First English Civil War - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

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First English Civil War

The First English Civil War took place in
First English Civil War
England and Wales from 1642 to 1646. It is part
of the 1639 to 1653 Wars of the Three Kingdoms, Part of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms
which also include the Bishops' Wars, the Irish
Confederate Wars, the Second English Civil War,
the Anglo-Scottish war (1650–1652) and the
Cromwellian conquest of Ireland. Historians
calculate some 15% to 20% of all adult males in
England and Wales served in the military
between 1639 and 1653, while around 4% of the
total population died from war-related cause, vis-
à-vis 2.23% in World War I. These figures
illustrate the impact of the conflict on society in The First English Civil War depicted in The
general, and the bitterness it engendered.[2] Battle of Marston Moor, a painting by James
Barker
Conflict over the role of Parliament and religious
practice dated from the accession of James VI Date 1642 to 1646
and I in 1603. These tensions culminated in the Location England and Wales
imposition of Personal Rule in 1629 by his son,
Result Parliamentarian victory
Charles I, who recalled Parliament in April and
November 1640. He did so hoping to obtain Belligerents
funding that would enable him to reverse his Royalists Parliamentarians
defeat by Scots Covenanters in the Bishops' Wars,
but in return they demanded a greater share in Scottish
government than he was willing to concede. Covenanters

Commanders and leaders

In its early stages, the vast majority on both sides
supported the institution of monarchy, but Charles I Sir Thomas
disagreed on who held ultimate authority. Prince Rupert Fairfax
Royalists generally argued both Parliament and Oliver Cromwell
Lord Astley
the Church of England were subordinate to the
Lord Goring Phillip Skippon
king, while most of their Parliamentarian
opponents claimed his supremacy did not extend Sir Ralph Hopton Earl of
to religion, and wanted a form of constitutional Lord Newcastle
Manchester
monarchy. When it came to choosing sides, Earl of Essex
however, individual choices were heavily Prince Maurice
Sir William Waller
influenced by religious belief or personal loyalty.
Horrified at the devastation inflicted on Europe Earl of Leven
by the Thirty Years War, many tried to remain Casualties and losses
neutral, or took up arms with great reluctance.
1642–1646 1642–1646
When fighting began in August 1642, both sides
33,952 dead 27,972 dead
believed it would be settled by a single battle, but
it soon became clear this was not the case. 56,367  (POW)[1] 21,191  (POW)[1]
Royalist successes in 1643 led to an alliance

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between Parliament and the Scots who won a series of battles in 1644, the most significant being
the Battle of Marston Moor. Alleged failures to exploit these successes led Parliament in
February 1645 to set up the New Model Army, the first centrally-funded and professional
military force in England, whose success at Naseby in June 1645 proved decisive. The war ended
with victory for the Parliamentarian alliance in June 1646 and Charles in custody, but his
refusal to negotiate concessions and divisions among his opponents led to the Second English
Civil War in 1648.

Overview
The 1642 to 1646 First English Civil War is one in a series of
connected civil wars between 1639 and 1653,[a] fought in
England and Wales, along with the separate kingdoms of
Scotland and Ireland. It was the culmination of a long-
running struggle for political and religious control between
the monarchy and Parliament that began in 1603 when
James VI and I became king, and continued after the 1660
'Cavalier Troops Mustering Stuart Restoration. Many of the issues involved were only
outside the Guildhall, Exeter' by resolved with the 1688 Glorious Revolution, and arguably
John Joseph Barker, 1886. This oil continued beyond that point. American historians like Kevin
on canvas depicts Cavalier troops Phillips have identified many similarities between those at
in what is quite a dark image stake in 1642 and the American Revolution in 1776.[3]
outside the Exeter Guildhall. From
the Royal Albert Memorial Known collectively as the 1639 to 1653 Wars of the Three
Museum's collection (93/1978x) Kingdoms, other conflicts include the 1641 to 1653 Irish
Confederate Wars, the 1639 to 1640 Bishops' Wars, and the
1649 to 1653 Cromwellian conquest of Ireland. Separately,
the First and Second English Civil Wars are grouped together into the 1642 to 1649 English Civil
War.[4] What was previously known as the 1650 to 1652 Third English Civil War is now more
commonly referred to as the Anglo-Scottish war, since it was fought between Scots and English
armies and not accompanied by an uprising in England.[5]

Royalist versus Parliamentarian

Splitting the parties into Cavaliers, 'wrong, but romantic', and Roundheads, 'right, but
repulsive', is a perspective largely promulgated by the Victorians, and while long accepted as
outdated, this view still informs modern perceptions.[6] One reason is the complex personal
nature and historical reputation of Oliver Cromwell, particularly in Ireland. The installation of
his statue outside the Houses of Parliament was approved in 1856, but not carried out until
1895, with most of the funds supplied by Lord Rosebery, then Prime Minister. In 2004, a group
of MPs unsuccessfully proposed a motion to have it melted down, and the debate continues.[7]

In reality, individual motives for choosing a side were complex and there were considerable
areas of overlap, particularly in the early stages. Historian Tim Harris suggests that by 1640
there was general agreement attempts by Charles to govern without Parliament had gone too
far. This changed after the Grand Remonstrance was submitted in late 1641, when moderates
like Edward Hyde switched sides, arguing Parliament was trying to alter the balance too much
the other way.[8]

Both sides claimed they were seeking to restore the "ancient constitution"; for many
Parliamentarians, Stuart concepts of Divine right of kings and absolutism brought in by James
VI and I in 1603 were "innovations" that had undermined traditional English political and legal

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principles. This helps explain the internal tensions that developed

within Parliament as the war progressed, since not everyone
agreed on what they were seeking to restore or even if it were
desirable.[9]

Most Parliamentarians went to war in 1642 to regulate the king's

powers, rather than depose him; John Pym, their leader in the
Commons, was one of the few to recognise it might be the only
option, since past experience showed Charles would not keep
commitments he considered forced on him. Examples included
his annulment of the 1628 Petition of Right, and the recent
Bishops Wars, when he agreed peace terms with the Scots in 1639
only to provide time for another attempt in 1640. These doubts
were confirmed when he and his wife Henrietta Maria repeatedly Edward Hyde, later Earl of
told foreign ambassadors any concessions made to Parliament Clarendon, ca 1643;
were temporary, and would be retrieved by force.[10] originally part of the
Parliamentary opposition,
The personality and credibility of the king mattered, because in 1642 he became Charles'
regardless of religion or political belief, the vast majority in all chief advisor
three kingdoms believed a 'well-ordered' monarchy was divinely
mandated. His opponents argued that if Charles would not obey
his own laws or keep his promises, his refusal presented a threat to the state which required
military intervention to either force him to do so, or depose him in favour of his eldest son.
Where they disagreed was what 'well-ordered' meant and who held ultimate authority,
especially in clerical affairs; this mattered, because in the 17th century 'true religion' and 'good
government' were assumed to be the same. In general, Royalists supported a Church of England
governed by bishops, appointed by, and answerable to, the king, while most Parliamentarians
believed he was answerable to the leaders of the church, appointed by their congregations. [11]

A common misperception is that "Roundhead" was interchangeable with "Puritan". In reality,

this term applied to anyone who wanted to "purify" the Church of England of "Papist" practices,
and covered a wide range of views.[12] Although the majority supported Parliament, some
prominent Puritans like Sir William Savile backed Charles out of personal loyalty.[13]
Conversely, many Royalists objected to Laudianism, and opposed the appointment of Catholics
to senior positions, while attempts to integrate Irish Catholic troops in 1643 caused some
regiments to mutiny.[14] Parliamentarians were divided between Presbyterians like Pym who
wanted to reform the Church of England, and religious Independents who rejected any form of
established church and wanted it abolished. They included Congregationalists like Cromwell
and Baptists, who were especially well represented in the New Model Army.[15]

Later in the war, conflicting religious and political aims resulted in the emergence within
Parliament of a middle party of "Independent Royalists", who were generally religious radicals
but social conservatives. Led by William Fiennes, 1st Viscount Saye and Sele, his son Nathaniel
Fiennes, and Nathaniel Rich, they were distinguished from Royalists in believing Charles had to
be defeated militarily, and from moderate Presbyterians by their fervent opposition to state-
mandated religion. After Parliament's victory in 1646, this group supported the Treaty of
Newport and a "balanced" political solution that would leave Charles on the throne. Its
members avoided participation in his trial and execution, although they did not speak against
it.[16]

While Puritans were the most visible in opposing Laudian reforms and demanding the removal
of bishops from the Church of England, their objections were shared by many Royalists, such as
George Morley and Sir Edmund Verney.[b][17] One reason was that bishops held a variety of

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non-religious roles which impacted all levels of society; they acted

as state censors, who were able to ban sermons and writings,
while ordinary people could be tried by church courts for crimes
including blasphemy, heresy, fornication and other 'sins of the
flesh', as well as matrimonial or inheritance disputes.[18] As
members of the House of Lords, bishops often blocked legislation
opposed by the Crown; their ousting from Parliament by the
Clergy Act 1640 was a major step on the road to war, since it
meant Charles could no longer prevent passage of legislation that
he opposed.[19]

Their removal also ended censorship and led to an explosion in

John Pym, who led the the printing of pamphlets, books and sermons, many advocating
opposition to Charles from radical religious and political principles, especially in London.[20]
1640 until his death in Even before 1642, such radicalism concerned Parliamentarians
December 1643 like Denzil Holles who believed in a limited electorate and a
Presbyterian church similar to the Church of Scotland. Both they
and their Scottish allies came to see the Independents as more
dangerous than the Royalists and formed the "Peace Party", seeking a negotiated end to the war;
an alliance between these groups led to the Second English Civil War in 1648.[21] Lastly,
England in 1642 was a structured, socially conservative and peaceful society, while the example
of the Thirty Years War meant many wanted to avoid conflict at any cost. Choice of sides was
often driven by personal relationships or loyalties, and in the early stages there were numerous
examples of armed neutrality, or local truces, designed to force the two sides to negotiate. [22]

1642
Over the winter of 1641 to 1642, many towns
strengthened their defences, and purchased
weapons, although not necessarily due to fears of
Newcastle
civil war. Lurid details of the Irish Rebellion of
1641 meant many were more concerned by
Scarborough
reports of a planned Catholic invasion.[23] Both
sides supported raising troops to suppress the Hull
rising, but alleged Royalist conspiracies to use Liverpool
them against Parliament meant neither trusted
the other with their control. When Charles left
London after failing to arrest the Five Members Yarmouth

in January 1642, he handed Parliament control

Gloucester
of the largest city, port and commercial centre in
London
England, its biggest weapons store in the Tower Cardiff Bristol
of London, and best equipped local militia, or Dover
Trained bands.[24] Exeter
Portsmouth
Plymouth
Founded in 1572, these were organised by
county, controlled by Lord-lieutenants appointed
by the king, and constituted the only permanent Key ports, England & Wales, 1642
military force in the country. The muster roll of
February 1638 shows wide variations in size,
equipment and training; Yorkshire had the largest, with 12,000 men, followed by London with
8,000, later increased to 20,000. 'Royalist' counties like Shropshire or Glamorgan had fewer
than 500 men.[25]

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In March 1642, Parliament approved the Militia Ordinance, claiming control of the trained
bands; Charles responded with his own Commissions of Array. More important than the men
were the local arsenals, with Parliament holding the two largest in London, and Hull. These
belonged to the local community, who often resisted attempts to remove them, by either side. In
Royalist Cheshire, the towns of Nantwich, Knutsford and Chester declared a state of armed
neutrality, and excluded both parties.[26]

Ports were vital for access to internal and external waterways, the primary method of importing
and transporting bulk supplies until the advent of railways in the 19th century. Most of the
Royal Navy declared for Parliament, allowing them to protect the trade routes vital to the
London merchant community, block Royalist imports and resupply isolated Parliamentarian
garrisons. It also made other countries wary of antagonising one of the strongest navies in
Europe by providing support to their opponents.[27] By September, forces loyal to Parliament
held every major port in England apart from Newcastle, which prevented Royalist areas in
Wales, South-West and North East England from supporting each other. In February 1642,
Charles sent his wife, Henrietta Maria, to the Hague to raise money and purchase weapons; lack
of a secure port delayed her return until February 1643, and even then, she narrowly escaped
capture.[28]

On 1 June 1642, Parliament approved a

Shrewsbury
list of proposals known as the Nineteen
Worcester
Propositions, which would give them
Edgehill
control over ministerial appointments,
Gloucester
Oxford the army and management of the Royal
Bristol London household, including the education and
Marlborough marriage of his children. These were
Launceston
presented to Charles at Newmarket, who
Portsmouth angrily rejected them without further
discussion.[29] He was later persuaded to
issue a more conciliatory answer, whose
objective was primarily to appeal to
The Edgehill campaign 1642 moderates by placing blame for what now
seemed an inevitable military conflict on
Pym and his followers.[30] Drafted by
Hyde, this response has been seen as the origin of "mixed" or Constitutional monarchy,
although whether Charles himself genuinely believed in it is debatable.[31]

Both sides expected a single battle and quick victory; for the Royalists, this meant capturing
London, for Parliament, 'rescuing' the king from his 'evil counsellors.' After failing to capture
Hull in July, Charles left York for Nottingham, chosen for its proximity to Royalist areas in the
Midlands and Northern Wales. Particularly in the early stages of the conflict, locally raised
troops were reluctant to serve outside their own county, and most of those recruited in
Yorkshire refused to accompany him.[32] On 22 August, Charles formally declared war on
Parliamentarian 'rebels', but by early September his army still numbered less than 2,500, with
much of England hoping to remain neutral.[33]

In contrast, financing from the London mercantile community and weapons from the Tower
enabled Parliament to recruit and equip an army of 20,000, commanded by the Presbyterian
Earl of Essex, who left London on 3 September for Northampton.[34] Charles relocated to
Shrewsbury, further away from London but a key Royalist recruitment centre throughout the
war. When Essex learned of this, he marched on Worcester, where the first major encounter of
the war took place at Powick Bridge on 23 September. A relatively minor Royalist victory, it
established the reputation of Prince Rupert, whose cavalry gained a psychological edge over

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their Parliamentarian opponents.[35]

The Royalist army now numbered around 15,000, although much of

the infantry were armed with clubs or scythes; while better equipped,
the forces of Parliament were half-trained, poorly disciplined, and
their logistics inadequate. When Charles headed for London, Essex
tried to block his route, and on 23 October, the two armies fought a
bloody, chaotic, and indecisive battle at Edgehill.[36] Essex continued
retreating towards London; after an inconclusive encounter on 16
November at Turnham Green, west of London, operations ended for
the winter. The Royalists withdrew to Oxford, which became their
capital for the rest of the war. Elsewhere, Sir William Waller secured Charles' nephew and
the south-east for Parliament; in December, Lord Wilmot captured most talented general,
Marlborough, opening communications between Oxford, and Royalist Prince Rupert,
forces based at Launceston, in Cornwall.[37] popularised during the
Victorian era as the
archetypal Cavalier
1643
The events of 1642 showed the need to plan for a
lengthy conflict. For the Royalists, this meant
fortifying their new capital in Oxford, and
Newcastle connecting areas of support in England and Wales;
Parliament focused on consolidating control of the
areas they already held. Although peace talks were
Scarborough
York
held, both parties continued to negotiate for Scots
Bridlington
and Irish support; Charles sought to end the war in
Leeds Hull Ireland, allowing troops from the Royal Irish Army
Gainsborough to be used to support the Royalists in England.[38]
Chester Winceby
Newark Fighting continued during the winter in Yorkshire,
as Royalist leader Newcastle tried to secure a
Lichfield landing place for an arms shipment from the Dutch
Northern England 1643 Republic. With insufficient troops to hold the entire
area, his task was complicated by Parliamentarian
forces under Lord Fairfax and his son Sir Thomas,
which retained key towns like Hull and Leeds. The weapons convoy carrying Henrietta Maria
finally managed to land at Bridlington in late February; on 4 June she left York escorted by
5,000 cavalry, arriving in Oxford in mid-July.[39]

In the south-west, Royalist commander Sir Ralph Hopton

secured Cornwall with victory at Braddock Down in
January. In June, he advanced into Wiltshire, inflicting a
serious defeat on Waller's 'Army of the Southern
Association' at Roundway Down on 13 July. Arguably the
most comprehensive Royalist victory of the war, it isolated
Parliament's garrisons in the west and Prince Rupert
stormed Bristol on 26 July. This gave the Royalists control
of the second largest city in Britain and landing point for
reinforcements from Ireland.[41]
The position of siege forts around
By late August, the Parliamentarian cause was close to Hull in 1643[40]
collapse but was saved by Pym's leadership and
determination, which resulted in important reforms. Both

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sides struggled to properly supply troops fighting outside their home regions and Parliament
agreed steps to mitigate the problem.[42] Seeing an opportunity to force Parliamentary
moderates into a negotiated peace, in September the Royalists agreed a new three-part
offensive.[43] After taking Gloucester, Prince Rupert would advance on London, while Newcastle
would tie down the Eastern Association army by advancing into East Anglia and Lincolnshire.
Finally, Hopton would march into Hampshire and Sussex, threatening London from the south,
and closing the iron foundries that were Parliament's main source of armaments. [44]

However, Essex forced Prince Rupert to

retreat from Gloucester, then checked his
advance on London at Newbury on 20
September.[45] Although Hopton reached Oxford
Gloucester
Winchester, Waller prevented him
Bristol Newbury London
making further progress; in October,
Newcastle abandoned the second siege of Roundway
Winchester
Hull, while victory at Winceby secured Down Dover
eastern England for Parliament. Royalist Portsmouth
Braddock Plymouth
failure ended any chance of concluding Down
the war in the near future, leading both
sides to step up the search for allies.[46]
Southern England 1643
In September, the Royalists in Ireland
agreed a truce with the Catholic
Confederation, allowing Ormond to transfer troops to England but cost Charles the support of
many Irish Protestants, especially in Munster. At the same time, details emerged of the "Antrim
scheme", an alleged plan to use 20,000 Irish troops to recapture Southern Scotland for Charles;
although highly impractical, the Covenanter government ended negotiations with the
Royalists.[47] Shortly thereafter, they signed the Solemn League and Covenant, agreeing to
provide Parliament military backing in return for subsidies, and discussions on creating a
single, Presbyterian church.[48]

1644
The Solemn League created a Committee of Both Kingdoms to co-ordinate strategy in all three
war zones, England, Scotland and Ireland, although Pym's death in December 1643 deprived
Parliament of their most important leader. The Scots under Leven were ordered to take
Newcastle, securing coal supplies for London, and closing the major import point for Royalist
war supplies. He besieged the town in early February, but made little progress, observed by the
Earl of Newcastle from his base in Durham.[49]

On 29 March, Waller ended the offensive in Southern England by defeating Hopton at Cheriton,
then joined Essex to threaten Oxford. Two weeks later, the Earl of Manchester defeated a
Royalist force at Selby, forcing Newcastle to leave Durham and garrison York. The city was
besieged by the Scots, Sir Thomas Fairfax, and Manchester's Army of the Eastern
Association.[50]

In May, Prince Rupert left Shrewsbury, and marched north, capturing Liverpool and Bolton en
route. To avoid being shut up in Oxford, a field army nominally commanded by Charles
retreated to Worcester; Essex ordered Waller to remain there, while he went west to relieve the
siege of Lyme Regis. On 29 June, Waller clashed with Charles at Cropredy Bridge; although
losses were minimal, his men were demoralised, and the army disintegrated, allowing Charles to
pursue Essex into the West Country.[51]

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On the same day, Prince Rupert arrived at

Knaresborough, 30 kilometres from York,
to find himself facing a superior force.[52]
In the largest battle of the war on 2 July,
Newcastle
Durham the two armies met at Marston Moor, a
decisive Royalist defeat that lost them the
Marston North. York surrendered on 16 July, and
Moor
York the Earl of Newcastle went into exile.[53]
Hull
Bolton Selby
Liverpool Essex forced the Royalists to abandon
Chester Lyme Regis, then continued into
Newark
Cornwall, ignoring orders to return to
Shrewsbury
London. In September, his army was
Copredy
Bridge trapped at Lostwithiel; 5,000 infantry
Worcester
were forced to surrender, although Essex
Oxford and the cavalry escaped. At Second
Bristol London Newbury on 27 October, the Royalists
Newbury lifted the siege of Donnington Castle, and
Cheriton Charles re-entered Oxford.[54]
Exeter Lyme
Lostwithiel Plymouth In military terms, by the end of 1644 the
Royalists had recovered from the disaster
at Marston Moor; of greater concern was
England & Wales, 1644 their ability to finance the war. Unlike
Parliament, which could levy taxes on
imports and exports through London and
other commercial centres, the Royalists simply took supplies from the areas they controlled.
This led to the creation of Clubmen, or local self-defence associations; they opposed
confiscations by either party, but were a bigger issue in Royalist areas like Cornwall and
Hertfordshire.[55]

The deaths of John Pym and John Hampden in 1643 removed a

unifying force within Parliament, and deepened divisions.
Supported by the Scots, the 'Peace Party' were concerned by
political radicals like the Levellers, and wanted an immediate,
negotiated settlement. The 'War Party' fundamentally mistrusted
Charles, and saw military victory as the only way to secure their
objectives. Many were religious Independents who opposed any
state church, and strongly objected to Scottish demands for a
unified, Presbyterian church of England and Scotland; Oliver
Cromwell claimed he would fight, rather than accept such an
outcome.[56]

Failure to exploit Marston Moor, Essex' capitulation at Oliver Cromwell; in 1644, he

Lostwithiel, and Manchester's alleged unwillingness to fight at emerged as a leader of the
Newbury led to claims some senior commanders were not War Party, who believed
committed to victory. Accusations against Manchester and Essex negotiations could be held
in particular were not confined to Cromwell, but shared by some only after military victory
Presbyterians, including Waller. [57] In December, Sir Henry Vane
introduced the Self-denying Ordinance, requiring any military
officers who also sat in Parliament to resign one office or the other. Manchester and Essex were
automatically removed, since they could not resign their titles, although they could be re-
appointed, 'if Parliament approved.'[58]

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It also led to the creation of the New Model Army, a centralised, professional force, able and
willing to operate wherever needed. Many of its recruits had served with Cromwell in the
Eastern Association, or shared his views, and opponents viewed the New Model with suspicion
from the outset. To offset this, they appointed the moderates Fairfax and Philip Skippon as
Commander-in-Chief and head of the infantry respectively, as well as retaining some regional
forces. These included the Northern and Western Associations, plus those serving in Cheshire
and South Wales, all commanded by supporters of the Presbyterian faction in Parliament.
Although he remained an MP, Cromwell was given command of the cavalry, under a 'temporary'
three-month commission, constantly renewed.[59]

1645
Shrewsbury Leicester In January,
representatives of both
Naseby
sides met at Uxbridge to
Hereford discuss peace terms, but
Carmarthen talks ended without
Raglan
Oxford agreement in February.
Chepstow Berkeley
Basing London Failure strengthened the
House
Bristol pro-war parties, since it
Taunton Langport Winchester was clear Charles would
never make concessions
Exeter voluntarily, while
divisions among their
opponents encouraged
Truro
the Royalists to continue
fighting.[60] In early
Western England & South Wales; 1645 1645, the Royalists still
controlled most of the
West Country, Wales,
and counties along the English border, despite losing their key supply base at Shrewsbury in
February.[61] Lord Goring's Western Army made another attempt on Portsmouth and Farnham;
although he was forced to retreat, it showed Parliament could not assume this area was secure,
while Montrose's Highland Campaign opened another front in the war.[62]

On 31 May, Prince Rupert stormed Leicester; in response, Fairfax and the New Model Army
abandoned their blockade of Oxford, and on 14 June, won a decisive victory at Naseby.[63]
Defeat cost the Royalists their most formidable field army, along with their artillery train,
stores, and Charles' personal baggage. This included his private correspondence, detailing
efforts to gain support from the Irish Catholic Confederation, the Papacy and France. Published
by Parliament in a pamphlet entitled The King's Cabinet Opened, it seriously damaged his
reputation.[64]

After Naseby, Royalist strategy was to preserve their positions in Western England and Wales,
while their cavalry went north to link up with Montrose in Scotland. Charles also hoped the
Irish Catholic Confederation would supply him with an army of 10,000, that would land in
Bristol and combine with Lord Goring to smash the New Model. Such hopes were illusory, and
the only result was to deepen divisions among the Royalist leadership, many of whom viewed
the proposed use of Catholic Irish troops in England with as much horror as their
Parliamentarian opponents.[65] Concerned by the wider implications of Royalist defeat and
urged on by Henrietta Maria, French chief minister Cardinal Mazarin looked for ways to restore
Charles with minimal French intervention. Talks were held between his representative, Jean de

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Montereul, and Lord Lothian, a senior Covenanter who was deeply suspicious of Cromwell and
the Independents, but these discussions ultimately went nowhere.[66]

Prince Rupert was sent to supervise the defence of Bristol and the
West, while Charles made his way to Raglan Castle, then headed
for the Scottish border. He reached as far north as Doncaster in
Yorkshire, before retreating to Oxford in the face of superior
Parliamentarian forces. In July, Fairfax lifted the siege of
Taunton; a few days later at Langport, he destroyed Lord Goring's
Western Army, the last significant Royalist field force.[67] At the
end of August, Charles left Oxford to relieve Hereford, which was
besieged by the Covenanter army; as he approached, Leven was
ordered to return to Scotland, following Montrose's victory at
Kilsyth. The king moved onto Chester, where he learned Prince
Rupert had surrendered Bristol on 10 September. Shocked by the Sir Thomas Fairfax,
loss, Charles dismissed his nephew.[68] commander of the New
Model Army
While one detachment from the New Model under Colonel
Rainsborough secured Berkeley Castle, another under Cromwell
captured Royalist strongholds at Basing House and Winchester. Having secured his rear,
Fairfax began reducing remaining positions in the west; by now, Clubmen militia in Hampshire
and Dorset were as big an issue as the Royalist army.[69] When his remaining cavalry were
scattered at Rowton Heath on 24 September, Charles abandoned attempts to reach Scotland
and returned to Newark. On 13 October, he learned of Montrose's defeat at Philiphaugh a
month earlier, ending plans for taking the war into Scotland. The loss of Carmarthen and
Chepstow in South Wales cut connections with Royalist supporters in Ireland (see Map) and
Charles made his way back to Oxford, where he spent the winter besieged by the New Model. [70]

1646
Following the fall of Hereford in December 1645,
the Royalists held only Devon, Cornwall, North
Newcastle
Wales, and isolated garrisons in Exeter, Oxford,
Newark, and Scarborough Castle. Chester
Scarborough
surrendered in February, after which the Northern
Castle Association Army joined the Covenanters besieging
Hull Newark. Hopton replaced Lord Goring as
commander of the Western Army, and attempted to
Chester
Newark relieve Exeter. Defeated by the New Model at
Harlech Shrewsbury Torrington on 16 February, he surrendered at Truro
Stow-on-
on 12 March.[71]
Hereford the-Wold

Oxford The last pitched battle of the war took place at

London Stow-on-the-Wold on 21 March, when 3,000
Barnstaple
Torrington Royalists were dispersed by Parliamentary
Exeter forces.[72] With the end of the war in sight,
Truro Parliament issued a proclamation, allowing
favourable terms for any Royalists who
England & Wales, 1646 'compounded' prior to 1 May. Those whose estates
had been confiscated could regain them on payment
of a fine, which was calculated on the value of their
lands, and level of support; many took advantage of this.[73]

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After capturing Exeter and Barnstaple in April, the New Model marched on Oxford; on 27 April,
Charles left the city in disguise, accompanied by two others. Parliament learned of his escape on
the 29th, but for over a week had no idea where he was. On 6 May, they received a letter from
David Leslie, the Scottish commander at Newark, announcing he had Charles in custody.
Newark surrendered the same day, and the Scots went north to Newcastle, taking the king with
them. This led to furious objections from Parliament, who approved a resolution ordering the
Scots to leave England immediately. [74]

After lengthy negotiations, Oxford capitulated on 24 June; the garrison received passes to
return home, and Prince Rupert and his brother, Prince Maurice, were ordered to leave
England. Wallingford Castle surrendered on 27 July, then the remaining Royalist strongholds,
although Harlech Castle in Wales held out until 13 March 1647.[75]

Aftermath
In 1642, many Parliamentarians assumed military defeat would force Charles to agree to terms,
which proved a fundamental misunderstanding of his character. When Prince Rupert told him
in August 1645 that the war could no longer be won, Charles responded that while this may have
been an accurate assessment of the military situation, 'God will not suffer rebels and traitors to
prosper'. This deeply-held conviction meant he refused to agree to any substantial concessions,
frustrating both allies and opponents.[76]

Although Charles correctly assumed widespread support for the

institution of monarchy made his position extremely strong, he
failed to appreciate the impact of his constant prevarications, both
before and during the war. He made peace with the Scots in 1639,
then raised an army against them in 1640, while his actions prior
to March 1642 convinced Parliament he would not keep his
promises, and that any money they supplied to him would be
employed against them. At various points in the period following
Royalist defeat in 1646, he was negotiating separately with the
Irish Confederation, the English Independents, the Covenanters,
English Presbyterians, France, and the Papacy.[77]

The result was the creation of a powerful faction who believed

Charles' refusal to make
Charles would never voluntarily agree to a suitable political
significant concessions
settlement, and whose control of the New Model Army gave them
highlighted divisions
the ability to impose one. Often grouped together as among his opponents
'Independents', the reality was far more fluid; Sir Thomas Fairfax
was a Presbyterian, who fought for Charles in 1639, and refused to
participate in his execution, while even Cromwell initially viewed him with great respect. [78]
William Fiennes, 1st Viscount Saye and Sele, and his sons Nathaniel and John, are examples of
those supported the Independents out of religious conviction, but wanted Charles to retain his
throne.[79]

Charles continued to stall, to the increasing frustration of all parties, especially members of the
New Model, many of whom had not been paid for over a year and wanted to go home. By March
1647, these arrears amounted to some £2.5 million, an enormous sum for the period, and
moderates in Parliament led by Denzil Holles decided to remove the threat by sending the army
to Ireland.[80] Importantly, only those who agreed to go would receive their arrears, and when
regimental representatives, or Agitators, demanded full payment for all in advance, Parliament
disbanded the New Model, which refused to be dissolved.[81] Although both Cromwell and
Fairfax were disturbed by the radicalism displayed by parts of the army in the Putney Debates,

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they supported them against Parliament over the issue of pay. These tensions contributed to the
outbreak of the Second English Civil War in 1648.[82]

Notes
a. Some historians, such as Trevor Royle, suggest 1638 to 1660
b. Edmund Verney, killed defending the Royal Standard at Edgehill in 1642, opposed
Charles' religious reforms and voted against him in Parliament

References
1. Carlton 1992, p. 204.
2. Mortlock 2017.
3. Royle 2006, pp. 806–813.
4. Zuvich 2015, pp. 88–89.
5. Woolrych 2002, p. 398.
6. Worsley 2007, p. 462.
7. Burch 2003, pp. 228–284.
8. Harris 2014, pp. 457–458.
9. Rees 2016, p. 16.
10. Wedgwood 1958, pp. 26–27.
11. Macleod 2009, pp. 5–19 passim.
12. Spurr 1998, p. 10.
13. Hardacre 1956, p. 10.
14. Royle 2006, pp. 373–375.
15. Spurr 1998, pp. 11–12.
16. Schwarz 2004.
17. Milton 2021, p. 111.
18. Helmholz 2003, p. 102.
19. Wedgwood 1958, p. 31.
20. Marsh 2020, pp. 79–80.
21. Rees 2016, pp. 103–105.
22. Hutton 2003, pp. 155–156.
23. Hutton 2003, p. 4.
24. Hutton 2003, pp. 5–6.
25. "Trained Bands" (http://wiki.bcw-project.
org/trained-band/start). BCW Project.
Retrieved 13 March 2020.
26. Hutton 2003, p. 10.
27. Wedgwood 1958, p. 105.
28. Purkiss 2006, pp. 249–250.
29. Wedgwood 1958, p. 74.
30. Wedgwood 1958, pp. 81–82.
31. Weston 1960, pp. 428–430.
32. Malcolm 1977, pp. 254–260.
33. Hutton 2003, p. 19.
34. Royle 2006, pp. 184–185.
35. Royle 2006, pp. 186–187.
36. Royle 2006, pp. 193–198.
37. Wedgwood 1958, pp. 152–153.
38. Royle 2006, pp. 208–209.
39. Royle 2006, pp. 225, 231.
40. Evans 2018, p. 128.
41. Day 2007, pp. 2–3.
42. Johnson 2012, pp. 172–174.
43. Royle 2006, p. 275.
44. Wedgwood 1958, p. 281.
45. Wedgwood 1958, pp. 252–254.
46. Royle 2006, p. 280.
47. Kaplan 1970, p. 57.
48. Robertson 2014, pp. 109–111.
49. Royle 2006, p. 283.
50. Wedgwood 1958, p. 308.
51. Wedgwood 1958, pp. 330–331.
52. Royle 2006, pp. 289–290.
53. Royle 2006, pp. 295–299.
54. Wedgwood 1958, p. 385.
55. Hutton 2003, pp. 156–158.
56. Rees 2016, pp. 118–119.
57. Cotton 1975, p. 212.
58. Wedgwood 1958, pp. 398–399.
59. Royle 2006, p. 319.
60. Wedgwood 1958, p. 404.
61. Hopper 2012, p. 132.
62. Montrose Campaign.
63. Royle 2006, p. 332.
64. Royle 2006, pp. 333–334.
65. Scott 2008, p. 51.
66. Royle 2006, pp. 337–338.
67. Wedgwood 1958, pp. 465–466.
68. Royle 2006, p. 357.

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69. Wedgwood 1958, pp. 472–473. 76. Royle 2006, pp. 354–355.

70. Wedgwood 1958, pp. 504–505.
71. Wedgwood 1958, pp. 540–541.
72. Royle 2006, p. 366.
73. Wedgwood 1958, p. 550.
74. Royle 2006, p. 393.
75. Royle 2006, p. 387.
77. Wedgwood 1958, pp. 546–548.
78. Yule 1968, pp. 11–32.
79. Smith 2004.
80. Morrill 1972, p. 49.
81. Royle 2006, pp. 393–394.
82. Royle 2006, pp. 420–425.

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External links
▪ "British Civil Wars, 1638 to 1651" (https://www.nam.ac.uk/explore/british-civil-wars).
National Army Museum. Retrieved 22 March 2020.
▪ "Trained Bands" (http://wiki.bcw-project.org/trained-band/start). BCW Project. Retrieved
13 March 2020.

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