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    Y9 Chapter-1 Measurement of Physical Quantities

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    mtayyab zahid

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    Marshall Cavendish STUDENT'S BOOK Dr Charles Chew Dr Ho Boon Tiong Wendy Brown Dr Mark Venables Gayla Measurement of Physical Quantities PaO e ie ui ud ill learn the followin PG nie uring eylinders to find a length or a volume. riety of time intervals using clocks and digital timers re for a small distance and for a short interval of time by + Describe how to measur measuring multiples from the very large (eg. the solar system) to the very to two main ideas: matter and energy. The The nysics is the study of our natural world small (eg the atom), The study of physics is relate knowledge we have gained in the field of physics is Scientists have conducted many experiments to verify their ideas carry out experiments, they need to make accurate measuremer What are physical quantities? he result of the work of many scientist gy. When 1 A physical quantity \s Figure 1.1The sign warns di les and their commonly used unt physical qu Do ou Know? Eee ere re wis to your elbow Length 4, mcm, mm length of yourfoot ‘ed a NO ‘9 2 Your mouth produc Time _ hour minute, second amin, s otic a dy, ftectrc current ampere millampere Ama eens ‘ani °° gs com GEM RO Ny 4 Onaverage, people ‘an hold thei breath B Measurement of Physical Quantities ‘Some common physical quantities such as area, volume and speed are derived fiom other physical Quantities. For example, speed is derived from length tie. distance travelled) and time. Table 12 gives examples of how some common physical quantities are derived from other physical quantities Table 1.250% a ies that are devved from other pysicaf quant Prete Cn abe Drege Matlin ol Pk HELPFUL NoTES® Area Length x width| m Volume Length x width height ™ Length Fs Speed = mis n the past, people used parts of their bodies and things around therm as units of measuremen That was how measuring terms such as the foot, yard and horsepower came about. Unfortunat such methods of measurement created much confusion because the measurement vatied fi Naividual to individual, It was not until 1968 that scientists agreed to adopt one universal set Prefixes for commonly used units mal notation, the distance between air molecules can be expressed as 0.000 000 01 m, 3 to mention this quantity a number of times, it would be tedious to use this type of Scan this page to ead a Instead of using decimal notation, itis more convenient to use prefixes to represent PHYSICS WATCH of amet, tity. For example, when measuring short distances such as imply i as one micromete. vepocaa 7 can be expressed as 0.01 um (micrometre), where 4 represents the submultiple prefixes listed in Table 13 are useful for expressing physical quantities that are either very big me common prefixes and their symbols we ae Z EB 1 a m : io nic! " ad 0 ‘nano- a cee YD Standard form in i : Convenient and acceptable way of expressing physical quantities, ve standard form. Standard form is. a way of writing numbers, in. fh one integer s multiplied by an appropriate power of 10. For erariple, 0005 67 and ¥6 800 will be expressed in standard form as 567 x and 168 x 10 inthe ttn, can also be expressed as x 10 *m. (mon quantinies expressed in standard form ate shown be «One millampere (mA) is 1x 104A + Three me Mii dx . . ce Figure 12 Measurement of Physical Quantities How do we measure length? tity that is often user In physics length is an important quantity ; ‘out how far an object has moved, how much space an objec 1d For example, we measure length to find occupies (ie. the object’s volume) and how far apart two objects are metre (m), centimetre (cm) 2nd Id frorn the width of a human hair to nents and methods to measure Length can be measured using the units kilometre (ken), millimetre (mm), There is a wide range of lengths in this wor the radius of the Earth It is necessary to use the appropriate instrum different types of length. ENRICHMENT GS The metre rule and measuring tape rou Se The mete rule and measuring tape Figure 12} fo ate instruments that ate commonly used to ctaasoe papain measure length can youdetermine A metie rule can measure lengths of up to the length ofthe one metre, A steel measuring tape is suitable cunved re for measuring straight distances longer than a metre, while a cloth measuring tape is suitable for measuring the length along a curved surface, such as a person’ waist What is the precision of an instrument? The smallest unit an instrument can measure So rae za rete rican is known as its preeiston. What isthe smallest retractable steel measur unit on a metre rule? It is 01cm or! mm, are used to measure eng Therefor, the precision of a metre rue is 1 mm. ‘A stack of paper is shown in Figure 14. How would you estimate the thickness of a sheet of paper in the stack? ‘The thickness ofa sheet of paper is less than the precision of a metre rule (Le. mm). Therefore. you cannot measure the papers thickness directly using a metre rule. You will have to estimate its thickness. To do this, measure the thickness of several sheets of paper together and divide by the number of sheets. Ths will give you the average z value ofthe thickness of one sheet of paper. Figure 14Ascackospapr ee How do we avoid errors in measurement? When you use a metre rule. our eyes should be positioned such that your line of sight 's perpendicular to the rule (Figure 16(a).In other words, you must look at the rule ‘straight © at an angle, If this is not done, an error will be introduced into the measurement igure type of errors called parallax error. ° ‘ouick check ) Wings eas Accurate lenath of object = 29-10 1.9m Inaccurate length of object = 3.0 -0.9)= 2.1 em ana o vs ee, pat é < 6 ire oes Tie orale? “en ' ' ‘eM ay ] : ees ee Pash eesaeee Stee Measurement of Physical Quantities A metre rule may have its zero mark atthe very end of the rule, It may no longer be suitable for "measuring ifthe zero-mark end is worn, The worn end of the rule may introduce errors into the readings. Ths type of error is called zero error. Hence, iis better to measure from another point and subtract it rom the final reading (Figure 1 6(a), Taking several readings and calculating the average also minimises errars and uncertainties How do we measure volume? Volume can be measured using the units eubie metre (m?) and cubic centimetre (em) What are the basic methods of measuring the volumes of solids and liquids? Volume of regular solids A metre rule can be used to measure the dimensions of a regula solid The volume ofthe solid can then be determined by using the appropriate formula, Here are some examples: x x h, where [= length, b= breadth and h = height (a) Volume of a rectangular block ameter and {(b) Volume of eylinder = na?h, where d height 4 4n(2),whered-= diameter (€) Volume of a sphere = Volume of irregular solids How do we find the volume of small objects that sink? By means of a measuring cylinder, we can find the volume of a small View the readings for V; and V2 with your viewing eye at object, V= V; - Vi, where Vj = volume of water before putting in the thesame levels object and V, = volume reading after the bottom of the putting in the object (Figure 17. meniscus How do we find the volume of small objects that float? Figure 17 Finding the voumne ofa smal objec tat sinks For small abjects (such as a piece of cork) that float, a sinker such as a lump of metal is used. The sinker ensures that the small object is totally immersed in the water (Figure 12) P Volume of corks given by V=V,- V5 Measurement of Physical Quantities [RE ay that sink? i How do we find the volume of large objects aecanand ammeosting inde to use ad use a sinker in the Forlorge objects (such asa stone) that sink, We pacer Fora oene igute 12), Note: nthe case of arge OPI2tS that float same way as in Figute 18, Je displacement an Volume of object empty measuring, oylinder wooden block after immersing before immersing the object, the object Figure 19 finding the volume of large obec that sinks Volume of liquids The volume of aliquid can be found by pouring the liquid into @ measuring ¢) the volume V directly Figure 1.10), Ensure that the measuring cylinder is resting on a flat horizonta’ surface and that any bubbles in the liquid are removed. vylinder and reading measuring oylinder +> liquid of unknown volume V Practical 1A Figure 1.10 Measuring the volume of aliquid zm, Measurement of Physical Quantities (aa How do we measure time? Imagine that you are stranded on an island. You do not have a watch ot 2 mabile phone How would you be able to tell the time? We can tell time by observing events that repeat at regular intervals or periods, Examples of such events are seasons, phases of the Moon, sunsets and positions ofthe Sun, Time can be measured using the units hour (h), minute (min) and second (s). The year, month and day ae other units for measuring time Scientific work cannot rely on the observation of natural events, which ate not fixed, For example, the time interval between a sunrise and a sunset is different in winter and summer, The time intervals for scientific work have to be fixed; they cannot change. Can you think of recurrent motions that can be Used to measure time for scientific work? Using a pendulum to measure time Asimple pendulum can be used to measure time. It consists of a heavy object, called a bob (e.g. a metal ball), that is attached to one end of a string. The other end of the string is fixed. When a pendulum swings freely it will move back and forth at regular intervals Each complete to-and-fro motion is one oscillation (Figure 11). Motion: movement Calibrated: adjusted ® 1 bob moves from Rto Sand back to, the pendulum completes one oxcilation In what other i to produce one complete oscilation? Figure 1.1 When ways can the bobs The period of a simple pendulum is the time taken for one complete oscillation The period of a pendulum depends on its length, Pendulum clocks can be calibrated to measure time accurately by adjusting the length of the pendulum, For scientific work, time intervals have to be precisely measured. The period of the oscillations must ot change. Most modern timepieces are calibrated using precise timekeeping devices called atomic clocks (Figure 1:12) Instruments used to measure time The common instruments used to measure intervals of time in hours, minutes and seconds include clocks and stopwatches, What if we need to measure a short interval of time? For example, the time for one oscillation of a pendulum with a short length. To measure it with accuracy, we can use a stopwatch to measure the time for multiple oscillations and then dividing the time by the number of oscillations. Figure 1.12 This atomic clock Used some satellites can measure time to within 0.45 ‘nanoseconds over I2 hous Measurement of Physical Quantities 7 Pendulum clock im clocks keep time using All timepieces use some kind of periodic mot a pendulums periodic swing, ion to measure time. Pendulut Clocks and stopwatches The oscillations of springs and the natural vibrations of bbe used to keep time. Most clocks and watches today use quartz accurate and require very little electrical power systals are other periodic mations that can crystals. Quartz crystal are smal Figure 113 shows severalinstruments that measure time. Depending on the accuracy and precision needed. the instruments used will vty yo Mos stopwatches can measute time toa precision of 001s. Digital stopwatches uSve"y A100 readings up to two decimal places. However, we usually take readings fo the nears’ Ore AC place. This s because we need to start and stop a stopwatch by hand, unlike the electronic senor Used in a data logger. This manual operation introduces a random error called human reach Human reaction time is about 03-05 s for most people. Figure 1.13 Which time measuring lo instrument would you use 0 9 8 measure the time taken by a unnet forun a 100 mrace? Why? 4 765 en ST LCa Ly ae Objecti ener oa To calibrate a simple pendulum to measure time rerortstond tg lamp test Find out what s ar nN your averagereaction Apparatus - nee Pendulum, stopwatch, metre rule, retort stand your reaction aprest time with those of aie your classmates, Procedure 1 1 Tie the pendulum to the clamp and measure | the length J ofthe sting in metres | (Fique 114), 2. Measure thetime taken forthe pendulum tomake pendulum YC) = 20 oscillations, 3. Vary the length / ofthe string between $0 and 90 cm and repeat step 2. 4 Complete Table 14 Figure 1.14 Table 14 See ar re) Un rer or a km SR NCR OR Measurement of Physical Quantities 5 Plot a graph of period 7/s against length Yim, and find the length of the pendulum with a Period of one second, Plot also a graph of F/s" against length W/m. Calculation The period of the pendulum, T, is found by dividing t.by 20s, i, Results and discussion Period Tis ris Lenath iim Length tim Figure 1.15 Figure 1.16 How does this experiment allow us to use a pendulum to measure time in seconds? The length of the pendulum with a period of one second can be read off the graph. By using a pendulum of this length, we can measure time by counting the number of oscillations (ef ® WoRD ALERT Joscillation takes 1 s, then 60 oscillations take 60 s or I min). ‘What can we observe about the graph of T against /? Linear: ina straight in The period increases with length but not lineatly (Figure 115), What does the plot of T? against / tell us? Ir tells us that the square of the period is directly proportional to the lenath. This produces a straight-line graph when we plot T?against/ (Figure 116). By extending the straight-line graph, @ uN we can easily predict the period of the pendulum for lengths that are not included in the graph we have plotted. Practical 18 Sc aL Astudent checks the accuracy of an antique clock (Figure 1.7). He uses a digital stopwatch to find the period of the clocks pendulum. (a) IfX and are the two extreme positions of each oscillation, state. the path of one complete oscillation, (b) The student's timings for two separate measurements of 20 oscillations are 35.70 s and 34.98 s. Calculate the average period of the clock’s pendulum. Solution (a) X to and back to X or to X and back to. ae ) QUICK CHECK In an experiment to find the period of a simple pendulum, we take the time for one complete oscilation. Tue orfale? {b) Average time for 20 oscillations B, = SHS 545 35345 _ e Average perio ofthe clock’ pendulum = 9245 = 1767 Figure 117 Measurement of Physical Quantities NK Everives 1-18 rac measuring e 1 The world’s smallest playable ‘cylinder guitar is 10 jum long, Express the guitars length in standard form 2 Ameasuring cylinder is used to measure the volume of a liquid (Figure 118) (2) What type of error can be introduced Figure 118 when reading : the measurement? aes (6) What should you do to read the hull y hy, ‘measurement correctly? 3. (a). State two units commonly used 10 measure volume? (b)_ How do we measure the volume of a small irregular object that floats on water? 4 Figure 119 shows a voltmeter scale with a stip cof mirror mounted under the needle. Suggest how this may help reduce errors when readings are taken. 5 Figure 120 shows an oscillating pendulum. Ifthe time taken for the pendulum to swing from A to C 10 Bis 35, what is the period of the pendulum? 6 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in this section, 1.2 Scalars and Vectors In this section, you will learn the following: # @ Understand the terms scalar quantity and vector quant ‘= @ know some examples of scalar and vector quantities. ‘© @ Determine, by calculation or graphically, the resutant of two vectors at right angles. What are scalars and vectors? You have learnt that a physical quantity consists of a numerical magnitude and a unit ‘A physical quantity can be of two types: scalar or vector. A sealar quantity isa physical quantity that has magnitude only. Measurement of Physical Quantities _— fea @ for example speed is scalar quantiy because tls vs how fas or stow an objects moving, It does not el us which direction the objects heading To describe speed ina specific direction, we use the tetm velocity Velocity tells us both how fst or slow an objects moving and in which direction. We say veloc is a vector quantity a wand in which iy Which type of physical A vector quantity i physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction piel ope magnitude ony and where bath Image ad HELPFULNOTES Table 15 shows some common scalars (scalar quantities) and vectors (vector quantities) Table 15 Common scalars ond vectors ee eres ana cr = vee Sarbanes Vey borer Dilan manele, a recy Canute ss neclenton eke area vy wes oe exci tse Eo eect cen ceoatoral fl stents Why is distance a scalar quanniy and dsplacere vector quantity? Vector diagrams Fi out mein chape How are vector quantities represented? Let us take a common example of a vector quantity, namely, force, Aforce is a vector — it has both magnitude and direction, Its commonly used unit is the newton (N). At any time, two or more forces may be acting on an abject. The forces may have different magnitudes and directions. In such cases, we can use vector diagrams to add up these forces. In a vector diagram, a vector quantity is represented by an arrow. The length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of the vector. The direction of the arrow indicates the direction of the vector. Figure 121 shows the vector diagram of a force of 20 N in the direction 45° north of east. es Step1 N Choose an appropriate scale to. ——— represent the force. aw wore Scale 1 cm:5N 5 ———————_ Step2 Draw a baseline (horizontal in this case) and measure the required angle _ with a protractor. step3 Draw an arrow atthe angle measured, The length ofthis atrow should be proportional to the magnitude ofthe force. This is defined by the scale in Step 1 es Figure 1.21 Drowing a vector diagram Measurement of Physical Quantities u (QUICK CHECK When adding vectors, | must consider both ‘magnitude and direction Te ot false? hen we add scalars, we add How do we add vectors? Scalars such as distance and speed, have ma their magnitudes only ignityde and no ditection ve add 10 0F MOTE VECIOIS We hot produces the same effect be equivalent to the Unike scalars vector have both magnitude and drection heh cannot add their magnitudes only, We need 0 find a single WTS ey Sethe vectors combined. The single vector, called the resultant VeCtO® individual vectors combined in terms of magnitude and direction. re 122 shows two parallel forces of Game direction (ie. towards the vy towards the right. A resultant ‘Adding parallel vectors Let us assign the direction towards the rig - magnitudes 3N and 5 N acting on a block. Both forces actin tight). The resultant forces 8 N fie. 3N + 5 N= BN) and i drecte vector s usually indicated by a double-headed arrow. resultant aw Figure 1.22 Adon of vectors acting nthe same dection «tin opposite directions. The resultant force is2 Jat as postive. Fig In Figure 123, the two forces ae stil parallel but a (le. SN +(-3N) =2N) andis directed towards the right. resultant Figure 1.23 Adcition of vectors acting n opposite directions In Figure 1.24, two parallel forces of 3N act on the block in opposite directions. This produces zero resultant force. i: rE resulant in OO force=0N Figure 1.24 Adation of vos tht ae equalin magnitude bt acto oppose rections ‘Adding non-parallel vectors Figure 125 shows two non-parallel forces, f= 4 N and F: = 3 N acting on a block at right angle to leach other. How can we add the two forces to obtain the resultant force R? Figure 1.25 Addition of non-parallel vectors yy Measurement of Physical Quantities Ne aa @ Figure 126 shows how we can obtain the resultant force R graphically by drawing a parallelogram, ne resultant force R is the diagonal ofthe parallelogram. A Figure 1.26 Adding vectors using the parallelogram method (Scale m1) 8y measuring the angle @ and the length the diagonal, we obtain the resultant force f= 5 N at an angle 6 = 37 to the horizontal We can also obtain the resultant force R by calculation. Using Pythagoras’ Theorem, VF +P = Va43' = 25 =5N tan@. 3-075 ee Hence, the resultant force R has a magnitude of R = 5 N, making an angle of @= 36.9° with the horizontal 8y using either the parallelogram method or the calculation method, we ative atthe same answer the resultant force has a magnitude of SN, and acts at an angle of 369° to the horizontal ST dc Tects ad 1. Distinguish between a scalar quantity and a vector quantity. Give ane example of each 2 Figure 127 shows the forces acting on a box What isthe resultant force? 15N zon NK Figure 1.27 Exercises 1-10 3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in bxecise TE Let Reflect is section. Measurement of Physical Quantities 13 examples with commonly used units a voume Tine | Gen.mvemo| (em?) omin.s) canbe canbe canbe messured wrensured messed Using ‘cing “sing + Measuring elinder for liquids and small regular + Formulae for regular solids + Clocks and digital timers (ea pendulum clocks and Stopwatches) @ solids + Displacement method for large regular ose solids based Petiodic motions

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