KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHATRONICS AND

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING
BACHELORS OF MECHATRONICS AND
BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING
SEMESTER TWO, YEAR 2
BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION GROUPWORK
LECTURER: MR. JAKUMA STEPHEN

GROUP H: MRI & X-RAYS

YIGA GERALD 21/U/BIO/9401/PD

WALUKAGGA ANDREW 21/U/BIO/9219/PD
WECE DANIEL OKWIR 21/U/BIO/9344/PD
NABANKEMA RUKAYIYAH 21/U/BIO/2373/GV
HAMALA IVAN 21/U/BIO/2295/GV
Contents
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)..............................................................................................3
How an MRI Works.....................................................................................................................3
Physical components of the MRI.................................................................................................4
Magnet......................................................................................................................................4
Gradient Coil............................................................................................................................4
Radiofrequency (RF) Coil............................................................................................................5
Shielding...................................................................................................................................5
Image Processing Device.........................................................................................................5
Preparation for the Test................................................................................................................5
During an MRI scan.....................................................................................................................5
MRI Safety...................................................................................................................................6
XRAYS............................................................................................................................................6
Production of X-rays....................................................................................................................6
X-ray tube....................................................................................................................................7
What are medical x-rays?.............................................................................................................7
How do medical x-rays work?.....................................................................................................8
When are medical x-rays used?...................................................................................................8
Components of X-ray Machine....................................................................................................8
Control panel............................................................................................................................8
High voltage transformer..........................................................................................................9
X-ray tube.................................................................................................................................9
X-ray grid.................................................................................................................................9
X-ray collimator.......................................................................................................................9
X-ray radiographic film..........................................................................................................10
Are there risks?..........................................................................................................................10
References..................................................................................................................................10
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Magnetic resonance imaging is a noninvasive medical test that produces detailed images of
almost every internal structure in the human body, including the organs, bones, muscles and
blood vessels. MRI scanners create images of the body using large magnet and radio waves.

No radiation is produced during an MRI exam, unlike X-rays. These images give the physician
important information in diagnosing medical condition and planning course of treatment.

How an MRI Works.

The MRI machine is a large, cylindrical(tube-shaped) machine that creates a strong magnetic
field around the patient and sends pulses of radio waves from a scanner. Some MRI machines
look like narrow tunnels, while others are more open.

A strong magnetic field is created by the MRI scanner using a high-power magnet to temporarily
change the position of hydrogen atoms that naturally exist within the body. Radio waves are sent
from the MRI machine and move these atoms out of their original position. This does not cause
any long term changes in the body. As the radio waves are turned off, the hydrogen atoms return
to their usual position, emitting different amounts of energy depending on the type of tissue they
are in. The scanner captures this energy, and a computer creates a picture using this information.
Physical components of the MRI.

MRI scanner consists of several important components that work together to produce an image.
The main components in the MRI machine are the magnet, gradient coil, radiofrequency coil,
shielding and image processing device.

Magnet

There are three types of magnets being used in MRI machine which are resistive, permanent and
superconducting. Modern designed MRI machine makes use of powerful magnetic field which is
generated by a superconducting magnet. This type of magnet is able to produce powerful and
very homogeneous magnetic field. It is made by pure conductor like Niobium-Titanium (Nb-Ti)
and insulated by copper. Shimming process in every MRI machine is required to maintain the
homogeneity of the magnetic field inside the scanning area. This factor is very important to
produce better image quality with high resolution and better accuracy. However, this magnet
works only in very low temperature close to 0 Kelvin or -273.15oC. Therefore, a cooling system
made from Helium and Nitrogen source is required to maintain the temperature. The Helium
gases must be monitored continuously and need to be refilled when the level become low.

Gradient Coil

The function of the gradient coil is to determine the exact location and the thickness of the MRI
image slice. It uses two types of gradient coil which are phase encoding gradient and frequency
encoding gradient. The phase encoding gradient control and determine the location or area to be
scanned. These coils will be located at three different locations in the magnetic field which are
on the x, y and z axis to determine the plane of the image either in sagittal, coronal or axial.
Radiofrequency (RF) Coil

Radiofrequency (RF) coil can be viewed as an antenna used to transmit and receive the signal
from the patient. The coil is placed very close to the patient according to the area to be scanned.
There are various types of coils used in an MRI scanner depending on the anatomy of the human
body. The most common examples are head, body, spine, breast and surface coils.

Shielding

The strong magnetic field in MRI can be easily influenced by metallic object or ferromagnetic
material. Therefore, this magnetic field is protected by a RF filter called Faraday Cage. This
filter or shielding covers the whole scanning room including the door and the window to ensure
that there is no leakage. The leakage can cause interference and will disturb the magnetic field
inside the room which may induce artefacts in the resulting image.

Image Processing Device

Image processing device consists of computer components such as the central processing unit
(CPU), image storage (hard disc), software and others. These components perform tasks of
image processing and reconstruction based on the selected clinical image. The signal received by
the receiver or RF coil will be read, processed, and transformed by the computer as an image that
can be comprehended by the human eye. The computer also works as an acquisition unit and
reporting work station.

Preparation for the Test

On arrival at the hospital, doctors may ask the patient to change into a gown. As magnets are
used, it is critical that no metal objects are present in the scanner. The doctor will ask the patient
to remove any metal jewelry or accessories that might interfere with the machine.
A person will probably be unable to have an MRI if they have any metal inside their body, such
as bullets, shrapnel, or other metallic foreign bodies. This can also include medical devices, such
as cochlear implants, aneurysm clips, and pacemakers.
Patients will sometimes receive an injection of intravenous (IV) contrast liquid to improve the
visibility of a particular tissue that is relevant to the scan.
Once the patient has entered the scanning room, the doctor will help them onto the scanner table
to lie down. Staff will ensure that they are as comfortable as possible by providing blankets or
cushions.
Earplugs or headphones will be provided to block out the loud noises of the scanner. The latter is
popular with children, as they can listen to music to calm any anxiety during the procedure.

During an MRI scan

Once in the scanner, the MRI technician will communicate with the patient via the intercom to
make sure that they are comfortable. They will not start the scan until the patient is ready.
During the scan, it is vital to stay still. Any movement will disrupt the images, much like a
camera trying to take a picture of a moving object. Loud clanging noises will come from the
scanner. This is perfectly normal. Depending on the images, at times it may be necessary for the
person to hold their breath.
If the patient feels uncomfortable during the procedure, they can speak to the MRI technician via
the intercom and request that the scan be stopped.

MRI Safety

The main cause of hazard in MRI is its very strong magnetic field that is able to attract metal or
ferromagnetic objects such as paper clips and credit cards. The magnetic field is always there
even when there is no scanning being performed. This has become the most important basic
safety criteria that must be take into account and was included in every procedure before, during
or after the MRI examination.
Normally, MRI machine is equipped with a metal detector either in the form of hand held or gate
type. This tool enables any metallic or ferromagnetic object to be detected in order to avoid the
object being carried accidentally into the examination room.
Every patient or anybody who enters the MRI scanning room must follow strictly the security
procedures before being allowed to undergo the examination. Before any examination, every
patient needs to sign the consent form, go through the MRI checklists and allergy forms as well
as do a creatinine screening level for contrast study during the procedure. To prevent any illegal
object being brought into the scanning room, patient must wear the clinical gown before the start
of the examination.

XRAYS

Production of X-rays

1. A current is passed through the tungsten filament and heats it up.

2. As it is heated up the increased energy enables electrons to be released from the filament
through thermionic emission.
3. The electrons are attracted towards the positively charged anode and hit the tungsten
target with a maximum energy determined by the tube potential (voltage).
4. As the electrons bombard the target they interact via Bremsstrahlung and characteristic
interactions which result in the conversion of energy into heat (99%) and x-ray photons
(1%).
5. The x-ray photons are released in a beam with a range of energies (x-ray spectrum) out
of the window of the tube and form the basis for x-ray image formation.

X-ray tube
 Diagram for an x-ray tube

What are medical x-rays?

X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation, similar to visible light. Unlike light, however,
xrays have higher energy and can pass through most objects, including the body. Medical x-rays
are used to generate images of tissues and structures inside the body. If x-rays traveling through
the body also pass through an x-ray detector on the other side of the patient, an image will be
formed that represents the “shadows” formed by the objects inside of the body.
One type of x-ray detector is photographic film, but there are many other types of detectors that
are used to produce digital images. The x-ray images that result from this process are called
radiographs.

How do medical x-rays work?

To create a radiograph, a patient is positioned so that the part of the body being imaged is located
between an x-ray source and an x-ray detector. When the machine is turned on, x-rays travel
through the body and are absorbed in different amounts by different tissues, depending on the
radiological density of the tissues they pass through. Radiological density is determined by both
the density and the atomic number (the number of protons in an atom’s nucleus) of the material
being imaged. For example, our bones contain calcium, which has a higher atomic number than
most other tissues. Because of this property, bones readily absorb x-rays and therefore produce
high contrast on the x-ray detector. As a result, bony structures appear whiter than other tissues
against the black background of a radiograph. Conversely, x-rays travel more easily through less
radiologically dense tissues, such as fat, muscle, and air-filled cavities such as the lungs. These
structures are displayed in shades of gray on a radiograph.

When are medical x-rays used?

Listed below are examples of examinations and procedures that use x-ray technology to either
diagnose or treat disease:
Diagnostic

X-ray radiography: Detects bone fractures, certain tumors and other abnormal masses,
pneumonia, some types of injuries, calcifications, foreign objects, or dental problems.

Components of X-ray Machine

Control panel
X-ray Control Panel is a computer control panel used to set up different X-ray machine settings
like power, aperture size, or even wipe clean the X-ray screen. Most of these panels have buttons
with pictures representing what they do so that anyone can use them without training. The
control panel can also feature a touchscreen as the primary user interface.
High voltage transformer
X-ray machine high voltage transformer ensures that adequate power is delivered to the tube for
the generation of X-rays. X-ray machine X-ray tube is the X-ray producing agent. X-rays are
produced when an electrical current passes through an X-ray tube.

X-ray tube

The X-ray tube is a vacuum bulb designed for X-rays production. The energy released by
electrons bouncing off the high voltage electrode in combination with the materials which fill it
up produces X-rays that can be used in medical or security screening sizes. The output of X-rays
depends on several factors, including pressure, voltage, and temperature
X-ray tube has two components, X-ray target and X-ray Cathode X-ray tube also called X-ray
source. X-ray machines use X-ray tubes that are made of molybdenum or tungsten. X-rays will
be produced when a high voltage is applied to the X-ray target. This X-ray will then pass through
the X-ray control panel, a system used for regulating various settings on an X-ray tube.
X-ray grid
The function of the X-ray grid is to X-ray your body parts, and X-rays will pass through the X-
ray grid to the X-ray receptor. This allows X-rays to reach receptors from many directions.
However, X-rays can only pass through X-ray receptors that have low-density materials.
The benefit of using an X-ray grid is that you can adjust the grid to allow you to take a closer
look at some specific body parts, so it’s easier for the technician to detect abnormalities. If there
are no abnormalities detected, then you won’t need any further medical treatment for that day.

X-ray collimator
The function of an X-ray collimator is to regulate and redirect x-rays from the X-ray tube X-rays
pass through the X-ray collimator. The X-ray Collimator has a high density, so it will stop X -
rays from passing through it in all directions except at one particular angle. This is called an
aperture.
The X-ray machine technician can adjust the aperture of the X-ray Collimator to make sure that
only specific body parts or organs are being radiated by controlling where X-Ray ions are aimed
at.
Using exposure factors, they determine how long they will leave X-rays on exposing your body
part. Usually, anything over 20 seconds is considered unsafe, but sensitive areas like your lungs
may be X-rayed for up to 30 seconds.
X-ray collimator is used to reduce X-rays exposure where it’s not needed and redirect X-rays
where X-ray receptors are placed, such as your knee or chest
X-ray radiographic film
The function of the X-ray film is to produce radiographic X-ray images. X-ray receptors will
radiate your body parts, and X-rays will pass through the X-ray grid to X-ray film. X-rays will
record an image on the X-ray film.
The X-ray film is then inspected by trained technicians who are looking for any abnormalities.
X-ray films allow X -rays to pass through easily even if they’re placed in a strong lead container
enabling them to be stored and transported without danger of radiation leaks.
So, when buying an X-ray machine, verify that it has all these major components. They will
determine the overall performance and functionality of your X-ray machine. An experienced
Xray machine technician may help you with the verification of the X-ray parts and components.

Are there risks?

When used appropriately, the diagnostic benefits of x-ray scans significantly outweigh the risks.
X-ray scans can diagnose possibly life-threatening conditions such as blocked blood vessels,
bone cancer, and infections. However, x-rays produce ionizing radiation—a form of radiation
that has the potential to harm living tissue. This is a risk that increases with the number of
exposures added up over the life of an individual. However, the risk of developing cancer from
radiation exposure is generally small.

References

1. MRI: Howstuffwork, 2008,

2. Shellock F G, Pocket guide to MR Procedures and Metallic Object: Update 2003.
3. Joseph P. Hornack, PhD, The Basics of MRI, copyright @1996-2011 (Aug 6, 2008);
http://www.cis.rit.edu/people/faculty/hornak
4. The Physical Principles of Medical Imaging, 2nd Ed, http://www.sprawls.org/ppmi2/
5. Bushberg J.T et al, The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging, 2nd Ed, 2002.
6. Production of x-ray from radiology café.
7. National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering.