Membrane Distillation (MD)

Direct Contact Membrane Distillation (DCMD)

Prepared by

Abdulelah Alaskar

Abdulaziz Almaimouni

Supervised by Dr. Umar Alqsair

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University

ME 4730: Desalination

2022/2023
 Table of Contents
Chapter 1:Introduction & Overview of Desalination
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Overview of Desalination
1.2.1. Reverse Osmosis (RO)
1.2.2. Electrodialysis (ED)
1.2.3. Multi-Stage Flash (MSF)
1.2.4. Multi-Effect Distillation (MED)
Chapter 2: Membrane Distillation (MD)
2.1. Introduction To MD
2.2. Membrane configuration
2.2.1. Direct Contact Membrane Distillation (DCMD)
2.2.2. Air Gap Membrane Distillation (AGMD)

2.2.3. Sweeping Gas Membrane Distillation (SGMD)

2.2.4. Vacuum Membrane Distillation (VMD)

2.3. Membrane distillation application

2.4. Membrane modules

2.4.1. Plate and frame

2.4.2. Hollow fiber

2.4.3. Tubular membrane

2.5. Specific advantages and disadvantages in MD

2.6. Effectiveness
2.7. Support products
2.8. Environmental issues
2.9. Costs

Chapter 3: Direct Contact Membrane Distillation (DCMD)

3.1 Introduction
3.2 challenges in Optimizing DCMD Modules
3.3 Mathematical Model of Direct Contact Membrane (DCMD)
Chapter 1: Introduction & Overview of Desalination
1.1. Introduction
Water is one of the most valuable resources on our planet, and as the global
population continues to raise the demand for fresh water is also raising. While our
planet is covered in water, only a little percentage of it is available for us to use. In
fact, just 2.5% of the Earth’s water is fresh and only 0.3% of that is easily accessible
on the surface. The limited availability of fresh water has led to the development of
new methods to produce fresh water like desalination. Desalination is the process of
removing or reducing salt and other minerals from seawater or brackish water.
Between the various desalination technique available, Direct Contact Membrane
Distillation (DCMD) has gained significant attention due to its high efficiency and low
energy consumption and ability to handle a wide range of feedwater salinities. In this
report, we will discover the general principles of desalination and delve deeper into
the workings of DCMD and its advantages and limitations and applications.
1.2. Overview of Desalination
Desalination is the process of removing or reducing salt and other minerals from
seawater to make it appropriate for human and agricultural uses . In this chapter, we
will explore the different processes and main techniques of desalination,
desalination can be classified by its source of energy as follows:

 Mechanical Desalination Technologies

 Electrical Desalination Technologies
 Thermal Desalination Technologies
Mechanical desalination process use mechanical energy to separate salt and other
minerals from water, the most common mechanical desalination technology is
reverse osmosis (RO). For Electrical desalination process it use electrical energy to
separate salt and other minerals from water, the most common electrical
desalination technology is electrodialysis (ED). Thermal desalination technologies use
heat to evaporate water and separate it from salt and other minerals, the most
common thermal desalination technology is multi-stage flash (MSF) .
1.2.1. Reverse Osmosis (RO)
Reverse Osmosis is one of the most recent and efficient ways to desalinate water by
using a membrane to separate water from dissolved salts. RO was first
commercialized in the early 1970s and does not need any heating or phase change of
water. The main energy use is for pressurizing the feed water. The process works by
applying pressure higher than the osmotic pressure of the saline solution.RO plant
for seawater desalination has five main components seawater intake, feed water
pre-treatment, high-pressure pumping, membrane separation and post-treatment
system . Some of the largest RO plants in the world are located in Saudi Arabia
where they produce millions
of tons of fresh water per day from seawater. However, Pre-treatment is essential
for RO because it prevents fouling and impairment of the membrane surfaces and
protects the high-pressure pumps and the RO section of the plant. However, The
most advantages of Ro plant it consume lower energy and less in building costs than
thermal processes such as multi-stage flash and multi-effect distillation. Also has
some disadvantages compare with thermal processes such as the need for pre-
treatment of feed water and the need for post-treatment of desalinated. Thermal
processes can produce higher quality water compare with RO.
1.2.2. Electrodialysis (ED)
Electrodialysis is an electrochemical desalination process that uses membranes and
an electric field to separate the dissolved ions from the solution. Two electrodes,
powered by the direct current voltage which is anode and cathode. During
electrolysis, the anode is positively charged and the cathode is negatively charged.
However, ED is an efficient and economical process that can operate continuously
and requires minimum maintenance compare with RO.
1.2.3. Multi-Stage Flash (MSF)
Multi-stage flash is a desalination technology that was developed in the 1950s in
Scotland and rapidly became one of the most popular methods for desalinating
water. MSF is widely used on ships and along the coastlines of many countries to
produce freshwater from seawater. MSF is similar to MED, as it also uses an external
heat source from a power plant and a decreasing pressure to vaporize water.
However, MSF requires electricity to operate several pumps throughout the plant.
The plant has two main sections the brine heater section where the feedwater is
heated by the steam from the power plant. And the heat recovery section where the
thermal energy is reused to preheat the feedwater. MSF desalination is common in
countries where thermal energy is affordable such as Saudi Arabia the United Arab
Emirates and Kuwait, also working to replace and built new desalination plants that
environmentally friendly processes in response to global climate change and their
new visions to reduce their local use of fossil fuels with renewable resources.
1.2.4. Multi-Effect Distillation (MED)
MED was the first desalination technology to be introduced in Kuwait in the 1950s,
using a triple-effect submerged tube evaporator.
Chapter 2: Membrane Distillation (MD)
2.1. Introduction To MD
Supply and demand for fresh water have increased gradually in the last two decades.
In this context, Membrane Distillation (MD) is a promising technology for desalting
highly saline waters. MD is a thermally-driven separation (microfiltration) process, in
which only vapor molecules are able to pass through a porous hydrophobic
membrane. This separation process is driven by the vapor pressure difference
existing between the porous hydrophobic membrane surfaces. Using MD has many
attractive features, such as low operating temperatures in comparison to those
encountered in conventional process; the solution (mainly water) is not necessarily
heated up to the boiling point. Moreover, the hydrostatic pressure encountered in
MD is lower than that used in pressure-driven membrane processes like reverse
osmosis (RO). Therefore, MD is expected to be a cost-effective process, which
requires less demanding of membrane characteristics too. In this respect, less
expensive material can be involved in it such as plastic, for example, thus alleviating
corrosion problems. According to the principle of vapor–liquid equilibrium, the MD
process has a high rejection factor. As a matter of fact, theoretically, complete
separation takes place. In addition, the membrane pore size required for MD is
relatively larger than those for other membrane separation processes, such as RO.
The MD process, therefore, suffers less from fouling. The MD system has the
feasibility to be combined with other separation processes to create an integrated
separation system, such as ultrafiltration (UF) or with a RO unit. Furthermore, MD
has the ability to utilize alternative energy sources, such as solar energy. The MD
process is competitive for the desalination of brackish water and seawater. It is also
an effective process for removing organic and heavy metals from aqueous solution,
from waste water. MD has also been used to treat radioactive waste, where the
product could be safely discharged into the environment. However, MD is also
attended by some drawbacks such as low permeate flux (compared to other
separation processes, like RO), and high susceptibility permeate flux to the
concentration and temperature of the feed conditions due to the concentration and
temperature polarization phenomenon. Also, the trapped air within the membrane
introduces a further mass transfer resistance, which also limits the MD permeate
flux. Moreover, the heat lost by conduction is quite large. Mass transfer in MD is
controlled by three basic mechanisms, which are Knudsen diffusion, Poiseuille flow
(viscous flow), and molecular diffusion. This gives rise to several types of resistance
to mass transfer resulting from the transfer of momentum to the supported
membrane (viscous), the collision of molecules with other molecules (molecular
resistance), or with the membrane itself-(Knudsen resistance (see Fig. 1). In this
context, the dusty gas model is used to describe the mass transfer resistances in the
MD system. It is worth mentioning that the mass transfer boundary layer resistance
is generally negligible. Similarly, the surface resistance is insignificant, because the
surface area of the MD is small compared to the pore area. On the other hand, the
thermal boundary layer is considered to be the factor limiting mass transfer.
2.2. Membrane configuration
In this section, different MD configurations that have been utilized to separate
aqueous feed solution using a microporous hydrophobic the membrane will be
addressed.
2.2.1. Direct Contact Membrane Distillation (DCMD)
In this configuration (Fig. 2), the hot solution (feed) is in direct contact with the hot
membrane side surface. Therefore, evaporation takes place at the feed-membrane
surface. The vapor is moved by the pressure difference across the membrane to the
permeate side and condenses inside the membrane module. Because of the
hydrophobic characteristic, the feed cannot penetrate the membrane (Only the gas
phase exists inside the membrane pores). DCMD is the simplest MD configuration
and is widely employed in desalination processes and concentration of aqueous
solutions in food industries, or acids manufacturing. The main drawback of this
design is the heat lost by conduction.
2.2.2. Air Gap Membrane Distillation (AGMD)

The schematic of the Air Gap Membrane Distillation (AGMD) is shown in Fig. 3. The feed
solution is in direct contact with the hot side of the membrane surface only. Stagnant air is
introduced between the membrane and the condensation surface. The vapor crosses the air
gap to condense over the cold surface inside the membrane cell. The benefit of this design is
the reduced heat lost by conduction. However, additional resistance to mass transfer is
created, which is considered a disadvantage. This configuration is suitable for desalination
and removing volatile compounds from aqueous solutions.

2.2.3. Sweeping Gas Membrane Distillation (SGMD)

In Sweeping Gas Membrane Distillation (SGMD), as the schematic diagram in Fig. 4 shows,
inert gas is used to sweep the vapor at the permeate membrane side to condense outside
the membrane module. There is a gas barrier, like in AGMD, to reduce heat loss, but this is
not stationary, which enhances the mass transfer coefficient. This configuration is useful for
removing volatile compounds from aqueous solution. The main disadvantage of this
configuration is that a small volume of permeate diffuses in a large sweep gas volume,
requiring a large condenser. It is worthwhile stating that AGMD and SGMD can be combined
in a process called thermostatic sweeping gas membrane distillation (TSGMD). The inert gas
in this case is passed through the gap between the membrane and the condensation surface.
Part of the vapor is condensed over the condensation surface (AGMD) and the remainder is
condensed outside the membrane cell by an external condenser (SGMD).

2.2.4. Vacuum Membrane Distillation (VMD)

The schematic diagram of this module is shown in Fig. 5. In VMD configuration, a pump is
used to create a vacuum in the permeate membrane side. Condensation takes place outside
the membrane module. The heat lost by conduction is negligible, which is considered a great
advantage. This type of MD is used to separate aqueous volatile solutions.
2.3. Membrane distillation application

Membrane distillation (MD) has many applications. Table 1 summaries some of MD

application such as fresh water production, heavy metal removal and food industry. Most of
current MD applications are still in the laboratory or small-scale pilot plant phase. Actually,
there are some pilot plants that have been recently developed to produce fresh water.

2.4. Membrane modules

2.4.1. Plate and frame

The membrane and the spacers are layered together between two plates (e.g. flat sheet).
The flat sheet membrane configuration is widely used on laboratory scale, because it is easy
to clean and replace. However, the packing density, which is the ratio of membrane area to
the packing volume, is low and a membrane support is required. Table 1 presents some
characteristics for flat sheet membranes that were used by some researchers. As can be
seen in Table 1, the flat sheet membrane is used widely in MD applications, such as
desalination and water treatment.

2.4.2. Hollow fiber

The hollow fiber module, which has been used in MD, has thousands of hollow fibers
bundled and sealed inside a shell tube. The feed solution flows through the hollow fiber and
the permeate is collected on the outside of the membrane fiber (inside-outside), or the feed
solution flows from outside the hollow fibers, and the permeate is collected inside the
hollow fiber (outside-inside). implemented a hollow fiber module (DCMD configuration) to
concentrate apple juice and alcohol respectively. Also, saline wastewater was treated
successfully in a capillary polypropylene membrane. The main advantages of the hollow fiber
module are very high packing density and low energy consumption. On the other hand, it
has high tendency to fouling and is difficult to clean and maintain. It is worth mentioning
that, if the feed solution penetrates the membrane pores in shell and tube modules, the
whole module should be changed.

2.4.3. Tubular membrane

n this sort of module, the membrane is tube-shaped and inserted between two cylindrical
chambers (hot and cold fluid chambers). In the commercial field, the tubular module is more
attractive because it has a low tendency to fouling, is easy to clean, and has a highly effective
area. However, the packing density of this module is low and it has a high operating cost.
Tubular membranes are also utilized in MD. Tubular ceramic membranes were employed in
three MD configurations: DCMD, AGMD, and VMD to treat NaCl aqueous solution, where
salt rejection was more than 99%.

2.4.4. Spiral wound membrane

In this type, flat sheet membrane and spacers are enveloped and rolled around a perforated
central collection tube. The feed moves across the membrane surface in an axial direction,
while the permeate flows radially to the centre and exits through the collection tube. The
spiral wound membrane has good packing density, average tendency to fouling and
acceptable energy consumption. It is worth stating that there are two possibilities for flow in
a microfiltration system; cross flow and dead-end flow. For cross flow, which is used in MD,
the feed solution is pumped tangentially to the membrane. The permeate passes through
the membrane, while the feed is recirculated. However, all the feed passes through the
membrane in the dead-end type.

2.5. Specific advantages and disadvantages in MD

Advantages:
The potential advantages of MD, in comparison with conventional separation
processes, are found primarily in the lower working temperature and pressure, and
thus the lower energy costs and less stringent mechanical properties. In contrast to
distillation and RO, supply solutions can be separated at a temperature well below
the boiling point and under atmospheric pressure. Typical supply temperatures
around 30-60°C permit the re-use of residual heat flows, and the use of alternative
energy sources such as sun, wind, and geothermic.
In addition, in comparison with RO, MD is less susceptible to flux limitations caused
by concentration polarisation, whereby a higher concentration of matter is obtained
on the supply-side. Theoretically, MD offers 100% retention for non-volatile
dissolved substances, whereby there is no limit on the supply concentration.
In comparison with traditional distillation, MD possesses typical basic advantages of
membrane separation, namely simple up-scaling, simple operations, possibility for
high membrane surface/volume ratios, possibility to treat flows with heat-sensitive
components and/or a high suspended particle-content at atmospheric pressure and
a temperature below the boiling point of the supply.
Disadvantages:
The main factors that determine the feasibility of MD as an industrial separation
technique, and thus still form barriers for commercial implementation, are the
relatively low permeate flux in comparison with pressure-based membrane
processes, flux reductions caused by concentration polarisation, membrane
pollution, water loss due to conduction through the polymeric membrane and/or
pore wetting, the high cost of MD modules and the high thermal energy
consumption, for which the economic costs are determined by the MD configuration
and the specific application.
2.6. Effectiveness
MD can be used for the separation/concentration of non-volatile components, like
ions, acids, colloids and macro-molecules from aqueous flows, for the removal of
traces of volatile organic compounds VOCs), like benzene, chloroform and tri-
chloroethylene from water, and for the extraction of other organic components like
alcohols from diluted aqueous solutions.
2.7. Support products
In order to guarantee a consistent flux, the temperature gradient between both
phases must be kept continuous. By internally recuperating the condensation heat or
by re-using residual heat released elsewhere, one can greatly improve the energy
efficiency of MD.
In contrast with pressure-based membrane processes, MD does not, in principle,
require additives like acids or antiscalants, because the membranes are a lot less
sensitive to concentration polarisation or membrane pollution. Thus, MD does not
require the supply mix to be subjected to a specific pre-treatment.
2.8. Environmental issues
Because MD, in contrast with conventional separation processes like distillation and
RO, is carried out at a lower working temperature and pressure, energy costs are
significantly lower. By using residual heat or alternative energy sources (sun, wind,
geothermic), the energy efficiency of an MD plant can be increased significantly.
2.9. Costs
Due to the use of very low pressures, which are associated with a low-cost
installation (thinner piping, etc.) and fewer operational problems, investment and
maintenance costs for MD are considerably lower than those of pressure-driven
membrane processes like ultra-filtration and RO. If one assumes that MD technology
is fully developed, the total production cost of a hypothetical DCMD de-salting plant
with 30% internal heat recuperation for the production of clean water at 3800 m³/h
can be estimated at 0.55 €/m³, which is clearly lower than the cost of an RO
installation with the same capacity (0.89 €/m³).

The expected cost for drinking water production in a large-scale MD de-salting plant
can currently be estimated at 0.43 – 0.70 €/m³ (0.27 – 0.36 €/m³ when using residual
heat), whereby further cost reductions in line with expectations. The cost efficiency
of MD is greatly determined by the use of residual heat flows and/or alternative
energy sources.
Chapter 3: Direct Contact Membrane Distillation (DCMD)
3.1 Introduction
Direct Contact Membrane Distillation (DCMD) is a membrane separation process
that uses a hydrophobic membrane to separate two fluid streams based on the
difference in their vapor pressures. The process relies on the evaporation and
condensation of water molecules at the membrane surface, which allows the
selective transport of water vapor from the feed stream to the permeate stream,
while rejecting dissolved salts and other contaminants.
The DCMD process typically involves a module consisting of a flat or spiral-wound
membrane that is placed between two compartments. The feed stream is introduced
into one compartment, while the permeate stream is withdrawn from the other
compartment. The membrane separates the two fluid streams, allowing the
transport of water vapor through the membrane while rejecting the dissolved salts
and other contaminants.
The process is driven by the vapor pressure difference between the two fluid
streams, which is created by maintaining a temperature difference across the
membrane. The feed stream is typically heated to a higher temperature than the
permeate stream, which creates a vapor pressure difference that drives the
transport of water vapor from the feed stream to the permeate stream.
The DCMD process has several advantages over other membrane separation
techniques, such as reverse osmosis and nanofiltration. DCMD can operate at low
pressures and temperatures, which reduces the energy consumption of the process.
In addition, DCMD can handle high salinity and fouling-prone feed streams, which
can reduce the cost and complexity of pre-treatment. DCMD is also a scalable
process that canbe used for various applications, such as desalination, wastewater
treatment, and other industrial processes.
DCMD is a relatively new membrane separation technique that has gained increasing
attention in recent years due to its potential for desalination, wastewater treatment,
and other industrial applications.
The mathematical model of DCMD is important for understanding the fundamental
mechanisms of the process and optimizing its performance. The mass transfer model
describes the transport of the solute through the membrane, which is a key factor
that affects the separation efficiency of the process. The model considers the
diffusion of the solute from the feed stream to the permeate stream, taking into
account the concentration gradient and the membrane permeability.
The flow model, on the other hand, describes the flow of the two fluid streams
through the module. This model is important for understanding the hydrodynamics
of the system and optimizing the module design for maximum mass transfer. The
flow model considers the Navier-Stokes equations, which describe the conservation
of momentum, and the mass conservation equation, which describes the continuity
of the fluid streams.
To solve the mathematical model of DCMD, numerical methods such as finite
element analysis or computational fluid dynamics can be used. These methods allow
for the simulation of the transport of the solute and the flow of the fluid streams
through the module under various operating conditions. The simulations can be used
to optimize the module design and operating conditions for maximum separation
efficiency and to predict the performance of the module under different conditions.
Overall, the mathematical model of DCMD provides a framework for understanding
the fundamental mechanisms of the process and optimizing its performance. The
model can be used to design and optimize DCMD modules for specific applications,
and to predict the performance of the modules under various operating conditions.
This can help to reduce the cost and energy consumption of DCMD processes and
make them more competitive with other membrane separation techniques.
3.2 challenges in Optimizing DCMD Modules
Optimizing the performance of DCMD modules can be challenging due to several
factors, including:
1. Membrane fouling: Membrane fouling is a common problem in DCMD, which can
reduce the membrane performance and increase the energy consumption of the
process. Fouling can be caused by the deposition of salts, organic matter, and other
contaminants on the membrane surface, which can increase the membrane
resistance and decrease the mass transfer rate. Optimizing the module design and
operating conditions to minimize fouling is a major challenge in DCMD.

2. Heat transfer: DCMD is a thermal separation process, which means that heat
transfer plays a critical role in the performance of the module. The heat transfer rate
affects the vapor pressure difference between the two fluid streams, which in turn
affects the mass transfer rate. Optimizing the heat transfer rate while minimizing
energy consumption is a major challenge in DCMD.
3. Module design: The design of the DCMD module can affect the mass transfer rate,
the flow distribution, and the pressure drop in the system. Optimizing the module
design for maximum mass transfer while minimizing energy consumption and fouling
is a major challenge in DCMD.
4. Operating conditions: The operating conditions of DCMD, such as the
temperature, flow rate, and concentration of the feed solution, can affect the
performance of the module. Optimizing the operating conditions for maximum mass
transfer while minimizing energy consumption and fouling is a major challenge in
DCMD.
5. Cost: The cost of DCMD modules is another challenge in optimizing their
performance. The cost of the membrane, module materials, and energy
consumption can significantly affect the economic feasibility of the process.
Optimizing the module design and operating conditions to minimize energy
consumption and increase the separation efficiency can help to reduce the overall
cost of the process.
6. Scale-up: DCMD modules are typically small-scale laboratory experiments, and
scaling up the process to an industrial scale can be a challenge. Scaling up requires
careful consideration of the module design, material selection, and operating
conditions to ensure that the process is efficient and cost-effective.
Overall, optimizing the performance of DCMD modules requires a multidisciplinary
approach that considers the mass transfer, flow dynamics, heat transfer, module
design, operating conditions, and cost. Addressing these challenges will help to
improve the efficiency and economic feasibility of DCMD for various applications
such as desalination, wastewater treatment, and other industrial processes.
3.3 Mathematical Model of Direct Contact Membrane (DCMD)
The mathematical model of Direct Contact Membrane Distillation (DCMD) is a
complex system of equations that describes the transport of mass and heat through
the membrane, as well as the flow dynamics of the two fluid streams. The model can
be divided into three parts: the mass transfer model, the heat transfer model, and
the flow model.
Mass Transfer Model:
The mass transfer model describes the transport of mass through the membrane,
which is the key mechanism that separates the two fluid streams. The mass transfer
model is based on Fick's law of diffusion, which states that the mass flux is
proportional to the concentration gradient. The model assumes that the mass
transfer rate is proportional to the concentration gradient and the membrane
permeability. The mass transfer rate can be expressed as:
J = -D*(dc/dx)
where J is the mass transfer rate, D is the diffusion coefficient, c is the concentration
of the solute in the feed stream, and x is the distance through the membrane.
Heat Transfer Model:
The heat transfer model describes the transport of heat through the membrane. The
model is important because the temperature gradient across the membrane affects
the vapor pressure difference between the two fluid streams, which in turn affects
the mass transfer rate. The heat transfer model is based on Fourier's law of heat
conduction, which states that the heat flux is proportional to the temperature
gradient. The heat transfer rate can be expressed as:
q = -k*(dT/dx)
where q is the heat transfer rate,k is the thermal conductivity of the membrane, and
dT/dx is the temperature gradient across the membrane.
Flow Model:
The flow model describes the flow of the two fluid streams through the module. The
flow model is important because it affects the distribution of the solute and heat
across the membrane, which in turn affects the mass and heat transfer rates. The
flow model is based on the Navier-Stokes equations, which describe the
conservation of momentum, and the mass conservation equation, which describes
the continuity of the fluid streams. The flow model can be expressed as:
ρ*(∂u/∂t + u*∇u) = -∇p + μ*∇²u
where ρ is the density of the fluid, u is the velocity vector, t is time, p is the pressure,
μ is the dynamic viscosity, and ∇²u is the Laplacian of the velocity vector.
Boundary Conditions:
The mathematical model of DCMD also includes boundary conditions that describe
the concentration, temperature, and flow rates at the inlet and outlet of the module,
as well as the membrane surface. The boundary conditions for the mass and heat
transfer models include the concentration and temperature of the feed and
permeate streams, and the flux of the solute and heat at the membrane surface. The
boundary conditions for the flow model include the inlet and outlet velocities and
pressures, as well as the geometry and dimensions of the module.
The solution of the mathematical model of DCMD can be obtained using numerical
methods such as finite element analysis or computational fluid dynamics. These
methods discretize the equations into a set of algebraic equations that can be solved
iteratively using numerical techniques. The solution of the model provides
information about the concentration, temperature, and flow profiles across the
membrane, as well as the mass and heat transfer rates and the pressure drop in the
system.
The numerical solution of the model can be used to optimize the design and
operating conditions of the DCMD module for maximum separation efficiency and
minimum energy consumption. The model can also be used to predict the
performance of the module under different operating conditions, which can help to
reduce the cost and energy consumption of the process.
Overall, the mathematical model of DCMD is a valuable tool for understanding the
fundamental mechanisms of the process and optimizing its performance. The model
provides a framework for designing and optimizing DCMD modules for specific
applications, and for predicting the performance of the modules under various
operating conditions. The model can help to reduce the cost and energy
consumption of DCMD processes and make them more competitive with other
membrane separation techniques.

Figure 6

The mass flux (J) in this case is assumed to be proportional to the vapour pressure
difference across the membrane, and is given by:

(1)
where C is the membrane coefficient, where Pvf, Pvp are the vapor pressure of the
feed and the permeate solution at the membrane surface, respectively. They are
determined as a function of local temperature and concentration using the modified
Antoine equation.

(2)

where c is in the unit of g/kg. The membrane permeability, C, depends mainly on the
membrane properties. In DCMD, the combination of Knudsen and molecular
diffusion is used to describe the mechanism of the membrane permeability when the
membrane pore size ranges from 0.1 to 1 μm . The membrane permeability C is
given by

(3)

where δ is the thickness, τ is the tortuosity, r is the pore radius, ε is the porosity of
the membrane, R is the universal gas constant, is the average temperature inside the
membrane pore, Tfm is the temperature at the feed side, Tpm is the temperature at
the permeate side, and Mw is the molecular weight of water. The first and second
term in Eq. represents the contribution of Knudsen and molecular diffusion. The
molecular diffusion is influenced by the pressure of air trapped inside the pores of
the membrane, Pa. Since the membrane is brought into contact with the feed and
permeate fluid at around atmospheric pressure, the pressure of the air trapped
inside the pores is approximated as 1 atm . PDv=1.895×10−5 T2.072 is the product of
the total pressure and the diffusion coffecient of vapor [33,34]. The permeability of
PTFE membranes ranging from 3.8×10−7 to 2.15×10−6 kg/m2 Pa s plays a significant
role in the performance of MD systems. It is well documented that the membrane
permeability is increased by increasing ε and r, and decreasing δ and τ Eqs. (1)–(3)
couple mass flux through the membrane with temperatures in each channel and
concentration in the feed channel since the partial pressure and permeability are
determined by local temperature and concentration over the membrane surface at
the feed and permeate side. The total heat transfer from the feed to permeate
solution through
the membrane (Qm) is equal to heat transfer by conduction (Qc) and vapor transport
(Qv).

(4)

is the thermal conductivity of the membrane −1 ε m 1 kgs k that is a function of the

membrane porosity (ε), the thermal conductivity of vapor (kg), and the thermal
conductivity of the membrane material (ks) . Hv=1753.5 T+2024.3×103 is the
enthalpy of vaporization The temperature polarization reduces the vapor pressure
difference
across the membrane. The vapor pressure difference drives the vapor through the
membrane in MD systems. The temperature polarization along the surface of the
membrane occurs due to the heat transfer from the feed to permeate solution by
conduction and enthalpy of vaporization/condensation of the vapor transferred
across the membrane. As a result, the thermal boundary layer forms at each side of
the membrane. The temperature polarization coefficient (TPC) is a dimensionless
value used to measure the intensity of temperature polarization. It is defined as the
ratio of the temperature difference across the membrane to the difference of bulk
temperature of the feed and permeate solution at the local cross-section. The value
of TPC in DCMD systems normally falls in the ranges of 0.4 to 0.7

(5)
The concentration polarization is a well-known phenomenon in membrane
desalination processes [22,41–43]. In DCMD systems, the solute accumulates on the
membrane surface at the feed side as the water vapor permeates through the
membrane causes the concentration polarization. The concentration polarization
coefficient (CPC), a measure of the concentration polarization level in the module, is
defined as a ratio of the local concentration on the membrane surface over the inlet
concentration.

(6)

Table 1 lists boundary conditions imposed on the velocity, temperature, and

concentration field. The membrane surface is treated as a functional surface where
the water vapor flux is coupled with feed and permeate temperatures and feed
concentration. The temperature field in the feed and permeate channel, the
concentration field in the permeate channel are coupled by the gradient conditions
applied over the surface of the membrane since gradient conditions involve
permeate flux, as indicated in Table 1. At the outlet of each channel, the specified
pressure is imposed. The periodic boundary conditions are applied at the sidewalls,
z/h=0 and 5. Vm=J/ρ is the suction rate. The velocity field in the feed and permeate
channels are coupled by the conditions applied over the membrane surface by the
suction rate and temperature-dependent viscosity of the fluid.
 References
D. Curto, V. Franzitta, and A. Guercio, “A Review of the Water Desalination
Technologies,” Applied Sciences, vol. 11, no. 2, p. 670, Jan. 2021, doi:
10.3390/app11020670.

M. Shatat and S. Riffat, “Water desalination technologies utilizing conventional and

renewable energy sources,” International Journal of Low-carbon Technologies, vol. 9,
no. 1, pp. 1–19, Mar. 2014, doi: 10.1093/ijlct/cts025.

M. Mahdi, A. Shirazi, and A. Kargari, “A Review on Applications of Membrane

Distillation (MD) Process for Wastewater Treatment,” Journal of Membrane Science
and Research, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 101–112, Oct. 2015, doi: 10.22079/jmsr.2015.14472.

D.S. Likhachev, F.C. Li, Large-scale water desalination methods: a review and new
perspectives, Desalin. Water Treat. 51 (2013) 2836–2849.

T.-C. Chen, C.-D. Ho, H.-M. Yeh, Theoretical modeling and experimental analysis of
direct contact membrane distillation, J. Membr. Sci. 330 (1–2) (2009) 279–287.
 Tables
Tables 1
Plate and frame module (flat sheet membranes) as used by some researchers.

Tabel 2
Boundary conditions.
 Figures
Figures 1
Mass transfer resistances in MD.

Figures 2
Direct Contact Membrane Distillation (DCMD).

Figures 3
Air Gap Membrane Distillation (AGMD).

Figures 4
Sweeping Gas Membrane Distillation (SGMD).
Figures 5
Vacuum Membrane Distillation (VMD).

Figures 6
Direct contact and air gap membrane distillation.