TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol TCP/IP, or the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, is a suite of communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on the internet. TCP/IP can also be used as a ‘communications protocol in a private network (an intranet or an extranet). he TCP/IP model differs slightly from the seven-layer Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) networking model designed after it, which defines how applications can communicate over a network. TCP/IP model layers ‘TCP/IP functionality is divided into four layers, each of which include specific protocols. The application layer provides applications with standardized data exchange. Its protocols include the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP). The transport layer is responsible for maintaining end-to-end communications across the network. TCP handles communications between hosts and provides flow control, multiplexing and reliability, The transport protocols include TCP and User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which is sometimes used instead of TCP for special purposes. The network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets and connects independent ‘networks to transport the packets across network boundaries. The network layer protocols are the IP and the internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), which is used for error reporting. The physical layer consists of protocols that operate only on a link -- the network component that interconnects nodes or hosts in the network. The protocols in this layer include Ethernet for local area networks (LANs) and the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP). Advantages of TCP/IP TCP/IP is nonproprietary and, as a result, is not controlled by any single company. Therefore, the internet protocol suite can be modified easily. Itis compatible with all operating systems, so it can ‘communicate with any other system. The internet protocol suite is also compatible with all types of computer hardware and networks. ‘TCP/IP is highly scalable and, as a routable protocol, can determine the most efficient path through the network. TCP and IP are two of the network standards that make the internet possible. The Internet Protocol (IP) defines how computers can get data to each other over an interconnected set of networks. TheTransmission Control Protocol (TCP) defines how applications can create reliable channels of ‘communication across an IP network. IP basically defines addressing and routing, while TCP defines how to have a conversation across an IP-mediated link without garbling or losing data. TCP/IP grew out of U.S, Department of Defense networking research, ‘The Open Systems Interconnection (OS!) mode! describes how the different software and hardware ‘components involved in a network communication should divide their labor and otherwise interact. It was created by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to encourage network vendors and developers to create interoperable and interchangeable systems. (It is defined in the ISO/IEC 7498-1 standard.) ‘The OSI model defines a network as a set of seven functional elements, or layers of service,. These layers range from physical interconnection of nodes (e.g., via network interface cards or Bluetooth radio interface) at Layer 1 ~ also known as the physical layer ~-all the way up to Layer 7, called the application layer. Ideally, a component at any given layer provides services to the layer above it, consumes services from the layer below it, and never reaches directly for any other layers or provides functions belonging in them. Mapping TCP/IP to the OSI model: Similarities and differences ‘The TCP/IP model doesn't map cleanly to the OSI model. It was developed in the 1970s to solve a specific set of problems, while the OS! model was created in the 1980s. TCP/IP is not intended to function as a general description for all network communications, so it does not cover all the, functions the OS! model does, nor does it divide functionality as finely or as broadly. IP corresponds to a subset of OSI Layer 3, the network layer. IP describes only the protocol used for the internet, while OSI Layer 3 also encompasses non- internet protocols such as the Datagram Delivery Protocol (DDP) or the Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX). TCP corresponds to OSI Layer 4 (transport layer) and some functions of Layer 5 (session layer) OSI Layer 4, the transport layer, ensures delivery of data from one node to another by doing things like assigning sequential numbers to packets, checking to make sure all sent packets arrive and retransmitting lost or damaged packets. TCP is responsible for these functions as well. OSI Layer 5, the session layer, sets up and terminates connections between nodes, as does TCP, but also handles authentication and authorization, which TCP does not.TCP/IP makes no assumptions about what happens above the level of a network session - part of OS! Layer 5, TCP/IP assigns all higher aspects of network use to applications while the OS! model defines two more layers of standardized functions: Layer 6, the presentation layer, and Layer 7, the application layer. TCP/IP applications essentially talk to Layer 4, while OS! applications talk to Layer 7. If an application needs functions not found in TCP/IP, the application has to supply them. ‘The OSI model assumes an application will never implement any functionality belonging in any defined layer. Under TCP/IP, there is one layer below IP, the Network Access layer; the OSI model breaks its functions into two layers: the data link layer (2) and the physical layer (1). Additional key internet protocols Many other key internet protocols -- including HTTP, which is the basic protocol of the web, and the ‘Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, the core email transfer protocol -- are built on top of TCP. The User Datagram Protocol, a companion to TCP, sacrifices the guarantees of reliability that TCP makes in return for faster communications, and underlies many streaming media applications.Network Troubleshooting Network troubleshooting is primarily done by network engineers or administrators to repair or optimize a network. Itis generally done to recover and establish network or Internet connections on end nodes/devices. Some of the processes within network troubleshooting include but are not limited to: Finding and resolving problems and establishing Internet/network connection of a computer/device/node Configuring a router, switch or any network management device Installing cables or Wi-Fi devices Updating firmware devices on router switch Removing viruses Adding, cor figuring and reinstalling a network printer Network troubleshooting can be a manual or automated task. When using automated tools, network management can be done using network diagnostic software.Local Name Server S.tteratve Query to root A.check = (root) ‘cache Ehame Server for edu a, Sapa, Root Name Server ‘cache Cache Server Temeratve 3. Recursive auery faved very | |s4. Requested edu a vesussin ‘ame Server for ‘oogtepteney [ 2.check .edu Name Server gen 2. 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