified on the basis of frequency.
The publications having dual or changeable characteristics are called
monographs. These terms are used to represent non serial publications. As defined
by AACR2R, ‘monograph is an item that is either complete in one part or complete,
or intended to be completed, in a finite number of separate parts’. The publication
of monograph can be any medium similar to any other serial; however, it is the
synonym of book when paper is used as its medium.
Although not mentioned in AACR2R, supplements and special issues are
also related to serials. There could be variety of reasons for the publication of
these serials. Some of the reasons are: special occasion celebration, to highlight
some important event, and so on. They are also published to accommodate the
overflow of manuscripts from regular issues. There may be some extra charge in
addition to the regular subscription fees or free of cost for these issues.
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In libraries, there is often a group of publications that belongs to monograph House-keeping Operations
and is treated as serial (Monographs Treated as Serials) in libraries with respect

to both cataloging and acquisition practice. These are considered as books and
the contents of older editions are regularly updated to produce new editions. The
new edition usually supersedes the older one. The updating is also done regularly NOTES
at certain intervals, such as annually and biennially. This publication pattern of
monographs is referred to as pseudoserials. Sometimes these are treated as books
acquiring separate book order for each edition and cataloging each edition as a
separate book. However, treating them as serials is more economical and efficient.
Government institutions also publish many serials, such as annual reports.
These publications by government institutions are government documents and are
referred to as document serials. These documents serials could be national, state,
municipal, local or foreign. These serials are treated as a part of document collection
by some libraries while as a part of their serial collection by other libraries.
Handling of books is very different from handling and managing serials in
the libraries. The manual system also becomes magnified as the subscriptions of
libraries increase. With an increased subscription and a manual system of
maintenance it is not possible to scrutinize each issue so that duplicate issues are
occasionally checked in without detection. The changes in frequency are also
sometimes overlooked and ignored. Even if maintained with complete and accurate
record of the serial the system is not portable and cannot be accessed easily. So,
it is necessary to automate the serial management in the library system. With
automation, it is possible to access to data with multiple format and at both the
locations, on and off the premises. Automation of serial will have impact on every
department of the library in a different mode. With manual system, if there is a
request of a specific title the receipt of the request must be able to determine that
the title is a serial. Then the acquisition department must be able to recognize that
the title is a serial and must be able to ascertain if the library subscribes to it or not.
For this, the staff has to search card catalogs. But with automated serial control, a
link is offered to a large bibliographic database reducing the effort of determining
the status. In case, the serial is not held, the placement of order with the vendor, or
agency or publisher is also placed online and can be transmitted to the publisher
with the reduced time and process that is required to obtain a new serial title.
The responsibility of serial control lies mainly with the acquisition department.
The department must monitor the issue once arrived, keep a track on the issues
that have not been yet received or received with damage. Before automation, new
serial title was checked in manually, and was given a temporary location. It was
then sent for cataloging for further processing before the completion of all the
information on the check-in cards. All the information had to be recorded on
multiple forms and at multiple locations. But with the automation, the information
can be recorded into the system through a terminal at some other location of the
library. The item is still need to be transported to cataloging, but this way we may
prevent long delays and may also avoid misplacing of issues due to over handling.
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House-keeping Operations In earlier systems, check-ins for various and irregular issues used to be a
complex problem as check-in is a critical component for the success of any serial
control system. There are certain problems with serial control system such as title
change, frequency change, missing issues, numbering changes, duplicate issues
NOTES and so on which must be noticed by the person (operator) who is processing the
issues. Fortunately, the automated serial control system provides all the facilities;
notify the operator and allow the operator to solve these problems immediately or
delay the solution pending for the consultation with other staff. The automated
system also allows the correction and updating of the records simultaneously, the
claims of the issue to be initiated at the time of check-in with a printed notice ready
to be mailed immediately. Automated system is also capable of generating routing
information after check-in with a printed list of departments and individuals with
directions and the issue is checked into a permanent location after completion of
routing sequence.
The notation areas with the records are also provided in the automated
system such as check-in notes at the point of check-in, linking notes in the public
display screen, temporary or permanent location notes, and so on.
Automated system also keep track of the volumes and issues checked in
and even alert the staff about the completion of volume for the requirement of
binding and also prints the binding slip with all the relevant information for the
library.
Since placing an order must be done with the budget limitations; an online
environment provides a summary of the account of the titles charged to a specific
department. This way we may eliminate the time spent on chasing between
departments of the library and can have immediate access to the fund accounting.
The woes of budgeting can further be eased by having detailed fund accounting.
Also, the prices for each volume is available on line, we have an increased ability
to analyze the price trends for the serials. The automation makes the collection
cost analysis easier and can be obtained readily. Moreover, the allocation of
acquisition funds for specific department in the universities becomes easier with
online cost information facility and is helpful in identifying areas of weakness and
strengths in the collection. The posting of invoices and subscription payments have
become simpler with online fund accounting module. With automated serial control
system, we are able to print an invoice in a similar way as a claim notice.
Also, most of the libraries are opting for the subscription of serials and are
spending enormous amount towards it. Thus monitoring of receipt of these serials
has to be dealt carefully which is a complex and time-consuming procedure.
Automation of serial control includes several distinct concepts such as automation
of serial control procedure, automation of bibliographic access to serials, the
electronic journal and automated vendor service.
The history of automation of serial started back in 1940, when Ralph Parker,
experimented with modifying serial control for his circulation system that was based
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on Hollerith punch cards at University of Texas at Austin. The earliest attempt to House-keeping Operations
computerized the serial control was made by an academic library in collaboration

with a university computing centre and was developed in-house due to the reason
vendor-supplied system was not available in the market. According to Patrick G.
Kilgour, the first computerized serial control system was developed by University NOTES
of California at San Diego library in 1960s. Pre-punched cards were processed
corresponding to serial issues at the university computing centre. A lists of serial
holdings, received and non-received items, claims, binding and expired subscriptions
were produced. Gary M. Pitkin observed that some functions such as check-in
and claiming, binding and holding information an routing and renewal were likely
to be automated with each other. This automation was crude by contemporary
standards. The focus was on producing lists that were operated in batch mode.
The first computerized list holding multiple institution serials produced was The
Kansas Union List of Serial and issued in 1965. The list consisted of 22,000 serial
titles of eight academic libraries. By 1968, an online serial control system was
used at Laval University, Quebec at Canada. The PHILSOM (Periodical Holdings
in the Library of the School of Medicine) developed in 1962 by the School of
Medicine Library at the University of Washington was the most famous in-house
serial system. There were some other universities such as the University of
Massachusetts; the libraries at the University of Arizona and so on. were among
few who implemented their own custom designed online serial control system
during the early decades of library automation.
The automated serial control systems offer all the facilities that are available
manually. The continuous development in the serial control automation has improved
the system with the actual needs of the users making the working towards serial
controls more efficient and effective.
Obviously, identification of a serial publication is required for a clear definition of
the serials. A demand for a unique, brief and unambiguous identification code for a
serial is needed. In this regard, the ISSN was developed by ISO technical committee
and an international standard ISO 3297: Documentation – International Standard
Serial Numbering (ISSN) was published in 1975. The intension of ISSN was to
congregate the requirements to handle the serials and to exchange information
about serials. This was intended for both types of serials, manual and automated
systems and at the local, national and international level. For its world wide
application, it was decided to keep this code as numeric.
The ISSN code consists of eight digits with ISSN as prefix. The digits
appear as two groups parted with a hyphen, for example, ISSN 1234-5678. The
ISSN code was independent of the place of publication or any other significance.
The ISO standard also stated that the ISSN number in a prominent place in each
serial issue.
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House-keeping Operations 9.3.3 Functions
The daily checking-in of received periodicals, serials and newspapers is a critical
task of serial works. The automation of this module obviously improve the
NOTES performance of any library. The functions that are required in an automated serial
control system is vary widely and are dependent on the type and size of the library
and its serial management and usage practice. While, a library that discards the
serial publication after 18 months of receipt routinely does not require automation
in the system where as a library with thousands of title subscription may require an
automated serial control system. Thus, requirements of each library are unique
and, therefore, the capabilities required in an automated serial control system can
be evaluated after careful definitions of the needs of the library.
This section deals with the checklist of the functions in serial control
automation. A serial control system allows the smooth and efficient management
of subscriptions, leading serials including journals, periodicals and magazines. It
provides in-time alerts for non-arrival serials. The main objective of the serial
control system automation is to maintain holding list and handle serials.
The basic functions that an automated serial control system must perform in
order to achieve its objectives are as follows:
 Subscription to new serials by sending letters, keying-in the serial data
and maintaining a file for all subscription
 Placing the order of new serials, renewal of existing serials and
cancellation of serials if any
 Accessioning upon the receipt of the issue
 Claiming issues, if any (This includes request of replacement of any
defective copy of any issue or follow up for any missing copy)
 Sending reminders, if any, for a missing issue for example
 Check-in, routing
 Preparation of various lists, such as list of all periodicals for renewal, list
of received or cancelled periodicals over a period of time and union
listing
 Lists of holdings with the information about their status, such as in shelf,
in circulation, in binding, and so on
 Keeping track of all the expenditure on serial subscription, maintenance
(such as binding)
 Provides with the estimation of budget
 Binding control
In addition to the above, the system must also be able to provide the facilities:
 Searching of serial records by: title or part of it, ISSN, call number,
vendor, publisher, keyword, and system assigned number, subscription
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number, and so on.
 Showing gaps in holdings House-keeping Operations
 Handling of different types of frequencies with easy adjustment of changes

in frequency
 Handling of variable length record NOTES
 Capability of distinguishing multiple copies from the same or different
resources.
As mentioned, a serial control system is designed to serve many functions,
such as procurement of serials, subscription renewal, reminders for non-receipt
issues, budgeting and control of subscription, to maintain various statistics, and so
on. We may conclude with objectives of automated serial control system as:
 Auto-selection of suitable title for procurement
 Auto-generation of purchase order
 To organize the financial matter with charges imposed on appropriate
account
 To generate the claim letters automatically for those issues which are not
received within due time
 To keep the current details of the serial holdings
 To enable the access of details of the current holdings
 To enable individual issues to route to different members of organization
 To facilitate the organization of binding job
 To generate statistics of different kind and to manage information such
as expenses for each department, list and number of journals subscribed
by each department, and so on
Libraries are considered to be the centrally focused place in any educational
enterprise. They are called as heart of knowledge. The responsibility of a library is
to acquire information, organize it, preserve it and make it available to the users at
time. The libraries consist of vast amount of materials apart from books. These
include publishing in serials forms also. As mentioned earlier, serials are publications
which hold either chronological or numerical designation and are issued in any
medium and in parts successively usually at regular interval of time and are intended
to continue indefinitely. Serial publications consist of newspapers, magazines,
periodicals, journals, proceedings, transactions of professional association and
numbered monographic series. There is also variation in the frequency as well as
format of publication. For example serials are published daily, weekly, monthly,
quarterly, biannually, annually or it is irregular at sometimes. Periodicity is thus an
essential feature of serial publications which is often confused with series which is
a book that consists of parts or volumes and is published successively with the
same title and is also intended to be continued indefinitely but at irregular interval
of time. The format of a serial could be a paper, online or CD-ROM. Self-Instructional
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House-keeping Operations Traditionally, the activities involved with periodicals or serial publications
are ordering, receiving, checked in and placing them into shelves and maintaining
them for public use. Also, there is an interconnection of users need to access the
periodicals and the processing of it as timeliness and urgency are important aspects
NOTES of any research. For this reason, the user needs to know the location of an item at
a particular time and wants to access it.
The term ‘serial management’ has been defined by F. Cr. Ammakaven well-
known author as the formulation of procedures and routines to administer serial
collection. The functions included in the routines are: selection and acquisition,
recording of serials, cataloging and classification, handling of claims, dissemination
of journals, weeding, subscription renewal, preparation for biding, and so on.
According to renowned author Thomas Nisonger serial management is the most
important and challenging serial functions.
Serial publications are generally expensive in terms of both, maintenance
cost and subscription because of its unusual nature. Many researchers have stated
that many of the libraries are splurging as much as two-third of their annual budgets
to serial acquisition. The source of supply of serials, which are bibliographic control
and acquisition practices are different from monographic publications. Therefore,
a proper management is needed as serials form important source of information
for the users and researchers. A poor management of serials could result in existence
of gaps in the collections, loss of serials and other irregularities. The researchers
might not be able to access those serials to which the libraries are subscribed due
to this. Due to these reasons, it becomes necessary for the libraries to pay special
attentions manage serials so as to maximize the acquisition and could be used to
the greatest benefits by the patrons now as well as in future. In other words, serial
management is needed for the emergence of serials as an effective and helpful tool
for modern information research with deep knowledge of their characteristics and
techniques to control them.
Some of the aspects of serial management are as follows:
 Selection and acquisition of titles of new serials
 Documentation of incoming serials
 Dissemination of serials
 Retrieval of materials
Check Your Progress

1. Define library automation .
2. What are the uses of computers technology for library keeping operations?
3. What are the objectives of library automation?
4. Where is library automation used?
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QUESTIONS
1. Library automation is a term where computers and its utility-based products NOTES
and services are used to improve the performance of different library
operations.
2. Use of computers technology for library keeping operations - such as
acquisition, administrative work, cataloguing, circulation, serial control,
OPAC (Online Public Assess Catalog), and so on, is called computerization
of library and is a part of library automation
3. The objectives of library automation are speedy disposal of library work,
well-structured storage and retrieval system, proper use of human resources,
preparing reports and correspondence, and most importantly, save time.
4. Library automation helps in maintaining bibliographic records of all materials
in a computerized form and providing details in a single enumerative access
point.
9.5 SUMMARY
 Library automation is a term where computers and its utility-based products

and services are used to improve the performance of different library
operations.
 Use of computers technology for library keeping operations - such as
acquisition, administrative work, cataloguing, circulation, serial control,
OPAC (Online Public Assess Catalog), and so on, is called computerization
of library and is a part of library automation
 The objectives of library automation are speedy disposal of library work,
well-structured storage and retrieval system, proper use of human resources,
preparing reports and correspondence, and most importantly, save time.
 LibraryAutomation helps in maintaining bibliographic records of all materials
in a computerized form and providing details in a single enumerative access
point.
 Library Automation also helps in reduction of repetition of information while
performing various housekeeping activities. It provides a faster access to
the information and helps in sharing resources through library network.
 Library Automation helps in handling large amounts of data in an efficient
manner and speedy processing (and retrieval) of information.
 Need for automation in libraries is the result of information explosion and
increment of collections in the libraries.
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House-keeping Operations  Computer Based Acquisition Control – Process of procurement of library
materials - such as books, reports, periodicals, publications, audio-visual
material, and so on. It involves the process of getting material for library
and is primarily responsible for effective and efficient development of
NOTES collection of any library.
 The acquisition and ordering systems of a library is concerned with the
identification of books, ordering, receiving and categorizing of items into
labels like library collections, claims and cancellations, vendor assignments,
gifts and exchanges.
 Acquisition activities can be categorized in five major groups: selection,
ordering, accessioning, management information and gifts and exchange.
9.6 KEY WORDS
 Library Automation: Library Automation refers to the implementation of

computer software that allows manually performed tasks to be completed
in computer system.
 OPAC (Online Public Access Catalog): OPAC is an online database of
materials held by a library or group of libraries. In other words, it is an
online bibliography of a library collection that is available to the public.
Users search a library catalog principally to locate books and other material
available at a library.
 Housekeeping Operations: Housekeeping operations of a library include
functions such as acquisition, cataloguing, circulation and serial control.
 Anglo American Cataloguing Rules (AACR): This is an international
standard for catalog creation of collections and includes consistent
description of the materials with the formation and assignment of access
points under which the descriptions are arranged and is accepted for all
kind of collection by the general libraries of all size.
 MARC (MAchine-Readable Cataloguing): These standards are a set
of digital formats for the description of bibliographic items and related
information in machine readable format. MARC was developed by Library
of Congress in 1960 in consultation with various user communities to create
and disseminate the computerized catalog from one library to another and
between countries.
 FRBR: FRBR is a recommendation by the International Federation of
Library Associations and Institutions based on the study from 1992–1995.
The objective was restructuring of catalog databases in order to obtain the
conceptual structure of information resources.
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EXERCISES
1. List some of the common activities of the acquisition system for which
computers can be used.
2. What is library automation?
3. Write a brief note on computer-based acquisition control.
4. Briefly explain automated cataloguing system.
5. Give short note on FRBR.
6. What is automated serials control system?
1. What are some of the key functions and fundamental capabilities of the
acquisition department?
2. What is the significance of cataloguing in a library system and how can it be
made more efficient?
3. Explain in detail about authority control and standard formats in cataloging.
4. Give a detailed note on Machine Readable Cataloguing (MARC).
Cutting Edge), 1st edition. New Delhi: S.Chand & Company. v
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Computerized Information
Services BLOCK - V
DIGITAL LIBRARY
NOTES
UNIT 10 COMPUTERIZED
INFORMATION SERVICES
Structure
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Computerized Information Services: Definition
10.3 Alerting
10.4 Bibliographic Service
10.5 Document Delivery Service
10.6 Problems of DDS and Role of International Organization
10.7 Document Delivery Service of Niscair
10.8 Need and Purpose of Reference Service
10.10 Summary
10.11 Key Words
10.0 INTRODUCTION
An information service is a service, which provides data and information to the

users. It is the information and communication technology (ICT) that an organization
uses, and also the way in which people interact with this technology in support of
business processes. Information service components cover academic and
professional disciplines spanning the fields of business and computer science.
Information services not only allow subscribers to communicate with each other,
but they also provide unlimited access to information. In this unit, you will learn
about computerized information services in detail.
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10.1 OBJECTIVES Services

 Understand about computerized information services NOTES
 Discuss about problems of DDS and the role of international organization
10.2 COMPUTERIZED INFORMATION SERVICES:

DEFINITION
An information system is any organized system for the collection, organization,

storage and communication of information. A computer Information System (IS)
is a system composed of people and computers that processes or interprets
information. The term is also sometimes used in more restricted sense to refer to
only the software used to run a computerized database or to refer to only a computer
system.
An information system is an academic study of systems with a specific
reference to information and the complementary networks of hardware and
software, which people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create and
also distribute data. An emphasis is placed on an information system having a
definitive boundary, users, processors, stores, inputs, outputs and the
aforementioned communication networks.
Any specific information system aims to support operations, management
and decision-making. An information system is an Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) that an organization uses, and also the way in which people
interact with this technology in support of business processes.
A computer (based) information system is essentially an IS using computer
technology to carry out some or all of its planned tasks. The basic components of
a computer based information system are as follows:
 Hardware: These include devices, such as the monitor, processor, printer
and keyboard, all of which work together to accept, process, show
data and information.
 Software: They are the programs that allow the hardware to process
the data.
 Databases: They are the gathering of associated files or tables containing
related data.
 Networks: They are a connecting system that allows diverse computers
to distribute resources.
 Procedures: They are the commands for combining the components
above to process information and produce the preferred output.
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Computerized Information The first four components (hardware, software, database and network)
Services
make up what is known as the information technology platform. Information
technology workers could then use these components to create information systems
that watch over safety measures, risk and the management of data. These actions
NOTES are known as information technology services.
10.3 ALERTING
The primary aim of any library is to provide timely and quality services to its users.
The advent of new technologies has made it imperative for libraries to absorb,
adopt and to provide IT-based services to the users. Libraries are now providing
customized Web-based services at the users’ desktops. Users, particularly scientists,
who are engaged in time-bound research and development projects, need to be
alerted about the nascent literature in their respective fields. Librarians are providing
current awareness services to meet these requirements. A few libraries and many
e-publishers are providing alert services to keep the users informed about the
latest additions to their collections and other information relating to the users’ areas
of interest.
Electronic alerting services can help users to keep themselves up-to-date
with current news and newly published literature on a particular topic. Many
library Websites and online databases and publications offer electronic alerting
tools. Once users have set up an electronic alert, the method of running it at
detailed interval and delivering the new results is handled automatically; users will
be notified, although new contents (e.g., an online journal article, electronic table
of content of a new journal issue, a new blog entry, and so on) becomes available.
The Concept of Alert Services
Generally, Web alert services refer to the features included with scholarly databases
or made available by journal publishers. These features are allowed to be notified
by email or text message when something of interest to the library or user has been
added to a database or published about newly published resources on a specific
topic or when new articles are published in a journal.
Earlier, librarians regularly flipped through different books and journals by
listing their areas of interest and typing up bibliographies of potential matches.
Nowadays, alerting services can provide such lists of databases automatically or a
third party that combines these sources. Alerting services are also called as a
current awareness services.
The libraries subscribe to a number of databases that make electronic alert services
available to users. There are several kinds of alert services. They are as follows:
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 Table of Contents Computerized Information
Services
Table of Contents service is commonly known as TOCs. The TOC service allows
users to keep themselves up-to-date with newly published scholarly materials by
receiving the table of contents of newly published journals they have selected, NOTES
often with links to the articles. These are regularly available well before the print
issue is published. EBSCO, ProQuest and ISI Web of Science are examples of
email TOC services provided by the publisher databases. TOC services can be
provided through frequent email alerts. Email alert frequencies vary depending on
the publisher’s database updates.
 Search Alerts
Search alert service is one of the important library services. It is also called as
Saved Search Alerts or Keyword Alerts. Libraries periodically re-run the user-
created search to match with recent updates and send the alerts.
 Citation Alert
Citation alert service is one of the Web-based library service. Users can track
when a specified article or author is cited in newly published articles with citation
alerts. Most of the publisher sites limit results to citations appearing within their
journals, while databases can provide citations from many sources.
 New Publication Alerts
This alert service provides notification of new publications (other than journal
issues) from a publisher or professional organization. This alerting service could
include books, proceedings, newsletters, standards, and so on. Annual Reviews,
BioOne, EBSCO host, Engineering Village, Google Scholar, IEEE Xplore, and
PubMed, and so on, are the publisher databases which provide alert service to
the registered users. Libraries can make use of this service and create alerts for
their users depending on their research topic. Library off campus users need to
sign in to the publisher’s Website to access the content and check the print or
online availability of the publication.
 RSS
Really Simple Syndication is popularly known as RSS. RSS is one of the Web 2.0
technologies, which is applicable to sharing and delivering information. Therefore,
it can be adopted in the library alert services. Many publishers and databases
provide RSS feed alerts to issues or contents. Nowadays, many library Web
pages or blogs also offer RSS alert services. It saves the users’ time by subscribing
to many feeds. Moreover, instead of visiting Websites, it also finds links to any or
all new content in one place.
 New Book Alerts
Users may also want to be alerted even though new books on a topic are published
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Computerized Information can suggest an item for purchase or request to borrow it through interlibrary loans.
Services
This alert service helps in attracting the users to the library.
 Web Page Alerts
NOTES This alert service provides alerting for new publications on the Web. Google Alerts
and The Scout Report are examples of online Web page alerts. By subscribing to
these alerts, libraries can offer alerts for Web resources of interest to the researchers
and educators of the institution.
 Conference Alerts
The conference alert service provides complete information about the conference-
available information held in library Web pages. Libraries offer this service to its
users depending on the research interest.
The conference alert must also meet the following needs:
o The Website should be complete containing relevant conference details
and be publically accessible.
o The Website should clearly state the conference name, types (State/
National/International), date, place and contact information.
In this digital age, technology is playing a major role for engineering and
dissemination of information in the network environment. Due to information
explosion, libraries are marching towards digital libraries by providing electronic
services to the users on their desktop. Most of the traditional libraries have given
much emphasis on information access within physical boundaries of the library.
However, today, Web-based library alert services have become much popular
among libraries because of the development of the Web-based libraries. Nowadays,
researchers and academicians are very much busy in their research and
development activities and do not have time to visit the library. Hence, Web-
based library alert services provide a timely service to them.
10.4 BIBLIOGRAPHIC SERVICE
Bibliographic service is to identity the records of books, articles and other published
materials. It also refers to listings of bibliographic records, cataloging records,
references, articles, and so on. Such information service outputs are of value and
relevance for gathering and understanding knowledge in the subject and generating
new knowledge through research studies and investigations. Library bibliographic
services are a core element of the research endeavor. It provides tools in the form
of catalogs, indexes and abstracts, and Web pages that link the users to the materials
they want. What it fails to provide is seamlessness, simplicity and common language
searching. For the past ten years, online searching has become simpler and more
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The Bibliographic Services Division is responsible for the creation and Computerized Information
Services
maintenance of catalog and other metadata records of the library’s information
resources in all formats including print, audio-video (AV) and electronic. The other
functions of this Division are as follows:
NOTES
 Ensure that materials acquired by the library are accurately and
consistently described and classified for effective and efficient retrieval
and utilization.
 Manage authority control for use in bibliographic records.
 Develop and maintain policies and guidelines for all bibliographic,
cataloging, indexing and classification work.
 Manage membership, subscription and keep these updated with
bibliographic utilities for the purpose of acquisition and creation of
bibliographic records.
 Manage physical processing and binding of all library materials.
 Provide metadata consulting, development and production services
across various subject fields and platforms.
Online Bibliographic Service
Online bibliographic services, such as DIALOG, OCLC (Online College Library
Center), BLAISE (British Library Automated Information Service), ESA-IRS
(Information Retrieval Service of the European Space Agency) and Silver-Platter
offer online access to commercial bibliographic databases, cataloging databases,
trade catalogues, and standards and patents on fee basis. Such services are of
immense importance to libraries that do not subscribe to electronic databases but
do need to access them on occasional basis.
Check Your Progress

1. What is known as RSS in web 2.0 technologies?
2. What does the TOC service allow for?
3. What is an information system?
10.5 DOCUMENT DELIVERY SERVICE
Document Delivery Service (DDS) is a service in which documents are supplied

to the users on demand, either original or its copy, either in print or non-print form,
irrespective of the location and form of the original. DDS is a very important
service, since the value and importance of other access services are directly
dependent on the efficiency of this service.
DDS is a very complex process which spans time and distance between a
user and a supplier. It involves locating the document location of a supplier, request
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Computerized Information and delivery. It involves a number of intermediaries’ authors, publishers, suppliers
Services
and librarians. Since information is generated in different formats and their production
involves different agencies, it is but natural that there are many options for document
delivery. Many of these agencies may be involved in both electronic and print-based
NOTES document delivery. Librarians, publishers and other document delivery services are
concerned with the complexities of document delivery in an environment in which
conventional document delivery is coupled with electronic document delivery.
There are different agencies concerned with document delivery services. Let us
try to understand some of these agencies and the way they function, enabling the
end-user to receive the document required by him/her in an appropriate form and
format. Some of the services are discussed as follows:
 Library networks and consortia, including national libraries and document
delivery services. The central focus of these networks being resource sharing
and the creation of shared bibliographic and catalog databases. Such agencies
may also offer a range of other value-added services, such as online search
services.
 Document delivery on CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only Memory,
which is particularly appropriate in the context of books, encyclopedias
and other lengthy documents.
 Commercial Document Delivery Services, which operate with online
alliances, search services and draw on the resources of a number of other
libraries.
 Library suppliers and serials supplier agents, who have used networks and
EDI (Electronic Data interchange) to improve the document ordering process
and associated processes, such as altering invoicing and book processing.
 Electronic journal publishers and suppliers. It may be noted that there is a
limited number of e-journals at present, but significant efforts are being made
in the digitization of journals that have been previously distributed in the
printed form. This effort would certainly enhance the electronic document
delivery service efforts.
Some important aspects related to the above-mentioned categories of DDS need
to be understood properly. For example, library networks and consortia generally
compile union catalog to access and share the resources of member libraries.
Though, any type of document could be exchanged, the main emphasis is on printed
documents.
The efficiency of DDS is determined by three factors, namely speed, cost and
satisfaction level. It should be cost-effective, speedily delivered and satisfy all the
requests it receives.
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Speed Computerized Information
Services
Documents may be supplied by receiving requests, processing the requests and
mode of delivery of fax, electronic-mail or online systems. Of the above methods,
online request and delivery of the document is the fastest, though the mode of NOTES
delivery of documents is expensive. However, the speed of supply of documents
depends on many other factors, such as time taken to locate the document from
within the institution and if not available, then time taken to find its location,
transmitting the request, processing of the request by the library supplying the
document, receipt of the document by the requesting library and, finally, delivering
the document to the user. All these factors affect the speed of supply. It may range
from within a day to a few months. If the service is operated from a centralized
collection, then the delivery is quick, ranging from, say, two hours to two days.
With the availability of online databases, online public access catalogues, and so
on, it is possible to search for information from remote locations on the networks,
request the selected document and receive the required document electronically
almost instantly. Electronic document delivery systems offer a great promise. Here,
speed is the major attraction. However, copyright issues and high cost are some
of the constraints which are attracting the worldwide attention.
Cost
DDS should be cost-effective. In devising a cost-effective service, all types of
costs, including direct as well as indirect costs, should be taken into consideration.
Direct cost is the cost of operating the service, that is, the cost of processing of
requests, copying the document, postage, and so on, whereas indirect cost includes
the cost of building collection, salaries of the staff, cost of equipment, and so on. A
service is most cost-effective if it is offered from a centralized collection and the
number of requests is large. Conversely, it is less cost-effective if it is based on
decentralized collection. It is increasingly realized that the service can be more
cost-effective if it is operated by building a core collection to meet primary needs
of the users and for residual requests, accessing the material speedily from external
sources.
Satisfaction Level
Ideally, DDS should target at satisfying all the requests it receives for the supply of
the documents. However, in practice, this target is not achievable even from the
most comprehensive centralized collection. In general, a satisfaction level of 90–
95 per cent is recommended and considered very well. A high satisfaction level
depends not only on the availability of the required document in the center that
offers the service but also on the ability of the center to locate and supply it from
elsewhere in the world as quickly as possible.
It must also be noted that DDS including commercial ones and institutions,
such as British Library, may provide access to documents available through the
database. However, the emphasis would be on journal articles, conference papers,
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Computerized Information and so on, along with books. In conclusion, this may be stated that DDS is one of
Services
the important aspects of information dissemination.
NOTES Earlier, libraries and information centers had no capability to deliver the documents
other than to buy them from the publishers, display them on the shelves and put
them on loan when demanded by the users. In case, the document was not available
with them, then one needs to borrow it from other libraries on interlibrary loan and
lend it to users for a specified period of time. With the introduction of xerography
in the mid-I950s and large scale use of photocopiers in libraries by 1970y, the
DDS was not just confined to lending or inter-lending of documents but documents
could also be duplicated and permanently supplied to the users. The libraries started
using photocopiers for the supply of copies of documents, particularly of journals,
articles and parts of books. Most of the libraries still prefer supplying copies of the
documents rather than the originals, so that the original may always remain in the
library and not get damaged with excessive use.
The advent of computers, scanners and telecommunication technologies in
1980s made it possible to store the documents in electronic form and transfer the
same electronically to long distances via telecommunication networks almost
instantly. Now, many libraries and information centers are using this technology for
the delivery of documents to the intended users. This has greatly improved the
speed of the service.
Exponential growth in the volume of published information, increase in the number
of users, and availability of large a number of online and CD-ROM bibliographic
databases, providing easy and timely access to published information, resulted in
great increase in demand of the original documents. On the contrary, the declining
library budgets and increasing costs of the publications made it difficult for the
libraries to meet the information needs of their clients from their own collection.
So, more and more libraries started relying on other libraries to supplement their
collection in order to provide adequate service to their clients. Over the years,
what was earlier known as inter-lending grew into a planned system of interlibrary
cooperation, which included not only sharing of resources but also sharing of other
services, such as acquisition, classification, cataloging, information services and
many more. To facilitate such cooperation, a unified list of documentary resources
of cooperating libraries, such as union catalogs, were compiled.
However, interlibrary resource sharing systems had their own limitations,
such as problems of updating the union catalogs, extra inter-leading burden on
large libraries, withdrawal of some cooperating libraries, and so on. To overcome
these delivery centers, the need to develop exclusively devoted document delivery
services was felt. In response to this, many national centers came up all over the
world offering this service in a planned manner. Some of the centers operating in
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different countries are British Library Document Supply Centre (BLDSC), UK; Computerized Information
Services
Institut de l’information scientifique et technique, France; National Library of
Medicine, USA; Canadian Institute for Scientific and Technical Information,
Canada; and Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre (INSDOC), India.
These centers offer the service, drawing upon resources ranging from comprehensive NOTES
centralized, planned collection to decentralized unplanned collection. The former
increases the cost component of the service, while latter affects the speed of the
service. The service is more efficient if it is operated from a strong central service
point with some backup libraries.
As mentioned earlier, the document delivery scene has changed with the emergence
of a large number of electronic databases and the establishment of
telecommunication networks. The scope of DDS has expanded beyond the
traditional libraries and specialized document delivery centers. Database producers,
commercial online vendors and commercial publishers are also joining the document
delivery market. Genuine Article Service of Current Contents from the Institute of
Scientific Information, DIALORDER service from DIALOG and ADONIS from
publishers of biomedical journals are some of the examples. Emerging technologies
have also changed the mode of transmission of requests as well as supply of
documents. Postal services used for transmission of requests are being replaced
by telephone, telex, fax, e-mail and online ordering. The mode of delivery of
documents from suppliers to requesters is also witnessing a similar change.
Traditional document storage, retrieval and photocopying functions are
increasingly being replaced by the imaging technology. This technology uses series
of devices that scan paper copy or microform copy of the document, capture the
document image and store it in a digital format on CD-ROM. The compatible
CD-ROM drive reads the disk, searches the information and transmits the images
to the requester via printer, fax or satellite links. In other words, electronic document
delivery systems are emerging.
The systems employing electronic technology for the receipt of requests and supply
of documents are known as Electronic Document Delivery Systems (EDDS).
There is a wide range of such systems operating in the world. Some are operating
at experimental level and some are offering the service commercially. In this section,
some of these systems are discussed in detail.
Article Delivery Over Network Information System (ADONIS)
ADONIS is a consortium of biomedical journal publishers that supplies full-text
journals on CD-ROM for document delivery purposes. ADONIS started as a
two-year trial project and supplied full-text articles of 224 biomedical journals on
CD-ROM to selected document delivery centers. Ten publishers and twelve
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Computerized Information libraries from Europe, the USA, Mexico, Australia and Japan participated in the
Services
project. The libraries received bit-mapped page images of journal articles on CD-
ROM along with cumulated indexes for searching the articles. ADONIS also
supplied two sets of software, one for image retrieval management and other for
NOTES generating statistics of usage. The ADONIS system provided on-screen page
browsing as well as printing facilities. Libraries receiving the CD-ROM disks
searched the articles on their personal computers (PC/AT) with compatible CD-
ROM drive and laser printers. The required article, thus, printed could be sent to
the requester by email or by fax. During the two-year trial period, eighty-four CD-
ROM disks containing 200,000 articles from 224 biomedical journals, published
in 1987, were supplied to the libraries for DDS. The participating libraries
periodically sent the usage details to the ADONIS office.
After the successful completion of the trial period, ADONIS has launched a
fully commercial service in 1990. The subscribers to the service receive CD-
ROM disks every week. Each disk contains around 10,000 pages of biomedical
articles, and an index to the titles and authors of the articles for searching. By the
end of 1996, ADONIS was providing full-text page images of 700 biomedical
journals from sixty-eight publishers. Subscribers receive ninety CD-ROM disks
every year. Subscription charges of ADONIS for using it on standalone workstation
and on Local Area Network (LAN) are different. All the material is copyright
cleared and royalty charges are include in the subscription.
Pro-Quest International Powerpages
Pro-Quest International Powerpages is another full-text journal database on CD-
ROM, offered commercially by the publisher UMI. The UMI (formerly known as
University Microfilms International) was the first commercial publisher of
microforms, which provided microfilm version of scholarly publications to libraries
for archival purposes and document delivery.
Pro-Quest International is actually based on three separate services, namely
Business Periodicals on Disk (BPO), General Periodicals on Disk (GPO) and
Social Sciences Index Full-Text (SSE-FT). The pattern for each service is the
same. Each of the three takes an existing bibliographic database and provides full
text backup via images on CD-ROM to most heavily requested periodicals in the
database. BPO is based on the ABI Inform database and provides full-text coverage
of 500 of the 11,000 titles indexed in ABI Inform. GPO is a selection of 400 titles
out of 1,650 titles in Periodical Abstracts and SSI-FT provides cover to-cover
scan of 200 titles from H. W. Wilson Social Sciences Index. In all the cases, full-
text on CD-ROM is based on cover-to-cover scans of the periodicals. Power
pages service is available to the subscribers for running on stand-alone single
workstation (consisting of personal computer with CD-ROM drive and laser
printer) or on network environment. Prices for the networked service vary with
the size and specification of the network. However, full-text document images are
not viewable from remote locations. The users on the network can search the
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bibliographic database, select the references and place the order for print-outs of Computerized Information
Services
the articles from a central print station.
RightPages and Science Direct: Online Document Delivery Services
Another two publishers, namely Springer-Verlag and Elsevier Science, have NOTES
announced launching of online document delivery services, namely RightPages
and Science Direct, respectively, on Internet, and other commercial and academic
networks. RightPages service of Springer-Verlag will be based on 1,000 journals
stored in image form. Files of the journals will reside on a remote machine. Users
will access the service over the Internet, commercial networks (such as DIALOG,
BRS, SDC, and so on) or academic networks (such as JANET). Search software
will permit users to carry out retrospective searches and they will also be able to
input profiles of their individual interests. They would then receive electronic mail
messages when new material matching their profiles is added. Once alerted to
significant articles, users will be able to access the articles over RightPages and to
print them out on their own laser printers. At this point, they will incur delivery fees
and copyright charges. RightPages is to be based on Red Sage experimental project,
presently operating at the University of California.
Science Direct, an online service of Elsevier Science, will provide access to
1,200 full-text Elsevier Science journals over the Internet. The first release of 300
journal titles was to be commercially available by July 1997 but only about forty-
five are so far available. The other titles will be steadily added in due course.
Science Direct is based on Elsevier’s experimental projects, such as TULIP (The
Toronto University Licensing Program), EASE (Elsevier Articles Supplied
Electronically) and ELISE (Electronic Libraries Image Service for Europe), initiated
in 1991. During the experimental phase, the publisher supplied forty-two full-text
journals in the field of material science in electronic, form to selected American and
European universities for local area network use. In 1995, the publisher launched
a commercial service entitled Elsevier Electronic Subscription Service, providing
all its journals in electronic form for local area network use and document delivery.
10.6 PROBLEMS OF DDS AND ROLE OF

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
Copyright issues, non-availability of publications and restrictions imposed on the

storage and delivery of documents electronically are some of the problems faced
by DDS operators. Copyright law prevents unauthorized reproduction of any
created literary, musical or artistic work. Copying for DDS also comes under this
law. International Convention on Copyright and Universal Convention on
Copyright, of which India is also a signatory, acknowledge the exclusive rights of
authors and publishers over their literary work, but at the same time permit to
make single copy of the document for educational or research purposes for the
benefit of the users. However, the laws of copyright in relation to electronic media
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Computerized Information are ambiguous and are continuously changing. This is because there is little
Services
protection for material in electronic form and copying of electronic material is
easier. Once it is released, it can be printed and manipulated without recompense
and without the owner even being aware of what is happening. Not only can
NOTES materials be manipulated within its own form but multimedia packages can also be
created through information from different sources by downloading, copying, editing
and repackaging to generate completely a new product for sale in the open market.
To prevent unauthorized use and exploitation of electronic material, most of the
CD-ROM publishers are selling their products under license agreements. The
license agreements have rigid clauses which impose a number of restrictions on
the librarians. Some of the restrictions include making limited printed copies of the
search output and restriction on distribution of search output electronically over a
network. The use of CD-ROM over local area network is permitted but with
additional subscription fee and use is restricted to the in-house users only. In some
cases, only eight simultaneous users are allowed, which means only eight terminals
are allowed per site. Libraries are also prohibited from downloading or loaning
the CD-ROM products. These problems are being discussed at international forums
and many international agencies are actively involved in finding solutions to them.
Internationally, International Federation of Library Associations and
Institutions (IFLA) under its Universal Availability of Publications (UAP) program
and Office for International Lending is promoting the availability and inter-lending
of publications. IFLA Office for International Lending, operating at the British
Library, Boston Spa, since 1974, offers practical support to those who are actively
engaged in international lending. It collects and publicizes information of interest to
those concerned with international lending. It also conducts and encourages research
and study of relevance to international lending. It issues standard international
request forms, publishes guides to international centers and a set of guidelines on
international lending.
The Office has made separate studies of national and international patterns
of inter-lending and has encouraged discussions on them. In order to foster
discussion on document supply systems, the Office organizes an international
conference on this topic every year. It also publishes semi-annual reviews and
bibliographies on inter-lending document supply in ‘Inter-lending and Document
Supply’ journal published jointly by the British Library Document Supply Centre
(BLDSC) and MCB University Press Ltd. The Office has recently introduced a
voucher scheme to facilitate overseas international interlibrary loan transactions.
Under this scheme, libraries purchase plastic vouchers priced at US$8 for use
when paying for interlibrary loans or photocopies. The vouchers are valid indefinitely,
and can be used over and over again by participating libraries. Libraries which
accumulate vouchers by doing more lending than borrowing can redeem vouchers
from IFLA for the original purchase price with no administration fee. The objective
of the voucher scheme is to overcome the difficulties in sending small amounts of
money overseas for interlibrary loans, which include lack of access to hard currency,
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high banking charges, exchange difficulties and high administrative costs. IFLA Computerized Information
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Office for International Lending is also involved in copyright issues through its
connection with British Library and has extensive files on the topic.
NOTES
10.7 DOCUMENT DELIVERY SERVICE OF NISCAIR
NISCAIR (National Information Science and Information Resource), earlier

known as INSDOC, has been offering DDS at national level since 1952. The
service is provided through the entire country’s resources including those of National
Science Library and the Pilot Electronic Library of INSDOC. The requests are
received by mail, fax, telex and email. The location of required document is identified
using the computerized National Union Catalogue of Scientific Serials in India
(NUCSSI) maintained by the Centre. NUCSSI database contains serials holding
information of about 850 science libraries in India. When requests for document
delivery are received, they are sorted out on the basis of availability of source
documents. Firstly, the requests are serviced from INSDOC’s own library
collection, then from Delhi-based libraries, and finally, the requests are met from
other libraries in India or foreign countries. INSDOC supplies copies of documents
from its own library collection of about 8,000 periodicals including 2,110 journals
in electronic form. Some of the most important Delhi-based libraries utilized for
document delivery purposes are Indian Agricultural Research Institute Library,
National Medical Library and Delhi University Library. The three regional centers
of INSDOC located at Bangalore, Calcutta and Madras supplement the document
delivery service of INSDOC, utilizing the resources of the regions. Using the local
resources, on an average, 73 per cent requests are met within two weeks and 85
per cent within four weeks.
Procurement of a document copy from other Indian libraries from foreign
countries usually takes about 8–12 weeks’ time. About 22,000 requests are handled
every year and most of them are satisfied. Requests are received from universities,
industries, R&D centers and foreign countries, and also from individuals. The
maximum number of demands (over 80 per cent) is for journal articles. To improve
the speed of the service, INSDOC is acquiring over 2,000 full-text journals on
CD-ROM. Some of the full-text journal databases on CD-ROM, subscribed by
INSDOC, are ADONIS, Extra Med, Health Reference Centre (biomedical
periodicals), General Periodicals on Disk, Business Periodicals on Disk, 1EE/
IEEE Periodicals on Disk (engineering periodicals), and Computer Select
(computer science periodicals). Requests for journal articles available at INSDOC
on CD-ROM are satisfied immediately using INSDOC’s CD-ROM workstation.
Another form of document delivery service offered by DN8D0C is
Contents, Abstracts and Photocopy Service (CAPS) and Full Text Journal Service
(FTJS). Under the CAPS service, subscribers receive tables of contents of selected
journals (fifteen for an individual subscription and thirty for an institutional
subscription) every month from a list of 8,000 Indian and foreign periodicals.
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Computerized Information CAPS service is available to the subscribers on paper, on diskette and through
Services
email. On browsing through the contents, users can place order for abstracts or
copies of full papers. Users also have an option to place a standing order for
abstracts of all the articles appearing in one or more chosen journals through
NOTES Standing Order Abstracts Service (SOAS) or copies of all the articles of one or
more journals through Full Text Journal Service (FTJS). By subscribing to CAPS,
SOAS and FTJS services of INSDOC, the libraries can keep their users abreast
of the contents of latest journals of their interest at nominal cost. Users on browsing
the contents may place order for full copies of the papers which are provided
under Document Supply of INSD0C. SOAS and FTJS services are available to
individuals and institutions on annual subscription basis. These services are discussed
in the following sections.
Reference services help the user to define and identify his query correctly, bearing
in mind how he intends to use the information, since this can affect the choice of
source. The reference personnel then informs him what catalogs, directories, files,
secondary publications or databases to consult in order to seek out the relevant
information for himself, explaining, if necessary, how the user should go about his
search (direct search). Alternatively, they themselves do the search for the user, if
desired so by him, that is, the user (delegated research).
For both these types of searches, reference tools or aids, which are readily
available in the library or information unit, may be used. These aids include card
files of the library or collections of secondary documents (indexes abstracting,
periodicals, and so on). Often a search may require the use of external information
sources, some of which cannot be accessed at once. An example of such sources
is computerized databases which are not accessible online. In such a situation, the
query is recorded on a prescribed form for conducting searches subsequently and
providing the required information. Reference Service represents an area of study
in library science which has evolved over the past 100 years. A precise definition
of ‘Reference Service’ is rather elusive, as it comprehends a whole range of activities
that promote the use of books/documents and the information contained in them.
We shall, however, endeavor to understand and assimilate the overall meaning of
‘Reference Service’ and also discuss some of the definitions provided for it. We
shall also consider the nature of such services offered in different types of libraries
and their scope.
You have learnt that the primary objective of a library, irrespective of its type or
kind, is to promote the use of its resources. You also know that the collection built
up should not be allowed to be idle and every document acquired for the library
should have at least one reader. Techniques including classification of documents
and their subject-wise arrangement on the shelves in a helpful order, providing
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open access to the shelves, preparation of the library catalog and similar tools, are Computerized Information
Services
all indirect forms of assistance to users to find their required documents in the
library. However, the more direct method that would promote the use of books or
other documents is to bring together the documents and their readers by personal
efforts of the library staff. This method of providing personal attention to readers NOTES
in terms of meeting their specific needs for documents or for any information
contained in them has been developed into a specialized activity and given the
name ‘Reference Service’.
According to the American Library Association Glossary of Library Terms,
‘Reference Service is that phase of library work which is directly concerned with
assistance to readers in securing information and in using the resources of the
library in study and research.’ Reference Service is also defined as ‘personal service
to each reader in helping him to find the documents answering the interest at the
moment pin-pointedly, exhaustively and expeditiously’. It also attempts ‘to provide
the right book for the right reader, in the right way and at the right time, in the right
personal way’. Library scientist Margaret Hutchins defines `Reference Services’
as those that include ‘the direct personal aid, within a library, to persons in search
of information for whatever, purpose and also various library activities specially
aimed at making information as easily available as possible’.
Well-known library scientist Donald Davinson says that it is ‘not just
answering questions posed by readers. It is also about the maintenance of the
resources banks from which answers to questions are provided for selection. The
associated development of close awareness of sources of supply of needed
materials is another aspect of librarian’s work which needs to be given attention’.
Library science expert William Katz views ‘Reference Service’ as ‘the
behind-the-scene activities of the reference library in the selection, acquisition and
maintenance of library stock and its careful recording and administration’.
All the above definitions of ‘Reference service’ implies the following functions:
 Personal assistance to readers in the use of the library and its collection
 Answer questions that readers ask or give the right sources that provide
answer to such questions
 Build up a good reference stock knowing the users’ needs, build up
reference tools, maintain Reference Service and administer them properly
 Provide all these services with speed and efficiency without any bias,
meeting the exact needs of users
Almost every modern library provides these services. However, their nature
and scope may vary according to the classes of users. For instance, most of the
users of academic and special libraries may have definite purpose seeking
information/library support as against what may be in a public library. We shall see
how the reference services vary in different types of libraries.
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Computerized Information Nature and Scope
Services
By nature of reference service, we mean the wide spectrum of services offered to
different classes of users, in response to requests or in anticipation of them. These
NOTES services may include meeting simple requests for documents, finding answers to
straight forward fact-finding queries or to complex questions demanding prolonged
search through a wide range of reference sources.
By scope, we refer to the depth and coverage of the subject about which
the question is asked and the precision that is required in answering such a question.
The nature and scope of reference service offered in a library are generally
determined on the basis of the following factors:
 Categories of Users: Children, students, teachers, researchers, and
so on.
 Types of Libraries: Public, academic and special.
 Quality and Level of Service Sought: Location of specific documents
in the library help in the use of the library catalog and such other tools,
or help in consulting reference books, provide assistance in selecting
documents for the study undertaken.
 Types of Questions: Fact findings, literature searches, questions relating
to a specific area of research, industrial or business activity and similar
others.
 Reference and bibliographical tools maintained for effective use.
 Persons visiting the library personally, or enquiring via telephone or
seeking assistance through post or other means.
Reference service in most public libraries would be in the nature of assistance
to readers in seeking books for study or recreation, answering simple fact-finding
questions or enquiries relating to public utilities, and so on. Most users of public
libraries may not be engaged in any serious pursuit of study or research or
investigation, and their collections are also not geared up to this type of requirements.
Of course, there are exceptions, for example, large public libraries of the West.
In university and special libraries, the reference service usually would be of
an intensive type. In fact, most modern documentation and information services
have evolved and grown in the context of serving specialized users, such as
researchers, academicians, writers, industrial and business experts, planners,
executives and management specialists.
From what has been discussed so far about reference service, it should be
clear that reference service incorporates a number of different functions and a
precise definition does not seem to be so essential. It should, however, be noted
that all these services can be offered only by trained, experienced and competent
staff. A number of different techniques and tools have been developed to provide
these services. But before we discuss these aspects, let us examine the need and
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10.8 NEED AND PURPOSE OF REFERENCE Services
SERVICE
As you know, historically, libraries have been a part of the social milieu. Most of NOTES
the human activities, including education and training, research and development,
socio-economic growth, industry and business, trade and commerce, politics and
international relational, arts and culture, government administration, need active
support of libraries. In fact, modern innovative information services which are
considered as an extension of reference service place emphasis on intensive user-
oriented, need-based reference services. In other words, we shall study the need
and purpose of reference service .We shall do so from the following angles:
 Users’ information needs and demand for intensive services
 Growth of libraries in all dimensions and their complexities
 Modern tools and techniques developed for library and information services
 Volume and variety of documents , both print and non-print
 Impact of information technology
The process of socio-economic and industrial development has been a major
thrust in almost every country in the latter half of the 20th century. It has been very
much pronounced after the Second World War when many countries of Asia and
Africa became independent. The result of this process has been the creation and
establishment of new institution in almost every field. Specialized groups of people
have been working in these institutions with different functions and responsibilities.
This, in turn, has given rise to the need for information and knowledge on various
aspects of the work in which each group has been involved. These developments
naturally have brought pressure on the libraries to innovate new types of intensive
reference services to meet the growing demand for information. Each group has a
distinct purpose for information support. Table 10.1 below gives a broad summary
of different groups of persons, their needs and purpose of information, and the
type of services offered by libraries in meeting them.
Table 10.1 Information Need
Table Group Information Need Reference and information Services Provided
Students Study, examination, extracurricular Reading lists, check lists, general. information
activities
Teachers Teaching, guiding students; writing Bibliographies, A&I service and interlibrary loans
Researcher Research Bibliographic support including CAS and SDI
Engineers Construction, production and other Standards, and patents, indexes, abstracts and
technical activities handbooks
Medical Practitioners Bio-medical activities Bio-medical journals’ abstracts and indexes
Lawyers and Judges Legal activities Codes, case laws digests and citations
Businessmen and Market potential, product demand, Techno-economic and market surveys;
industrialists product development, economy regulations, trade literature
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Services
Check Your Progress
4. What has been a major thrust in the later half of the 20th century?
NOTES 5. What is reference service according to the American Library Association
Glossary?

QUESTIONS
1. Really Simple Syndication is popularly known as RSS.

2. The TOC service allows users to keep themselves up-to-date with newly
published scholarly materials.
3. An information system is an academic study of systems with a specific
software.
4. The process of socio-economic and industrial development has been a major
thrust in almost every country in the latter half of the 20th century.
5. According to the American Library Association Glossary of Library Terms,
‘Reference Service is that phase of library work which is directly concerned
with assistance to readers in securing information and in using the resources
of the library in study and research.’
10.10 SUMMARY
 An information system is any organized system for the collection, organization,

storage and communication of information.
 A computer Information System (IS) is a system composed of people and
computers that processes or interprets information.
 An information system is an academic study of systems with a specific
software, which people and organizations use to collect, filter, process,
create and also distribute data.
 Table of Contents service is commonly known as TOCs. The TOC service
allows users to keep themselves up-to-date with newly published scholarly
materials by receiving the table of contents of newly published journals they
have selected, often with links to the articles.
 Search alert service is one of the important library services. It is also called
as Saved Search Alerts or Keyword Alerts.
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 This alert service provides notification of new publications (other than journal Computerized Information
Services
issues) from a publisher or professional organization.
 Really Simple Syndication is popularly known as RSS. RSS is one of the
Web 2.0 technologies, which is applicable to sharing and delivering
NOTES
information.
 Bibliographic service is to identity the records of books, articles and other
published materials.
 The Bibliographic Services Division is responsible for the creation and
maintenance of catalog and other metadata records of the library’s
information resources in all formats.
 Document Delivery Service (DDS) is a service in which documents are
supplied to the users on demand, either original or its copy, either in print or
non-print form, irrespective of the location and form of the original.
 DDS is a very complex process which spans time and distance between a
user and a supplier.
 DDS should be cost-effective. In devising a cost-effective service, all types
of costs, including direct as well as indirect costs, should be taken into
consideration.
 Ideally, DDS should target at satisfying all the requests it receives for the
supply of the documents.
 The advent of computers, scanners and telecommunication technologies in
1980s made it possible to store the documents in electronic form and transfer
the same electronically to long distances via telecommunication networks
almost instantly.
 Exponential growth in the volume of published information, increase in the
number of users, and availability of large a number of online and CD-ROM
bibliographic databases, providing easy and timely access to published
information, resulted in great increase in demand of the original documents.
 Interlibrary resource sharing systems had their own limitations, such as
problems of updating the union catalogs, extra inter-leading burden on large
libraries, withdrawal of some cooperating libraries, and so on.
 The systems employing electronic technology for the receipt of requests
and supply of documents are known as Electronic Document Delivery
Systems (EDDS).
 Pro-Quest International Power pages is another full-text journal database
on CD- ROM, offered commercially by the publisher UMI.
 NUCSSI database contains serials holding information of about 850 science
libraries in India.
 Procurement of a document copy from other Indian libraries from foreign
countries usually takes about 8–12 weeks’ time.
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Services 10.11 KEY WORDS
 Reference service: It is a service that helps the user define and identify
NOTES his query correctly, bearing in mind how he intends to use the information.
 Document Delivery Service: It is a service in which documents are
supplied to the users on demand.

EXERCISES

1. What do you mean by reference service?
2. Write a short note on DDS.
3. What are computerized information services?
4. Discuss the need of reference services.
1. Write a detailed note on document delivery system of NISCAIR.
2. “An information system is an academic study of systems with a specific
software”. Explain.
3. Write a detailed note on bibliographic service.
4. “ADONIS is a consortium of biomedical journal publishers that supplies
full-text journals on CD-ROM for document delivery purposes.” Elaborate.
5. “In university and special libraries, the reference service usually would be
of an intensive type.” Write about the different types of reference services.
6. “The process of socio-economic and industrial development has been a
major thrust in almost every country in the latter half of the 20th century”.
Provide reasons from the text.
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Digitization
UNIT 11 DIGITIZATION
Structure NOTES
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Definition, Need and Purpose of Digital Libraries
11.3 Process and Methods of Digitization
11.5 Summary
11.6 Key Words
11.0 INTRODUCTION
Digitization is the process of converting information into a digital format. These

can be analog signals or information in any form, which are easily understood by
computer systems or electronic devices. A digital library, on the similar concept is
a collection of documents in organized electronic form, available on the Internet or
on CDs. In this unit you will study about digitization and digital libraries.
11.1 OBJECTIVES

 Understand digital libraries and its concepts
 Discuss he process and methods of digitization
11.2 DEFINITION, NEED AND PURPOSE OF

DIGITAL LIBRARIES
Let us understand the concept, need and characteristics of digital libraries.

Concept: The concept behind Digital Libraries (DL) has its roots in what is the
philosophy of libraries of disseminating ‘knowledge for all’. Digital libraries break
the barrier of physical boundaries and strive to give access to information across
varied domains and communities. Though the term ‘Digital Library’ came into
being with the popularity of the Web in the early 1990s, the inception of these can
be traced back to the pre 1990s in projects dealing with automated storage and
retrieval of information, library networks and online resource sharing efforts. The
major fillip to precipitation of the DL idea is attributed to the overwhelming effect
of the WWW in the functioning of every field. The presence of the Net as GUI
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Digitization and ease of use and implementation of linking resources through hyperlinks and
making them available through the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), all added
a tremendous impact to everyday use of the Web technology to common activities
of most professions Revolution in ICT (Information Communication Technology)
NOTES in the past couple of decades had drastic and far-reaching impacts on all aspects
of human life.
The Digital Libraries are electronic libraries where the information is acquired,
stored and retrieved in digital form. Digital Libraries are the group-interlinked
workstations connected to the high-speed networks. In the context of digital
imaging, librarians face greater challenges in capturing, storing, formatting, retrieval
and reproduction of non-textual materials.
The term Digital Library has a variety of potential meanings, ranging from a
digitized collection of material that one might find in a traditional library through to
the collection of all digital information along with the services that make that
information useful to all possible users. As there are many definitions of a "digital
library," terms such as "electronic library" and "virtual library" are often used
synonymously. A digital library is nothing but a large database for the people who
are working on hypertext environment. It is an environment, which supports the
full life cycle of creation, storage, preservation, dissemination and use of data,
information and knowledge.
An informal definition of a digital library is a managed collection of
information, with associated services, where the information is stored in digital
formats and accessible over a network. A crucial part of this definition is that the
information is managed. A stream of data sent to earth from a satellite is not a
library. The same data, when organized systematically, becomes a digital library
collection.
Digital libraries are organized collections of digital information. They combine
the structuring and gathering of information, which libraries and archives have
always done, with the digital representation that computers have made possible.
Digital libraries are organizations that provide the resources, including the specialized
staff, to select, structure, offer intellectual access to, interpret, distribute, preserve
the integrity of, and ensure the persistence over time of collections of digital works
so that they are readily and economically available for use by a defined community
or set of communities.
A digital library service is an assemblage of digital computing, storage, and
communications machinery together with the software needed to reproduce,
emulate, and extend the services provided by conventional libraries based on
paper and other material means of collecting, storing, cataloguing, finding, and
disseminating information.
Need: The need of digital library is that it must be according to the requirement of
its users, it must be equipped with powerful search engine, it must have attractive
users interfaces, and it must be reasonably price. Librarian is only competent
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enough to provide efficient and intelligent access to worlds information sources to Digitization
its users. Digital library efforts in providing digital reference service, electronic
information service, navigating, searching and retrieval of digitized information
through web documents that span the university Digital Library or the Global Digital
Library. Time is a major factor for each modern user of the library and digitization NOTES
is the only solution to the problem. Digital libraries are needed to provide quality-
based service at the user doorstep. Complex nature of recent document, storage
problem etc., are some of the common factor which are influencing to change to
digital mode, some other factors are-
1. Space
2. No Physical Boundary
3. Instantaneity of Retrieval
4. Preservation and Conservation
5. Structured Approach
6. Networking
7. Searching Problem in Traditional Libraries.
8. Information Retrieval: By using digital library one will be able to retrieved
information specifically for e.g. a particular image, photo, a definition etc.
9. Low cost of Technology: When we consider the storage capacity of digital
document and it’s maintain then it can be easily realize that the cost of
technologies is much more less than that of traditional libraries.
10. Environmental Factor: The use of digital library is the cleanest technologies
to fulfill the slogan "Burn a CD-ROM save the Tree".
11. Easy to Understand: The visual or graphical information system of digital
library is more popular as compared to text based information system.
12. Multiple Function of Same Information: In case of digital library by
using hypertext it is possible to structure and organized the same digital
information in a variety of ways, which serve multiple functions.
13. New Generation Needs: The new generation user becomes only happy
when they will be able to read from the computer screen.
14. Information Explosion: Digital library is expected to be able to handle
and manage large amount of digital content by simply providing link, without
actually procuring the document.
15. Distance Learning: Learning from home, office or other places, which
are convenient to user.
16. To procure Online Publication: More and more information are going to
published over internet, digital library is needed to procure the online
publication and to provide link to important sources of information.
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Digitization Characteristics
The characteristics of digital libraries are the following:
• Assumptions about a Digital Library: There are certain assumptions in
NOTES discussions of a digital library. Levy and Marshall (1995) summarize these
as: digital libraries are collections containing fixed, permanent documents
which are based on digital technologies and are used by individuals working
alone.
• Fixity of Content: The concept of a fixed and permanent document is
based on the printed book: While a title may be reissued in a revised version,
once a specific volume is printed and bound, it remains unchanged. Fixity
creates a comfortable environment in which to perform certain library
functions. Cataloguing practices have evolved around the largely fixed and
permanent document. Fluid - or - transient documents, such as pamphlets
and news clippings have been largely uncatalogued and stored in unclassified
areas, such as the vertical file [cabinet]. The perception of lack-of-fixity in
fluid digital documents, especially internet-based documents, leads to the
assumption that digital items are ill-equipped for cataloguing and other library
functions.
• Technologies of Library Collections: The development of the concept
of a library based on digital technologies has revolved around the concept
of a library based on the book. As Levy and Marshall (1995) point out, the
book is not the only material contained in library collections. In addition to
holdings of books, photographs, unbound and handwritten manuscripts and
correspondents, and other ephemera which are adaptable to digital
representation, libraries also contain three-dimensional artifacts, such as
models, dioramas, toys and games, and regalia—for example, a chameleon
(for a borrow-a-pet service) or a wooden crate marked with 'Papers of
(author). Do not open until (date). (Name of custodian or executor).' Regalia
and certain other three-dimensional items in a library's collection do not
easily convert to digital format. Therefore, even if all currently convertible
library materials were digitized, not all materials in the library would be in
digital form.
• The act of Information Seeking: The perception seems to be that the
work in which the user engages in seeking information and the work in
which the practitioner engages in supporting his or her patrons is a solitary
act. Contrary to this impression, research finds that the library is a meeting
place where collaborative work takes place among patrons, among
practitioners, and between practitioners and patrons. For digital libraries to
pattern the work capabilities of the traditional library, and to pattern the
work habits of the library's patrons and practitioners, collaborative
functionality must be included in digital library design.An exceptional example
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of progress toward this goal, the work of Robertson, Jitan and Reese (1997) Digitization
of the US WEST Research & Information Group, is discussed later.

 New work accessibility
 Advanced search and retrieval for publicity NOTES
 Availability for long time
 User friendly interface
 Supporting multimedia content
 Greater Opportunity
Check Your Progress

1. What are digital libraries?
2. What do digital library provide?
11.3 PROCESS AND METHODS OF DIGITIZATION
Digitization refers to conversion of an item (printed text of books or journals articles

manuscript, image or sound, films or video records from any format into the digital
format. These textual data needs to be digitized with the use of various electrical
operations like digital scanner, digital cameras etc.
Firstly the digital library must have content. It can either be new material,
prepared digitally, or old material, converted to digital form. It can be bought,
donated, or converted locally from previously purchased items. Content then needs
to be stored and retrieved. Information is widely found as text stored as chapters
and images stored from scanning. These images are frequently scans of printed
pages, as well as illustrations or photographs. More recently, audio and video,
plus interactive material, are accumulating rapidly in digital form, both newly
generated and converted from older material.
Next, the content must be found. Retrieval systems are needed to let users
find things- relatively straightforward for text but still a subject of research for
pictures, sounds, and videos. It must then be delivered to the user; a digital library
must contain interface software letting people see and hear its contents.
After choosing one of the data conversion methods, as suited to a particular
library, we should develop plan of action. Digitization process starts with project
planning with documentation followed by a linear progression of tasks: select/
prepare, convert /scan, process store, distribute and maintain over time.
How to Digitize?
How can library may go beyond paper base limitation? How to digitize objects
and put them on line? How to locate material in the new digital library? Miksa and
Doty discussed the motion of collections, information sources and place with respect
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Digitization libraries might be used in design of digital libraries. The physical library can provide
the starting point for discussing the elements and domains of digital libraries. An
element of a library is a constituent part of the library. A domain of the library is the
universe from which the library materials are drawn.
NOTES
Elements
Library elements are classify in three broad classes.
1. Data: Library material
2. Metadata: Information about the library and its materials
3. Process: Function performed over library elements..
Domains
A physical library deals with physical data and digital library deals with the digital
data. Digital library contains digital translation of the physical data.
Architecture designed for a digital library acts as a general purpose
framework for it in very large numbers of objects, comprising all types of materials,
can be made accessible over national computer networks. Eight general principles
were formulated by Department of Defense’s Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA, USA) which form the key issues in the transition to a true digital library
from the network services we have today. They are –
1. The technical frame work exists within a legal and social framework.
2. Understanding digital library concepts is hampered by terminology.
3. The underlying architecture should be separate from the content stored
in the library.
4. Name and identifiers are the basic building blocks of the digital library.
5. Digital library objects are more than collection of bits.
6. The digital library object that is used is different from the stored object.
7. Repositories must look after the information they hold.
8. Users want intellectual works not digital objects.
Though early networks systems gave emphasis only to the technical
framework of the facility, the digital library of the future will exist within a much
larger economic, social and legal framework, and other intellectual property,
communicator law, privacy and international law.
Any conventional library digital library also stores different types of materials
including text, pictures, musical works, computer program, databases, models
and designs; video performs and compound works combining many types of
information, but in digital forms. The underlying architecture of the digital library
for all types of materials should be the same. But the extensions in the form can be
made to tailor the specific needs of various types of information or content.
Each digital object stored should have a unique name of identifier. Names
not only help in identifying digital objects, but also help in registering intellectual
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property rights and recording charges of ownership. They act as link between Digitization
different objects and facilitate.

Information is stored as "digital object" in a digital library. The content of
even the most basic digital object has some structure and information. A digital
NOTES
object stored in a repository has two parts-contents and associated data, sometimes
called as "metadata". A single digital object may contain many types of content.
Though digital objects are basic building blocks of the digital library having
different formats, contents & usage restrictions, many users of libraries want to
refer to items at a higher level of abstraction grouped under common categories.
The decision to group the individual digital objects depends upon the context, the
specific objects, their type of content and sometimes the actual content. But the
architecture should support two basic requirements namely grouping digital library
objects and providing means for retrieval.
Digital libraries should provide access to materials and objects and to tools needed
to process and present these materials in ways that serve the user‘s ultimate purpose.
Digital libraries should serve the users who work with material and create their
own individual or community information space through a process of selection,
annotation, contribution and collaboration. To convey meaning to users digital
library needs semantic structures ontology both in the broad sense of a conceptual
schema for domain (which includes metadata standards). Digital libraries need
link data structure for powerful navigation. Digital libraries should support powerful
search that combines information across databases. Digital libraries interfaces should
guide users through complex tasks. User’s interfaces are very important in facilitating
user’s interaction with complex functions and letting users with some training. Digital
library field should provide readymade tools for building and using semantically
rich library. Digital library evaluation needs to consider new functionality. Digital
libraries need sustainable business models. Intellectual and technical excellences
by themselves do not guarantee the success of a digital libraries; the digital library
must have a business model for creating income necessary for its operations.
The framework for building a digital library can be organized into four groups:
1. Collection of Digital Material: A digital collection consists of digital
objects that are selected organized to facilitate their access and use. The
basic principles of collection development of digital objects should be as
discussed below:
(a) Explicit Policy on Collection Development: The collection
development of a library mostly depends upon its parent organizations
aim and objective. Hence the library manager should summarize the
mission of his library and articulate how a proposed collection supports
that mission. They should also be able to identify the target of users
for the collection. Therefore the digital collection should be fit in with
the organization’s overall collection development policy. Self-Instructional
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Digitization (b) Proper Description of the Collection: The collection of digital library
should be properly described so that a user can discover characteristics
of the collection, including scope, format, restrictions on access,
ownership. This is possible through metadata. The collection should
NOTES also be described in collection-level cataloguing records contributed
to a national union catalogue such as the OCLC or RLIN database.
(c) Sustainability of the Collection: The library managers should not
only develop, maintain and preserve collection of which will have long
term importance but also take step to ensure the preservation of objects
within them. It requires organizational/library commitment to the
ongoing maintenance of digital collection maintenance may take
different sets of skills and resources than the original collection building.
(d) Access Technology: to make the access of digital collection user
friendly the web page and such terms providing access to the collection
as well as metadata and digital object displays should be tested against
the range of browsers applications. E.g. Netscape, Internet explorer,
Opera, Browser versions different is operating systems e.g. Window,
Mac and Linux.
(e) Intellectual Property: A good collection developer should respect
intellectual property right. Hence, this law should be examined from
various points of view such as owners right in the original source
material needed to digitize the content by the collection developers,
permissions related to use of the digital collections by the users, etc.
2. Creation of Digital Objects:
(a) A good digital object should be produced in a way that insures the
justification why they are being produced, for whom and for what
purpose it is proposed. Also it should justify its creation to
interoperability and sensibility.
(b) A good digital object inherently of short duration means the life span
of digital media: hardware and software are very impermanent. But
the intentions of libraries are that the good digital object will remain
accessible over time despite changing technologies. Hence many
strategies can be implemented increase the life span of these materials.
(c) There is a direct co-relation b/w the production quality of a digitized
object and the readiness and flexibility by which the object can be
used reused and migrated across platforms. Thus, a good object is
digitized in a format that supports current and future use.
3. A good digital object should be named with a unique identification for easy
use.
4. The authentication of digital objects is highly essential because research is
predicted on evidence.
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Building of Digital Library Digitization
Librarians, research scholars or any person assigned by the organization can initiate
building up a digital collection for library. Such projects should have specific goals
and are of finite duration. Project planning should include plans for the digital NOTES
collections keeping in view its present and future use, continued access to
collections, collection maintenance etc. Digital library project can be done as a
team work by involving individuals from various disciplines or institutions. The
project manager should have the ability to recognize when additional expertise is
needed & he should be informed of progress of the project to demonstrate
accountability, generate interest in the digital collections and ensure continuing
support for the project.
Digitization Process: The existing resources of the library can be converted into
digital media by scanning the materials. Flatbed scanner or digital camera may be
used for image capturing or scanning. Scanning of images may take place at 300
dbi bitonal. 600 dbi bitonal is used for higher resolution. Scanning is the most
popular method of converting the materials. Digital imaging technology has a number
of options that can be adopted depending on the objectives, its end users, availability
of fund etc.
After choosing one of the data conversion methods, as suited to particular
library, we should develop plan of action. Digitization process starts with project
planning with documentation followed by a linear progression of tasks: select/
prepare, convert/ scan, process, store, distribute and maintain over time. Digital
conversion process includes:
 Documents
 Data/ image capture
 Data processing
 Storage
 Indexing and processing
 Retrieval and display
Computer
Stored on
Selection Scanner or Hard disk
of digital or CD/DVD
documents camera
On-line Access or Off-line

Indexing
through
&
CD/DVD
Metadata
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Digitization Selection and identification of materials/ documents according to priority
decided earlier is first step. A List of candidate documents for entire project may
be prepared as a database. It should have identifying information, priority based
on content and its copyright status. After selection each page may be scanned as
NOTES a separate image file. The field in the spreadsheet includes the item identification
number, title, number of pages and notes of each document. All the resulting files
are collected into a single directory. The text in the convertible document may
require conversion of diacritics, or special characters, images may need
enhancement, amplification or compression. Records are verified and processed/
edited, if required. The information converted into digital form will need digital
storage medium, which may be hard disk, magnetic tape, optical CD-Rom, or
networks with workstation to access. Use of Dublin core standard is advisable to
create metadata of digital resources.
Check Your Progress

3. What does a physical library deal with?
4. Who can initiate the building up of a digital collection for a library?

QUESTIONS
1. Digital libraries are organized collections of digital information.

2. Digital library efforts in providing digital reference service, electronic
through web documents.
3. A physical library deals with physical data.
4. Librarians, research scholars or any person assigned by the organization
can initiate building up a digital collection for library.
11.5 SUMMARY
 The Digital Libraries are electronic libraries where the information is acquired,
stored and retrieved in digital form.
 Digital Libraries are the group-interlinked workstations connected to the
high-speed networks.
 The term Digital Library has a variety of potential meanings, ranging from a
digitized collection of material that one might find in a traditional library
through to the collection of all digital information along with the services that
make that information useful to all possible users.
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 An informal definition of a digital library is a managed collection of Digitization
information, with associated services, where the information is stored in

digital formats and accessible over a network.
 Digital libraries are organized collections of digital information.
NOTES
 A digital library service is an assemblage of digital computing, storage, and
communications machinery together with the software needed to reproduce,
emulate, and extend the services provided by conventional libraries based
on paper and other material means of collecting, storing, cataloguing, finding,
and disseminating information.
 Librarian is only competent enough to provide efficient and intelligent access
to worlds information sources to its users.
 Digital library efforts in providing digital reference service, electronic
through web documents that span the university Digital Library or the Global
Digital Library.
 Digital libraries are needed to provide quality-based service at the user
doorstep.
 Digitization refers to conversion of an item (printed text of books or journals
articles manuscript, image or sound, films or video records from any format
into the digital format.
 It can be bought, donated, or converted locally from previously purchased
items.
 More recently, audio and video, plus interactive material, are accumulating
rapidly in digital form, both newly generated and converted from older
material.
 After choosing one of the data conversion methods, as suited to a particular
library, we should develop plan of action.
 A physical library deals with physical data and digital library deals with the
digital data. Digital library contains digital translation of the physical data.
 Each digital object stored should have a unique name of identifier.
 Though digital objects are basic building blocks of the digital library having
different formats, contents & usage restrictions, many users of libraries want
to refer to items at a higher level of abstraction grouped under common
categories.
 Librarians, research scholars or any person assigned by the organization
can initiate building up a digital collection for library.
 The existing resources of the library can be converted into digital media by
scanning the materials.
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Digitization
11.6 KEY WORDS
 Digitization: It refers to conversion of an item (printed text of books or

NOTES journals articles manuscript, image or sound, films or video records from
any format into the digital format.
 Digital Libraries: These are electronic libraries where the information is
acquired, stored and retrieved in digital form.

EXERCISES

1. What is a digital library?
2. What is the need of a digital library?
3. Write a short note on digitization.
4. What are the characteristics of a digital library?
1. Elaborate the process and methods of digitization.
2. Write a note on the elements of digitization.
3. List and explain the groups into which the framework for building a digital
library can be organized into.
4. “Librarians, research scholars or any person assigned by the organization
can initiate building up a digital collection for library.” Discuss the procedure
and methodology to build up a digital collection for a library.
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Library and Information
UNIT 12 LIBRARY AND Networks
INFORMATION
NOTES
NETWORKS
Structure
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Library and Information Networks
12.4 Summary
12.5 Key Words
12.0 INTRODUCTION
The explosion in the amount of literature that is available, increases among the
number of users and their different needs, and the application of electronic media
are forcing libraries to construct and participate in networks. Magnetic tapes,
floppy disks, and CD-ROMs provide enough data storage capacity. Retrieval
through telecommunications networks and access to international databases are
available for searching for information on various subjects. With the advent of
networks, remote transmission of texts and graphics, video clips and animated
clips are also possible. In this unit, you will learn about library and information
networks in detail.
12.1 OBJECTIVES

 Understand the concept of library and information networks
 Discuss about the existing data networks in India
12.2 LIBRARY AND INFORMATION NETWORKS
In this section, we will discuss the definition, objectives, history and other important
concepts of library and information networks. Self-Instructional
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Library and Information 12.2.1 Definitions and Objectives
Networks
There are many definitions for library networks. Well-known author Susan K.
Martin defines a network as a ‘group of individuals or organizations that are
NOTES interconnected to form a system to accomplish some specified goal. This linkage
must include a communications mechanism, and many networks exist for the express
purpose of facilitating certain types of communication among members’.
Renowned author Joseph Becker suggests that, ‘when two or more libraries
engage formally in a common pattern of information exchange, through
communications, for some functionally interdependent purpose, we have a library
network.’
UNISIST II, the main working document, defines Information Network as
‘a set of interrelated information systems associated with communication facilities,
which are cooperating through more or less formal agreements and institutional
agreements, in order to jointly implement information handling operation, with a
view to pooling their resources and to offer better services to the user. They generally
follow identical or compatible rules and procedures’.
Objectives of Library and Information Networks
The objectives of library and information networks are as follows:
 Provide reliable access to document collection of libraries, that is, union
catalogs, and so on
 Provide access to worldwide bibliographical information
 Provide document delivery service
 Optimize information resources through resource sharing mechanisms
 Facilitate computerization of all the libraries
 Facilitate communication among teachers, students, scientists and others
 Provide effective access to library resources
 Encourage resource sharing
 Train manpower required by participating libraries
 Evolve standards, uniform guidelines, methods and procedures, both for
data capturing as well as hardware and software
Data communication with their capabilities for online access plays an important
role in modern information storage and retrieval systems. Earlier, information
networks operated in an offline mode. Now, with the developments in computer
and communication technology, it is possible to carry out this process in an online
interactive mode wherein a user can access an online host via a microcomputer
from a remote location, and can define and redefine his query based on the search
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results obtained till he is fully satisfied with the final outcome. Availability of several Library and Information
Networks
large online databases, through vendors, such as DIALOG, STN, Datastar, and
so on, has made the use of communication technology for information retrieval
activities highly popular. Several organizations began offering online searches from
remote terminals on a variety of online databases from the mid-1970s. NOTES
International Scenario
Library and information networks had its roots in library cooperation. ILL and
shared cataloging actually took off with MARC (MAchine-Readable Cataloging)
in 1968 with Library of Congress playing a vital role. This movement ultimately led
to large networks, such as OCLC (Online Computer Library Center, Inc.), WLN
(Western Library Network), RLIN (Research Libraries Information Network),
BCLMP (Birmingham Libraries Co-operative Mechanization Project), UTLAS
(University of Toronto LibraryAutomated Systems), ABN (Australian Bibliographic
Network), JANET (Joint Academic Network), and many others.
Library Networking Scene in India
 1958 – Scientific Policy Resolutions
 1959 – Sinha Committee’s Report
 1965 – Ranganathan Report to UGC
 1972 – Peter Lazar Committee Report
 1972 – V A Kamath Report
 1983 – Technology Policy Statements
 1984 – Planning Commissions Working Group headed by Dr N. Seshagiri
(Seventh Five Year Plan)
 1985 – NISSAT efforts (city networks)
 1988 – UGC effort (Academic Library) DESINET, BTIS, CSIRNET,
INFLIBNET, and so on
At the international level, various library networks are available. Some of them are
discussed in the following sections.
1. OCLC: Online Computer Library Centre – A Global Library Cooperative
OCLC is a membership organization with 41,000 libraries across eighty-two
countries and territories as members. It is a non-profit organization with a mission
to be the leading global library cooperative and to:
 Promote access to the world’s information.
 Reduce library costs by offering services for libraries and their users.
 Help libraries serve people by providing economical access to knowledge
through innovation and collaboration.
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Library and Information History: OCLC was founded in 1967 by university presidents with the purpose
Networks
of sharing library resources and reducing library costs. Noteworthy milestones
are as follows:
 1971: Introduced an online shared cataloging system for libraries.
NOTES
 1979: The Interlibrary Loan Service was introduced.
 1991: The FirstSearch service was introduced as a reference tool.
Membership: Membership in OCLC is a cooperative venture to the world’s
largest library consortium, providing libraries global access to all services and
databases, including WorldCat.
Services and Databases: The full range of services meets the needs of libraries
of all sizes:
 Cataloging tools
 Reference databases and online searching services
 Resource sharing tools
 Preservation services
 Dewey Decimal Classification
 World Cat database access
Research: Conducts internally and externally research at universities or other
research centers, administers the Dublin Core Metadata Initiative and conducts
Distinguished Seminar Series.
Governance: The governance structure consists of General members, the
Members Council and the Board of Trustees.
2. RLIN: Research Libraries Group (RLG)
RLG is a non-profit membership corporation, founded in 1974 and incorporated
in 1975 by Columbia, Harvard, and Yale universities and The New York Public
Library. Its mission is ‘improving access to information that supports research and
learning’. It is a leader in developing collaborative solutions to acquisition, delivery
and preservation of information problems that research collections and their users
face.
Universities and colleges, national libraries, archives, historical societies,
museums and independent research collections, and public libraries are some of
RLG’s international members. RLG provides a highly skilled staff, sophisticated
technical resources, and a long, successful track record in managing and supporting
interactions among its members to develop, coordinate and operate their joint
initiatives.
Services for RLG Users Include:
 Information discovery
 Record supply
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 Record sharing through RLG Library and Information
Networks
 Interlibrary loan and information delivery
 Cataloging services
 Library schools NOTES
 User support
Members have access to millions of records from research collections and
information databases around the world.
 RLG Citation Resources: Members get to use a bank of databases
covering journals, newspapers, conference proceedings, dissertations and
other publications at the individual article level.
 RLG Archival Resources: Access to online, single-point-of-access, is
possible.
 RLG Cultural Materials: Access to rare and unique primary materials
that have long been difficult or impossible to obtain through its own Web
interface.
 RLG Union Catalog and other Databases: Extract MARC records.
Cataloging Services: Automated cataloging service, called Marcadia, searches
for and tailors RLG Union Catalog records to meet an institution’s needs. It is
provided through MARC Link Corporation.
RLG Union Catalog: A database of bibliographic descriptions that grows daily
through contributions from a range of institutions and cooperative cataloging
projects.
3. JANET: Joint Academy Network
UKERNA (United Kingdom Education and Research Networking Association)
was set up under a Service Level Agreement from the Joint Information Systems
Committee (JISC) of the UK Higher and Further Education Funding Councils.
JANET, which stands for ‘Joint Academic Network’, is operated and developed
by UKERNA and is connected to the equivalent academic networks in other
countries and with many commercial networks in the UK and abroad forming part
of the global Internet. JANET provides access to several hundred different computer
systems at over one hundred different sites by interconnecting the local computer
networks in the United Kingdom Research Councils, universities and most
polytechnics including several different computers connected to these local
networks. The usage is free for members of institutions connected to JANET.
There are no formalities to be completed before you can use the network,
as JANET is a completely open network but most of the systems connected to
JANET have certain restrictions. There are four ways in which JANET can be
used. These are as follows:
1. To provide access to a computer at another site referred to as
‘Interactive’ use Self-Instructional
Material 221
Library and Information 2. To send a mail message from one computer system to another referred
Networks
to as ‘Mail’
3. To transfer a file from one computer system to another referred to as
‘File Transfer’
NOTES
4. To submit a job from one computer system to be run on another referred
to as ‘Remote Job Entry’
4. CURL: Consortium of University Research Libraries, 1987
Consortium of University Research Libraries (CURL) is another effort to promote,
maintain and improve library resources for research, learning and teaching in
research-led universities.
It was established with the objective to:
 Develop cooperative and consortia solutions to resolve issues related
to acquisition, processing, storage, preservation, exploitation,
dissemination, and delivery of information and library materials.
 Support libraries in the consortium to practice and accomplish their own
institutional objectives.
CURL has a database for bibliographic records that offers record retrieval
service of UKMARC records at competitive rates. Any non-profit organization
can avail these services, subject to signing license agreements. The only charge is
a flat rate for searching and a month’s free trial is also available.
5. CALIS: Chinese Academic Library and Information System
The China Academic Library and Information System (CALIS) is funded primarily
by the Chinese government. It is a national academic library consortium to serve
multiple resource-sharing functions among the participating libraries including online
searching, interlibrary loan, document delivery, and coordinated purchasing and
cataloging by digitizing resources and developing an information service network.
Funding: The Chinese government has majorly funded the development and
operation of CALIS. The funding sources currently are as follows:
 Government grants: Purchase of software and hardware for the CALIS
centers and commercial databases, for development of service software
and databases, for training of staff members, and so on, have been done
with government funds.
 Local matching funds: The construction of local centers is funded by the
province or city that desires to have a regional center to supplement the
government funds.
 Member library funds: Purchase of electronic resources and expenses
incurred from the use of the CALIS service software platforms are taken
from the university budgets.
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In future, it is expected that CALIS will rely mainly on other sources of Library and Information
Networks
funds, may be by operating the system in a commercial mode.
Current Status: There are now seventy members covering around 700,000
students. CALIS follows a long-term strategy, and service functions are made
NOTES
available as and when they are developed. It started with the following information-
sharing functions in its member libraries:
 Primary and secondary data searching
 Interlibrary borrowing and lending
 Document delivery
 Coordinated purchasing
 Online cataloging
The tasks that are completed are as follows:
 Purchase of computer hardware
 Construction of a CERNet-based (Internet-based) information-sharing
network, connecting academic libraries across the country
 Group purchase of databases, such as UMI, EBSCO, EI Village, INSPEC,
Elsevier and Web of Science that are shared among member libraries either
directly online or indirectly through requested service/document delivery.
Some databases that have been developed are as follows:
 Union Catalogs: Contain bibliographic records.
 Dissertation Abstracts and Conference Proceedings: Contain abstracts
of doctoral dissertations and proceedings of national and international
conferences collected from more than thirty member libraries.
 Current Chinese Periodicals: These databases contain titles bibliographic
records.
 Key Disciplines Databases: Contain discipline-specific records.
Except for the last database, all the others follow the USMARC,
UNIMARC, or CCFC (Common Communication Format of China) format. Web-
based search is possible with all the databases and online access of CALIS
resources using browsers is allowed.
Software platforms include:
 Cooperative online cataloging systems
 Systems for database development
 An Interlibrary loan system
 An OPAC system
A CALIS information service network is formed with a network of databases
that are centrally located and that are distributed at various locations including
service platforms in member libraries. Self-Instructional
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Library and Information Future Considerations: Within a year of initiating CALIS, there has been
Networks
a lot of progress in forming a nationwide resource-sharing library consortium in
China. However, more is expected out of it when challenges including variation in
library sizes, available funds, staff quality and automation level are overcome.
NOTES
CALIS will improve service systems including hardware and software
platforms, and the distribution of shared databases, in the next phase of
development, along with development of more electronic resource databases and
invest in expanding the scale and extent of resource sharing with the research and
development of digital libraries.
6. AARNET: Australian Academic and Research Library Network
AARNet Pty Ltd. that operates the second generation of the Australian Academic
and Research Network, AARNet2 network, is another non-profit company. It
provides high capacity Internet services between eight state- and territory-based
regional network hubs that provide Internet service to Australian universities and
other research institutions including Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
Research Organisation (CSIRO), Defence Science and Technology Organisation
(DSTO), Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO)
and Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS).
Services provided by AARNet include delivering high-capacity, cost-
competitive Internet-based network services to clients in the tertiary education
and research sector. It provides resources including access to the global Research
and Education (R&E) networks, for development of advanced network
infrastructure and applications.
AARNet provides three Internet Protocol (IP) services. These are as follows:
 On-Net provides IP connectivity between members.
 Off-Net National provides IP connectivity to the Australian domestic
Internet. This is provided by Cable and Wireless Optus (CWO).
 International IP provides access to the global international.
Each state and territory has a regional network that is networked to form
AARNet2. The regional network hubs, or Points of Presence (PoPs), provide IP
connectivity to AARNet members and associates in that region by a variety of
carrier and privately owned links.
Telecommunication facilities are used for data transmission as required by computer
communication networks, thus, forming a consolidated source for accessing,
communicating and transforming information. In India, national and international
telecommunication facilities are provided and maintained by the Department of
Electronics (DoE), Department of Telecommunications (DOT), Videsh Sanchar
Nigam Limited (VSNL) and the Government of India. These networks are
discussed in the following section.
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INDONET Library and Information
Networks
In 1986, Computer Maintenance Corporation (CMC) commissioned the first
Indian commercial computer communication network. It is a nation-wide integrated
information management and distributed data processing facility, aiming to provide NOTES
facility for distributed data processing on an all-India basis to large organizations
in the network using CMC computers for their data processing operations. There
is no need for duplication of software and hardware facilities at each location due
to the distributed databases in various subjects and access to specialized
applications software locally, or in remote locations.
INDONET-CMC has a Value Added Services (VAS) network that is a
data network approved by the DOT, which supports both TCP/IP (Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) and X.25 Network Protocols having high
speed leased links of 64 kbps connecting nine locations in India. It has alternate
data links at each location for better reliability and uptime with two RISC (Reduced
Instruction Set Computer) based servers at each location.
The services offered by INDONET include:
 E-mail/E-mail-fax services
o File transfer, credit card authorization, database services
 Hosting User Applications in the Net
o Providing network-based connectivity solutions, corporate intranet
o Network management, managed data network services, help desk
o EDI services, Web-based applications
o Students registration in the NET for admission
o Student’s assignment submission grading over the Net
o Electronic reference library access in the Net
o Data management and data processing services
o Recruitment services using newer technologies (OMR, OCR), and so
on
o ISP services
The future services planned are as follows:
 Full-fledged e-commerce services, ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning)/
application integration services
 Voice/Video conferencing facilities
 Payment transaction to utilities (electricity, water, telephone, and so on)
 Fax-Store and forward
 Call center services
 VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) services
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Library and Information ERNET: Education and Research Network
Networks
There has been a quantum change in the concept of teaching with a lot of importance
being given to learning and dissemination of information, particularly with a focus
NOTES on Internet-based education and e-learning. With this in mind, the Education and
Research Network (ERNET) project was initiated in 1986 by the Department of
Education (DoE) and funded by the Government of India and the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP), with the objective to create expertise, research
and development (R&D) and education in the country in the area of networking
and the Internet. There were an additional eight premier institutions as participating
agencies:
 National Centre for Software Technology (NCST), Mumbai
 Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bangalore
 The five Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) at Delhi, Mumbai, Kanpur,
Kharagpur and Chennai
 The DoE, New Delhi
Today, ERNET is India’s largest nationwide terrestrial and satellite network
with a presence in the premier educational and research institutions in major cities.
It works with an aim to provide network connectivity and meet the entire needs of
educational and research institutions by hosting and providing relevant information
to their users with Research and Development and Training as integral parts of
ERNET activities.
ERNET’s contribution to networking in India has been to build up national
capabilities in the area of networking, especially in protocol software engineering.
It started as a multiprotocol network having the TCP/IP and the OSI-IP
protocol stacks running over the leased-line portion of the backbone. Since 1995,
all traffic is carried over TCP/IP.
ERNET’s objectives include:
 ERNET operations providing state-of-the-art communication
infrastructure and services to:
o Academic and research institutions
o Government organizations
o NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations)
o Private sector R&D organizations
o Various other non-commercial organizations
 Research and development
 Training and consultancy
 Content development
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ERNET’s achievements include: Library and Information
Networks
 Developing national-level capability in computer networking through:
o Setting up numerous core groups as participating agencies with a
minimal set of lab facilities and creation of skilled manpower to carry NOTES
out R&D
o Generating manpower at different levels
o Making the world of standards (TCP/IP, OSI, and so on) well
understood
o Providing insights into emerging issues, such as ATM networks,
networked multimedia and information infrastructure
 Setting up network infrastructure and services including:
o Installation, maintenance and operation of large campus Local Area
Networks (LANs)
o Design, commissioning and testing of Satellite Wide Area Network
(SATWAN) hub and the installation of VSATs
o Seamless interconnection of LAN-WAN segments and providing multi-
protocol capability
o Provision of the whole range of Internet services
o Deployment of TDM/TDMA (Time Division Multiplexing/ Time
Division Multiple Access) based VSAT network for Internet access
 Research and Development
o Research and development in the area of computer networking
NICNET: National Informatics Centre Network
National Informatics Centre Network (NICNET) was set up to provide satellite
based informatics services to the Central and State Government Departments and
organizations. NICNET addresses the information management and decision
support requirements of the Government of India as well as the corporate sector.
National Informatics Centre (NIC) provides information technology services that
includes conducting feasibility studies for developing and implementing computer-
based information systems, undertaking large turnkey networks and imparting
training. It also has expertise in integrating the processes of user organizations with
IT-based systems. Value added network services, such as e-mail, database access,
Internet, and so on, are provided on an ongoing basis. Computer-aided design
and computer-aided management services are also offered over NICNET.
The network consists of:
 Master Earth Station: Located at CGO Complex, New Delhi, it
comprises a 13-meter antenna, a network control center and a packet
switch.
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Library and Information  Remote Micro Earth Stations: Consists of remotely located district
Networks
computers that are connected with the State computer. State computers
are connected to the regional headquarters.
 Geosynchronous Satellite: Currently using the INTELSAT-V satellite
NOTES
as a relay station between the master earth station and the micro earth
station.
NICNET is now a dedicated network with more than 500 nodes
geographically distributed over the country. Information for monitoring the socio-
economic development of the district is consolidated by each district information
center, and this information flows from district level to its connected State level
center. The processed information is further sent to the regional and the national
centers. Each State level center is connected to other State centers; thus, any user
can link to any other remote micro earth station if they are connected to a remote
or master earth station. All information systems are housed at the national center
at New Delhi, which conducts research and development of relevant software
and hardware tools.
NICNET’s various facilities and services include:
 Gateway to Internet by providing Internet connectivity
 Electronic mail service
 USENET bulletin board service
 Telnet facility to login to remote host
 File transfer protocol facility
 Research and Education Network of NIC (RENNIC) service to
research, education and medical institutions
 Electronic data interchange service
 Bibliographic information service
 Geographical information systems
 General Information Services Terminal (GISTNIC) for common public
 Training facilities
VIKRAM
The DOT is developing a packet switched public data network named VIKRAM,
which initially has eight switching nodes in Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai,
Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad and Pune along with twelve remote access
nodes with its network management center located at Delhi. It will support packet
switching interface according to the specifications of CCITTs X.25, X.28, X.29
and X.75.
Bibliographic Applications: VIKRAM includes bibliographical
applications for which infrastructure support has been offered to NISSAT for pilot
Self-Instructional experimentation on library networking in the country.
228 Material
BITSNET Library and Information
Networks
During 1986–87, a distributed database and network organization, BITSNET,
was launched for pursuing a bio-informatics program involving advanced research
in modern biology and biotechnology. As a vehicle for transfer and exchange of NOTES
information, scientific knowledge, technology packages, and references in the
country involving 10,000–12,000 scientific personnel, it has turned out to be a
success. BITSNET is supported by ten distributed information centers, an apex
center at the Department of Biotechnology and forty-four sub-distributed
information centers, located in universities and research institutes of national
importance. Additionally, there are six national facilities for interactive graphics-
based molecular modeling and other bio-computational needs. Poona University,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, Calcutta University and Madurai Kamaraj University
have addressed the need for trained human capital in this inter-disciplinary area by
launching four long-term courses at the level of post M.Sc. Diploma in Bio-
informatics.
INET
DOT commissioned INET, India’s X.25-based packet switched public data
network for a highly reliable, cost effective and flexible way of national data transfer
and information access that enables error-free transmission with dynamic rerouting
of calls and provides interconnection between computers/terminals at different
speeds and protocols. The first phase was started with nodes at New Delhi,
Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Pune, Kanpur and
Ahmedabad that are connected through 9.6 kbps and 64 kbps links, and was
ultimately extended to eighty-eight other cities throughout India. Interfaces/protocols
supported are CCITT, X.25, X.28, X.29, X.3 and X.75 having access through
dedicated leased lines for asynchronous (X.28) or synchronous (X.25) and dial-
up mode (X.28).
INET facilities include:
 Reverse charging
 Closed user groups
 Fast selects
 Charge information indication
 Call redirection
 Call deflection
 Abbreviated address calling
 Hunt groups
 Multiple packet sizes
 Network user identification
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Library and Information Application support includes:
Networks
 E-mail service
 Corporate communication
NOTES  Information retrieval
 Database service
 Remote job application
 Credit card verification
 Travel reservation
 Electronic fund transfer
SIRNET: Scientific and Industrial Network
In 1989, INSDOC (Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre) launched
the Scientific and Industrial Network (SIRNET) project aiming at networking all
forty CSIR (Council of Scientific & Industrial Research) laboratories under
SIRNET. SIRNET has several servers and a number of user nodes providing
electronic mail facility as its first application service. Messages are transmitted by
sending them to any SIRNET mail service node situated at INSDOC, Delhi, and
at its regional center at Bangalore for transmission to any of the CSIR laboratories
at present linked to the mail node. The SIRNET is connected to the ERNET
which, in turn, is connected to the international network Unix User Network
(UUNET). The UUNET provides access to other international networks, including
Because It’s Time Network (BITNET), Computer Science Network (CSNET)
and JANET. SIRNET is directly connected to VIKRAM, the DoE mail server,
which is the clearing node in Delhi ERNET. However, dial-up telephone lines are
used for connections between various laboratories of CSIR.
The responsibility of every library is to provide the best materials and services to
its users. The foremost aim is to provide access, to its users, to all information no
matter what the format and wherever it may be stored. The second aim is to
provide access from anywhere in the community. A network is the best vehicle
that can make this possible giving access to vast information services and can help
improve library services in many ways, such as databases, discussion groups, full
text access and document delivery through resource sharing. Networking
technologies keep evolving, thereby, reducing the cost of information provision.
To cater to the needs of academicians and research community, the Ministry
of Human Resources Development, through the University Grants Commission
(UGC), established the Information & Library Network Centre that connected
the higher education institutions at the national level. To set up a state-of-the-art
nationwide network for its universities, the UGC-NET was established in
collaboration with ERNET-India and will effect a virtual enhancement of academic
Self-Instructional
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infrastructure in the country to connect more than 172 universities with proper Library and Information
Networks
bandwidth to access their own resources as well as resources available elsewhere.
Other library networks including Developing Library Network (DELNET), Calcutta
Library Network (CALIBNET), Ahmedabad Library Network (ADINET), and
so on, have also progressed substantially. For example, DELNET was initially NOTES
established for libraries in Delhi, but with membership from other parts of the
country and also a few international memberships has now increased its scope.
INFLIBNET: Information and Library Network Centre
In 1991, the UGC initiated a major program, the Information and Library Network
(INFLIBNET) as an autonomous inter-university center, headquartered in
Ahmedabad. The program was initiated with the purpose of modernizing libraries
and information centers, and establishing a mechanism for information transfer and
access to support scholarship, learning and academic pursuits. Another aim was
to establish a national network of libraries and information centers in universities,
institutions of higher learning and R&D institutions in India. The program has evolved
over the years and, since 1996, has become an independent autonomous Inter-
University Centre under the UGC to coordinate and implement nationwide high-
speed data network for connecting all the university libraries in the country using
state-of-the-art technologies. INFLIBNET promises to play an important role in
encouraging scholarly communication among academicians and researchers in India.
INFLIBNET’s objectives are as follows:
 To improve capability in information transfer and access, providing
support to scholarship, learning, research and academic pursuits
 To establish ‘INFLIBNET’, which is a computer communication
network for linking libraries and information centers in universities,
deemed universities, colleges, UGC information centers, institutions of
national importance and R&D institutions, and so on
INFLIBNET’s Main Activities Include:
 Provided financial support for automation and networking, to the tune of
6.5 lakh, each to 142 university libraries.
 More than 75 per cent libraries are operational and are availing the recurring
grant.
 Provided a grant of 1 lakh each to sixty-five libraries to establish core
facilities and get connected to the network for accessing the information.
 Provided training to the library staff members to help the operational staff
to implement IT in their libraries. Similarly, workshops were also conducted
for the executives working for the libraries at INFLIBNET.
 Onsite training provided at more than thirty-five places.
 INFLIBNET also provides regional level training and necessary support to
help the librarians from college libraries. Self-Instructional
Material 231
Library and Information  Software is developed and installed at more than fifty libraries to run the
Networks
library operation.
 Union databases have been developed to provide access to holdings of
libraries of different materials, namely serials, theses, books, experts,
NOTES
projects, and so on, and are kept online for access at http://
www.inflibnet.ac.in. User-friendly search engines have been developed to
provide access to these databases.
 Implemented the MARC-21 interface to SOUL software and vice versa.
 Provided different information services, including CD-ROM based services,
access to OCLC first search, contents page service, and so on.
 To provide a platform for librarians and IT professionals, INFLIBNET
conducts an annual convention in the form of CALIBER.
 Publishes a series of publications to promote the cause of INFLIBNET.
 Initiated two major projects, namely retrospective conversion of collection
of five major libraries and six document delivery service centers.
The most significant achievement of INFLIBNET has been to create an IT-
conscious environment in university libraries with active participation of librarians
in implementing the changes.
Future Plans: The initial phase was focused on building up the infrastructure
at the participating libraries and preparing them for the changes brought about by
information technology. INFLIBNET is the major library network in India, with a
future full of opportunities to connect with the information superhighway of this
millennium.
Major priorities listed are as follows:
 Providing network connectivity to more than 170 university libraries
through UGC NET
 Financial support to remaining universities with recurring grants to funded
universities
 Delivering the SOUL software to participating libraries
 Expanding the membership with increased participation in the network
 Enhancing the information base through collaboration with existing
national information centers
 Providing services in the networked environment by developing
manpower through continuous training activities
 Developing union databases and keeping them updated
 Shared cataloging
 Networked information services
 Access to full text of publications
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232 Material
 Organizing and providing access to Internet resources Library and Information
Networks
 Promoting Indian academic information
 Promoting discussion forums in different areas
Other Important Library Networks NOTES
1. DELNET: Developing Library Network

DELNET was initially sponsored by the National Information System for Science
and Technology (NISSAT), Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
(DSIR), Government of India. It is currently being promoted by the NIC, Ministry
of Information Technology, Government of India and India International Centre,
New Delhi. It was operational since January 1988 and registered as a society in
1992. DELNET’s prime objective is to promote the development of a network of
libraries for resource sharing among them. It also aims to:
 Collect, store and disseminate information
 Offer computerized services to users
 Coordinate efforts for suitable collection development
 Reduce unnecessary duplication wherever possible
DELNET services include:
 Electronic mail
 Online access to different databases
2. CALIBNET: Calcutta Library Network
Another Government of India project, CALIBNET, was launched by NISSAT,
DSIR and managed by the CALIBNET Society established under the West Bengal
government’s Societies Registration Act, 1961. The goal of CALIBNET was to
provide individual libraries and their reading members with cost-effective solutions
to their information problems.
CALIBNET services include:
 Provide awareness services
 SDI
 Union catalog
 Partial databases
 Access to national and international networks
 Services also include:
o Access to CD-ROM databases
o LCMARC (Library of Congress Machine Readable Cataloging)
o Biblio file
o Inside information
o Email service Self-Instructional
Material 233
Library and Information 3. ADINET: Ahmedabad Library Network
Networks
Sponsored by the NISSAT, DSIR, Government of India, ADINET is a network
of libraries in and around Ahmedabad. It was registered as a society in October
1994. ADINET aims to create a cooperative libraries and information centers in
NOTES
and around Ahmedabad. The main objective of ADINET is to network member
libraries and create a centralized union catalog of their holdings to promote sharing
of resources and disseminate information.
ADINET services include:
 Online information
 Interlibrary loan
 Photocopying services
 Current awareness services
 Information service
 Internet services
4. MYLIBNET: Mysore Library Network
The Mysore Library Network (MYLIBNET) was set up in May 1995 with financial
assistance from NISSAT in the city of Mysore. MYLIBNET is housed inside the
Central Food Technological Research Institute (CFTRI) campus.
The objectives of MYLIBNET are as follows:
 Sharing the resources available with all libraries
 Providing faster communication to all libraries through electronic mail
facility
 Developing software tools for better library management
 Creating awareness in the field of latest information technology by
conducting seminars/workshops/training programs
 Setting up an information base in collaboration with industries
 Conducting surveys
 Indicating the arrival of new books/journals and announcing events like
seminars/workshops/training programs
MYLIBNET services include:
 Training for trainers in the information technology field
 Technical assistance in the library and information science area
 Web access to union catalog
5. PUNENET: Pune Library Network
PUNENET will be implemented in four phases.
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The objectives of PUNENET are as follows: Library and Information
Networks
 Better utilization of funds
 Sharing of resources
 Creation of commonly usable databases NOTES
 Communication between libraries
 Automating the functions of the individual libraries
PUNENET services include:
 Union catalog
 Current awareness
 SDI
 Authority data
 Acquisition and fund accounting
 Serials control
 Books and journals maintenance
 Circulation
 User services
 Interlibrary loan services
 Document transfer/copy
 Access to national/international databases
6. MALIBNET: Madras Library Network
MALIBNET is located in the INSDOC Regional Centre, Chennai. It was initiated
by INSDOC in 1991 and registered as a society in 1993. Facilities include
computers, Sybase RDBMS and UNIX. Available databases include serials, books
and other INSDOC databases. It has a multi-type membership base of fifteen
libraries. Its services include e-mail, MALIBNET card, CC, DDS and training.
7. BONET: Bombay Library Network
BONET was initiated in 1994 with the support of NISSAT and is located in
NCST, Mumbai. Facilities include a large number of computers and software. Its
services include access to databases, e-mail, CD-ROM, and so on. It promotes
professional development activities, such as seminars and training programs.
Several other city level networks are in their initial stages of development.
Check Your Progress

1. What is RLG?
2. What is OCLC?
Self-Instructional
Material 235
Networks 12.3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS
NOTES 1. RLG is a non-profit membership corporation.

2. OCLC is a membership organization with 41,000 libraries across eighty-
two countries and territories as members.
12.4 SUMMARY
 Data communication with their capabilities for online access plays an

important role in modern information storage and retrieval systems.
 Earlier, information networks operated in an offline mode. Now, with the
developments in computer and communication technology, it is possible to
carry out this process in an online interactive mode.
 Several organizations began offering online searches from remote terminals
on a variety of online databases from the mid-1970s.
 Library and information networks had its roots in library cooperation. ILL
and shared cataloging actually took off with MARC (MAchine-Readable
Cataloging) in 1968 with Library of Congress playing a vital role.
 OCLC is a membership organization with 41,000 libraries across eighty-
two countries and territories as members.
 Membership in OCLC is a cooperative venture to the world’s largest library
consortium, providing libraries global access to all services and databases,
including WorldCat.
 Conducts internally and externally research at universities or other research
centers, administers the Dublin Core Metadata Initiative and conducts
Distinguished Seminar Series.
 RLG is a non-profit membership corporation, founded in 1974 and
incorporated in 1975 by Columbia, Harvard, and Yale universities and The
New York Public Library. Its mission is ‘improving access to information
that supports research and learning’.
 Universities and colleges, national libraries, archives, historical societies,
museums and independent research collections, and public libraries are some
of RLG’s international members.
 In 1986, Computer Maintenance Corporation (CMC) commissioned the
first Indian commercial computer communication network.
 There has been a quantum change in the concept of teaching with a lot of
importance being given to learning and dissemination of information,
particularly with a focus on Internet-based education and e-learning.
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236 Material
 ERNET’s contribution to networking in India has been to build up national Library and Information
Networks
capabilities in the area of networking, especially in protocol software
engineering.
 In 1991, the UGC initiated a major program, the Information and Library
NOTES
Network (INFLIBNET) as an autonomous inter-university center,
headquartered in Ahmedabad.
12.5 KEY WORDS
 Cataloging Services: These are automated cataloging service, called

Marcadia, that searches for and tailors RLG Union Catalog records to
meet an institution’s needs. It is provided through MARC Link Corporation.
 RLG Union Catalog: It is a database of bibliographic descriptions that
grows daily through contributions from a range of institutions and cooperative
cataloging projects.

EXERCISES

1. What are the objectives of library and information?
2. Write a brief history of library and information networks.
3. Write a short note on RLG union catalog.
4. What is the Consortium of University Research Libraries?
1. “Data communication with their capabilities for online access plays an
important role in modern information storage and retrieval systems.”
Elaborate and discuss.
2. “Library and information networks had its roots in library cooperation.”
Explain.
3. Discuss the Library networking scene in India.
4. Write a detailed note on Research Libraries Group.
5. Discuss in detail about the existing data networks in India.
Self-Instructional
Material 237
Networks 12.7 FURTHER READINGS
NOTES edition. New Jersey: McGraw-Hill.
Self-Instructional
238 Material
Resource Sharing Networks
UNIT 13 RESOURCE SHARING

NETWORKS
NOTES
Structure
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Resource Sharing Technology
13.3 Internet based Library and Information Services
13.5 Summary
13.6 Key Words
13.0 INTRODUCTION
In the library world, resource sharing means that you are collaborating with one or
more libraries to maximize access to a larger array of resources by sharing the
collections of the cooperating libraries or pooling funding to purchase shared digital
resources. A distributed resource sharing system consists of hardware and software
components located in a network of computers that communicate and coordinate
their actions only by passing messages. In this unit you will learn about resource
sharing networks.
13.1 OBJECTIVES

 Understand resource sharing technologies
 Discuss internet based library and information services
13.2 RESOURCE SHARING TECHNOLOGY
In this section, we will discuss the technology of resource sharing in detail and its
importance in present day scenario.
One definition says, ‘Resource sharing is a sort of implied agreement amongst
participating libraries wherein each participant is willing to share its resources with
other members and, in turn, is privileged to share the resources of its partners.’ Self-Instructional
Material 239
Resource Sharing Networks Another definition says, ‘Resource sharing comprises transactions by which
a library makes its materials or copies of its materials available to the clientele of
another library upon request.’
Resource sharing can also be defined as ‘activities engaged in by the libraries
NOTES
for the purpose of improving access to and delivery of the holdings of other libraries
or information providers. Resource sharing may be established by informal or
formal agreements or by contract and may operate locally, regionally, nationally or
internationally’.
Library scientist Allen Kent’s definition is: ‘Resource sharing is a mode of
operation whereby functions are shared in common by a number of libraries.’
Document Delivery Service is defined as ‘the provision of documents
published, or unpublished in hard copy or microform, at an established cost upon
request, not including the on-campus delivery of documents to patron’s offices’.
Document supplier is ‘a person or organization, which provides copies of
articles, books or other information whether free or at a cost or for profit’.
Interlibrary loan is ‘the process by which a library requests materials from,
or supplies materials to, another library’.
Another definition of interlibrary loan is ‘a transaction in which, upon request,
one library lends an item from its collections, or furnishes a copy of the item, to
another library not under the same administration or on the same campus’.
Objectives
The main objectives of resource sharing are as follows:
1. Sharing of resources in an efficient, timely and cost effective way
2. Enhancing the reader’s ability to meet their information requirements through
effective utilization of resources
3. Promoting cooperative programs and services of libraries with adequate
resources
4. Providing communication among libraries
5. Increasing the access base for users
6. Avoiding the duplication of resources
7. Making overall improvements in library services
Networking of libraries and interactive computer systems and
telecommunication facilities can be implemented for the explicit purpose of resource
sharing to achieve these objectives.
Concept of Resource Sharing
It is not possible for any single library to attain self-sufficiency with the volume of
information and the specific requirements of the users. Sharing of resources among
libraries was the only answer giving rise to the concept of resource sharing, originally
Self-Instructional
240 Material
called ‘library cooperation’, which allows one to achieve the objectives better by Resource Sharing Networks
working together.
Resource sharing involves sharing of resources of participating libraries for
the purpose of sharing the resources of each other’s materials via an agreement of
NOTES
cooperation. Besides document resources, it also includes facilities, services,
equipment and even the manpower among the participating libraries.
The factors for successful resource sharing are as follows:
 Agreement between participating library administrators
 Availability of union catalogs
 Formation of an alliance among the libraries
 Formation of computer communication networks among the libraries
The modern-day challenges that face libraries today have pushed them towards
sharing of resources through cooperation, especially for individual libraries in
developing countries. Some of the issues that hamper them from acquiring and
retaining everything their users might like to read are as follows:
 Shrinking library budgets
 Steady increase in document prices
 Depreciating currencies
Today, resource sharing is one of the mainstays of modern librarianship.
Electronic tools has made access to online OPACs (Online Public Access Catalog),
publishers’ catalogs, contents pages and bibliographic databases easy, providing
better information to library users about literature produced in their areas of interest.
The availability of a variety of electronic tools for document identification,
such as access to online OPACs, publishers’ catalogs, contents pages and
bibliographic databases, has enhanced the awareness of library users about literature
produced in their areas of interest.
Some of the factors that bring libraries together to share resources are as
follows:
 Uninterrupted rise of nearly 15–20 per cent every year in the cost of
reading materials of all types, particular in scholarly journals
 Instability in the exchange rate of the Indian rupee against major foreign
currencies
 Growth of scholarly publications in every field
 Decline of library budgets every year
 Growing demand of users
 Availability of computer and communication facilities offering
technological solutions Self-Instructional
Material 241
Resource Sharing Networks  Availability of various information sources in electronic form, particularly
networked versions
 Formation of library networks, alliances, and so on
NOTES Access Vs. Ownership
Libraries need to maintain a fine balance between access and ownership. Owning
an item means faster access to users compared to waiting to borrow or purchase
on demand. Then again, the increased cost of maintaining a collection of primary
sources and the increased demand for information have encouraged the move
from ownership to access. Eventually, increased emphasis on cooperation and
resource sharing, aiming to replace acquisition by access through local, regional,
national and international networks, have been established.
In India, the focus has been on ownership rather than access. It is now time
to transition from an ownership-based, ‘just in case’, library model to an access-
based, ‘just in time’ model. Networked information resources, such as remote
library catalogs, bibliographic databases, bulletin boards, newsgroups, electronic
conferences and discussion groups, are being accessed using the Internet with the
library acting as a link or node in the whole information network. The user gets the
advantage of the enormous information resources of the network through this link,
which also provides other or distinctive elements that may not be available to an
individual otherwise.
Almost all libraries are grappling with the challenges by modifying library
policies to meet their users’ need for information within the constraints of shrinking
budgets.
Cost Effectiveness
Resource sharing is a cost-effective approach leading to better utilization of library
resources. Alternatives for networking and resource sharing among geographically
dispersed and remotely located library and information centers are available with
the advancement in information technology. Sources are purchased to meet the
requirements of a library’s own clientele, leading to considerable duplication in the
procurement of library materials. Common subscriptions can be avoided and the
budgets are used to provide access to more unique resources by resource sharing.
Rational and mutually beneficial guidelines should be developed for the procurement
of various kinds and types of learning resources, so that valuable financial resources
are saved by minimizing duplication and at the same time ensuring comprehensive
coverage.
Through alliances or consortia, libraries can cut costs in subscribing to
international periodicals. Electronic publishing is gaining popularity as the costs
are much lower than that of the print version. Various models of consortia purchase
by publishers have evolved because of electronic publishing of scholarly journals.
Considering the purchasing power of consortia, publishers offer access to their
Self-Instructional whole range of journals collection including all the journals published by them, in
242 Material
some cases, besides the currently subscribed journals. Consortia subscriptions Resource Sharing Networks
can provide benefits in the form of discounts of 75 per cent to 90 per cent.
Resource sharing can be considered for a number of areas. Some of the widely NOTES
practiced and prominent ones are as follows:
Union Catalog
Library scientist Knud Larsen has defined union catalog as ‘a catalog listing in one
sequence, the holding or part of the holdings of two or more libraries’. Professor
William Katz (School of Information Science and Policy, State University of New
York at Albany) has defined union catalog as ‘an inventory common to several
libraries and listing some or all of their publications maintained in one or more
orders of arrangement’. A union catalog is associated with the national catalog but
different from library catalog, and focuses on promoting interlibrary cooperation
on local, regional and international levels. When two or more libraries agree to
cooperate in resource sharing, the first activity is to prepare a union catalog of
their holdings. The principal objective of a union catalog is to inform the users
about what material a library has. It is a compilation of catalogs of periodicals,
case collections, reference materials, microforms, audio-visual materials,
dissertations, thesis and other such materials held by the participating libraries,
making resource sharing effective and easy.
Union catalogs are to be prepared based on the type of materials and these
have certain priorities. Participating libraries have access to the collection available
from other libraries and to resource sharing through these union catalogs depending
on the requirement. Creating a union catalog requires substantial support from the
participating libraries and is a tedious job.
A few examples of union catalogs are as follows:
 The US-Library of Congress – the national union catalog
 The British union catalog of periodicals
 The National Union Catalog of Scientific Serials in India (NUCSSI-
INSDOC)
 The Union Catalog of Social Science Serials in India (NASSDOC)
 The Union Catalog of Books, Serials, Theses, Experts and Projects by
INFLIBNET
Collection Development
Budget constraints, explosion in the number and variety of publications, increase
in the cost of books and serials, and the variety and range of resources demanded
by scholars has put the onus on libraries to ensure that relevant and representative
collections in various fields are available. The immediate needs of their users must
be satisfied by defining a higher level of collection development essential for Self-Instructional
Material 243
Resource Sharing Networks developing the core collection. This scenario has necessitated collaboration amongst
libraries in developing their collections.
Collection intensification is the first step towards coordinated collection
development. It helps broaden and deepen the range of research materials
NOTES
collectively made available to users, thus, improving the quality of library service.
Achieving the aim of coordinated collection development appears doubtful
to many librarians as they have been attempting to reduce overlap for quite some
time. Cancellation of serials and, in many cases, implementing a policy to cancel a
few titles every year are some measures that have been adopted. Despite all this,
librarians are convinced of the benefits of making library profiles as they will be
valuable during negotiations with faculty and publishers, in contact with partners
of a consortium, to inform others, and so on. Additionally, collection profiles can
be used as a management tool to develop collections more efficiently and effectively.
Collection development has one primary objective, that is, to help libraries
identify and select publications that are meaningful for acquisition by using data
available at various levels, such as circulation, interlibrary loan statistics, SDI
(Selective Dissemination of Information) user profiles, and so on. It is expected
that a cooperative acquisition system will progressively evolve after considering
the strengths and weaknesses in document collections in libraries including
duplication.
Consortia
Consortia will help libraries achieve as a group what they cannot achieve individually.
Indian libraries have an average number of subscriptions to international journals
of less than 500 titles as compared to American libraries that have more than 10
times the number. It is essential to improve the access-base of literature if we want
to enhance the quality and standard of research at the national level and raise it to
the level of global recognition.
Consortium is a ‘group of libraries that come together with common interest
to form a consortium’, where a coordinator, one of the libraries or agencies, works
on behalf of all libraries to negotiate with publishers, take care of legal issues, and
so on.
The main objectives of consortia are as follows:
 Increase the cost benefit per subscription
 Promote the rational use of funds
 Ensure continuous subscription to the periodicals subscribed
 Guarantee local storage of the information acquired for continuous use
by present and future users
 Develop technical capabilities of the staff in operating and using electronic
publication databases
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 Create strategic alliance with institutions that have a common interest, Resource Sharing Networks
resulting in reduced information cost

 Improve resource sharing
Opportunities for libraries to provide instant access to information has NOTES
improved with factors like technological developments, electronic publishing of
scholarly journals, the emergence of consortia, and the pricing models of the
publishers. Members of the consortium get electronic access to the journals
currently subscribed and also, in most of the cases, all the journals published by
the publisher. Libraries subscribe to journals based on their financial status and
even if they want other journals, they cannot afford to provide access to them.
This is where a consortium comes into play, as it helps libraries provide access to
journals they cannot afford, thereby, benefiting the library and the user extended
access that means better service and reduced costs.
The concerns associated with the consortia approach are as follows:
 Choosing a coordinating agency to deal on behalf of the consortia, and
executing and monitoring the work
 Identifying libraries willing to participate and agree to common terms
and conditions
 Identifying potential publishers for access under consortia purchase
 Negotiating with publishers for a generally acceptable and affordable
price
 Defining the source of funding to meet subscription costs
 Addressing legal issues, such as contracts and usage of material within
the consortia
 Passing on information regarding the consortia’s importance and
usefulness to the institutions’ faculty, heads and others so that they take
action regarding the issue
 Identifying the infrastructure required to access resources electronically
 Defining databases backup procedures
 Identifying and selecting databases to be acquired and hosted at one
place under the care of the coordinating agency
 Certifying and training staff
 Providing access rights, whether to give direct access from publisher
site or mount databases at coordinating agency
Participating libraries need to be actively involved in the forming a consortium
of libraries to maximize the resource base to meet the genuine needs of users. In
the fast changing society, major publishers are willing to come forward to provide
better service.
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Resource Sharing Networks Cooperative Storage Control
Cooperative storage control refers to the storage of seldom used materials at a
common place from where it can be easily recalled whenever required. Economical
NOTES storage methods should be adopted with the use of compact storage methods of
various kinds, such as rolling stocks, and so on.
Cooperation in Interlibrary Loans
Using the traditional methods of Interlibrary Loans (ILLs) was practiced from
way back in the past. Internet and networking has made this process easier, more
reliable and time saving. ILL transactions are mostly informal, based on an
understanding between individuals rather than institutions, making it essential for
an ILL policy and an ILL code to achieve optimum results. Some ILL factors are
as follows:
 Flexibility and choice to meet varied user needs
 Clearly defined and unambiguous service standards
 A specified turnaround time for a core level of service
 Greater predictability and consistency
 Increased incentives for libraries to improve their ILL supplying operations
The current manual ILL system has several drawbacks, for instance, it is
laborious, time-consuming, error-prone and inefficient with a lot of time spent on
searching, documentation and updating of data including duplication of effort. This
issue combined with the rapid growth of the automation industry has raised the
demand for a new computerized ILL system to manage the complete ILL process.
The changing role of the library due to the widespread use of electronic
technology has its own set of problems, such as:
 What is available
 Who should request and who should supply
 Who should pay
Individual researchers will be faced with an information overload and will
prefer to rely on the expertise of the skilled librarian. Use of modern technology
will be there even as traditional interlibrary activity continues.
Electronic ILL management systems are something new that is gaining
significance. Web-based ILL systems are replacing paper-based manual intensive
systems in many libraries. Document delivery is now considered the same as ILLs,
particularly of journal articles. As a result, all user-initiated document delivery is
categorized under the term user-initiated interlibrary loans.
Some disadvantages are as follows:
 To carry out the ILL process, each participating library has to use the
same system or software.
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 Developing a generic system that would be acceptable to all is difficult Resource Sharing Networks
due to the differences in library policies among participating libraries.

 Very few resources are allocated to administer or computerize the ILL
service because the number of ILL requests is traditionally low compared
NOTES
to normal borrowing.
 The absence of standards affects the interoperability of different systems.
Therefore, exchange of information or data between two different ILL
systems is not a possibility today, but as systems become more common, this
problem will be eventually solved.
Document Delivery Service
Despite all the constraints faced by a library, the ultimate role of the library is to
provide access to recorded information required by their users, even if it is unable
individually to acquire and preserve it in its entirety. Instead of acquiring materials
for their own local collections, libraries are now cooperating with other libraries to
provide users with access to as wide an array of information as possible. The
mutual lending and borrowing of materials among libraries, known as interlibrary
loan, is the primary mechanism for sharing materials.
The process of document delivery has the following general components:
Requestors : Person who requests a document, the end user
of the library
Document Types : Extensive variety of document types that are
acquired, stored and supplied, for use by the
library
Document sources : Institutions including libraries, national and
international document supply centers, commercial
document supply services, publishers, and so on
Document selection : Identifying the bibliographic references, online
searching, searching through CD-ROMs
(Compact Disc Read-Only Memory), locally
mounted databases, network accessible catalogs,
and so on
Request management : Verification of user request, compliance with
copyright restrictions, and location of a potential
document source followed by request submission,
request tracking, as well as a number of other
possible transactions
Document retrieval : Physical retrieval of document by library staff,
numerous clerical activities, viz., photocopying,
packing, posting or shipping, and so on. Retrieval
of documents from electronic database is a new
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Resource Sharing Networks Document transfer : Final delivery of document, forwarding the
document to the requestor by fax, post or other
modes
The process of document delivery has become more efficient through
NOTES
electronic document delivery because of developments in the storage and
communication technology.
The prerequisites for resource sharing are as follows:
Infrastructure
Infrastructural requirements for resource sharing includes installation of hardware
and software to create the bibliographical, content pages, abstracts, full text
databases and networking that will help to build union catalogs along with software
to handle user queries, and so on. To be a part of a resource sharing network, a
library should have computers, printers, scanners, databases and networking
software with specified standards, network connectivity, photocopying machines,
fax, scanner, document delivery software, and so on.
Staff Training
Another prerequisite is skilled manpower. Being a person-intensive and service-
oriented organization, a library needs a trained and motivated workforce for the
success of cooperative programs, such as resource sharing and networking, which
is not possible without competent, trained and dedicated manpower. Various
programs for the development of staff of the participating libraries need to be
designed through education and training of the user in IT tools and techniques,
exchange of library professionals among the libraries, participation in various
professional meetings, seminars, workshops, conferences, and so on.
Retrospective Conversion
Retrospective conversion of library collections’ data in standard bibliographic format
is essential for resource sharing for which a variety of sources and methods are
available. Retrospective conversion is the conversion of existing bibliographic
records in a library from manual to machine readable format according to specified
policies and standards.
Increasing access to the collections already cataloged in the library is the
principal objective of retrospective conversion and must be in place to be able to
create a union list or a union catalog of bibliographic data at local, regional, national
and international levels. Other uses of retrospective conversion include sharing
bibliographic resources and facilitating collection rationalization, allowing
cooperative acquisition of library materials. Set standards should be used for
retrospective conversion of the bibliographic data as it will help sharing of records
between libraries.
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Document Delivery and Interlibrary Loan Resource Sharing Networks
The key to successful resource sharing is effective document delivery on demand

to the end user along with sharing of resources from one library to another, which
is through the way of ILL. Information dissemination services must be supported NOTES
by genuine provision of copy of the documents as the user is only concerned with
the original source document of his interest.
To meet the demands of its users, a library can request another library
through the network for one or more books on an ILL basis taking advantage of
the ILL service and includes the facility of reserving a book. What needs to be
developed is an efficient and effective mechanism for physical delivery and/or
electronic delivery of materials. Participating libraries cooperate in spirit and adhere
to the ILL code that is adopted by all libraries.
Internet and the Role of Librarians
The Internet and the facilities of World Wide Web (WWW) have been a boon for
libraries, providing easy means for information communication, allowing access to
information and communication with individuals throughout the world.
Computer networks allow people to access information services that include
research, publication of journals, books, reports and so on, data sharing, email
and other such facilities. The scientific community uses the Internet and WWW,
which are networking systems, as tools to share their research findings. The concept
of universal database is a common phenomenon providing access to standard
library information as well as information that links to other pieces of information in
other forms as well like data archives, electronic library, electronic journals, video
conferencing, and so on.
Irrespective of the networks they are connected to, sharing of resources
from one network to another network or from one computer to another computer
has become possible, greatly impacting the library profession by opening new
avenues of information delivery and a vast information source. With the help of
email and Web, scientists are able to deliver information to the desktops of users.
In addition, Web browsers help to integrate different library and information services
with their common user interface. Libraries are moving towards getting connected
as the Internet facilities can be used by the librarians for most of the library activities,
namely collection development, cataloging, circulation, classification, services,
preservation, and so on.
Barriers to Resource Sharing
Here are some barriers to resource sharing:
 Libraries still prefer to keep their own collection instead of accessing them
from other libraries or a network. Adding items that are not available with
other libraries is not on their agenda.
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Resource Sharing Networks  Loss of identity. The libraries participating in a network or consortium feel
that they will lose autonomy and will have to follow the guidelines set for a
group of libraries.
 They would prefer not to have a centralized body, taking care of activities
NOTES
and services under a network.
 In the initial stages, it is difficult to showcase the benefits gained through
participation in consortia and convince the authorities.
 Benefits to a library are limited because resource sharing is allowed for
peripheral areas and core areas or collection is left out of the agreement.
 Lack of institutional support will affect the availability of infrastructural
facilities, support from authority and users, thereby, impacting the success
of a resource sharing program.
 Mechanism for transfer of document or information to users is not well
tested. To build confidence in the end users, timely delivery of required
information in an efficient manner is mandatory.
 Other barriers that pose problems in resource sharing include aspects, such
as geographical, legal, administrative, and so on.
How to overcome the barriers for successful resource sharing?
 Libraries must be willing to share resources.
 They must be committed to the resource sharing policy, adhere to the
agreements, and abide by the guidelines and rules.
 Adequate preparatory studies and analysis must be made with clear
objectives.
 Participating libraries must be technically compatible.
 Monitoring of services and feedback information must be satisfactorily
addressed.
 Good transport, courier and communication facilities.
 Resource sharing should be considered a routine job and not be treated as
a burden.
 Planning by each individual participating library and also the group of libraries
as a whole is mandatory and should consider both long range and short
range factors.
 Compatibility needs to be studied and adopted by all, when sharing resources
through the networks following standards, and so on.
 There should be a mechanism to monitor the entire process and collect the
feedback from time to time.
 Resource sharing should be given equal importance compared with other
functions. One must be open with other participating libraries for decisions
taken at the consortium level and with staff members at the individual library
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 Resource sharing costs money and no immediate benefits will be visible. Resource Sharing Networks
Benefits will accrue in the medium and long range.

 An acceptable speed is necessary for improving the document provision.
 Regular interactions with participating libraries and quickly resolving issues NOTES
will contribute to the success of the program.
National Information Policy on Library and Information Systems
The new millennium has witnessed remarkable growth in information processing,
storage and retrieval. Information communication technologies have transformed
the way countries work and India is also striving to reap the benefits from them.
Liberal policies at the national and state levels are aimed at hastening developments
in Information Technology (IT) and make India one of the IT giants. The National
Task Force on Information Technology and Software Development and the
Information Technology Bill (1999) are attempts to expand the telecom sector by
establishing various network facilities, such as Education and Research Network
(ERNET), National Informatics Centre Network (India) (NICNET) and
Information and Library Network (INFLIBNET), as well as control and use of
Internet in the country.
A national policy integrated to the national development policy is the call of
the day. In 1986, the National Policy on Education was announced, which suggested
a nation-wide movement for improvement existing libraries and establishing new
ones for provision of library facilities to end users.
The Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, set
up a committee in October 1985 under the chairmanship of Professor D. P.
Chattopadhyaya to formulate a national policy on library and information system.
In May 1986, the committee submitted its report of ten chapters, including:
1. Introduction
2. Objectives of National Policy
3. The Public Library System
4. The Academic Library System
5. Special Libraries and Information Systems
6. The National Library System Bibliographical Services
7. Manpower Development and Professional Status
8. Modernization of Library and Information Systems
9. General Professional issues
10. Implementing Agencies and Financial Support
Library and information systems are vital for all sectors of national activity.
The overall objective of the National Information Policy for Library and Information
System is that, ‘Relevant information accelerates the pace of national development.
An informed citizen is an asset to a democratic system of government and the
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Resource Sharing Networks proper utilization of information can improve the quality of life of citizens. The
Government of India, therefore, realizes the value of coordinating and upgrading
the existing library and information systems and services, and initiating new programs
relevant to our national needs, taking advantage of the latest advances in information
NOTES technology.’
The major goals of the library and information policy are as follows:
 To foster, promote and sustain, by all appropriate means, the
organization, availability and use of information in all sectors of national
activity
 To take steps for mobilizing and upgrading the existing library and
information systems and services, and initiating new programs relevant
to our national needs, taking advantage of the latest advances in
information technology
 To encourage and initiate, with all possible speed, programs for training
of library and information personnel, on a scale and of a caliber adequate
to provide library and information services, and to recognize their work
as an important component of the quality and level of such services
 To set up adequate monitoring mechanisms for ensuring a rapid
development of library and information facilities and services for meeting
the information needs of all sectors and levels of the national economy
 To encourage individual initiative for the acquisition and dissemination
of knowledge, and for the discovery of new knowledge in an atmosphere
of intellectual freedom
 In general, to secure for the people of the country, all the benefits that
can accrue from the acquisition and application of knowledge
 To preserve and make known the nation’s cultural heritage in its multiple
forms
Some of the elements of networks which network policy makers might
consider have been suggested by Professor A. Neelameghan (Head at the
Documentation Research and Training Centre, Indiana Statistical Institute in
Bangalore, India). A national information network policy would help achieve the
goal of a national policy on information systems and services, which will ensure the
availability of and accessibility to an optimal utilization of specialized and professional
knowledge, and scientific, technical, economic, social, cultural and managerial
information and expertise generated and/or available within the country and
elsewhere in the world as a resource for problem solving, education, research,
innovation and applications for development, in all sectors of the national economy
and all sections of society.
The detailed purposes of the national information network include:
 Achievement of national development goals through the availability and
timely access to relevant and reliable data and information in conveniently
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usable forms at an affordable cost to all those contributing in diverse Resource Sharing Networks
ways
 Preparation and implementation of a plan of action for the establishment
of a national information network that would interlink existing sectoral
NOTES
and subnational networks and information infrastructures, coordination
of the systems, networks and services, providing for feedback from the
nodes and users, identification and correction of deficiencies filling up of
gaps and inadequacies in information resources, trained human resources,
physical facilities, and productive interaction with regional and global
networks and information programmers
 Securing and ensuring support for the components of the networks
through public and private financing and collaborative arrangements
 Ensuring sustained growth of the information network by formulating
and prescribing guidelines for assigning areas of responsibilities, choice
of means and methods and standards, setting up priorities, financial
arrangements, coordination mechanism and provision for feedback
 Ensuring that the network development accords with national information
policy and development, and coherent with economic, social, political,
government and administrative structure as they evolve with time
 Coordination and compatibility among networks at different levels and
also with overall national policies relating to information systems and
services
 Improve compatibility between various legislative measures and
ordinances relating to national systems and services
 Better responsiveness of the concerned entities to the implications of
new developments in information and communication technologies
 More effective participation in transitional and global information systems
and networks
 Efficient management and governance of information networks
The key elements of the National Policy on Information Networks include
the following:
 Identification of information resources in the country
 Cataloging, common communication and database formats and norms
for profiling the resources
 Software and computer programs for creating database and retrospective
conversion of records
 Information communication technologies suitable for networking in the
country’s infrastructure environment
 Information processing and networking manpower-availability, training
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Resource Sharing Networks  Existing networks that may be interlinked
 Sharing of information resources, and services to be provided by the
network
NOTES  Research and development to support network development
 Promotion and marketing of the network and its services
 Participation of the national network in regional and international
information networks and systems
 National network coordination and governance agency
Check Your Progress

1. Where have modern day challenges pushed libraries?
2. What is one of the mainstays of modern librarianship?
13.3 INTERNET BASED LIBRARY AND

INFORMATION SERVICES
The library plays a vital role for any organization, be it school, college, university
or any business organization. With the advancement in computer and
telecommunication technologies in the past few years the availability of information
has grown tremendously. These technologies have a great impact on traditional
academic libraries with traditional information preservation, organization, provision,
access and retrieval. The activities performed in libraries are no longer confined to
the traditional ones. There is a profound impact of ICT on libraries and most of
the libraries today are networked electronically and Internet (computer and
telecommunication technologies) is playing an important role in providing information
services and has added a great value to the library and information services. Thus,
networking among libraries and information center has become inevitable. The
prime objective of Internet based library and information services is pooling of
information resources and their related infrastructure to make them sharable.
The transformation in library system has changed the view of the library
resources and library services where web based library services are attending the
users round the clock by providing links to various library sites, which are specialized
in the topic of interest and can be accessed directly in every corner of the world.
The use of ICT in library operations saves considerable amount of time, resources
and labour. It brings quality of service and speed up the processing of information
services. With the help of Internet, a student at any university or college in India
can browse the electronic documents any where across the globe through
computers, and hence, gets an instant access to billions of resources in the form of
books, reports, videos, journals, films and variety of other resources.
The academic libraries in India have set up themselves to provide an ICT
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254 Material
both the libraries as well as the users. It has provided an easy to use and inexpensive Resource Sharing Networks
teaching tool to the information seekers. The Internet has bridged the information
gap between the libraries and information professionals by defining new and different
service operations. Some of these are as follows:
NOTES
 By creating a well organized, well published and easily accessible library
web sites that has extended the use of information technology in traditional
librarianship.
 By initiating a bulletin board of library citing complete information about
the services provided and products available with them and the various
events organized by them.
 By using e-mail services to deliver the information to the users and to
communicate with the fellow information professionals.
 By providing access to the various database and OPAC of other libraries
located at remote areas.
Scope of Internet based Library and Information Services
With the involvement of Internet in library activities, resource sharing and cooperative
functioning has also become vital which has eliminated the barrier of distance and
size among the users. It has also made the acquisition related services such as
ordering and purchase of information resources/ documents (books, journals and
electronic publication) more speedy and simple. These activities can be carried
out through e-mail. Also, most of the booksellers and publishers place their
catalogues and leaflets of new publications on their websites which can be easily
accessed through Internet. All the publishers of primary journals are providing
their journals online. The Internet facilitates the library and information professionals
to browse the various sites for all the current publications available with the price
and allow them to place the order online. The communication regarding any query
or discrepancy can be done through e-mail which saves time, reduces paper work
and efforts.
Internet has also made it possible to prepare standard catalogues without
much effort. Centralized and online public access cataloguing services are provided
by Internet. Union cataloguing has also made it possible to avoid the duplications
in holding to a greater extend. The library professionals are allowed to access the
Internet resources for verification and downloading the bibliographic information
from other organization. OPAC has also become a popular source of bibliographic
information which can be accessed via Internet. It is useful to get information
about the organization of knowledge by other institutions.
The circulation of in house documents is also become easy through Internet.
The new books document can be placed in OPAC on the same day of acquisition
itself after certain technical processing and the readers can browse and reserve
the material from their homes or offices that too within seconds after the arrival of
the material. Also, subscribed journals by the libraries are accessible from anywhere
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Resource Sharing Networks across the world, the users can get access to the electronic form of journal from
their offices or departments without visiting the libraries.
Since the information is increasing day by day on Internet, the information is
used by librarians for reference services by the librarians to answer the questions
NOTES
they are asked. These are known as ready reference collection. The availability of
various primary and secondary sources of information online made it possible to
provide short-range and long-range reference services through Internet. The Internet
has proved as an alternative to the traditional face-to-face reference service where
there is a provision of chat based e-mail service for virtual reference and web
tools such as FAQ are provided on the libraries websites. Real-time reference
service is also provided using Instant Messaging (IM) which is a type of virtual
communication between two people. Some IMs such as Trillion, Library H3IP,
Meebo are providing access to all e-mail IDs while logged into any such platform
eliminating the need to login to different e-mail address.
The Internet has made possible the availability of major libraries online which
are accessible directly from any part of the world. It has provided access to the
catalogues of various libraries that are attached to universities and colleges and
allow them to place a request for their users. To avoid financial crunches, libraries
have agreed for resource sharing which is not at all possible without the Internet.
Publishers are also providing their journals electronically that has facilitated libraries
to subscribe a large collection of journals from different publishers that also support
cross journal searching and extensive browsing. Online collection of publications
enables the users to search and browse the articles directly from journals subscribed
by their libraries. Resource sharing using Internet has remarkably reduced the
cost of collections by the libraries.
Resource sharing is also done through Inter-Library Loan (IIL) and traditional
IIL operations are time consuming and labour intensive. The Internet has facilitated
libraries to share their resources through IIL effectively and efficiently. IIL through
Internet offers the following benefits:
 Single solution to manage the activities of IIL.
 The paper work and record-keeping in browsing and lending a material
can be effectively managed with reduced paper work.
 Easy to track the status of the request at all stages in IIL process.
 To integrate bibliographic information with online union catalogue using
Internet.
 Request and messages through electronic transmission using Internet.
In a way, Internet has become a great help in almost all the activities of
library operations. Access to all types of material has become easy and speedy
with the help of electronic documents.
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Services Available on Internet Resource Sharing Networks
There is a huge impact of Internet on the library services and has now become an
integral part of LIS. Internet is able to reach the library services to the user’s desktop.
Some of the services that are available through Internet are as follows: NOTES
 Online Information Retrieval: One of the important roles of library
is to provide access to the information to the society. To improve the
learning activity and teaching, it is important to have access to the
comprehensive and current information. Through Internet, libraries are
able to access online information resources at some nominal fees. This
has become the most utilized service of the libraries.
 Free Browsing: The availability of large number of information on the
Web, some libraries may provide the facility to access the same by
providing free browsing to the users through Internet.
 Broad Band Internet Center: Libraries are providing interconnection
through networking with other libraries and information center to provide
access to e-resources. Internet is also used for e-mailing, accessing e-
journals, database, web OPAC with this facility.
 Library Homepage for Information Dissemination: Libraries are
able to provide regular display of information of the latest editions and
other information related to academic, research through their websites.
This service facilitates the researchers and other users to make effective
use of their academic and research interests.
 Dynamic Library Websites: Libraries are developing their websites
with a link to OPAC to familiarize users about the library activities and
to allow users to access the library catalogue remotely through Internet.
Users are allowed to perform some library functions such as renewal of
books, access of the content page of materials and ask for a copy to be
delivered at their home/work place. Websites also provide the link to
other resources that are created by the library.
 Bulletin Board Service: Through this service people are provided an
area for discussion called bulletin board by posting messages without
sending them to anyone’s e-mail. The post is seen by everyone who
enters into the area. In campuses, these bulletins are called forum. The
latest information about daily news, job opportunities, fellowship and
so forth can be posted on these boards. These bulletins are available via
Internet to specific category of user discipline.
 OPAC: The online public Access Catalogue (OPAC) provides facilities
to browse and locate information and is known as the gateways to the
information in the libraries. The purpose of OPAC was to provide access
to the housekeeping activities of the libraries and to provide direct access
to the machine readable bibliographic records.
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Resource Sharing Networks E-Books
The introduction and growth of e-books has changed the relationships between
the libraries, publishers and distributors and also the relationship between the
NOTES libraries and their users. There are several libraries who are adopting e-book
collections on a very large scale. Armstrong and Lonsdale have defined the term
e-book as ‘any content that is recognizably book like, regardless of size, origin or
composition, but excluding serial publications, made available electronically for
reference or reading on any device that includes a screen’. Algenio and Thompson-
Young have considered that these e-books can be accessed by multiple persons
at a time. Moreover, a patron need not go to library in person to borrow a book
and the e-books can be downloaded from the website and can be read later
offline. Although, there can be a restriction of time limit for the usage of the e-
books and may get terminated after a certain span of time. These e-books can be
accessed apart from computers, from other handy devices such as laptops, smart
phones, i-pads, notebooks and so on.
Also, it seems to believe that the cost of e-books is far less as compared to
the cost of producing the copies of printed books. This is due to the reduced cost
of printing and distribution by the publishers. Although, the basic tasks involved in
producing e-books are same as that of print books such as acquisition, production,
sales and marketing, delivery and finance of books. However, some publishers
have stated in their blogs that expense, incurred to manufacturing and distribution
is 12 per cent and does not reduce the total publishing cost greatly. In fact, the
publishers have highlighted the three new costs associated with e-books. These
are digitization that is, producing the books in different formats, quality assurance
that is, digital distribution to different retailers or distributers with digital asset
management system and different upload protocols. But the production cost of an
additional copy of an e-book is lower as compared to the production cost of a
printed copy.
Types of E-Books
There are different types of e-books that can be recognized. These are as follows:
 Issue or re-issue of a print book in e-format. These types are called e-
hybrid book.
 A book created by e-revision or e-feedback and the formally-issued
version of which is in the print format.
 E-books enhance text with audio, video or images.
 A book with text, images, audio and video, and are regularly updated as
warranted. These are known as e-reference books. A series that
combines the latest information is also considered in this type.
 An e-book is published in pdf format and is similar to the printed version.
The chapters can be downloaded in this type.
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 A web page having an e-book that are readable online in HTML format Resource Sharing Networks
only.
 E-books in the form of an app where the text and other content are
published in the form of an app with features such as sound, movement
NOTES
and other special features.
 An e-book that is available under communication common license.
Technology Involved
The development of e-books required technical aspects such as hardware, software
and a screen for displaying content.
 Hardware Aspect: There is a need of some portable e-book devices for
reading purpose. The hardware may include desktops, laptops, and
multipurpose devices or even dedicated reading devices. These devices
are provided with a screen such as a monitor, LCD or a touch screen.
 Software Aspect: Some software are required for e-book reading that
support special functions such as search, colors/grayscale display, user
defined text size, hyperlinks within the books, and so on. Some of the
common examples of such e-book software reader are Adobe Acrobat,
Microsoft Reader, Palm Reader, Franklin Reader, and so forth. Most of
the software are available for free downloads and support several operating
system.
 E-book Creator Software: Special software are needed for the creation
of e-books and there are certain software tools available for the purpose
such as Adobe Page Maker, Adobe Acrobat Capture, Adobe Frame Maker,
Adobe Design, and so on.
E-Book Standardization
It is necessary to standardize the formats of e-books as there are far many variables
such as operating system, executable software, memory space, and so on. that
are associated with e-books. Attempts have been made to standardize the e-
books. The Open eBook Forum (OEBF), which is an association of software
and hardware companies, publishers, authors, users and other related organizations
of e-books, has established some common specifications for e-book system,
products and applications that are beneficial for the content creators, makers of
reading systems and of course, the consumers that help them in adopting e-books
and to increase the awareness and acceptance of the emerging e-publishing industry.
They have attempted in providing common e-book format. The common formats
of e-books are Adobe PDF, DAISY Digital Talking Books and Microsoft Reader
and are equipped with Digital Rights Management (DRM) technology (an access
technology to protect copyright material and also limits the usage of digital media
and devices).
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Resource Sharing Networks E-Book Licensing
The e-books are leased rather than purchased. There are three types of e-book
leases as offered by the publishers and vendors:
NOTES  Annual Access: An annual fee for one year’s access is paid by the libraries
and the lease gets renewed every year.
 Permanent Access: A one-time fee is paid by the libraries.
 Pay per use: Based on the number of uses (pages viewed, titles viewed
and so on), the library is billed or a prepaid account is debited. This may be
an annual fee platform also.
The e-book licensing can be modeled into three broad categories as: Print,
database and open access licensing arrangements. The first model allows the access
to an e-book with one user at a time. The restriction has been implemented on
printing, copying, saving and sharing of e-books on the reading devices by DRM.
This restriction of viewing and printing limits has affected the access of e-books.
The second model, database model, has been developed to overcome the DRM
restriction by enabling simultaneous access to e-book contents. The third model,
Open Access (OA) has been developed to allow the access of the content of e-
book freely with few restrictions.
Distribution of E-Books
The e-books are sold either directly to the consumer or through different suppliers
that includes retailers such as Amazon, Barnes and Noble and Apple and through
different suppliers such as Ingram. Earlier till 2010, the wholesale model was
used by the publishers to sell e-books where a retail price was fixed by publisher
and used to sell the book to the intermediary at a heavy discount, which was
usually 50 per cent. The retail prices of e-books were usually fixed to the lowest
price incurred for the print book. After the availability of paperback edition the
publishers would lower the price of e-book. The trend is still follow by some small
publishers.
In 2010, an agency model was introduced for the sale of e-books where
the publishers made deals with Apple, who was introducing its new Apple Tablet.
The agency which would usually be a retailer would get a commission from the
publishers in doing so. This method gained a greater degree of control over e-
book pricing as compared to the pricing over print book and the publishers were
gaining permanent edge over the e-book margins.
Advantages of E-Books
There are many advantages of using e-books. They are discussed as follows:
 One of the most important advantages of e-books is that there is a provision
to store thousands of books into your electronic device without any worries
of managing them on the multiple bookshelves taking a huge space in your
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260 Material
 The accessibility and availability of the e-books are more convenient and Resource Sharing Networks
speedy. Moreover, there is a possibility to customize the display brightness,

font size and style, links and annotations. There is a provision of seamless
integration of multimedia in e-books.
NOTES
 The accessibility of e-books from remote place make it possible to purchase
single copy and make it available in multiple locations at any time round the
clock.
 The instant delivery is another feature of e-books with no loses or damage
to the titles.
 The process of publishing an e-book is also quicker as compared to print
book. The content can be changed easily at any point of time and new
edition can be distributed through Internet instantly. The cost of printing,
inventory, binding and so on. can also be eliminated and the storage space
in the warehouses can also be saved.
 The material can be accessed equally by on-campus students as well as by
distance learning students.
 E-books can be updated on daily, weekly or monthly basis providing latest
information on current affairs.
Disadvantages of E-Books
There are some cognitive disadvantages of e-books. They are as follows:
 Researchers have studied and found that reading text onscreen takes 20-
30 per cent more time as compared to reading on paper.
 Researchers have also found increased workload reading an e-book which
is a combination of factors such as feeling of exhaustion, increased stress
and concluded that more mental efforts are required for reading on screen
than paper.
 Also, print readers digest information more quickly and more deeply and
remember things by associating with texts as compared to screen reading.
 Some e-books are costly for downloading.

 Selection, acquisition and management of e-books can become complex
and expensive if necessary procedures are not made a routine.
Barriers of E-Books
There are certain barriers in e-books which hinder the users to opt for e-books.
 User’s reliability on printed text is more, and hence, neglects the benefits of
e-books.
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Resource Sharing Networks  The policies for purchase/subscription of e-books are different form print
book and are difficult to understand.
 The cost of e-books from foreign publishers is high for Indian readers.
NOTES  Internet access also contributes to the barrier in India.
 Suspect for online products.
 Lack of awareness in information literacy program for e-books.
 Non-standardization of hardware/software required for various types of e-
books.
 Lack of common platform for e-books.
 Building of a strong e-book collection is difficult as many of the titles are not
available in e-format.
 Licensing issues may affect the availability of e-books across the countries.
E-Journals
The term journal as described by the Encyclopedia Dictionary of Library and
Information Science is ‘the record of proceeding of transactions of a learned
society’. ‘It is a publication in any medium issued in successive parts bearing
numerical or chronological designations and intended to be continued indefinitely’
– as defined by AACR2. It is considered as a information shell in a subject. Journals
have important role in information management for information creation and
dissemination. It consists of research papers, review articles and scholarly
communication.
With the emergence of ICT in the recent years, there are ways of providing
information to the society at lower cost with easy and reliable mechanism. Publishing
industry has brought about the development where information is also created and
offered digitally and is referred to as electronic documents. One such sophisticated
form of this type of information is e-journals. The term e-journal or electronic
journal denotes a broader category of e-publication that include journals, e-zine,
web-zine, magazines, newsletter or any type of electronic serial publication and is
available on Internet which is accessible through different technologies like www,
ftp, gopher, telnet or e-mail.
Although there is no universally accepted definition of e-journals, some
researchers have defined e-journals as:
‘Any serials produced, published and distributed nationally and internationally
via electronic networks such as Binet and Internet’ – As defined by GailMacmillan.
‘E-journals are available electronically via a computer or a computer network,
that they may or may not be published in some other physical medium, but that are
not CD-ROM’s’ – As defined by Jones.
The above definitions state that e-journals are periodicals which can be
made available over Internet as individual titles. The term e-journal is interchangeably
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used with paperless journal or virtual journal. E-journals can be accessed online Resource Sharing Networks
by more than one user simultaneously with timely access. Similar to other electronic
documents, e-journals save physical storage.
Characteristics of E-Journals NOTES
The few characteristics of e-journals are as follows:
 Serial publication that is available in digital format.
 Located on Web and accesses over World Wide Web (WWW).
 Can either be available for free or by subscription.
 Available formats for e-journals are: ASCII text, HTML pages or PDF
(Portable Document Format).
 Accessibility from any place.
 Available in downloadable format.
Types of E-Journals
 Also called classic e-journals, these were originally distributed through e-
mail and are now available on Internet. These journals can be accessed free
of cost.
 The journals are available in print as well as electronic form. There is
sometimes a difference in the content of the two versions in a way that
either electronic version contains some supplement issue or the electronic
version is released before printed. The electronic version may be a collection
of full text or it may consist of only table of content or some selected article
from the printed version.
 Some e-journals are called database and software models where the articles
are stored in publisher maintained centralized database and the access
permission is given to the subscriber to locate the database and download
the article. There is a expiration date associated with the software.
 Some commercial publishers have full text of the journals available on CD-
ROMs. Libraries are often needed to get subscribed for both the CD-
ROM and print form to such journals.
 There are full text e-journals where the complete articles are available online
instead of summaries and abstract.
 Some e-journals are available only online with no counterparts such as
CD-ROMs or printed version.
Access to E-Journals
The e-journals can be accessed mainly through Internet, although there is mechanism
to access e-journals through CD-ROMs as well. The following are the different
ways to access e-journals provided by the publishers:
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Resource Sharing Networks  Free Access to the e-journal with the subscription of print journal.
 Libraries can completely access all the e-journals by exclusive subscription
for electronic form without having to subscribe to the counterpart print
version.
NOTES
 Selective Access to the few chosen e-journals by subscribing to them from
the publishers as per agreed terms and conditions.
 Consortium Access by forming a consortium of institutions with common
requirements and interests. This provides the access to the expensive and
international e-journals which otherwise is not possible by many libraries to
afford in India.
There are also three types of access modes available for e-journals. They are as
follows:
 Remote Access: This type of model allows publishers/vendors to host the
journals through their websites and provide the right of access to the patrons
including individuals or institutions who are subscribed with the publishers
for the e-journals. The rights to access can be provided through user-id-
password, IP enabled intranet or both.
 On-Site Access: The e-journals are delivered by the publishers through
CD-ROMs or by their website, or through FTP option to the subscribed
libraries. The e-journal in turn is hosted by the library within the campus.
This way, library can host the journal through LAN with wider and better
bandwidth within the campus as compared to the access through Internet.
 Access through Database: The publishers are creating the content in the
electronic format and maintain a bibliographic database over the years.
The users can access the articles of their interests through these databases.
Creation of E-Journals
The basic steps involved in creating e-journals are as follows:
 Planning: The first step is planning. In this case, the hierarchical structure,
navigation and logical composition of e-journal is planned.
 Content Creation: Content of any literature is an essential part and has to
be created carefully.
 Realization: It involves the designing of the structure of HTML, deciding
links between pages, sending to the server and testing.
Advantages of E-Journals
E-journals are published in an electronic format and have various advantages over
printed journals. They facilitate a new relationship between information and
knowledge and offer new form of scholarly practice. They offer many advantages
to users as well as publishers. The following are some advantages of e-journals:
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 The e-journals offer the most attractive features of navigation and searching Resource Sharing Networks
and provide better retrieval capabilities as compared to paper format. The

article can be retrieved through any word of the article.
 Instead of hours and days, it takes some minutes to access e-journals than
NOTES
printed journals as it reduces the printing and mailing time.
 They are readily available at your desktop and can be read by more than
one person at a time.
 They can be made attractive by including multimedia and graphics including
audio-visual materials.
 They provide the user with the facility to link directly to references cited in
the articles through the creation of hyperlink both internally and to other
publications.
 Since there is no space restrictions, the publishers can print any number of
articles in e-journals and the length of the articles have no restrictions.
 E-journals provide tremendous searching capabilities based on titles, authors,
keywords, subjects, full text, abstract and so on. The publishers allow viewing
the abstract of an article to decide the worth of an article.
 They are available 24x7 and can be accesses remotely by the users. It
reduces the efforts of patrons to visit the library to obtain a copy of the
article. It also omits the geographical barrier for the user.
Disadvantages of E-Journals
Following are some disadvantages associated with e-journals:
 The e-journals involve reading from the device screen and long reading
may cause eyestrain.
 There is an additional cost investment initially as special equipment (electronic
devices) such as computer or other handheld devices are required to read
the journals.
 Also, access to e-journals need electricity, telephone lines, Internet,
appropriate hardware and software which might be a problem to people
living in India.
 Since the technology is not far distant, there is a small percentage of electronic
articles available and so it might be possible to have no access to some of
the e-journals.
 Maintenance of e-journals requires more facilities and an expert and trained
staff.
 Threat of duplication as it is very easy to make copies of e-journals.
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Resource Sharing Networks Adversities of E-Journals
There are certain issues and apprehensions which are associated with e-journals
in spite of so many advantages of e-journals. They are as follows:
NOTES  The peer review of the articles in e-journals for the authenticity and quality
of the information being reviewed.
 The comprehensiveness of e-journal.
 The easy downloading of e-journals.
 The limit to the number of views and the flow of information with heavy
traffic.
 Online help for users.
Examples of E-Journals on Web
There are thousands of e-journals available on web. They are presented in many
languages and are of different themes and interests.
Check Your Progress

3. Who provides centralized and online public access cataloguing services?
4. Why have academic libraries set up themselves?

QUESTIONS
1. The modern-day challenges that face libraries today have pushed them
towards sharing of resources through cooperation, especially for individual
libraries in developing countries.
2. Resource sharing is one of the mainstays of modern librarianship.
3. Centralized and online public access cataloguing services are provided by
Internet.
4. The academic libraries in India have set up themselves to provide an ICT
based information services platform.
13.5 SUMMARY
 Resource sharing is a sort of implied agreement amongst participating libraries

wherein each participant is willing to share its resources with other members
and, in turn, is privileged to share the resources of its partners.
 Resource sharing can also be defined as ‘activities engaged in by the libraries
for the purpose of improving access to and delivery of the holdings of other
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266 Material
 Networking of libraries and interactive computer systems and Resource Sharing Networks
telecommunication facilities can be implemented for the explicit purpose of

resource sharing to achieve these objectives.
 Resource sharing involves sharing of resources of participating libraries for
NOTES
the purpose of sharing the resources of each other’s materials via an
agreement of cooperation.
 The modern-day challenges that face libraries today have pushed them
towards sharing of resources through cooperation, especially for individual
libraries in developing countries.
 Today, resource sharing is one of the mainstays of modern librarianship.
 Libraries need to maintain a fine balance between access and ownership.
Owning an item means faster access to users compared to waiting to borrow
or 5. purchase on demand.
 Resource sharing is a cost-effective approach leading to better utilization of
library resources.
 Common subscriptions can be avoided and the budgets are used to provide
access to more unique resources by resource sharing.
 Through alliances or consortia, libraries can cut costs in subscribing to
international periodicals.
 Collection development has one primary objective, that is, to help libraries
identify and select publications that are meaningful for acquisition by using
data available at various levels.
 With the advancement in computer and telecommunication technologies in
the past few years the availability of information has grown tremendously.
 The transformation in library system has changed the view of the library
resources and library services.
 The academic libraries in India have set up themselves to provide an ICT
based information services platform.
 Centralized and online public access cataloguing services are provided by
Internet.
 Since the information is increasing day by day on Internet, the information is
used by librarians for reference services by the librarians to answer the
questions they are asked.
13.6 KEY WORDS
 Free browsing: It is the availability of large number of information on the

Web, some libraries may provide the facility to access the same by providing
free browsing to the users through Internet.
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Resource Sharing Networks  Broad Band Internet Center: These are libraries are providing
interconnection through networking with other libraries and information center
to provide access to e-resources.
NOTES
EXERCISES
1. What is a broad band internet center?
2. Write a short note on e-book standardization.
3. What are the advantages of e-books?
4. List the types of e-journals.
5. How are e-journals created?
1. Write a detailed note on resource sharing technology.
2. What is the need for resource sharing? Discuss.
3. Write a note on access versus ownership.
4. What are the areas of resource sharing?
5. Write about cooperative storage control and its use.
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Resource Sharing Networks
UNIT 14 METADATA STANDARDS

Structure NOTES
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Dublin Core
14.4 Summary
14.5 Key Words
14.0 INTRODUCTION
A metadata standard is a requirement which is intended to establish a common

understanding of the meaning or semantics of the data, to ensure correct and proper
use and interpretation of the data by its owners and users. To achieve this common
understanding, a number of characteristics, or attributes of the data have to be
defined, also known as metadata.
Metadata is often defined as data about data. It is “structured information
that describes, explains, locates, or otherwise makes it easier to retrieve, use or
manage an information resource”, especially in a distributed network environment
like for example the internet or an organization. A good example of metadata is
the cataloging system found in libraries, which records for example the author,
title, subject, and location on the shelf of a resource. Another is software system
knowledge extraction of software objects such as data flows, control flows, call
maps, architectures, business rules, business terms, and database schemas.
In this unit, you will study about metadata standard, Dublin Core, its role
and standards in detail.
14.1 OBJECTIVES

 Understand what Dublin Core is
 Discuss the role and standards of Dublin Core
14.2 DUBLIN CORE
Dublin Core (DC) is an improved digital cataloging system for making search
engines much more accurate and efficient. The schema for Dublin Core has many Self-Instructional
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Resource Sharing Networks terms for describing resources such as web pages and media like video and images.
It also has data regarding physical objects such as CDs, books and even works of
art. The main objective of this system is to create a powerful and accommodating
catalog involving all web objects. It can be used for better search engine
NOTES optimization. The metadata generated from this can be used for quick description
of web resources and for combining metadata from different standards.
Dublin Core is an initiative to create a digital ‘library card catalog’ for the
Web. Dublin Core is made up of 15 metadata (data that describes data) elements
that offer expanded cataloging information and improved document indexing
for search engine programs.
Two forms of Dublin Core exist:
 Simple Dublin Core
 Qualified Dublin Core
Simple Dublin Core expresses elements as attribute-value pairs using just the 15
metadata elements from the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set.
Qualified Dublin Core increases the specificity of metadata by adding information
about encoding schemes, enumerated lists of values, or other processing clues.
While enabling searches to be more specific, qualifiers are also more complex and
can pose challenges to interoperability.
Each method of recording or transferring Dublin Core metadata has its
plusses and minuses. HTML, XML, RDF, and relational databases are among
the more common methods.
The Dublin Core Metadata Initiative began in 1995, taking its name from
the location of the original workshop, Dublin, Ohio. It has since become international
in scope and has representatives from more than 20 countries now contributing.
Dublin Core has always held that resource discovery should be independent from
the medium of the resource. So, while Dublin Core targets electronic resources, it
aims to be flexible enough to help in searches for more traditional formats of data
too. Web sites, though, are the most common users of Dublin Core.
Dublin Core contains 15 classical metadata elements for better cataloguing.
These classic elements are called the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set. These
classical metadata elements include:
 Creator – The creator of the object
 Subject – The topic of the object
 Title – The name of the object
 Publisher – Details about the person who published the object
 Description – Short description of the object
 Date – The date of publishing
 Contributor – Those who have edited the object
 Identifier – The identifying agent for the object
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 Type – Type of the object Resource Sharing Networks
 Format – The design and arrangement format of the object

 Relation – Relation with any other object/objects
 Language – The language of the object NOTES
 Rights – Any kind of copyright information
 Coverage – Where is the object in the real world
Standards play a vital role in networking. Some of important standards and their
functions are discussed in the following section.
Cataloging Standards: MARC-21
Machine Readable Cataloging (MARC) means that data of a cataloging record
can be read and interpreted by a computer. Exchange of bibliographic information
among computerized library systems uses MARC to provide a standard format
for the global exchange of bibliographic information available in machine readable
format in libraries worldwide.
In 1996, the Library of Congress, Washington DC, initiated the creation of
MARC records. Soon UKMARC, CANMARC and AUSMARC began their
efforts, and by 1970, there were around twenty different national MARC formats
requiring conversion programs to exchange data from one MARC to another. To
solve this conversion problem, the UNIMARC was developed, which allowed
conversion from one MARC to UNIMARC and vice versa. However, USMARC
became the most widely used because of its coverage of standards and timely
updation. A common harmonized format was developed under the auspices of the
National Library of Canada and the Library of Congress to reconcile the format
differences. CANMARC and USMARC formats were balanced into the MARC-
21.
Cataloging Standards: UNICODE
The Unicode Standard is a universal character encoding standard by which text
for computer processing is represented. There is full compatibility and
synchronization of Unicode standards with corresponding versions of International
Standard ISO/IEC 10646. Additional information about the characters and their
use is provided by the Unicode Standard, and if any implementation is conformant
to Unicode, it is also conformant to ISO/IEC 10646. It provides a consistent way
of encoding multilingual plain text that makes it easy to exchange text files
internationally.
Character coding is simple and efficient with a unique numeric value and
name assigned to each character. Today, all the characters used for the written
languages of the world can be encoded by the Unicode Standard. The Unicode
Standard defines codes for:
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Resource Sharing Networks  All the characters used in all the major languages written today
 Scripts include:
o The European alphabetic scripts
NOTES o The middle Eastern right-to-left scripts
o The scripts of Asia
 Punctuation marks
 Diacritics – modifying character marks, such as the tilde (~)
 Mathematical symbols
 Technical symbols
 Arrows
 Dingbats, and so on
Codes for 49,194 characters from the world’s alphabets, ideograph sets
and symbol collections are provided by the Unicode Standard, Version 3.0. This
fits into the first 64K characters of the code space called basic multilingual plane
or BMP. The BMP has about 8,000 unused code points for future expansion with
additional provision for another 9,17,476 supplementary code points. The Unicode
Standard also has a provision for code points for private use which can be assigned
internally by vendors or end users for their own characters and symbols, or for
use with specialized fonts. 6,400 private use code points are available on the
BMP with another 1,31,068 supplementary private use code points.
Information Retrieval Standard: Z39.50
With the use of the Internet and World Wide Web, it is possible to access online
bibliographic resources in many different ways. This has allowed libraries to shift
their focus from collecting information to providing access to information using
electronic resources. The main obstacle is the variation in the use of software and
hardware as library professionals have to learn specific features of each system,
such as command languages, search procedures, and so on. Growth of electronic
resources will compound the problem of how to access the information from diverse
databases.
An international standard for communication between computer systems
primarily, library and information related systems for overcoming the problems of
database searching with many search languages was designed and documented
with the name ANSI/NISO Z39.50. Today, this is very significant for the future
development and deployment of interlinked library systems.
A set of attributes is used by a Z39.5 query to search one or more databases.
The characteristics and simple search process in a Z39.50 session is as follows:
 OPAC user selects Target library (Z-server) from an OPAC menu.
 OPAC user enters search terms.
 OPAC software sends search terms and Target library details to a ‘Z-
client’ a piece of software usually running as part of the library system.
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 Z-client translates the search terms into ‘Z-speak’ and contacts the Target Resource Sharing Networks
library’s Z-server software.
 There is a preliminary negotiation between the Z-client and the Z-server
to establish the rules for the ‘Z-Association’ between the two systems.
NOTES
 Z-server translates the ‘Z-speak’ into a search request for the Target
library’s database and receives a response about numbers of matches.
 Z-client receives records.
 Records are presented to the OPAC interface for the user.
Network Protocols: TCP/IP Protocols
 IP Address or IP Number: IP stands for Internet Protocol which is a
unique number consisting of four parts separated by periods, for example,
165.113.245.2. If a machine is on the Internet, it will have an IP address
that is unique. Most machines will also have a Domain name, which is easier
to remember.
 TCP/IP: Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is the
suite of protocols that defines the Internet that was initially designed for the
UNIX operating system. Today, all major computer operating systems use
TCP/IP and is a must software which to be installed on the Internet.
Network Protocols: Telnet
 TELNET: This is an Internet service that allows one computer to log on to
another not as a remote computer.
Check Your Progress

1. Define DC.
2. What is the main objective of DC?
3. Give the two forms of Dublin Core.
4. List the function of Qualified Dublin Core do.
5. What is MARC?

QUESTIONS
1. Dublin Core (DC) is an improved digital cataloging system for making search
engines much more accurate and efficient. The schema for Dublin Core has
many terms for describing resources such as web pages and media like
video and images. It also has data regarding physical objects such as CDs,
books and even works of art.
2. The main objective of this system is to create a powerful and accommodating
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Resource Sharing Networks 3. Two forms of Dublin Core exist: Simple Dublin Core and Qualified Dublin
Core. Simple Dublin Core expresses elements as attribute-value pairs using
just the 15 metadata elements from the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set.
4. Qualified Dublin Core increases the specificity of metadata by adding
NOTES
information about encoding schemes, enumerated lists of values, or other
processing clues. While enabling searches to be more specific, qualifiers
are also more complex and can pose challenges to interoperability.
5. Machine Readable Cataloging (MARC) means that data of a cataloging
record can be read and interpreted by a computer.
14.4 SUMMARY
 Dublin Core (DC) is an improved digital cataloging system for making search
engines much more accurate and efficient. The schema for Dublin Core has
many terms for describing resources such as web pages and media like
video and images. It also has data regarding physical objects such as CDs,
books and even works of art.
 The main objective of this system is to create a powerful and accommodating
optimization.
 The metadata generated from this can be used for quick description of web
resources and for combining metadata from different standards.
 Dublin Core is an initiative to create a digital ‘library card catalog’ for the
Web. Dublin Core is made up of 15 metadata (data that describes data)
elements that offer expanded cataloging information and improved document
indexing for search engine programs.
 Two forms of Dublin Core exist: Simple Dublin Core and Qualified Dublin
Core. Simple Dublin Core expresses elements as attribute-value pairs using
just the 15 metadata elements from the Dublin Core Metadata Element
Set.
 Qualified Dublin Core increases the specificity of metadata by adding
information about encoding schemes, enumerated lists of values, or other
processing clues. While enabling searches to be more specific, qualifiers
are also more complex and can pose challenges to interoperability.
 Each method of recording or transferring Dublin Core metadata has its
plusses and minuses. HTML, XML, RDF, and relational databases are
among the more common methods.
 The Dublin Core Metadata Initiative began in 1995, taking its name from
the location of the original workshop, Dublin, Ohio. It has since become
international in scope and has representatives from more than 20 countries
now contributing. Dublin Core has always held that resource discovery
Self-Instructional should be independent from the medium of the resource. So, while
274 Material
 Dublin Core targets electronic resources, it aims to be flexible enough to Resource Sharing Networks
help in searches for more traditional formats of data too. Web sites, though,
are the most common users of Dublin Core.
 There are two types of Dublin Cores: Simple Dublin Core and Qualified
NOTES
Dublin Core. The Simple Dublin Core is for simple pairs of attribute-values
and uses the 15 classic elements, while Qualified Dublin Core uses three
more elements for better definition of the data.
 Standards play a vital role in networking. Some of important standards and
their functions are discussed in the following section.
 Machine Readable Cataloging (MARC) means that data of a cataloging
record can be read and interpreted by a computer.
 Exchange of bibliographic information among computerized library systems
uses MARC to provide a standard format for the global exchange of
bibliographic information available in machine readable format in libraries
worldwide.
 The Unicode Standard is a universal character encoding standard by which
text for computer processing is represented. There is full compatibility and
synchronization of Unicode standards with corresponding versions of
International Standard ISO/IEC 10646.
 Additional information about the characters and their use is provided by the
Unicode Standard, and if any implementation is conformant to Unicode, it
is also conformant to ISO/IEC 10646. It provides a consistent way of
encoding multilingual plain text that makes it easy to exchange text files
internationally.
 Character coding is simple and efficient with a unique numeric value and
name assigned to each character.
 With the use of the Internet and World Wide Web, it is possible to access
online bibliographic resources in many different ways. This has allowed
libraries to shift their focus from collecting information to providing access
to information using electronic resources.
 The main obstacle is the variation in the use of software and hardware as
library professionals have to learn specific features of each system, such as
command languages, search procedures, and so on. Growth of electronic
resources will compound the problem of how to access the information
from diverse databases.
14.5 KEY WORDS
 IP Address or IP Number: IP stands for Internet Protocol which is a

unique number consisting of four parts separated by periods, for example,
165.113.245.2.
Self-Instructional
Material 275
Resource Sharing Networks  TCP/IP: Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is the
suite of protocols that defines the Internet that was initially designed for the
UNIX operating system.
 TELNET: It is an Internet service that allows one computer to log on to
NOTES
another not as a remote computer.

EXERCISES

1. Brief a note on DC.
2. When and how did the initiative of DC begin?
3. Brief a note on MARC-21.
4. What is UNICODE?
1. Elaborate on DC and its forms.
2. Discuss the metadata elements of DC.
3. Explain the cataloging standards of DC.
4. Write a detailed note on UNICODE.
5. Give a detailed note on Information Retrieval Standard.
6. Explain Network Protocols.
Self-Instructional
276 Material
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UG - B.Lib.I.Sc. - Library Information Science - 109 21 - ICT in Libraries

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.emaN e1.

Bachelor of Library & Information Science YTISREVINUALAGAPPA

INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES IN LIBRARIES

Bachelor of Library & Information Science

Directorate of Distance Education

Bachelor of Library & Information Science

"The copyright shall be vested with Alagappa University"

Vikas® is the registered trademark of Vikas® Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

BLOCK I: INTRODUCTION TO ICT

BLOCK II: NETWORKING

Unit IV: Telecommunications, Wireless Communication, Wi-Fi Unit 4: Telecommunication

BLOCK III: COMPUTER HARDWARE & SOFTWARE

BLOCK IV: LIBRARY AUTOMATION

BLOCK I: INTRODUCTION TO ICT

UNIT 2 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS 12-36

UNIT 4 TELECOMMUNICATION 52-84

BLOCK III: COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

UNIT 6 TYPES OF SOFTWARE 106-118

BLOCK IV: LIBRARY AUTOMATION

UNIT 8 OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE 145-156

UNIT 9 HOUSE-KEEPING OPERATIONS 157-183

BLOCK V: DIGITAL LIBRARY

UNIT 11 DIGITIZATION 205-216

UNIT 12 LIBRARY AND INFORMATION NETWORKS 217-238

UNIT 13 RESOURCE SHARING NETWORKS 239-268

UNIT 14 METADATA STANDARDS 269-276

We live in the age of information. The development and propagation of electronically

Information Technology (IT) is the use of computers to store, retrieve, transmit,

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION

Information and Communications Technology or ICT, is often used as an extended

Fig. 1.1 The Information System in a Business Context

Fig. 1.2 The Basic Information System

Applications of Information Systems

Interactive marketing sales

Manufacturing resource Compensation analysis

Order processing Cash management

Fig. 1.3 The Application Areas of Information Systems

Types of Information Systems

Fig. 1.4 The Classification of Information Systems

Organizations use different types of information systems as per the

middle-level workers to take decisions for a better performance of the

Check Your Progress

1. Some of the applications of Information and Communications Technologies NOTES

 Information and Communications Technology or ICT, is often used as an

1.5 KEY WORDS

 Data: Input that the system takes to produce information.

Short Answer Questions NOTES

1.7 FURTHER READINGS

A computer is a programmable machine. The two principal characteristics of a

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

2.2 COMPUTERS AND THEIR COMPONENTS

Fig. 2.1 A Vacuum Tube

These computers could perform computations in milliseconds but were

Fig. 2.2 An IC Chip

The development of integrated circuit (Refer Figure 2.2) by Jack Kilby in

Fig. 2.3 The Intel Pentium Microprocessor Chip

2.2.3 More Parts of a Computer System

Fig. 2.4 A Computer System

Fig. 2.5 A Motherboard

Monitor Power Cable

Fig. 2.6 Monitor and CPU: Power Cable and Sockets

Printer Cable and Socket