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il`i cm téklikm psikamlmcçtikm . K X. )
cm s sigicitu` fs ` f =>6 tfgpcas fstu` i mltf. Darbf G. Umcflkim
krii st imla
kr lass `fc sibca _U I kal cas GIra. Vrif
Vri f c Ml`rm` f Kmg
Kmgmm ko
koaa >; darbfvm cflkimNbgmic.kag
prfoispílikas,
prfoispíli kas, fc ka
kall vf lta `f mbalzmcf zd Nk`i.bah .g x
[ml @ifba `fhmda `fc Pfmtra Du í- MKCMXMKIALF[
rfz fl Bumlmdumta, cas tôlfcfs MC LÔG.
LÔG . ?9
`f fstm k iu` m`, cm rfm c i zmk
zmkiûl
iûl `f
`f • Pf lba 8> m ýas y fstay par
cas rftmhcas `arm`as y su su fvacu- mkmhm r f c hmkoiccfrmta, sa cm -
mkmhmr
kiûl, cms ki u`
u`mm` fs mg ur mc cm` ms gfltf fskr iha pmrm efcikitmrcas
`f cm kastm, c m rfstmurmkiûl a par su rfvistm
r fvistm ym qu
quff m gi
rfkalstrukkiûl `f tfgpcas, cm pmrfkfr fs c m gfdar `f su tipa .
si ghacabç
ghacabçmm y pmrtfs `f ul tfg- y atrms g ís, m`fgís `f quf fc fc ¡ Dc

'.
pca hmrraka
hmrraka,, c ms `iefrflkims f ltr ltrff ka ltfli`a fs fxkffxkfccf lt f, y m gç Kiu`m` `f
x c ~ r .
f c mrtf hmrraka gfxikmla y fc fc gf sfrvirí `f gu k oa ym quf
a`cck = .
furapfa
urapfa,, c ms k iu` m`fs gil f rms • ]uifra efcikitmr m ta`a f c fs c m kmrrfr
kmrrf rm par cm quf tflba .
G p ~ C A [
AJIIucm

y cas rf m cfs `f gil ms , fc rfskmtf fquipa `f Mrqufacabçm Gfxi- pmsiûl y quifra fstu`imr
fstu`imr,, cm ^VFHC

`f cas kalvfltas fl ruil ms, cms lm par f c g mrmviccasa trmhmda

kmlm
km mrqufaccabçm. Admcí y cm rfv ist
mrqufa istmm
k iu`m` fs pmtrigal
pmtrigaliia gul`i
gul`imm c qu f rf m ci z ml. ]uf fstf mýa `urf gukoas
gu koas mýas g ís. Pmg- • gmpm `f cm p. 26 sahrf
Fl fc

`f Géxika , fl eil,eil , fxistf brml gfdar f gukoa gís fc eruta `f hiél fs p f ra quf smqufl m cbulm FcPmdçl `ikf Akémla ^mkçeika fl
km lti`m` `f tfg ms quf tmghié mghiéll su fseufrza
fseufrza,, ym quf ccfl ccflmm ` f il vfs tib mk
mkiûl
iûl sahrf cm ki u`m` cubmr `f Bacea `f Géxika
Géxika..
pa`rçml kakaltrihuir
ltrihuir m c ka
kala
laki
ki - arbucca m` gi rm r c m kmci`m` `f `f Iz t mp m cmp m, qué euf `f fccm, • Fl c m hihciabrmeçm `fc mrtç
rtçkk uca
giflta `f ca cass gfxikmlas ` f su su rf vistm. [ay su efci z c fk fktar
tar qui é lfs c m omhitmh
omhitmhmm l, kuílta `f ^mhca Fskmcmlt
Fskmcmltff, p. 5= , f c
cfbm`a kacalimc p mrm su rfskm tf ym cugla ` f c Kalsfrvmtaria `urû , qué sf om kcfskuh i frta, laghrf karrfkta fs Dasé Gmrçm E
y `ieusiûl
`ieusiûl.. Xfka r` f gas quf
qu f fl Jm zuoira Jah myms oi
oi,, fs `fkir, fc
Lmkialmc `f Gôsikm y la of ftk. (K X.
Géxika sf `fsmrraccû ul mrtf hm- pa`i`a flka
flkaltr ltr mr mcbôl lôg f- Gibufc Ílbfc
Ílbf c Umrbms C ûpfz mpfcci`
mpf cci`aa fs Jahm
Jahmyymsoi.
rraka fxkfpkialmc y ôlika. Gf ra quf mh a r`f f c tfgm `f c as gibufcQv=2 Noatgmic.kag fX. 7 Kmrt m rfsug i`m

5 MX]V FACABçM GF_IKMLM

 

lstituta Lmkialmc `f ltrapacabçm f Oistarim

XF[ P IP VYF [^FKPA AXIBIL C @F CA [ [K XAL F[ @F AOVLCIK

Í m ~
ÍG Cas gmskmralfs sal fcfgfltas arlmgfltmcfs guy kagulfs fl cm
mrquitfkturm gmym `fc Kcísika tfgprmla 8 > > - 5 > > `.K.). @as sitias
mrqufacûbikas `fc sur `f ]uiltmlm Xaa cas kalsfrvml `f gmlfrm
fxkfpkialmc4 Komjmlhmjíl, môl kfrrm`a mc pôhcika, y Jaoulciko,
`al`f fc visitmltf puf`f m`girmr kilka rastras `f kmsi `as g ftras `f
mcturm ga`fcm`as flfl fstuka kmc y mrflm): kumtra `f fccas ecmlqufml`a
cm fskmcilmtm `fc tfgpca prilkipmc y ula gís pfqufýa quf rfgmtm fc
cm`a sur `fc ôctiga kufrpa `fc f`ieikia, kalstrui`a fl cm kigm `f ulm
c f cm kacilm rfpcftm `f írhacfs y karazas.
rikk as
ri ^ar cms kmrmktfrçstikms `f cas gmtfrimcfs kal quf eufral fcmharm`as y
fs y fc kcigm mc quf fstíl fxpufstas fl fstm rfbiûl, cm kalsfrvmkiûl `f
fstas gmskmralfs kalstituyf ula `f cas rftas gís brml`fs `f cm rfs
m cm tmurmkiûl gfxikm
gfxikmlm.
lm. Fl su iltfrvflkiûl sf oml eargm`a bflfrmkialfs
ulas `f rfstmurm`arfs y `fs`f fc mýa 8 > > 6 fc Ilstituta Lmkialmc `f Mltra
pacabçm f Oistarim cLcLMO
MO)) ilikiû ul pra yfkta `f kalsfrvmkiûl pfrgm
cf sf lfltf quf om pfrgiti`a rfskmtmr pmucmtilmgfltf cm ikalabrmeçm
arib ilmc y kaltracmr su `ftfriara.
4msas
M trmvés `f mýas `f trmhmda fl éstf y atras sitias `fc pmçs, sf om fstmh cfki` a ulm eicasaeçm
eicasaeçm `f kalsfrvm
kiûl4 fvitmr fc usa `f pra`uktas siltétikas fspfkimcgfltf fl cas prakfsas `f kalsaci`mkiûl, ym quf
vmrias `f cas prahcfgms mktumcfs pmrm prfsfrvmr cas gmskmralfs sf `frivml `fc usa il`iskrigilm`a `f
kalsaci`mltfs `f lmturmcfzm `iefrfltf y la kagpmtihcf kal cas gmtfrimcfs aribilmcfs.
Fc gmtfrimc kal quf eufral ga`fcm`as cas gmskmralfs fs ulm gfzkcm prfpmrm`m kal kmc kaga kfgfl
tmltf y kmrbms kagpufstms `f mrflm y smskmh, ul pra`ukta `frivm`a `f cm iltfgpfrizmkiûl ` f rakrakms
ms
kmcizms, guy mhul`mltf fl cm rfbiûl, kal cms quf sf eargû ulm mrbmgmsm quf téklikmgfltf sf ccmgm
gartfra, gfdar kalaki`m kaga fstuka, `iefrfltf mc fstuka aribilmr quf kaltiflf yfsa fl cub mr `f kmc.
Cms prapif`m`fs pcístikms `f fstf fstuka pfrgitifral fc ga`fcm`a `f cas rfcifvfs quf `fkarmral pra
eusmgfltf cas f`ieikias gmyms `fc Kcísika tfgprmla `f fltrf cas kumcfs, cas gmskmralfs `f Jaoulciko
mckmlzmral ul livfc fxkfpkialmc fl térgilas mrtçstikas .
^ar fc `fsbmstf y mbatmgiflta lmturmc `f cas gmtfrimcfs, cas gmskmralfs fgpfzmral m prfsfltmr ulm
kal`ikiûl `f pucvfrucflkim y brml`fs aquf`m`fs fl su iltfriar. Fl cms prigfrms iltfrvflkialfs quf
sf ccfvmral m kmha fl cas mýas sftfltm kuml`a la omhçm gukoms ilvfstibmkialfs sahrf fc kagpartm
giflta `f pacçgfras siltétikas fl kal`ikialfs `f mctm ougf`m` y tfgpfrmturm kaga cms `f cas
mghifltfs sfcvítikas, fstas pra`uktas eufral mpcikm`as pmrm `fvacvfr eirgfzm mc fstuka.

[il fghmrba, `fs`f fc mýa =99>

=99>,, fccLMO om prakurm`a mpcikmr cms gmtfrims prigms usm`ms fl cm gmluemkturm a r i ~ i l m c `f fstf tipa `f fcf
gfltas y mhriû ul kmgpa `f ilvfstibmkiûl fl fc quf huskm rfskmtmr cms tfklacabçms trm`ikialmcfs gmyms y cm fxpfrigfltmkiûl kal m`itivas
lmturmcfs kaga bagms y rfsil
rfsilms
ms `f fspfkifs mrhûrfms mhul`mltfs fl cm rfbiûl . Msç, fl cas ôctigas trfs mýas, sf om fgpcfm`a cm kmc kaga
kalsaci`mltf y kaga kfgfltmltf fc pacv
pacvaa `f p if`rm km cizm y fc smskmh kaga kmrbm fl cas gartfras a pmstm
pmstmss `f rfsmlf, ca quf om si`a mctm
gfltf fefktiva pmrm rfsacvfr cm pucvfrucflkim.

Atra prahcfgm `frivm`a `fc `ftfriara mc quf sf oml fle

fl e rfltm`a cas rfstmurm`arfs, fs cm
a pér`i`m `f ermbgfltas m trmvés `fc tifgpa , ca quf igpi`f cm mprfk
mprfkiimkiûl aribilmc `f cas
gmskmralfs y cm karrfktm cfkturm `f su ikalabrmeçm. @fs`f 8 > > 6 sf trmhmdm fl cm rfiltf
brmkiûl `f cms eargms pfr`i`ms `f cas gmskmralfs hmsíl`asf fl fc rfbistra eatabríeika
oi stûrika, msç kaga fl `ihudas y fsqufgms fcmharm`as `fs`f quf eufral `fskuhifrtas .

Cas kumtra gmskmralfs quf ecmlqufml cm fskmc ilmtm prfsfltml kmrmktfrçstikms ougmlms y
mt rihutasmsakimhcfs m rftrmtas `f pfrsalmdfs rfmcfs , mc tifgpa quf ilkcuyfl fcfgfltas la
ougmlas4 flargfs adas, arfdfrms kagpcfgfltm`ms kal kumtra fskumcas y emukfs sfrpfltilms
m mghas cm`as. Cas gmskmralfs, quf mktumcgfltf kalsfrvml ulm kmpm `f pilturm radm,
`fhifral tflfr atras kacarfs mpcikm`as sahrf éstm `f cas quf saca quf`ml mcbulms fvi`flkims.
c prayfkta `f kalsfrvmkiûl quf `fsmrraccm mktumcgfltf fc IL O om pfrgiti`a quf cms
iltfrvflkialfs sf ccfvfl m kmha `f gmlfrm pf ri û`ikm y prabrmgm`m, ulm vfz mc mýa
` fspués `f cm tfgparm`m `f ccuvims: fl cas ôctigas `as trmhmdas `f kmgpa sf om cabrm`a
cm fc
ka
kaltracmr
ltracmr pucvfru
ikalabríeikm y sf omlcflkim fl fcfgfltas
rfstitui`a cm`a lartf mltfs
sf rfskmtû gukom ileargmkiûl
la kaltfgpcm`as.
kaltfgpcm`as . sahrf ta`a
www.ilmo.ba h . gx
 

latikims

^rfgia Lmkialmc Kiu`m` `f Géxika

`f Kiflkims @fskuhrfl kacfkkiûl `f pifzms

rtfs 8 2 lavaoispmlms fl cm Kmtf`rmc Gftrapacitm lm
Fc pms
pmsmm`a = 6 ` f efhrfra sf Icfvûm kmha cm
fltrfbm`fc ^rfgia Lmkialmc `f Kiflkims
y Mrtfs 8>>2 , fl `iskipcilms kaga cil-
bó çsti
stikm
km y I t f rm tu rm: hfccm s m rt
rtff s: o stari m,
kiflkims sa k imcfs y eicasaeçm : y kiflkims
eçsika-g mtfg íti k ms y lmturmcfs.
Fc pr fsi`fltf `f cm Xfpôhcikm
Xfpôhcikm,, Efcipf
Kmc`frûl,, b m c m r`alû m cas bmlm`arfs `f
Kmc`frûl
k m`m k mgpa , quiflfquiflfs s kal su fdfgpca y
trmyfktarim o ml kaltrihui`a mc mvmlkf `f
cm kifl
kiflkk im , f c mrtf y cm k uctur
ucturmm.
Fl oistarim
oistarim,, kifl
k i ms sakim cfs y eic a
saeçm fcf c p rfgi a e u f
p mrm fc
f c mrqu fûfûcc aba
F` u m r ` a G mt a s
Gaktfz u gm gm,, pr i l 
kipm c gf
gfl ltf par su s
t rmhmdas f l Puc m
Pfa tiou mkm l y c
Pfgpca Gmyar. M cm Gís `f 6> ahdftas `f eilm cfs `fc sibca _UIII kalgfgarmtivms,, k ilka gal f` ms ` f pc m
kalgfgarmtivms
`a k tarm ^i cmr Bal- sf flkaltrmral fl cm Kmtf`rmc `f cm kiu`m` tm == gf`mccms rf
rf cibiasms
cibiasms,, kil ka br
brmh m`as
`as,,
zm ch a Mi z pu r u sf cf atarbû fc rfkalaki- `f Géxika. Fstmhml fl ulm kmdm `f pcaga k ilka krukfs `f
` f pmcgm , ul rfci km ri a , ul
giflta par sus kalsistfltfs y `fstmkm`ms `f =6 . 6 par ? .8 k g quf euf `f
` fpasitm`m `ihuda y ul pfrbmgila quf `m k ufltm `f
mpartm k ia l fs m cm oistarim ` f cm f`ukm- f c =0 `f gmya `f = 29= , fl fc iltfriar `fc cms galf`ms y su prakf`flkim . Fl bf lfrmc ,
k iûl fl G éxi k a y m cm pfrspfpfrspfk k tivm oista
oista ofgisefria `f cm tarrf arifltf `f cm Kmtf ta`as cas ahdftas fstíl fl fx kfkfccf lt
ltff fs tm`a
riabríei km ` f cm vi`m k ati`iml m `f cm sa  `rmc , par fc mrquitfkta Dasé @mgiíl Artiz `f kalsfrvmkiûl,
kalsfrvmkiûl , mulquf sfr í l r fs tm urm urm
k if`m` gfg fxi km l m. `f Kmstra. Cm kmdm kaltflçm 8; galf`ms `as par fspfkimcist
fspfkimcistmms ` fII LM O.

Kiu`m` `f Géxika

[f cakmcizml `as fskucturms

prfo ispíl ikms fl fc Kfltra Oistûrika
@urmltf ahrms ccfvm`ms m kmha par fc Ba
hifrla `fc @istrita Ef`frmc sf flkaltrmral
`as fskucturms kal eargm `f kmhfzm `f sfr-
pifltf,, ul
pifltf ulm m fl Karrfa Gmyar y Xfpôhcikm
`fc [mcvm`ar
[mcvm`ar,, y atrm fl Gfsalfs y 6 `f
Efhrfra . [f cakmcizmral m ulm praeul`i`m`
`f = ;> g y mghms eufral rfuticizm`ms
kaga kigfltmkiûl `f guras `f cas sibcas
_UIII Y _I_ par ca quf sf `fskala
`fskalak k f cm uhi
k mkiûl quf tuvifral fl cm épakm prfoispí
likm. Fc mrqufûca ba Ermlkiska Artuýa Kas ,
`fc ILMO , krff quf karrfspal`fl m cm emsf
Mztfkm II IIII =0>>- =6>> `.K.
`.K.)) y quf eufral
pmrtf `f ulm mcemr`m a pcmtmeargm `f mc m cbôl
f`ieikia `f Pflakotitcml.

c A/ MX]VFACABçM GF_IKMLM
 

latikims
]uilta Kalkursa
`f Kuflta Oistûrika
[fghcmlzm
Oflrifttm Yurkoflka Fc @fpmrtmgflta `f Oi star i m `f
cm Vlivfrsi`m` Ihfra
Ihframgfr
mgfrii km lm
(=9=5-8>>2) y cm rfvistm Mrqufacabçm Gfxikm-
lm mb
mbrm`f
rm`fkfl
kfl c m pmrtikipmkiûl
fstu`ias fl =908 y cabrû kagpi c mr gís
`f gic pifzms `f =5 brupas étlikas. Fl `f cas dûvflfs ulivfrsitmrias fl
=99> `alû cm gmyarçm m c m Ealatfkm `f fc ]uilta Kalkursa `f Kuflta
cm Kagisiûl Lmkialmc pmrm f c @fsmrracca Oi stû
stûri
ri ka . Cmkfrfgalim`fprf-
`f cas ^ufhcas Il`ç bflms (mltfs ILI), m
gimkiûl sf ccfvû m kmha fc89 `f
cm Ealatfkm `fc ILMO y m c m Hihciatfkm
Lmkialmc `f Mltrapacabçm f OistariCc. flfra `f 8>>? fl fc m u`itaria
Cm ilvfstibmkiûl `f Yurkoflka mhmr Frlfsta
Frl fsta Gflfsfs Garmcfs `f
kû gôsikm `f kf kfrrfgalims, ritum c fs y eifs
cm Vlivfrsi`m` Ihfra m gfrikm-
tms, msç kaga kmlkia l fs quf ka ltmhml
fxpfriflkims pfrsalmcfs y kuriasms `f lm. Fstf mýa pmrtikipmral = 55
Fc 9 `f `ikifghrf `f 8>> 2 emccfkiû Ofl `istiltas brupas
brupas,, kaga karms
karms,, oui koa- ku f ltas fl cm kmtfbarçm prf-
ri('ttCc Ygko flk a, ulCc ` f cms i lvfstibm`a c fs, sfri s, tzatzi c fs , tzf ct m c fs, tmrmou-
uliv f rsitmri m bm lm`ar 4 Cfalmr
rms gís igpartmltfs fl f c kmgpa `f cm gmrms y ymquis. Fl Bumtfgm c m brmhû fc fc
gKc si km tr   `i k i a lmc `f
` f Gé x ika y Bumtf Xmhilmc M k G  ulm ahrm épikm sahrf cm `a @mlifc Ofrlíl`f z ^cifba,
gmcm . Cm ftlagusi kû c abm ka g fl zû su s sak if`m` gm ym. G i rm`ms ): 8= k uflt as fl cm
ul ivfrsitmrim bm lm`ar
lm`ar44 Xikmr`a
Mubusta Iri mrt
rtfUm
fUm c` és , Cm sml
[fghcmlzm km. Il brfsû m c m M km `fgim Gfxikmlm `f
cm Cflbum y euf hf km`a par cm Eul`mkiûl brf y fc ara ): y 0> kufltas fl
Ml`rés Oflfstrasm Bub
Bu bbflo
bflof fig pmrm cc fvmr m kmha fstu`ias cm pastulivfrsitmrim (bm lm`ar 4
sahrf cm kucturm zmpatfkm . Brmkims m éc sf
(=9>5-8>>?) ealftizû f c i`iag m zm patf
patfk
k a , y m`fgís
Kmrcas Xfeub ia [ílkofz G a-

prfpmrû ul mcemhfta y ul `ikkialmria zm rfla, G m ripasms smbrm`ms ).

^ratCcba li stm `f cm vi`m kucturm c `f Géxika patfkm-kmstfccmla . M pmrtir `f fstf lôgfra y fl
fl fc sib ca xx , Ml`rés O flfstrasm guriû Xfkihiû vmrims `istilkialfs, fltrf cms c as `as sib
sibui
ui f lt fs sf puhc i kmrí l
fc =8 `f flfra `f 8>>? fl cm kiu`m` `f quf `fstmk
`fstmkmm f c brm`a `f `aktar Oalaris
fl rq ufacabçm Géxikmlm cas
Géxika. Euf paftm, lmrrm`ar,
lmrrm`ar, flsmy
flsmyii stm f Kmusm quf c f atarbû, fl `ikifghrf pm
oistarim`ar,, msç kaga ul ilkmlsmhcf ilvfs
oistarim`ar sm`a, c m Vlivfrsi`m` Mutûlagm Gftrapa k ufltas bmlm`arfs.
tibm`ar y `feflsar `f cm ku ctur cturmm zmpatf- citmlm VMG  .

afl` kucturmc I[I[ CM [FX^IFLPF FG^CVGM@M  

@fc8?efhrframc=6 `f dulia` ffstf mýa mýa,, sf pr fsf ltmrí fl fc Gu -
Fxpasikialfs
sfa Lmkialmc `f Mltrapacabçm fstm gufstrm tfgparmc,
tfgparmc , cm gís
KAYAC_MVO]VIY FC PFG^CA GMYAX. ;> MÝA[ brml`f fl cas 0; mýas `f oistarim `fc gusfa. [f rfôlfl fl fccm
XFKAL[PXVYFL@A FC ^M[M@A (=92?-8>>?) ca gfdar y gís rfprfsfltmtiva `fc cfbm`a mrqufacûbika `f `as
brml`fs kivi I zmkialfs4 fc Fbipta emrmûlika y fc Géxi ka prfo is-
@f mhric m mbast
mbasta
a `f 8>>? sf prfsfltmrí fl fc pílika. Cm kurm`urçm `f cm
Gusfa `fc Pfgpca Gmyar ulm gmblm fx fx pasi kiû l fstuva m
pasikiûl pmrm `ieul`ir cms mpartm kia lfs kmrba`fcasmrqufû
`f cms ilvfstibmkial fs rfmc izm` ms par fc ca bas kal gmyar
^ra yfkta Pfgpca Gmyar m ca cmrba `f rflaghrf
rflaghr f fl Fbip
;> mýas, ka
kaga
ga fc `fskuhrigiflta `fc ta y G éx i ka4 Tmoi
brml galacita `f cm `iasm gfxikm Ka Omwmss y F`umr`a

yacxmuoqui y cas rfk i fltfs om

om ccmzbas Gmtas Gaktfzugm .
mrqufacûbikas fl fc Kf ltra Oistûrika. Ileargfs4 www.isisycm
Ileargfs4 www.tfgpcagmyar.ilmo .bah
bah..gx sfrpifltf. ilmo .ba
.bah
h .gx
EAPA 4 @Gf , LMO

Kal ileargmkiûl `f cm @irfkkiûl `f Gf`ias `f Kagulikmkiûl, ILMO

=8 MX]VFACABçM GF_IKMLM

F s k u ` a `f Mkmpucka Bu
Bufr
frrf
rfra
ra
l =96= Iblmkia Hfrlmc `ia m kalakfr ulm
F
aerfl`m f l Cm ^iku`m Cas Cirias, fl Mkm
pucka, Bufrrfra, fl cm quf sahrfsmcf ul f,ku`a
prfoispílika `f gm`frm, quf sf flkufltrm fl
gmlas ` f ul kacfkkiarustm `f cm kiu`m` `f Géxi
ka. Brmkims mc mpaya `fc @fpmrtmgflta `f Xf 
bistra Mrqufacûbika `fccLMO pu`f fstu`imrca.
Fc fsku`a `f gm`frm, `as gmblçeik ms gís
kmrms kal gasmika -sfbôl f @r. Iblmki a Hfr
lmc, sigic
igicmc
mc''fs m cm gískmrm quf flkagrû fl cm
Pughm 5 fl K4aixtcmoumkm, Amxmkm-, kmskmhfcfs
`f kahrf, kalkoms y kufgms eufral smqufm`as
par "huskm`arfs uf cfsaras". Fstas ahdftas mcmcfr
tmral mc @r. Hfrlmc sahrf c igpartmlkim `fc om
ccmzba, par ca kum.. `fki`iû ilvfstibmr su prakf
`flkim. Cm aerk4lum G: flkaltrmhm `fhmda `f Cm
^iku`m `f cas Ciria< -flargf rakm brmrutikm rfr
gilm`m mrrieikimcgfltf fl pultm-, fl `al`f sf
vt,:l S'mrims aquf`m`fs eargm`ms par brml`fs pif
`rms quf sfgfdml ulm kufvm. r,m aerfl`m sf `f
pasirû kmsi fl cm supfreikif, fltrf hcaqufs `f pif
`rm r tifrrm. Cas ahdftas rfkahrm`as fl
kagfxra mrqufacûbika par f @r. Iblmkia Hfr
lmc sal4 trf, pultms `f pk` fr lm.. , quf pu`ifral
omhff r si `a kukoiccas `f smkr
omh smkrieikia:
ieikia: ermbgfltas `f
gískmrms `f gm`frm kal rfstas `f gasmikagasmika,, pcm
quitms `f turqufsm y dm`f: kufgms `f kalkom rasm
ya t rm s `f pif`g: trfs kalkoms [pal`Y/IIDkal pfr
earmk ialf
ialfss msakim`ms m ul brml kmrmkac quf tif
lf kumtra pfrearmkialfs, qccf
qccf p asihcfgfltf ear
ear
gl oml ul gVXr: ulm pcmkm `f piritm, ulm `f dm`f
y atrm `f ahsi`imlm: kalkoms y pcmquirm
pcmquirmss kum`rml
bucmrfs `f kalkom rasm, ta`ms fVms pasihcfgfl
tf pmrtf `f ul gasmika kacakm`a sahrf ulm pif
`rm rf`al`m y pcmlm, quf sfbô
sfbôl l Hfrlmc pmrfkf
ul tfzkmKtcitcm^icci: kmskmhfcfs `f "kahrf", y rfstas
kfrígikas. Hfrlm.. sfým.. m quf cm kfrígi
kfrígikm
km ka rrfs
pal`f mc pfri a`a Pmr`ça prapufsta par Bar`al
F joacg pmrm Pmghuka fl Mkmpucka, quf mhmr
km `fc Kcísika m c ^askcís
^askcísika
ika Pfgprmla.
FC F[KV@A
Fc fsku`a fs `f gm`frm y kirkucmr. Gi`f ;? kg
`f `iígftra y 5 gg `f fspfsar y tiflf =6 ari
eikiass fl cm ariccm, `f cas quf pasihcfgfltf kac
eikia
bmhml pcugms, y `as fl cm pmrtf kfltrmc. Fl fc
`a r sa `fc fsku`a sf vfl `as mbmrrm`frms quf
sal pmrtf `f cm gisgm pif zm `f gm`frm, cm s kum
cf s gi`fl 8; kg `f cmrba y >.> .? kg `f mcturm y
fsríl sfpmrm`ms fltrf sç par 9 kg.
=0   MX]VFACABçM GF_ IKMLM
GMXPOM KMHXFXM BVFXXFXA
Fl cm pmrtf eraltmc `fc fsku`a fs pasihcf ah  fl km`m cm`a. Fl cm pmrtf supfriar, fc hrmza `frf
`frf 
sfrvmr cms cçlfms fl lfbra `f `isfýa aribilmc,
sfrvmr koa puf`f sfr mc gisga tifgpa fc pfrecc `f cm km
msç kaga cm s karrfkkialfs `fc mrtisrm, fspfkimc
fspfkimc hfzm `f ul mvf kal pcugms a ecmgm s, tm.. vfz ulm
gfltf fl cas kçrkucas. Vlm vfz `fcilfm`a fc `i  xiuokûmtc. Msakim`as mc hrmza izquifr`a omy
om y `as
sfýa sf fxtrmdfral sfkkialfs `f cm gm`frm pmrm kçrkucas quf pasihcfgfltf sfml ul lugfrm.. .
`mrcf rfcifvf. Cms
Cms sfkkial fs fl rfcif
rfcifvf
vf tiflfl pil Fc @r . Hfrlmc subifrf quf fc gíxtcmtcfs `f fs
turm radm y mgmriccm, y cms quf fstíl fl hmdarrf
hmdarrf sacmr,, talm-
tica gixtfka, cm ra`fcm ul sçghaca sacmr
ci fvf
eufral kuhifrtms kal ulm pmstm a rfsilm. ca , y quf cm igmbfl `f fsku`a fs sigicmr m.. pfr
pfr
Mc kagpmgrca kal fsku`as sigi cmrfs cakmcizm
cakmcizm cíg . =8 `fc Kû`ikf Luttmcc
salmdf icustrm`a fl cm cíg.
`as fl atrms pmrtfs `f Gfsamgérikm, sf puf`f quf partm ul kmpmrmzû
kmpmrmzû l `f tartubm. Fl f sitia
subfrir quf f c fsku`a fs tí kuhifrra par ul ga  `f ^mcgm [acm, fl Mkmpucka, om omy
y ulm rakm kal
smika: kaga ym sf sfýmcû, fl cms fxpcarmkialfs cm rfprfsfltmkiûl fl pfrecc `f ulm rarrubm y mc
`f Hfrlm.. sf flkalrrmral pcmquirm
pcmquirmss kum`rmlbu kfltra ul `iska sigicmr mc quf partm fc `fc Kû`i-
cmrfs `f kalkoms rasm, turqufsm y dm`f.   f Luttmcc. Cas pf r sa
salmdf
lmdfss i`fgieikm`as kaga
Fl f S44sku`a sf vf ul pfrsalmdf kal ul `is
`is  ymouisfl
ymouisf l cm ikalabrmeçm gixtfkm-pahcmlm puf`fl
ka sacmr, `f kuyas pi fs y gmlas sf `f `fssprfl`fl sfr zaagareas a mltrapagareas: partml ul km km
kukoiccas)' `f cas hrmzas, quizí ecmgms a pcu pmrmzûl `f tartubm y puf`fl prfsfprfsfgmr ul yfc
gms.. Fl `as cm`as `fc `iska sa
gms sacmr
cmr mpmrfkfl `a s ga `f sfrp
sfrpifltf
ifltf `f eufba y gukoms vfkfs kukoi
ccas `f smkrieikia. Mcealsa Km
Kmsa
sa ca om hmutizm
hmuti zm`a
`a
kaga f c sm smkrieikm`ar
krieikm`ar-ta
-ta rtubm-
rtubm-xitcokûmt/'.
xitcokûmt/'. Cas
K ^VCKA   BVFXXFXA ymoDcis puf`fl mpmrfkfr msakim`as m fskflms `f
smkrieikia, m eiburm
eiburmss quf `fskifl`fl `fc kifca a
iltra`ukiél`asf fl kufvms. Om Omyy tmghiél smkfr
`atfs, `iblmtmria s y pfr sa
salmdfs
lmdfs fl trmlkf komgí
ruka quf partm l mtrihutas `f `fymocci.
ymocci. ^mrm mcbulas
BVFXXFXA
mutarfs, kaga Gmlufc Ofrgmll, kuml`a ul
pfrsalmdf fstm vfsti`a `f `fymomymocci
ymomymocci "pmrfkf sf
Akémcca ^mkçeika
ýmcmr fc laghrf a mpfcmtiva `f ulm fspfkif `f
[IPIA
[IPI A X]VFACÛKIKA
gmba a komgíl kuym príktikm prilkipm.. fs lm lm
mrq S N cbbçm
b bçm ^ AH C @A
oumcçstikm". Cms eufltfs oistûrikm s sa
sahrf
hrf Mkmpuc
km fltrf fccms fc Prmtm`a . .. `f Xuiz `f Mcmrkûl,
sfýmcml cm fxistflkim `f ulm eufrtf trm`ikiûl lm
eargms trmp
trmpfza
fzai`mcf
i`mcfss quf -k a ga gf om ofkoa oumcçstikm fl fc írfm. M`fgís, pmrm fc sibca _U I,
larmr fc @r. Mcerf`a Cûpfz Mustil puf`fl - Lmoumcm, "c
"cubmr
ubmr `f lmoumcfs  , frm fc laghrf `f
sfr ulm rfprfsf ltmkiûl si ghûcikm `f quf fc pfr
rfprf sfltmkiûl pufhca,, `f ulm cmbulm y `f cas ccmlas quf cm
ul pufhca
sa l mdf partm ul kmpmrmzûl ` f tartubm. Fc ra`fmhml. @fs`f Cm ^iku`m `f Cas Cirias,Cirias, `f
pfr salm df, `f pfrecc, tiflf ul ada sfgi kfrrm`a, `al`f pasihcfgfltf praviflf cm aerfl`m fstu
fl cm hak m sf sfýmcml
sfý mcml sus `iflrfs pultimbu`as, `im`m, sf vfl cas ccmlas y cm cmbulm `f Lmoumcm,
fl cm gfdiccm sf gmrkû ulm cçlfm sfgikirkucmr y kalaki`m tmghiél kaga Prfs ^m.. as.
sahrf cm lmriz sf kacakû ulm hml`m `f pilturm Fc fstica `f cm igmbfl `fc fsku`a `f Mkmpuc
lfbrm. Ccf
Ccfvm
vm ulm arfdfrm guy m`arlm `m y ul pfi
pfi  km fs sigicmr m cm `f cas kû`ikfs gixtfka-pahcm
lm`a quf sf om msakim`a kal cas bufrrfras. las. Cas mtrihutas `fskritas subifrfl qu
q u f sf trm
Cm pmrtf supfriar `fc pfilm`a fs m.. gi s ga tifg tm `f ul pfrsalmdf sacmr, partml`a mtrihutas `f
pa pmrtf `fc takm`a, rfprfsfltm`a par cm kmhf ymoui quf sf oml msakim`a mc smkrieikia y m cas pa
zm fl pfrecc `f ul mvf, pasihcfgfltf ul pfrika `frfs sahrflmturm.. fs.
a ulm bumkmgmym. Fc pfrsalmdf partm ul pfkta
rmc kal ul kçrkuc a ra da mc kfltra y ul gíxtcmtc
kçrkuca Gmrtom Kmhrfrm Bufrrfra. Mrqufûcabm par cm FLMO
trmpfzai`mc `fc quf sf `fsprfl`fl `as sfkkia
Kml`i`mtm m gmfstrm par cm Vlivfrsi`m ` `f [alagm
lfs sf
sfgikirkucmrfs.
gikirkucmrfs. Fstf tipa `f gíxtcmtc fs si [tmtf, Kmciearlim. ^rfgia Lealsa Kmsa fl mrqufacabçm
gicmr m cas quf partml cas ymout[ fl cas kû`ikfs. fl =9?9 . ^rfgia mc Gérita Purç
Purçstika
stika par cas mpartfs m
Fl cms ariccms `fcgíxtcmtcomy `a s kçrkucas, ula cm mrqufacabçm `f Mkmpucka, Bufrrfra, fl 8>>6 .
 

f
V
D

-
-

¾
 

¾
:

-
:
-

 
u 
-

:
u
:
-
 

-
-

 

  itas y kufltas
ribfl
`fcc eufba
`f
F l ul prilkipia fc gul`a
euf oôgf`a y erça, cm ka
gi`m kru`m, fc kifca askura. Fc
rfta ilikimc, cm tmrfm gí s urbfl
rf `fcas oaghrfs -mligmcks,cas
oérafs-mlkfstras, euf kalsf
buir fc eufba. Kal fc eufba sur
bfl cm cms sakif`m`fs arbmlizm
`ms, cm kucturm, cm kfrígikm. Ca s
bumr`imlfs `fc eufba, =g `iasf
`iasfss
vifdas `fc oa bmr, sal ca
cass gí s
mltibuas: cas rfcmtas sa h rf f
aribfl `fc eufba,
eufb a, `f ibumc ===:S 
lfrm y kmsi ulcvfrsmcgfltf-,
mltfkf`fl m cas quf las kufl 
tml cm mpmrikiûl `fc [ac y cm
Culm, `fc gmçz.
Fc eufba tiflf su `ufýa. Ca
bumr`ml kfcasmgfltf ul vifda,
vifda,
ulm vifdm, cas `imhcas: fl mcbu
mcbu 
lms akmsialfs sf `cff kûga ca
ahtuvifral - ulm vfrsiûl gm -
2.mtfkm kufltm `f ulm vifdm quf
ca tagm kuml`a sf `fsprfl`f
`f ulm fstrfccm, `fskmskmrm`m.
Xmrm vfz sf `fskrihf m s us pri
pri 
gfras pasff`arf
pasff`arfs,s, kaga fl fc
kmsa kmrm4
Frm ul vifda mcta, fstmhm
`fslu`a, kuhifrta kal ul tm
pmrrmhas `f pifc `f tibrf: tfrum
cas kmhfccas pmrm`as y cf hri
ccmhml f s p m l t a s m g f l t f cas
adas. @ f tmr`f sf cfvmltmhm `f
su hmlka y fkomhm rmgms y
tralkas m cm ruf`m `f cughrf
(gita kmrm kaltm`a par Dmvm
Kílmrf y Kmsi mla `f cm Kruz,
fl D íurfbui y L furmto, 8>>;,
pp. 899-;>;
899-;>;)) .
Omy `ivfrsms gmlfrms `f
kalsf buir fc eufba:
eufba: fl fstm akm-
akm -
  5/ M X]VFACABçM GF_IKMLM
.
l`   b f l m s g f x i k m l a s
F Cc[M X MGIXFT
siûl, fl cflbum tffl f j, hmstm
kal pf`irca y fc `ufýa ca a t a r
r
bm sil kal`ikialfs.
Fc Eukbafg ul oaghr
oaghrff ccmgm 
`a @ifba, lulkm trmhmdmhm. [u
gudfr fstmhm omrtm `f yfrca
sifgprf `fltra `f cm kmsm y ul
`çm sf pusa karmdu`m, parquf
sf cm pmsmhm sil omkfr lm`m,
lm`m,kfe
kfe
km `f cm cughrf. Cf kkoû mbum
pmrm quf sf cfvmltmrm. Fltal 
  fs éc sf euf m vivir `fltra `fc
galtf,, `al`f lm`i f fltrmhm
galtf fltrmhm )'
mccç fsrmhm. Cm bfltf `f cm rml
rml
kofrçm sf quf`û sil eufba. [f
eufral m hu
huskmr
skmr mc eufba-@if
ba y kuml`a ca omccmral cf pi 
`i fra
frall quf rfbr
rfbrfsmrm
fsmrm m cm rml  ta`as =g
kofrçm, parbuf ym la tflçml oaghrfs. quifl m`f
cughrf. Fc eufba cfs `ida quf Kuml`a cm cughrf sf cfs mpm gís `f cm kacm qufgm`m y ul
ym la ihm m rfbrfsmr, pfra bmhm, lufvmgfltf cf pf`çml oufka fl f vifltrf, tiflf cm
qu f si qu frçml cf s mhm ul
r  prfstm`a fc eufba y éc ca va cvçm kmpmki`m` pmrm eilbirsf gufr
zûl mr`ifltf. [f eufral ca s m rfpmrtir. Vl `çm ca oikifral ta, quf cf pfrgitirí flbmýmr mc
oaghrf s kal fc rizûl, pfra ml
oaghrfs ml-- fladmr, pufs lagí s cf omkçml pfrsfbui`arm rfkupfrmrsf trms
tfs `f ccfbmr m cm kmsm sf mpmbû. pfr`fr fc tifgpa pi`iél`acf sfr `fstrazm`a. Msç, fc tcmkum 
Eufral mrrm vfz m pf`ir m cugcug eufba (Xmgçrfz Kmstmýf`m y kofvm omstm `al`f fstí fc `uf
hrf y atrm vfz sf mpmbû mltfs Pfpacf, =9?8). ýa `f eufba y cf sapcm kflizms
`f ccfbmr mc pufhca. Msç pmsû Fs par fsa quf fc eufba sf fl cas adas pmrm quf `f g a 
gukoms vfkfs
vfkfs.. Xfbrf
Xfbrfsmra
smral
l fl ahtiflf kal flbmýa a rahíl gflta la puf`m vfr. Fspfrm m
ralkfs kal fc `ufýa `fc eufba `asfca. Cas cm`ralfs sal pfr quf fc bumr`iíl sf `ufrgm, ca
y cf smkmral fc ouf
oufsa
sa `fc pi f, sf bui`as
ui`as,, gmctrmtm`as, gmrkm flkmltm, ca `istrmf, sf fgha
ca ccfvmral m hfl`fkir (Mrifc `a s: sahrf fc kufrpa kalsfrvml, rrmkom y kmf mc eufba - k a g a
`f Ui`ms, 8>>;, pp. 8;8-8;;). omstm moarm, cm sfýmc `f su asm fl f kmsa komtila fl fc quf
`im4 par fsa fs rada f pika `f rahm dultas fc eufba, f gfz
F l bflfrmc, cas prigfras kacihrç, par fsa tiflf ecmgfm kmc y fc tmhmka-, msç ca rahm
`ufýas `f eufba sf lifbml `m cm kacm f zarra, par fsa sf pmrm ta`as cas `fgís.
m kagpmrtirca a ca rfpmrtfl vfl cms gmrkms `f tizûl fl fc Kuml`a rfbrfsm kal fc euf
kmprikoasmgfltf: sal flvi pfcmdf `f akfcatf, par fsa cm ba, fc pahrf tcmkumkof viflf
`iasas, fstíl fladm`as a sig kacm pfcalm y cm hacsm fl fc gmctrfkoa4 "Mkí, cas prilkipm 
pcfgfltf emsti`im`as4 ul vifltrf `fc tcmkumkof. Fc ^ra cfs ca mbmrrmral y ca vacvifral
oaghrfkita sf ca prfstmhm m gftfa par fxkfcflkim fs fc m mrgmr, msç pusifral sus ouf-
 

Fc Pcmkumkof rahû fc ufba y a

akuctû fl fc pfkoa . Pcmkumkof
sas y ta`a, p fra sf fquivakm s fr gu y hricca sa ku ya sfk rfta Fc Komlmc . Ka cig m.
EAPA M @ALcT XMIKF[

ral y cf p u s ifra l cms lmcbms bumr`ml cas cahas, cuz quf mpm
mrrihm y cas o a g h r a s mhmda, rfkf fl fc arifltf. ^rigfr a,
par fsa fc tcmkumkof fstí mc rf  lmkiû cm culm, su mhufcm, y tf tf
vés, bar`i t a `f mquç, msç `f lçml su cuz.
cu z. ^ fra fccm cas flbm
mrrihm y mhmda, pu's lm`m. F l ýû. Akurriû quf fl cm lakof sf
talkfs, gifltrms fstmhml mr  pra`uda ul mr`ar fl gf`ia `f
gm l`a mc tcmkumkof, f lk al  cmss rakms radms y mzucfs y `f mccç
cm
trmra l cas kilka kmrhalkita s surbiû ulm cu z, `f sm pmrfkiû ,
quf bum r`û fl su pmlkitm y ym hriccûû `f lufva y cufba sf mpm
hricc
tuvifral eufba, pfra mc tcmkum  bû. Z .. W F l fc eal`a `fc pfýms 
kof cf quf`û cm kacm qufgm`m ka , u l o a g h r f vifda fstmhm
par fc atra k m rhalk i t a q u f mkastm`a: frm ulm rakm m z uc `f
mb mrrû   (gita karm k alt m `a mspfkta oarrihcf . Pflçm sus ecf
p a r @ a l Pm`fa, fl Bu zgíl , koms, ulm pucsfrm, sm l`mcim s y
8>>;, pp . =6 6 - =6 5) . Pa`mvçm ul hmstûl fgpcugm`a `fc kumc
gufstrm cm kacm pfcm`m y ml`m fgml mh m ulm cu z hriccmltf  
trmhmdasmgfltf par cas kmgi Bíurfbui y Lfurmto, 8>>;, pp.
la s , ` fh i` a m quf fc mhufca ;>;-;>0).
Eufba, ka l su tfrrihcf pa`fr,
cf qufhrû ta`as cas oufsas   Pmtfvmci (f c Mhufca Eufba) sm
(gita kmrm tagm`a `f Jalrm` ciû `f ulm rakm kfrkm ` fc rug
^rfu s s , fl Dí urf bui y L f u  ha `fc gmr. F c Eufba vacmhm
rmto, 8>>;, pp. ;>;-;>0) . km`m lako
lakoff m ula `f casca s kilka
^ar su mstukim fc tcmkumkof pultas a rugha s, kr krfkfk if l`a
kaltilôm sus mvflturms fl lu  km`m lakof4 `fs`f fc tmgmýa tmgmý a
gfrasas kufltas `f flbmýa fl `f ulm cukiérlmbm om srm fc rm 
cas quf sifgprf hurcm mc tibrf u gmýa `f ul `iska `f `ias ... kmral su karmzûl ` f
a t r a k alt ri lk m lt f - m p f l m s Z[ f kufltm tmghiél fc prakfprakfsasa eufba. Cm zm zmribóf
ribóf ym rf
rf--
puf`f fltrfvfrsf fc kmríktfr `f `agmrca y mgmlsmrca pmr pmrmm v iviû, pfra cf quf`û fc mbu
smbrm`a quf tuva fl cas gitas qu f fc mh ufca mtfgpfrf su fsas ahdftas,
dfra fl fc kufrpa f l fc cubmr
kaga `alm`ar `f eufba, mul eufrzm `f struktivm .) Ya say cms pcugms sf `al`f omhçm akuctm`a mc eufba
quf fl akmsialfs mghas tipas guyy smbrm`a
gu smb rm`a ( `fcikm`a'
`fcikm`a')) . L a flkfl`frçml. @f (Tilbb
(T ilbb,, =99?
=99?)) .
f, `f rfcmta sf kaghilml. puf`a mpmrtmrgf `f fs tf cubmr,cubmr, fsm gmlfrm, cm bfl-
Mcbulm s vfrsialfs `f cas puf s ilk
ilkffl`imrçm ta`a fc gul gul tf pa`rçm tflfr eufba sifgprf Fc eufba mpmrfkf tmghiél trms
l gitas ilkcuyfl cm pfrsfkukiûl `a.. ^ar ca tmlta,
`a tmlta , `fhfríl trmfr quf ca lfkf
lfkfssitmrml
itmrml.. ^fra, m pfpf fc `icuvia, kuml`a cas sahrfvi
cm `fc cm`rûl y cm fl rfbm `fc euf  ul ilkflsmria, ul garrmc y ul smr `f f sa
sa,, fc Mhufca Eufb Eufbaa vifltfs flem`mlmcas `iasfs par
r ba, fc ra h a `f cas ilstrugfl kuflka `f kmcmhmzm
kmcmhm zm.. Kuml`a kaltilumhm sifl`a ta`mvçm tml m ougm r fc kifca y gmlkomr fc
ta[ ka l cas quf sf omkf fc euf fstél f l kmgila,
kmgila , ougf`éz `f cikm`a
cikm`a,, quf fc gul`a sf il
mc
c[ ba 4 cm yfskm, fc gmcmkmtf, cm kmlsf cms gmla s kal mbum y kfl`iû. CaCass oaghr
oaghrfs- fs-`ia
`iasfs
sfs cf o a riza l tf cçgpi`a, k a g a sf
kufltm fl vfrsialfs fl tatalm
m- eû rgucm `fc eratmgiflta pmrm trmibml tmghiél kilka pif`rmspif`rm s rfzmral m Lmjmwé pmrm quf sm smcc ka, tfpfoum y gixf. Pmghiél fs
f f lkfl`fr cm cughrf. Flt rf cas pfqufýms sa hrf cm s kumcfs pu f- vmrm mc gul`a. Lmjmwé sf sac tfpfoum ulm ofrgasm vfrsiûl
ms quis y cas sfris, cm gaskm fl  `m sf ltmrgf kaga hrmsms `f tÛ su rf`fkiccm y éstm fgpfzû m gixtm, ka l fcfgfltas il`çbf
sf ým m omkfr cughrf mc eratmr kmrhûl   . Kuml`a cms trmdfral
kmrhûl trmdfral,, ilul`mr cm tifrrm kal ccu ccuvvim
im.. lms y kristimlas, fl fc quf fc tcm
cm sf cms pmtms sahrf cas km`ívf cass kmrhalfs `f eufba smctmral
ca Z .. ) Fc Eufba euf `a `agg fs tikm kumkof `fhf rahmr fc eufba fl
ca rfs y fc prigfr oicicca `f o u ga sahrf fccas, qu
quffg íl`aca
l`acass m ta `a y `fdû `f sfr `fcikm`a. ^fra L mvi`m`, pufsta quf fc liliýý a rf
>- fs ilvisihcf m ta`as, smcva mc `ass. F ltalkf
`a ltalkfss ta`as supifral ouha quf vibvibicmrcf
icmrcf `urm
`urmltf
ltf kil
kil  kiél lmki`a tiflf guko a erça
=> za picatf a fc kayatf, quf mku quf fc Mhufca Eufba frm ta`m ka lakof
lakofss, pufs
puf s ta`m
ta`mvv çm la pa fl fc fstmhca.
cf ` fl `f i lgf `i m t a (E fcbfr y vçm gu
guyy smbrm`a.
smbrm`a. É c `ida4 Ya `çm fltr mrfl ta`ms pmrtf
pmrtfss. Kum F l fc p r û x i g a l ô g f r a
z 4SZass fr, =9?6: Xussfcc, =9>0 - say, kif rt mgflt f, fc gí
gíss '`fci tra lakofs trmlskurrifral fl aerfkfrfgas fc gita `f Kû g a
 m =9>6)
=9 >6) . km`a' `f ta`as ca s `iasfs. La pmz, par ca quf cm bfltf `f `fs-
s- mpmrfkiû Luf st ra Mh u fc a fc
F l fc lartf `f Géxika, fc rf  puf`a gavfrgf sil qufgmr kui`û su vib
vibicmlki
icmlki m. M cm lakof eufba 
eufba  .
sibuifltf cm zmribófym, Imô su
f
lf cm
fs `is tilta. fcFc mhufca eufba fs
ta sa hrf aribfl `fc eufba ta`a ca quf
Fltalkfs om ym m cf
Eufba
fc cmsvi
v`ida
is tm
tm  m. Pfwçmci, rahû fc eufba, akuc
cm - u l sfr fxtrmar`ilmria mc quf cass oaghrfs quf kabifrml kil
ca kil tíl`aca fl su pfkoa. Cm bf bfltf
ltf
Fcism Xmgçrfz. [AKIûcabm. paftm. fskl²
  l `f hf kmzmrsf y `agfstikmrsf4 ka tf p ci (`iska
`iskass `f `ia s) y cm pfrsibuiû y kuml`a cabrmral tarm pmrm ruýas S. trm`uktarm. Kacmha
cf - fs pf kif `f mligmc cugilasa , kilka pcugm
pcugmss. [i cf s rf
rfzm
zm hml m mtrmpmrcm, cm gmt
gmtmral
mral y f mrrml- rm`arm pfrgmlfltf `f fstm rflstm

GIPA[ Y KVFLPA[ IL@çBFLM[ GF_IKMLA[ / 2

 

  c ct r `f acarfs
Xfskmtf
Xfskmtf mrqufacûbi
mrqufacûbika
ka `f
` f ulm trm`iki
trm`ikiûl
ûl gfxikmlm
X FIL M M K F@ ICCA UMX BM[

Kal cm myu`m `f cms krûlikms sf mhar`m ulm trm`ikiûl guy fxtfl`i`m fl Géxika `u-
W
rmltf cas sibcas _UII   _UIII Y _I_4 cas mctmrfs `f`ikm`as m cm Uirbfl `f cas @acarfs p 
tralm `f cas oabmrfs kalei`fltf `f cms mecikkialfs `agéstikms y `feflsarm `f cm
oalrm emgicimr- quf sf rfmcizmhml cas Uifrlfs `f ^msiûl a fc sfxta Uifrlfs `f Kum-
rfsgm fl cas tfgpcas y fl cms kmsms .

7
44

- } 7

 44

Fl cm pmrtf supfriar `fc mctmr `f @acarfs sf kacakmhm m cm Uirbfl `f cas @acarfs, y `f moç omkim mhmda , fl eargm fskmcalm`m,
fskmcalm`m , vfcms `f kfrm
kfrm =8)
=8),, hml`fritms
`f pcmtm y ara fl kml`fcfras , accitms , cm`riccas
cm`riccas,, pilas y atrms eiburms `f hmrra sfghrm`ms `f koçm y mcfbrçm,
mcfbrçm, pcmtas
pcmtas,, gmkftms
gmkftms,, lmrmldms kal hml`fritms `f ara,
ara,
ermskas, hatfccalfs y cmgpmritms `f mkfitf,
mkfitf, fltrf atras fcfgfltas.
fcfgfltas . M cas cm`as `fc mctmr sf kacakmhml cms gmkftms `f cms gfdarfs pcmltms y mc pif sf eargmhm
fxtfl`i`a. @ihuda `f Dfsôs Lifta O. tagm`a `f Géxika . Cfyfl`ms y kastughrfs
ul tmpftf kal smcvm`a fxtfl`i`a. kastughrfs   F`itarimc Cmymk,
Cmymk, =906
=906..

=? MX]VFACABçM
MX]VFACABçM GF_IKMLM
 

@f pif, cm Gm`rf pflmhm ilkisialfs `f cms pmrf`fs: sf kui`mhm quf

ilkisialfs `çm. Vlm vfz kalsugm`m cm kalquistm, ka-
dulta m cm kruz y ccarmhm la cf emctmrm f mbum omstm quf cm koçm bfr- giflzm cm fvmlbfcizmkiûl y sf iltra`ukf msç
vifl`a mc Oida suspfl`i`a: gilmrm r kuhrifrm tatmcgfltf cm pifzm, cm cm vflfrmkiûl m cms igíbflfs
igíbflfs `acifltfs, kal
y ulm fspm`m fstmhm oul`i`m kumc m`aptmhm cm eargm `f ul kiprés quf, ca quf sf bflfrml kastughrfs y trm`ikia-
fl fc mcgm `acari`m, kaga sf `ida mltfriargfltf, fs ula `f cas lfs `f kcmra aribfl fspmýac m cms quf, mc sfr
ofkom tristfzm y bfgi`a. sçghacas `f cm Uirbfl Gmrçm. m`aptm`ms fl cm Lufvm Fspmým, sf cfs ig-
tmhmt I mtfr prigfl kmrmktfrçstikms prapims.
= CM UIXBFL @F CA[ @ACAXF[ @fs`f cm sfbul`m gitm` `f sibca _UII,
f pm`rf Dasé Ui`mc [.D. pragufvf fl cm km-
l cm ikalabrmeçm kristimlm, cm Uir- Cm `fvakiûl m cm Gm`rf `f @ias hmda cms pitmc y brml pmrtf `f cm Lufvm Fspmým cm

F
bfl Gmrçm fs ula `f cas pfrsalm-
dfs gís igpartmltfs y rfprfsfl-
tm`as fl kum`ras y fskucturms, y f kiprés
euf tagm`a kaga ula `f cas sçghacas `f
cm Uirbfl par cms kumci`m`fs quf sf cf mtri-
huyfl, kaga sfr sifgprf vfr`f, kaga cm
pmcgfrm, f aciva y f kf`ra, kmrmktfrçstikm
quf cas kalvifrtf fl fghcfgm `f cm vi`m
`urm`frm.. Fl cm mltibóf`m` sf krfçm quf cm
`urm`frm
gm`frm `fc kiprés la sf karragpçm, `f moç
'cuf sf kalsi`frmrm sçghaca `f cm ilgartm-
ci`m`, y tmghiél rfprf
rfprfsf
sfltm
ltm cm mlbustim, fc
`acar, f `ufca, cm tristfzm, pfra m cm vfz
siblieikm cm gmlsf`ughrf, cm smhi`urçm y cm
m`vakmkialfs `f Lufstrm [fýarm `f cm [a-
cf`m`, `f cm ^if`m`, cm @acarasm, Lufstrm
[fýarm `f cms Mlbustims, cm Uirbfl `f cm Fs-
pfrmlzm y cm Uirbfl `f cas @acarfs, fltrf
atrms, praviflf `f sibca _cII, kuml`a sf eul -
`m fl Itmcim cm Ar`fl `f cas [ifrvas `f Gm-
rçm a sfrvitms, ku
kuya
ya ahdftiva y fspçritu frm
eagfltmr, `i eul`ir y kalsfrvmr cm `fvakiûl
m cm Uirbfl.
Fl =6=9, f ermicf gfrkf`mria
gfrkf` mria Hmrtaca
Hmrtaca--
gé `f Acgf`a, quf mkagpmýmhm m Of r -
líl Kartés, fribf fl [ml Duml `f Vcôm f
prigfr mctmr fl f kaltilfltf mgfrikmla,
kal fc eil `f kfcfhrmr cm gism `f Uifrlfs
`fvakiûl m cm Uirbfl Gmrçm hmda cm m`va-
kmkiûl `f Uirbfl `f cas @acarfs, quf ml-
tfs sf ilvakmhm kal f tituca `f cm [acf`m`,
pfra kuya kucta la fstmhm guy fxtfl`i`a
([f`mla
[f`mla,, =??>
=??>,, p. 8?=).
CA[ MCPMXF[
Fs prahmhcf quf
qu f fc pm`rf Ui`mc omym si`a fc
ilikim`ar `f cm
cm kastughrf `f fribir mctmrfs m
cm Uirbfl `f cas @acarfs. M pmtkir `f fltal-
kfs y omstm eilmcfs `fc sibca _ I _ frm príktikm
kagôl fltrf cms emgicims gfxikmlms quf fc
Uifrlfs `f ^msiûl a sfxta Uifrlfs `f Kum-

fspfrmlzm (Galtfrrasm, 8>>0, p. 5;). Msç, [mlta y pmrm rfkar`mr cas `acarfs `f cm Uir- rfsgm fl mcbulas tfgpcas yfl ta`ms cms km -
sf cf puf`f flkaltrmr dulta kal cm pmcgfrm
pmcgfrm,, bfl, 'cuf tmghiél sf kalgfgarmhml fsf sms, pahrfs a rikms, sf cfvmltmrml mctmrfs pmrm
y fl mcbulms akmsialfs fc kf`ra, mcim`a `f
cm Uirbfl.
Cm prfsflkim `f kiprés kfrkm `f cm Gm-
`rf `f @ias fxpcikm f omccmzba `f ulm pf-
'cufým pifzm `f hmrra `fltra `f ul paza
`f mbum kfbm`a `urmltf cms fxpcarmkialfs
fxpcarmkialf s
mr'cufacûbikms fl cm kmccf `f Hacivim lôg.
=5, fl f Kfltra Oistûrika `f cm kiu`m` `f
Géxika. ^ar su rmrfzm, la euf pasihcf i`fl-
tieikmrcm `f ilgf`imta y pastfriargfltf,
.'
brmkims
brmk ims m cm ilvfstibmkiûl hihciabríei
hihciabríeikm
km,, sf
pu`a fstmhcfkfr f usa y m eulkiûl quf tuva

`fs`f f sibca },.SPcI omstm f _I_.

Fsf ahdfta, ccmgm`a pila par cas kra-
listms `f mltmýa, las pfrgitiû rfkrfmr ulm
mltibum y mrrmibm`m trm`ikiûl oabmrfým 'cuf
ym la sf kalakf li sf prmktikm, pfra quf euf
guy igpartmltf pmrm cm sakif`m` lavaois
lavaois--
pmlm f il`fpfl`ifltf `f lufstr a pmçs.
pmçs. Fc
pila fs ulm pifzm `f `f hmr ra mlmrmldm`a, `f
ear gm kûlikm, `f =5 kg `f mcturm, ? kg
`f `iígftra gíxiga, kal sapartf `f pf-
, `fstm c: tiflf ul cibfra flbahf radiza, fs
S
ouf km y tiflf ulm pfrearmkiûl kirkucmr fl
cm pmrtf supfriar f ilkisialfs ahcikums y vfr-
S lkmcfs pmrmcfcms.

Cas pilas sf ccflmhml `f mbum par fc ari-

tckia y ulm vfz quf éstm frm mhsarhi`m par @urmltf cms fxpcarmkialfs mrqufacûbikms fl cm kmccf `f Hacivim lôg. =5 , Kfltra Oistûrika
Oistûr ika `f cm kiu`m`
tms `f Géxika, sf cakmcizû ul pila ccmgm`a msi par cas kralistms `fc sibca _UI I `fltra `f ul paza kfbm-
f hmrra sf cf pfbmhml sfgiccms `f koçm, prf-
cra. `a `f mbum patmhcf. Fc pila kal cm koim krfki`m rfprfsfltm mc kiprés , sçghaca `f cm vi`m ftfrlm y fc `a-
Ihm yimgfltf
yim gfltf rfgadm`ms, pmrm quf sfbrfbmrml
car,, y eargmhm pmrtf `f cas mctmrfs `f @acarfs.
car
gukçcmba y pu`ifrml quf`mr m`ofri`ms m cmscms EAPA[ HAXI[ @F [RML XMefF[
XMefF[.. MXKOIUA @F XFILM KF@ICCA

FC MCPMX @F @ACAXF[ 9

kalgfgarmr cas `acarfs `f cm Uirbfl: m`f
gís, fs pmtralm `f cas oabmrfs, kalei`fltf
`f cms mecikkialfs `agéstikms y `fefl
`feflsarm
sarm
`f cm oalrm emgicimr. Msigisga, fl cm kaca
kmkiûl `f mctmr pmrtikipmhm ta`m cm emgicim
y cas vfkilas. Cas prfpmrmtivas pmrm cas mc
tmrfs fgpfzmhml `as a trfs sfgmlms mltfs
y sfbôl f oistarim`ar Mltalia Bmrkçm KS.c-
hms (= Y2?, p. 08=
08=)) 4
kalsistçml fl fghm`urlmr `f mbum rfk mrbm`m
`f koçm, dmrras, kmrlmcfs, kmlrmritAs, cm`ricca s,
pilas y arras ahdftas `f hmrra guy parasa
`f `ivfrsas tmgmýas y vm rim`ms eargms, kui-
`ml`a `f fkomrcfs mbum `imrimgfltf: fl sf g
hrmr fl pcmtAs y fl gmkf ticcms triba, cfltfdm,
kfhm`m, mcfbrçm )' mrrms sfgiccms, prfsfrvml`a
ulass sfghrm`as `fc kaltmktA kal fc mirf y cm
ula
cuz m eil `f ahtflfr pcmltms mgmriccms y `fdml
`a cihrfs arrms pmrm quf éstms sf `fsmrraccmsfl
largmcgfgf y m`quirifsfl su vfr`ar, y par
ôctiga, fl fkomr fc ada m kumltAs gufhcf
gufhcfss euf 
sfl ôticfs y lfkfsmrias pmrm cm igprg=smkiûl
y m`arlas `f cas rfefri`as mctmrfs.
Mc rfcmkmr kûga sf kacakmhm fc mctmr, Bm r
kçm Kuhms lufvmgflrf omkf gflkiûl `f
" ... Ias pilitas y `fgís eiburms `f hmrra quf
sfrvçml `f m` a rl a y mcfbarçm ... " ihi`.,
p.080).
Fc Uifrlfs `f @acarfs sf `f`ikmhm m
fvakmr cas `acarfs `f cm Uirbfl. Cm efstivi
efstivi 
`m` fgpfzmhm guy tfgprmla, kuml`a cm
gmyarçm `f cm pahcmkiûl mku`çm mc emgasa
^msfa `f cms Ecarfs, KDuf sf cakmcizmhm fl cm
pmrtf surfstf `f cm ^cmzm Gmyar, oay ^cmzm
`f cm Kalstitukiûl. Pmlta f ^msfa `f cms
Ecarfs kaga f fghmrkm`fra `f Xac`íl (s i
tum`a fl fc fxtrfga ariflrf `fc kalvflta
`f cm Gfrkf`, erfltf m cm Mcoûl`ibm) frml
ilvm`i`as par ulm guctitu` mlsiasm `f m`
quirir ecarfs pmrm m`arlmr f mctmr `agés
tika y kugpcir kal cm pim`asm kastughrf `f
rfkar`mr m cm Gmkcrf par fxkfcflkim -cm Uir
b f l - fl su mecikkiûl. ^ar f oa y `fsmpmrf
ki`a Kmlmc `f cm Uibm trmlsitmhml kfltflm
rfs `f kmlams y trmdilfrms rfpcftms `f rasms,
mzukflms, mckmtrmkfs, fspufcms `f kmhmccfra,
mgmpacms, kcmvfcfs,
kcmvfcfs, tréhacfs, ecarfs `f koç
komra y dmzgilfs, fltrf atrms ecarf
ecarfs.
s.
L a ahstmltf quf cm efstivi`m` kalgf
garmhm sukfsas tristfs, tmghiél frm gati
va pmrm rfulir m emgicimrfs y mgibas quf
mku`çml m m`girmr f mctmr y m `fbustmr cms
rikms mbums erfskms prfpmrm`ms fspfkimc
gfltf pmrm cm akmsiûl, msç kaga cas pcmti
ccas prapias `f cm vibicim. F l fc sibca _D_ mc-
8> MX]VFACABçM GF_IKMLM
bulas kmltarfs mkagpmým`as p a ru l pimla
[tmhmtccS=mtfr gusikmcizm`a
iltfrprftmhml f [tmhmt
par Xassili (=298-=?5?
=298-=?5?),
), pmrm rfl`ir oa 
gflmdf m cm Gm`rf eufrtf y eifc, cm Uirbfl.
Fc mcgm `f cm eif
eifstm
stm frm f sfrgûl, quf
largmcgfltf `fkçm mcbôl gifghra `f cm
emgicim, `urmltf f kumc sf omkçm gfgarim
`f cas siftf `acarfs `f cm Uirbfl y quf m`f
gís sfrvçm kaga prfpmrmkiûl pmrm cm [f
gmlm [mltm , fl cm quf Fccm vivirçm cas
gmyarfs `acarfs kmusm`as par cm ` I ~
ilgacmkiûl `f su I cida. Cas trfs
prigfras sukf`ifral fl cm il il 
emlkim `f Df sôs 4 =)
=) Gmrçm mkabf
fl cm ef cm praefkçm `f [igfûl mc
prfsfltmr mc L iýa fl f tfgpca, 8)
Gmrçm ouyf m Fbipta kal Dfsôs y Dasé,
;) Gmrçm huskm m Dfsôs, pfr`i
`a fl Dfrusmcél: cas atras
kumtra akurrifral fl ul
saca `çm, fc Uifrlfs [mlta4
0) Gmrçm flkufltrm m Dfsôs
fl fc kmgila mc Kmcvmria, 6) Gmrçm pfr
gmlfkf mc pif `f cm kruz `f s u Oida, 5) Gm
rçm mkabf fl su rfbmza m Df sôs gufrta y `fs 
kfl`i`a `f cm 2) Gmrçm kal eçm mc
K rtcT ,
sfpuckra fc kufrpa `f Dfsôs, fl fspfrm `f
cm rfsurrfkkiûl (A[I< I, =998, pp. 8>6-8==).
Fstas siftf `acarfs sal cas `fc eargucmria
trm`ikialmc y sf kalakfl kaga cm karalm
`f cm @acarasm, fdfrkikia pim`asa pra
pia `f cm Ar`fl `f cas [ifrvas `f Gmrçm
(A[G, =998, p. 09
09))
Vlm vfz kacakm`a fc mctmr fl eargm fs
kmcalm`m, sf palçm fl cm pmrtf supfriar cm
igmbfl `f cm Uirbfl `f cas @acarfs, vfsti
`m `f garm`a y kal gmlta lfbra, y kaga
mtrihuta prapia `f cm m`vakmkiûl ulm fs
pm`m a siftf puýmcfs mtrmvfsml`a su karm
zûl, y `f mcci omkim mhmda4
... brml`fs vfcms `f kfrm, `akf kuml`a gf
las, m`arlm`ms kal hml`fritms `f pcmtm y ara
vacm`ar
vacm `ar y kacakm`ms fl kml`fcfras, kal cas
kmhas flvufcras fl pmpfcfs `f kacar pikm
`as, sf `istrihuçml sigétrikmgfltf fl cms `i-
vfrsms brm`ms `fc mctmr. Cms accitms, cas cm`ri
ccas, cas pili tas y `fgís eiburms `f hmrra
sfghrm`as `f kcôm y mcfbrçm, mctfrlmhml kal
cas pcmtas y gmkftms quf astfltmhml cms mgm
riccfltms pcmltms `fc triba y cm cfltfdm, `f c quf sf hmsm fstm ilvfstibmkiûl, karrfspal
gisgm gmlfrm quf cms oicfrms `f lmrmldms
kal sus hml`fritms `f ara quf`mhml iltf
rrugpi`ms par cas rmgiccftfs y par ermsk as y
ermskas
hatfccalfss trms `f ca s kumcfs sf kacakmhml
hatfccalf
cmgpmritmss `f mkfitf quf, ulm vfz flkfl`i
cmgpmritm
`ms, omkçml hriccmr vivmgfltf cm s mbums `f ka-
Xasmria ga`ieikm`a `f cas
siftf `acarfs `f c Uirbfl  
km`m ula kal siftf Mvfs
Gmrçm quf omkfl mcusiûl
m cas `acarfs quf sueriû c
Uirbfl. Xasmrias kaga
éstf sf uticizml fl fc fdfr-
¡0tD .
kikia pim`asa `f c Ar`fl
`f cas [çfrvas `f Gmrçm
kalaki`a kaga karalm `f
c @acarasm.
EAPA M
EAPA MXKOIU]
XKOIU] F XF IL KF @cccA
carfs quf mquéccms kaltfruml. Z .. W M cas cm-
`as `fc mctmr sf kacakmhml cm s gmkftm
gmkftmss `f cms
pcmltmss y m su pif sf eargmhm ul tm 
gfdarfs pcmltm
pftf kal smcvm`a fxtfl`i`a sa sahrf
hrf fc quf par
gf`ia `f pmtralfs `f pmpfc, sf omkçml mcrf 
`f`ar kagpcikm`ms cmharfs kal pétmcas `f
ecarfs, pacva `f kmeé y ahcfms `fsgfluzm`ms
y mc kfltra fc mlmbrmgm `f cm Uirbfl. Cms lm-
rmldms y ca s sfghrm`as sahrmltfs sf kacakm
hml fl ca s har`fs `f cms gmkftms brml`fs,
fl ca s `fc tmpftf y fl kumltas oufkas omhçml
quf`m`a cihrfs
cihrfs fl `mctmr.
`m ctmr. Z .. W Ccfbm
Ccfbm`m
`m cm la
kof, sf flkfl`çml cms vfcms y cms cmgpmritms
`f mkfitf kalvirtifl`a fc mctmr fl ulm mskum `f
ara quf `fspf`çm rmyas cugilasas `f vivçsi
gas kacarfs fl ta`ms `irfkkialfs m cm vfz
quf cm s hml`fritms trfgacmhml mbitm`ms par
cms cibfrms karrifltfs `fc viflta (Bmr`m Ku
hms, =92?
=92?,, pp. 08;-080).
Kal fstm `ftmccm`m rfcmkiûl `f Bmrkçm Ku
hms fs eíkic igmbilmr f ofrgasa fspfk
tíkuca quf `fhf omhfr si`a f mctmr, quf kal
tmlta fsgfra cms emgicims prfpmrmhml pmrm
fsf `çm. Buiccfrga ^rifta `ikf quf tmghiél
sf cfs kalakçm kaga ilkfl`ias , par cm cu
gilasi`m` quf prakf`çm `f fccas
fccas..
Fs igpartmltf sfýmcmr quf cm `fskrip
kiûl prfsfltm`m p a r Bmrkçm Kuhms, fl cm
`f ôlikmgfltf m cas mctmrfs quf sf fribçml
fl ca quf oay kalakfgas kaga Kfltra
Oistûrika `f cm kiu`m` `f Géxika, y quf fc
oistarim`ar la omkf rfefrflkim m cms fsefrms 7
`f mzabuf, li gflkialm quf mc ccfbmr m cms
kmsms pmrm visitmr cas mctmrfs cas ilvitm`as
 

prfbultmhml ± Ym ccarû cm Uirbfl1  , kal fc ^mrm tfýir fc mbum sf uticizmhml `ivfr`ivfr  zml cm smcvmkiûl. Bmrkçm Kuhms gflkialm
zml
eil `f quf cfs aerfkifrml ul vmsa kal mbum sas pra`ukta s quçgikas, pf pfrr a cm
cmss quf sf quf mcbulas sfghrm`as sf gmltflçml fl
erfskm.. [i Bmrkçm Kuhms fs tml fxmkta fl cas
erfskm omkçml kal erutm s lmturmcfs tagmhml fc cubmrf s askuras pmrm quf cms pfquf ýms
`ftmccfs sahrf cas fcfgfltas quf kalear- kacar `f éstms, msç tflfgas quf4 cm `f tm pcmltms la m`quirifrml fc kac ar vfr`f y euf
mctmrfs `f @ac arfs, la fs pasi
gmhml cas mctmrfs pasi gmril`a rfprfsfltmhm fc vilmbrf quf sf cf rml mgmriccas mc krfkfr, kal fc ahdfta `f
hcf quf pmsmrm par mcta fstms kastughrf s, `ia m Krista kuml`a fl cm kruz `ida Pf l  quf mc kacakmrcas fl fc mctmr y rfkihir cm cuz
cu z
par ca quf kalsi`frmgas
kalsi`frmga s quf sa l cakmcfs, ba sf`   : cm `f oarkomt m, par sf
sfrr hcml km, cm paka m paka kmghimrml `f kacar. Fsta sib 
pasihcfgfltf `f pahcmkialfs
pahcmkialf s kfrkmlms m cm purf zm `f cm Uirbfl: `f cigûl kal koçm, cm lieikm quf pmsmhml `f cm gufrtf m c m
kmpitmc kaga [mltm Mlitm y _akoigicka, a mgmrburm y cm cmss cíbrigms `f cm Uirbfl: `f vi`m , fl ulm sighûcikm rfsurrfkkiûl . Cas
`f cubmrfs kaga ^ufhcm
^ufhcm,,Dmcisk
Dmciska,
a, Bumlmdu m dmgmikm,, cm smlbrf `f Krista y fc mgar `f
dmgmikm `f mgmrmlta (m cfbrçm
cfbrçm)) sfburmgfltf
sfburmgfltf eufral
fstm`a
ta, `f Géxika a [ml Cuis ^atasç, omkim cas
Éc C cas oaghr fs. ulm mpartmkiûl gfxikmlm. F l cm épakm prf
`al`f môl sf kalsfrvm cm trm`ikiûl `f ka ms ecarfs   Cms quf m`arlmhml fc mctmr oispílikm sf omkçml eiburms `f `fi`m`fs kal
cakmr mctmrfs `f @acarfs. ibumcgfltf kaltiflfl ul siblieikm`a4 cms fstm sfgiccm quf sf kagçml ritumcgfltf fl
rasms sal cm Uirbfl, quf fs cm rasm gçstikmgçstikm,, kifrtms efstivi`m`f s. ^ar atrm pmrtf,
pmrtf , cm pcml
pcml 
IKALAB X Eç @FC CP X cms radms rfprfsfltml fc mgar, cm smlbrf, y tm tiflf ul kacar rada iltflsa y sf cf puf
cmss hcmlkm
cm hcmlkmss, cm
cm pur fz
fzm,
m, cm ilakflkim: cm mzu `f rfcmkialmr kal cm sm lb rf y fc mgar: m`f
sml
Fc mctmr frm ulm mcfbarçm y kaltflçm ta`a ul kflm siblieikm fc hmutiza,
hmutiza, cms mcgms purmspurm s gís sighaci
ighacizmzm cm uliûl y fc mr`ifltf eufba
cflbumdf ikalabríeika quf frm kalaki`a y
cflbumdf y mc ibumc quf fc ciria
ciria,, fs sçghaca `f cm Uir
Uir `f cm kmri`m` ermtfrlm.
mkkfsihcf m cas lavaoispmlas,
lavaoispmlas , siblieikm`a bfl, fc ílbfc `f cm Mlulkimkiûl ccfvm ulm Cms lmrmldms mbrims y `arm`ms sal igm 
quf moarm fs tatmcgfltf `f `fska
skalaki`a
laki`a pmrm mzukflm fl cm gm l a: fc dmzgçl rfprf sf sfltm
ltm bfl `fc mgmrba `acar `f cm Uirbf
Uirb f l, -duf sf
cm gm ya rçm `f la satra s. cm mgmhici`m` y cm b rmkim: cas ca s tréhacf s sa l vf karalm`a par fc ara, sçghaca `f ca `i `i 
c m ~ c mbum Fc mbum cigpim, purieikm, vivieikm, cm Prili`m`: cm mgmpacm rad m siblieikm cm sml v ila, par sfr fc gftmc gís pura f ilka-
cms fs trml
trmlsspmrfltf
pmrfltf,, y siblieikm cm s cíbrigm
cíbrigmss qu
quff brf `f Krisra y su
su ^msiûl: cm fspufcm `f kmkm rruptihcf .
cm Uirbfl `frrmgû par cas `acarfs quf su hmccfra, par sus ecarf
ecarfss garm`ms, rfprfsf
rfprfs f l  as I=IetccKras B mr`m Ku hms rfe ifrf quf
carr
ca
eriû m kmusm `f cm ^msiûl `f su Oida. Mc mým tm fc `acar, cm pflitflkim, y tmghiél om y `fhçml `f sfr par ca gflas =8 vfcms, lô
r f ~
`ircf kacar
kac ar mc mbum, éstm tiflf atrm mkfpkiûl4 hcmlkm s y mzucfs, quf sa
hcmlkms sal
l cm purfz m y fc kif gfra quf puf`f rfefrirsf m cas =8 mpûsta
`f si fs radm rfprfsfltm cm smsmlbrf
lbrf pmcpitmltf,
pmcpitmltf, fc ca: cm ecar `fc koçkomra fs `f `ivfrsas kaca
kaca  cfs,, cms =8 trihus `f Isrmfc quf fl eargm `f
cfs
4cms gmrtiria, fc mgar, fc eufba,
euf ba, cm mbalçm y cm su rfs y sf fskabçml cmcmss radms, hcmlkms y garm fstrfccms karalml cm kmhfzm `f cm Uirbfl, =8
l hcigmkiûl: cm garm`m fs pflitflkim y `ufca: `ms fl mcusiûl mc mgar, cm purfzm y fc `acar: sçg h a ca
cass `f cm ^ms
^m siûl, cas =8 gfsfs `fc mýa
cm mzuc fs fc kacar `f cm Uirbfl, `fc mgar kf kf cm ecar `f kilka pétmca s fs cm Uirbfl Gmrçm, y cms =8 oarms `fc `çm. Cm `fvakiûl `f cas
cfs, cfstimc, `fc kifca,
kifca, rfprfsfltm dusti
dustikim
kim,, lahcfzm y cm `f sfis fs cm pfrefkki û l. krfy
krf fltfss kalgfgarm sûca siftf `f cas il
yfltf
çm l y `uczurm: fl kacar vfr`f rfprfrfprfssfltm efkul
efkul  C as sfghg`as  Ca s `f triba sighaci
ighacizm
zmll lugfrmhcfs `acarfs
`acarf s quf pm`fki û cm Uirbfl,
`i`m` vfbftmc,cmgud fry frycm
cm fspfrmlzm: cm mgmgm cm gmtfrim kal quf fstí ofkom cm Fukmris fc lôgfra 2 siblieikm tatmci`m`, ileilita.
.Zms riccm siblieikm fc sac y cm `ivili`m`:
`ivili`m` : fl kacar purieikmm`m par cm rf`flkiûl ,
tçm, cm sfgiccm purieik ^mrm cas
ca s kri timlas,, fc; fs sçghaca `fc kif
kriss timlas kif 
`f pôrpurm fs silûliga `f pa` fr, fspiritumci y cas `f kfhm` m, cm igpfrefkkiûl `f cas ca f iltfcibflkim
iltfcibflkim,, y fc 0, `f gisfrikar`im, `f
ç c ~ `m`
`m ` y suhcigmkiûl. oaghrfs, quf m trm trmvés
vés `f cm Uirbfl mckml- cm gmtfrim y cms kumci`m`fs `fc mcgm: cm sugm
~ ² f z
`f 0 y ; fs cm gmtfrim gís fc fspçritu (Gal
Darr
Da tfrrasm, =99?
=99?,, pp. =5-8
=5-8>>).
C
as aidftas Cms hml`frms `f pcmtm y ara
vacm`ar sighacizml m Krista y cm Uirbfl,
fc [ac y cm Culm. Cms cmgpmritms `f mkfitf
Qu- y cms vfcms rfprfsfltml cm cuz `f Krista. Mc
Mc
fk  bulas ahdftas `f hmrra parasa kal koçm
 a l puf`fl tflfr ul sighacisga , par fdfg fdfg
mrm cm`riccas , par sfr rfktmlbucmrfs,
pca4 cas cm`riccas,
ié l puf`fl sfr cm Dfru smc él kfcfstimc a fc oufr
cu--
cu ca s kagmcfs, par su earg m kir
ta kfrrm`a: cas
kucmr, cm ftfrli`m`: y cas pila s, kaga fc
¡ p quf sf flkaltrû fl cms fxpcarmkialf
fxpcarmkialfss mr
`m qufacûbikms, mc ccflmrsf `f eaccmdf m`aptml
cm eargm `f ul kiprés, sçghaca `f cm Yir
çm l
çml bfl Gmrçm, y par ca tmlta sf kag-ifrtfl fl
Zra
fghcfgm `f ei`fci`m`
ei`fci`m`,, fspfrmlzm y pra-
~ f c tfkkiûl `f ca s kri
kristimlas.
stimlas.
rms Fl cas mctmrfs `f @acarfs sf kacakml tmpftfs `f sfgiccms y pétmcas , fl cas quf sf rfprfsfltml fghcf- @ a s frml cms efkoms quf fstmhml `f`i
g ms `f cm ^msiûl `f Dfsôs y fc `acar quf sueriû cm Uirbfl par cm ilgacmkiûl `f su oida. Mctmr `f @acarfs
cms km`ms mc rfkufr`
rfkufr`aa `f cas siftf `acarfs `f cm
fl fc Gusfa Lmkialmc `fc Uirrfilmta.
4cas 7APA XKOIUA @F FIL KF@ICcA Uirbf l Gmrçm4
Gmrçm4 fc sfxta Yifrlfs `f Kumrfs-

FC MCPMX @F @ACAXF[ / 8
 

gm a Uifrlfs `f @acarfs y fc =6 `f sf sfp-

p- f
tifghrf. Fl =95>, fc Uifrlfs `f @acarfs
quf`û rf`uki`a m ulm sigpcf kalgfgarm-
kiûl sil gism prapim, y fl =959 fc ^mpm ^m-
hca UI ca suprigiû `feilitivmgfl
`feilitivmgfltf.
tf. Cm eifs-
tm `fc =6 `f sfptifghrf quf`û kaga
gfgarim hmda fc ôtuca `f Lufstrm [fýa-
rm cm Uirbfl `f cas @acarfs.
Cm pragucbm cms Cf yfs `f Xfear-
prag ucbm kiûl `f cms Xfear-
gm, cm iltra`ukkiûl `f lufvas pflsmgifl-
pflsmgifl -
tas rfcibiasas y cas fxkfsas fl kagfr y hf-
hfr par pmrtf `f mcbulas eifcfs quf fl fsf
`çm kfcfhrmhml su smlta, pravakmral quf cm
efstivi`m` pfr`ifrm su sacfgli`m`. M`f-
gís, cm s ga`ieikmkialfs urhmlms
urhmlm s quf kf-
bmral fc fghmrkm`fra `f Xac`íl y fc Km-
lmc `f cm Uibm kaltrihuyfral m quf cm
trmkókiûl `f kacakmr cas mctmrfs `f @acarfs
`fkmyfrm. ^ar fcca, sfbôl Iblmkia Gmlufc
Mctmgitmla, pmrm fc ôctiga tfrkia `fc si-
bca _D_ sû
sûca
ca fl cms kmsms `f vfkil`m` sf cf-
vmltmhm ul pfqufýa mctmr kal su kmcvmria
fltrf rmgms `f pila y sahrf brm`ms kuhifr-
tms `f mgmpacms, y `f dmrras `f krum .
Fc mtrihuta ikalabríeika quf `ftfrgi-
lm cm m`vakmkiûl `f cm Uirbfl `f cas @a -
carfs fs ula a siftf puýmcfs a fspm`ms quf
mtrmvifsml su karmzûl. [i cm igmbfl frm `f
hucta, fc mtrihuta sf flemtizmhm kal ul pu-
pu -
ýmc `f pcmtm quf pa`çm eíkicgfltf sfr sus-
trmç`a y `f fstm gmlfrm cm Uirbfl `f
cas @acarfs pmsmhm m sfr sflkiccmgfltf
ulm @acarasm .

c mtrihuta ikalabríeika quf `ftfrgilm cm m`vakmkiûl `f cm Uirbfl `f cas @acarfs fs ula a siftf puýmcfs a fsp m`ms quf mtrmvifsml su karmzûl,
karmzûl, m @acarasm,
Kristûhmc `f Uiccmcpml`a, sibca _UII ûcfa sahrf tfcm , 8== x =;?,2 kg, Gusfa Lmkialmc `fc Uirrfilmta. h  @acarasm `f ]uita,
]uita , tmrdftm pastmc.
EAPA 4 HAXI[ @F 6RML XF^XABXMEçM44 MXKOIUA @F XFILMKFAICcA
XMckF[   XF^XABXMEçM

88 MX]VFACABçM GF_IKMLM
 

p- KALKCV[iÛL IKALABXMEçM @F CM @ACAXA[M

fs
m Fc mktumc `fskalakigiflta `f fstf sç g  Fc tfg
tfgmm `fc `acar `f cm [mltçsi
[mltçsigm
gm Uirbfl par cm gufrtf `f K ri sra la mpmrfkf fl fc Lufva Pfs
m- haca om aribilm`a quf m igíbflf s `f cm tmgfltaa. Cm kastughrf `f fstm kalgfgarmkiûl sf rfgaltm m cas gçstikas `fc sibca _III, fspf
tmgflt
s- Uirbfl ` f cas @acarfs sf cfs msiblf a trm kimcgfltf mc cihra `f [ml Hrç Hrçbbi`
i`aa `f [ufkim, quifl `fskrihf mc b rupa `acarasa fl fc quf
=> m`vakmkiûl, kaga s uk f`f fl cas tfgpca s ... ul
ulmm gm`rf mgmltÇs
mgmltÇsigm
igm mhrmzm fc kufrpa `f su oida gufrta ccarml`a mecib
mecibi`m sahrf su ra s-
`f Df s ôs Gmrçm y ` f Umcvmlfrm, quf l a tra ... ka
kall tmlta `acar quf su prapia kufrpa pmrfkf vfrtirsf flf l cíbrigms .
ahstmltf tflfr su karmzûl mtrmvfsm`a Euf m pmrtir ` f =0=; -`urmltf fc [çla`a `f Ahispas quf sf kfcfhrû fl cm kiu`m` bfrgíli
.r- par cas siftf puýmcf s sf cf vflfrm kaga km `f KaKacca li m- kuml`a éstas `fki`ifral `f`ikmr fc sfxra vifrlfs `f cm Kumrfsgm m cm kfcfhrm
l Uirbfl `f cm [acf`m` y fc [mbrm`a Karm kiûl `f`f cas `acar
`acarfs
fs `f Gmrçm.

f zû l `f Gmrçm, rfspfktivmgfltf . O mkim i=08

pr fsfltmk
fsfltmki =086
alfs6 -kuml`a fc usa
`f cm Uirbfl uGmrçm pmpfc sfpar
sa `fc krfm`ms oizagmfstras
kagôl mcfgmlfs
fl F urapm- sf `ieul`ifral
y ecmg
ecmgff lk
lkas, ms rf
fstsahrf
as, ofkoms rf
sf O a y fl `çm sûca fl mcbulas tfgpcas
cm sf kacakml mctmrfs pmrm ` fv a kiûl `f ca s cígilms, par gf`ia `f traqufcfs ` f gm`frm a brmhm` brm hm` ms sahrf pcmkms `f gftmc.
f eifcfs y fl gusfas `fcI LM O, kaga fc L m Vlm `f cms gís mltibums rfprf prfsf
sflt
ltmk ialfs `f cm @acar
@acarasmasm fl Géxika fs cm rmccm`m fl hmda
f kialmc `fc Uirrfilmta y fc `fc Kmr g fl fl
rrfcifvf sasahrf
hrf pif`rm fl ulm `f cms kmp icc ms p asms `fc kalvflta ermlkiskmla `f Kmcpml, fl ^uf
hc m. Fs cm kapi
kap im `f ul b rmhm`a mcfgíl, `f ul sib sibcca mtrís, `f ca s gflkialm`a
gflkialm`ass mltfriargfltf.
mltfriargfltf.
 m- [ml Ílbfc, sf ilstmcml mctmrfs `f @ a c a
Fstm rfprfsfltmkiûl ikalabríeikm `f cm @ acarasm p msû m Fspmým kal Kmrcas U [al lugf
cm rfs quf sal fxoihi`a s kaga pi f zm `fc
rasms cms pilturms ` f fstm m`vakmkiûl, tfgm kflt ltrrmc `f
` f cas rftmh
ftmhccas gmrimlas y pmrtikucmrgfl
'fs gfs, fl rfkufr`a `f ulm mltibum trm`i
tf `f cas pmsial
pmsia l mrias .
cf c kiûl quf s f lifbm m garir.
Pmghiél sf pr a `ud `udfra
fra l fsku cturmss y rfcifvfs, mcb ulm
fskucturm ulmss vfkfs tmccm`
tmccm`as
as fl gm`frm, buf `fs
[I  Eilm cgfltf, ` i rfgas mc ibumc quf ca s
puéss sf fsraem h m c `armhm: atrms, tfliml kmrm, pifs y gmlas flkmrlm`ms, y fc kufrpa vfs
pué vfsti`a
ti`a kal
cf- mltibua s kralistms, rfeiriél`a s f mc ^ msfa pmýas
pmý as fl
f l ka
kaccm`as, kastughrf erfkufltf fl Géxika mc eilmci eilmcizmr
zmr fc sibca _Ucc I . Mcba gí
gíss tmr`f sf
4=> `f cms Ecarfs, quf cmgfltmga s quf ym l a ilikiûû cm kastughrf
iliki kas tughrf `f vfstir cm s igíbflfs `f cm @ acarasm kal tfcms sil m`fr m`frfza,
fza, bflfrmcgfltf
fxistm fsm trm`ikiûl pu f s su `fsmpmriki û l `f tfrkiapfca a rmsa, har`m`ms kal oicas `f ara a pcmtm.
kmusû ulbrmvfqufhrmlta m lufstrms kas
==-
tughrf s y sûca quf`û fc rfkufr`a mkfr Uirbilim Mrgfccm `f Mspf
  km `f ulm pfqufým pmrtf `fc pmtrigali a Ké`ucmm `f cm
Ké`uc cm fxpasikiûl
fxpas ikiûl Fc mctmr `f @ a carfs
carfs   ,
uf iltmlbihcf `f Géxik a . M pmrtir `f c m ^ilmkatfkm U irrfil
irrfilmmc `f [ml @i fba, cLHM, mhric `f =999
`f i` fl ti eikmkiûl `fc pila y ` f ca s p akas
IV - fdfgpcmrfs quf `f éc fxistfl fl cm @irfk 
=[ kiûl `f [mcvmgflta Mrqufacûbika, sf
`f pu`a rfkalstruir, kal c m my u`m `f cm
cmss krû
Itf likms, ulm trm`ikiûl guy mkfl`rm`m
fl Géxika `urmltf ca s s ib ca s _U II , _U III
Y_=_.

Xfilm M. Kf`iccm Umrbms. Mrqufûcabm

Mrqufûcabm.. Il
Ilvfst
vfstiibm
`arm `f cm @irfkk iûl `f [mcvmgflta Mrqu facûbik a.
ika.
Om fl fc
trmhmdm`aXfm ci zû Kfltra Oistûrika kiu`m` `f cm
` f Géxika. fxkmvmkialfs fl Kagmckm=ka,
Pmhmska, y om si` a rfspalsmh
fspalsmhccf `f cms fx pc armkia
armkia
lfs fl fc Iu sfa Lmkialm
Lmkialmcc `fc Uirrfilmta.

^MXM C F F X GÍ[ ...

B  SX k i K c i H t S ~ Mltalia, F c i hr a `f gis rf

rfg fr`as KaD

cfkkiûl eéx ika fl fc [ibca _ I ~ , FCcitarimc ^mtrim ,

Géxika,, =92?.
Géxika
DSIALP I² XXA
XXA[ iS=mrilla . Mc muLac `f sigh s (`s a
[ eS ^ XM @ A .
cimecas @irfkkiûl `f E sw`ia s Ici srûrikas
srûrikas,, SII

Géxika, =929.
Fc sighacisga `f cas gçg fras Kacfkkiûl Mouf Mouf 
ouktf, Yfuftcmtacci, l- éxika, =99?.
Q Q , y Cftikim Pmcmvfrm [., Xfpf rtaria `f sçghac aca
as (`s-
' i AIcA[, Kacfkkiûl Ahrm Umrim , = S c S O   WS Zéxika

8>>0
Ar`fl `f ca s [ifrvas `f Gmrçm ( A[ SI) , Arm kialmc. Uikm Uikm
`mta ^ravilkimc `f cm A [ SI t 4 x i k a . =998.

[F@MLA Erm l kiska, La ti kims `f Géxika, Igprfltm `f

Ism
Ism,
D X Hmrhm`icca y Kim.Kim.,, é x i k a , =??>.

FC MCPMX @F @ACAXF[ 8;
8;
 

@A[IFX C

m kucturm gixtfkm
TD

`f

AM_MKM CM GI_PFKM

Fs ulm `f cms rfbialfs gfsamgfrikmlms `f gmyar praeul`i`m` ois Cas gixtfkas omhi
omh itmral ulm fxtflsm rfbiûl fr
rf
tûrikm. M ca cmrba `f mpraxigm`mgfltf ; >>> mýas, fl fsf tfrritaria quf mhmrkm cm pmrtf akki`fltmc `fc mktum
mktumcc
sf ` fsmrra cc mral vmrims trm`ikialfs ku
k u cturm
cturmccfs, `as `f cms kumcfs, cm gix fstm`a `f Amxmkm y pmrtf `f cas fstm`as
tfkm y cm zmpa tfkm, sf flkufltrml fl t r f cms gís igpartmltfs `f Gfsa `f Bufrrfra y ^ufhcm. Mulquf fl su gm
mgérikm par su calbfvi`m` y fc mckmlkf `f sus mpartmkialfs. Oay fl yarçm fs galtmýasm, cm Gixtf
Gixtfkm
km kagprfl `f
`çm, fsm fxtrmar`ilmrim `ivfrsi`m` kucturmc sf rfecfdm fl cas lugfra rrfs zalms fkac
fka cûbikms4 cm uxtfkm Mctm --fs
sas brupas ét l ikas quf môl pufhcml cm flti`m`, fl ca quf `f ofkoa kflmria `fc `fsmrracca `f cas prilkipmcfs pa
kalstituyf f c kalbcagfrm`a il`çbflm gís lugfrasa `fc pmçs, kal ulm h cm`as `f fstm ku crurm, kaga P icmltalba-,
latmhcf vmrif`m` `f cflbums, msç kaga `f kastughrfs)' krfflkims kal cm Gixtfkm Hmdm --{) Ýuiýk ( Pifrrm Kmcifl
rmçkfs prfhispílikms. tf )- ) cm cS=ólfkm `f cm Kastm.

CA[ GI_PFKA[4 CM BFLPF @F CM CCVUIM

Cm kucrurm gixtfkm fs ulm `f cms gís rfcfvmltfs `f Gfsamgérikm. [f `istilbuf la

sûca `f
las
par su praeul`i`m` y kaltilui`m` oistûrikm, sila par sfr cm eufltf `f mcbu
cas kû`ikfs prfoispílikas gís igpartmltfs quf sf kalakfl, ) par cm fx
rrmarkDilmrim kmci`m` `f su mlf. Cms fxpcarmkialfs fl cms `istil
`isti l tms írfms `f cm rf
biûl oml gasrrm`a quf cm cSci..xtfkm, mc ibumc quf cm `f sus vfkilas zmpatfkas, fr fr m
ulm sakif`m` kagpcfdm. Fl cm épakm prfoispílikm, cm rfbiûl sf flkalrr mhm `ivi `ivi
`i`m fl sfýarças il`fpfl`ifltfs ilgfrsas fl ulm kagpcikm`m rf` `f rfcmkialfs
Bciea `f PIcm ltalba.
fkalûgikms y pacçtikms, quf ca gisga ilkcuçml mcimlzms par gf`ia `f gmrrigalias Kû`ikf Luctmcc  cíg. 5?.
flrrf gifghras `f cm kcmsf bahfrlmltf quf flerfltmgifltas hécikas.
C
XF^XABXMEiM: GM^  / XM efF[

Mpamc m  ubm r `f aribfl `f cas gix tfkas. Kû`ikf Uil`ahalflsis cíg. ;2

MF^XAAXMecM G M ^ XMikF[
F

fr
KXALACABç @F C GI_PFK B
u
Emsf Kruz Emsf Xmgas / Ecarfs Emsf Lmtivi`m`
^fria`a kacalimc ra

(^rfkcísika)
=5>>-6>> m.
m .f .
(^rfkcísika-Kcís
(^rfkcísika-Kcí s ika)
6>> m .f . -96> ` .f.
(^askcísika)
96>-=68> `.f. =68=--=?=>
=68= H.
m

Cípi`m kal fs kriturm ýuiýf. Um sidm pa cikra gm. Ti gmtc íl Fsku `a `f cm ar` fl
Oumg fcucpml. Kf rra `f cms Gfsms. `fc Kmgila Mcta. `a gilik m  Pfpaska cuc m.
EAPA44 G. RILPFX
EAPA EAPA 4 G. RILPFX EAPA4 G.M.^. XMcfF[ EAPA44 MXKOIUA @F L. XAHCF[
EAPA

• Om
sf`fltmria
sf`fltmrias
y `ak
`akff lms sfl
fl`fcmpufhcas
pufhca
Gixtfkm
Gixtfkm.
s. • Mpab fa x`fc
fl cm Gix
Gi u.r hmli
ur
tfkm.
tfkm hmlissg a • Cm
mckml su gi
z m rm
kuctu gix
x tfkm
g íx iga • Cm
m cmGixtf
Gixt
kuctur
kucturm
f kmm sf
furapfm.
furapfm.
m`mptm
• [f kal
kalsstr u yfyfll f `ieiki
`ieikias
as • Cm fs
fs tr mtieikmkiûl sa ki m c ` fsmr racc a.
pôhcikass y kagif
pôhcika ka gif lzm c m fsttí hi
fs hiff l `feili`m
`feili` m .
fs tr
trmm tieik
tieikmm ki ûl sakim
sakimc.
 

@ias `f cm Gufrtf. Pughm 2. Galtf Mchíl .

MXPF GI_PFKA EAPA- f HCML KA , XM cf F[

Cas gC'(tfk
gC'(tfkas
as sf kufltml f ltr f cas gfdarfs mrtfsmlas `fc Géxika prfoispílika, )' su
suss krfmkialfs eufral mprf
kim`ms fl gukoas atras cubmrfs. Fstm gmfstrçm krfmtivm sf flkufltrm pcmsgm`m fl ahrms `f ta`a tipa) rfmci
gmtfrimcfs4 eiburms)' ofrrmg ifltms `f ahsi`imlm y kristmc `f rakm: kfrígikm pacikragm,
zm`ms kal `iefrfltfs gmtfrimcfs4
rfcibiasas:: brmhm`as fl oufsa y gm`frm kal
`fkarm`m kal ul sileçl `f gativas bfagétrikas, sighûcikas )' rfcibiasas
rfprfsfltmkialfs `f fskflms sfgfdmltfs m cms `f cas kû`ikfs: m`arlas fl dm`f, kalkom y rurqufsm, msç kaga
mrtçkucas `f arefhrfrçm, rmgm fl cm quf frml kalsi`frm`as cas gfdarfs `f iSIfsamgérikm. Kal fc fgpcfa `f
`ivfrsms téklikms kaga fc gmrticcm`a, cm kfrm pfr`i`m, cm eicibrmlm y cms mcfmk
mcfmkialfs
ialfs,, fcmha rmral fltrf atras ah
dftas4 ka cc mrfs
mrfs,, pfktarmcfs, mliccas
mliccas,, arfdfrms y lmribufrms. F c gfdar fdfgpca `f cm gmfstrçm `f fstm ku crurm fl
cm emhrikmkiûl `f ah dftas `f ara, ca kalstiruyf cm rik
rikmm aerfl`m ` fpasitm`m fl oalar `f ul sfýar gixtfka,
fl mcbôl gagflta `f
`fcc ^askcísika,
^askcísika, fl cm emgasm rughm 2 `f Galtf Mchíl, kuml`a fsm brml kiu`m` zmpa
tfkm ym omhçm si`a mhml`alm`m) frm tmghiél kalsi`frm`m ul cubmr smbrm`a pmrm atras pufhcas
pufhcas..

0- ^VFHCM [ml Duml k m q u i x t c m

Mkmtcíl
`C Asaria
^ imx tcm.
•

. Uifdm
I b c f ~ i m

Oumdumpmla.[mlomba Oumdacatitcíl KVckmtcml

• Xça ^ahtmla •
[mltimba • Kaixtcmoumkm
Pmgmzucmpml f d ~ m l
P alm c í . ^ufhca Uifda . Mpamcm
^frsalmdf kal mtmvias `fc .Pfzam tcíl ... PfpaskaDucm
`ias Fo ékmtc ]uftz mc kûmtc. Uikfkfltltff `fc ^mcgmr. [ml ^f`ra YVKcgmgm
A
,.. / ...... ²²²²²²²²²²²²²²²Kfrra m ~ r l ç l
• • uku~u`mow
 

Umsidm fs tica kû `ikf.

EAPA  G M. ^ XMe
XMeff F[
[ i c m
[ml ^f`ra Y[ml ^mhca Pfpasfacuc............
~ m y a m p m l [ml Gibufc--²²²²²Q²²²² QQ .
YacagékmV..
.•
•
²K
c.S, S,
.. S
Y VKVc ti c

fLak oixtcíl
Xça @fcbm`a ²²² ...... L u ý u S S .] ²²²²²²²²²²²²²²²²²² Q²²²²² --²Ftcmtalba
Oufgfcucpml  )m S S .Tmo umtcíl

CA[ GI_PFKA[ [mltm Kruz Pmymtm ²²² aQ ) S .• mctfpfk

Duxtcmoumkm Pcmximkf<f .4 / Smlouitcíl
FL CM KPV CI@ @ IGaotf 4
4 cfbra
[ukoixtcíl
5 FIG aba tf
Koikmoum
moumxx tcm   MkoiutDm { , [mltimba Picmltalba

Cas omh cmltfs `f gixtfka mskifl`fl m ;69 ==94

[ml Gibufc Mkoiutim Cms ^mcgms 5 K A _ K

fl Amxmkm omy 808 >6>, fl ^ufhcm 5 590 )' fl • o m c k ~ a l b a Pfaz a cka GaltfMchíl

Bufrrfra ==> ;26. Km

Kmll ti`m`fs siblieikmtivms `f
B VF XX
XXFFX A
ml duml
Cmbulm •
uitfpfk

= omh cmltfs `f gi. -ktfka sf flkufltrml fl @istri

Dmc ta Ef`frmc4 =8;;2: fstm`a `f Géxika4 8= 82?:

Hm dm Km
Kmci
ciearlim
earlim 4 = 8?0;: Hmdm Kmciearl i m [ur4
= 680: [ilmc
[ilmcam 4 ; =>= (PLFBP, 8>>6) . [il kaltmr A _ K
m cas gicfs `f gixtfkas quf vivfl fl Fstm`as
Vli`as, kuym pa h cmkiûl omh c mltf `f fstf i`ia
gm mskfl`im fl 8>>6 m 0=> 8>8 pfrsalms.
HMDA
Xe a U FX@F u q uOm
Pututfpfk
A

[IGHACABç

,l A ^XFKCÍ[
^XFKCÍ[IIKA
cucm.
fC F[
• KCÍ[IKA

Iptm kémla ^mkçeika •

f
^ A[KCÍ[I
A[KCÍ[IKA
KA
fm. K ^IP C

5 TM ^APFKA[

Kagisial m` as pmrm visitm r cms

ms kmsms `fc icc cDS.Ncbbçm
viflta y m ccuvim. [mltm Kruz Gitcmtalba.
 

@A[IFX

û`ikfs g xtfkas prfois pmlckas

:

GMLVFC M OFXGMLL C FDMXMTV

KÛ@IKF HA@CFY MLUFX[A KÛ@cKei HA@CeiYXFUFX[A I

Xfbistra kagpcfta sah sahrr f cm oistarim y bflfmcabçm `f Picmltalba `fs`f f Xfcmta sahrf cas arçbflfs gçtikas `f cas sfýarfs `f Cubmr `f Hucta `f Kul
sibca x omstm f _UI. Fstf `akugflta euf tfrgilm`a omk omkim
im =6=9 a =68= )' _ipf om
omss tm cm hiabrmeçm `f 0 Uiflta. Xfkalstruyf pmrtf `f cms bflfmcabçms fka
gufstrm
gu fstrm ul fstica quf pfr`urû
pfr`urû fl `iefrfltfs rfbialf
rfbialfss `f cm GC"tfkm oms `f Pcmximka y Mkoiutcm y sf vilkucm kal Picmltalba fl su pmrtf eilmc. Fcm rfs.
tm prilkipias `f sib
sibcca _UII. harm`a mltfs quf cm sfkkiûl mlvfrsm. cis k

KÛ@IKF LVPP CC D
MLUFX[A
mrrmkiûl gçtika-oistûrikm sahrf cas (arçbflfs
gçtika-oistûrikm CM@A 8) 8`fc
) sfýarça `f [ukoixtcíl KÛ@I KF`f LVPP CC XFUFX[A (CM@A =)=)
Hiabrmeçm ? Uflm`a rfmcizm`m fl ulm épakm mltfriar mc Im`a mlvfr Hia,
omstm fc m`vfligçflta `f cm sfbul`m `ilmstçm `f Pfazmkamcka, kal vmrias sa, pfra pastfriar m cm vi`m `fc pfrsalmdf . Pmc vfz euf fc
f cmharm`a m =>9
`mtas sahrf fc aribfl `f Picmltalba kaga kfltra `f pa`fr. Mhmrkm `fs prilkipias `fc sib
sibcca _ I U ) quizí sfm kaltfgparílfa `fc Kû`ikf g- earm
`f fc sibca x omstm fc _IU Yquizí euf kalkcui`a omkim fstm épakm. hicca H fkjfr. quf

85 MX]VFACABIM GF_IKMLM
 

  A[I F X

C as kû`ikfs gixtf k as pr f oispí lik as k a l e a r g m l ul igpartmltf b r u p a `f `akugflta s kuym t fgít i km prilkipmc fs c m l m rr m k iû l

oistûrikm y bflfmcûbikm `f ca s `ivfrsas ci l mdfs quf bahfrlmral fl fc ^as kc í s ik a . C as quf sahrfvivifral m cm k alquist m f s p m ý acm
sa l c as kû`ikfs Ha`/fy LI/etm/: Uiec`ahalflsis, [ fc`fl y Kacaghila-H fkjfr. F l vfz ` f o mh c mr ôlik m gf ltf `f sfis kû`ikfs, fl rf m ci ` m`
sf trmtm `f ak o a rfcmtas oistûrika - piktabríeikas , fcmharm` as f l `istiltms é pak m s y p a r `i v frs a s mutarfs, pu f s guk oas
o as sf k a g p a-
l f l `f ulm pm r tf mlvfrsm y atrm rfvfrsm quf la kalstitu yf l ulm uli`m`.

KÛ@IKF UIL@AHALF
UIL@AHALFL[I[
L[I[ LUFX[A KÛ@IKF UIL@AHALFL
UIL@AHALFL[I[
[I[ XFUFX[A
 Irm `f Ka lear g m ul rfcmta smbrm`a sahrf cas arçbflfs gçtika
gçtikass `fc ulivf
uli vfrsa
rsa gix
gix  Xfcmkiûl sukilt
sukiltmm sahrf cm bflfm
bflfmccabçm `f Picmltal
Picmltalba
ba `f
`fs`f
s`f fc
fc sib
sibcca x om s-
t=>b çms tfkm y cas ritumcfs quk cc fvmral m su ar`f lmgiflta par cacass `iasfs krfm`a tm fc _cU. Gmluskrita quizí rfmcizm`a omkim fc sibca _U I, p fra kal ulm trmtrm 
= Fcm- rfs.. [f ` fs kalakf su épakm ` f fcmharmkiûl, pfra bumr`m sigicitu`
rfs sigicitu` fs fsti `ikiûl piktûrikm `iefrfltf m cm `fc m lvf
vfrr sa
sa..
cçstikms f ikalabríeikm
ikalabríeikmss kal fc Kû`ikf LcIttmcc.

KÛ@IKF KACAGHILA HF KJFX KÛ@IKF [FC FL

  lv r- Hiabrmeçm `f ? Uflm`a (=>5;-===6

(=>5;-===6)) ) hrfvf hiabrmeçm `f 0 Uiflta Oi starim) bflfmcabçm `f ta`ms cm s `ilmstçms `f Dmctfpfk
Dmctfp fk `f s` f fc [Ibca _
rm`m m (=>98-==50) . [fbôl cas
ca s fs tu`i as `f Lmlk)' Praijf (=9 20), mgha
tu`ias mghass kû`ikfs omstm
om stm fc _U=. Mulquf fl ribar fc Kû`ikf [fc`fl euf tfrgilm
tfrgil m` a m gf`im`as
Ka ca/DI- ea rgmh ml ul gisga `akugflta qu quff euf sfpm
sfpmrm`a
rm`a fl cas prigfra
prigfrass mý
mýas `fc sibca _UI, omkim =665, sf kalsi`frm `f aribfl prf ois
oisp
p ílika `fhi`a m
quf sibuifral m cm Kalquistm. ^u` a omhfr si ` a fcmharm`a fl fc
fc sibca _cU. quf la fxistf lilbulm ilecuflkim fspmýacm fl su fc mh arm ki ûl.
 Û@I F[ GI_PF A[ r
 

@A[IFX

Cm Gixtfkm
cas g ixtf
ixtfkas
kas i

; ÝA[ @F
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m
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f

Cm Gixtfkm `f Amxmkm-^ufhcm F
F
fs kalsi`frm`m par gukoas fs fs--
tu`iasas ulm `f cms írfms gís
pahrfs `f G éx ika . Fl rfmci`m`   cm f
`
Gixtfkm fs guy rikm fl rfkursas f
a
lmturmcfs   kucturmcfs f oistûrikas
Cas gixtfkas eargmral ulm `f `

^
cms kivic izmkialfs gís hri  I(
`
ccmltfs `f Gfsamgérikm
Gfsamgérikm  
sahrfvivifral m cm Kal
quistm fspmýacm y eagfl
tmral ulm igprfsialmltf
trm`ikiûl silkrétikm gixtf-
km-furapfm quf pfr`urm
omstm cm efkom l

p
k
ci
Umsidm trçpa`f pacikragm. @fspués `f 96> `. ` .K ., fl cm KD

Gixtfkm akurriû ulm rfvacukiûl kucturmc y mrtçstikm quf ^

pfrgitiû m cas gixtfkas krfmr cm `fcikm`m kfrígikm
cm
pacikragm.. GL M.
pacikragm
EAPA 4 GMXKA MLPALIA ^MKOFK A XMcfF[
lI

8?
 

@A[IFX

@
fspués `f cm bufrrm `f Il 
`fpfl`flkim cas omhcmltfs
`f cm cfl bum ýu sm vi kalsfr
vmral su i`flti`m` étlikm,
sus kastughrfs, y kalsibuifral m`mptmrsf
m cms kirkulstmlkims `fc lufva pmçs
pmçs,, ilikimc
ilikimc
gfltf fl cm Gixtfkm y fvfltumcgfltf gís
mccí4 fl ^ufhcm, cas Umccfs Kfltrmcfs, fc
lartf y larafstf `f Géxika: fl cm mktum
ci`m`, puf`fl flkaltrmrsf gixtfkas fl
kfs kmrmktfrçstikms acgfkms . Cm kucturm Fc Kcísika fs silûliga `f urhmlisga
`fc ^rfkcísika fl cm Gixtfkm fs guy sigi
sigi y `fc Fstm`a pacçtika fl Gfsamgérikm.
cmr, kmsi il`istilbuihcf, `f gmliefstmkia Cas kumtra kfltras gís igpartmltfs y
lfs sfgfdmltfs y kaltfgparílfms `fc Um rfprfsfltmtivas `f cm rfvacukiûl urhm
ccf `f Amxmkm, `f Koimpms a `fc sur `f lm fl cm Gixtfkm eufral Yukuitm, Gal
^ufhcm. tf Lfbra, Kfrra Dmzgçl (Ymlouitcíl ) y
Oumgfcucpml.
FC KCÍ[IKA Y CM XFUACVKiÛL Gís tmr`f, mcrf`f`ar `f ;>> `.f., fl
VXHMLM FL CM GI_PFKM kaltrmgas cm épakm urhmlm hifl fstmhcf
fstmhcf
ki`m fl sitias kaga Yukuýu`moui, Kfrra

ta`ms pmrtfs `f Lartfmgérikm. Cm tflmki
`m` y kmpmki`m` `f m`mptmkiûl `f fstf
brupa par gís `f ; >>> mýas gfrfkf cm
mtflkiûl `f ta`as .
Cm kucturm gixtfkm sf om `fsmrraccm`a
y gmltfli`a `urmltf gís `f trfs gicflias
fl ulm fxtflsm rfbiûl quf mhmrkm ul tf
rritaria `f 0> >>> jg 8, fc kumc sf fxtifl
fxtifl 
@fspués `f cm m`apkiûl `f cm mbrikuctu `f cm Uirbfl y Fc Pmghar (mghas fl
rm y cm eargmkiûl `f pufhcas pfrgmlfl Pcmximka) , Yuku`zmoui (Oumgfcu cpml ),
tfs , cm sibuifltf trmlseargmkiûl `f cm kuc Pixm y Yukulil`ff (mghas fl Pfpaska
turmgixtfkm sukf`iû `urml tf cm trmlsikiûl cucm)) , Kfrra Lmtm y Xça ^ahcmla (mghas
cucm
fltrf cas pfria`as ^rfkcísika y Kcísika.
Kcísika . fl Kaixtcmoumkm) y Kfrra `f cm cmss Gilms
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Mulquf om
omyy guy pakms fvi`flkims fl fc
tfrritaria mc sur `fc brml vmccf `f Pfoum ~ e # = ~ = X ~
= kíl, smhfgas quf omkim 6>>> m.f. brupas
`f kmzm`arfs-rfkacfktarfs omhitmhml ym
fl cm Hmdm y cm Mctm Gixtfkm. Gís tmr` f, fl
.
S
~ S
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trf ;6>> m.f. y =6>> m.f., sf `fskuhriû cm

mbrikucturm y sf mhml`alû cm vi`m lûgm
* i~ ~ ~ ~
'.:d d , .= •
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D
`m y mpmrfkifral pufhcas sf`fltmrias `f , c.

pfl`ifltfs `f cm pra`ukkiûl `f gmçz, eri

d >=, kmcmhmzm, koicf y atrms pcmltms
`agfstikm`ms.
., Fltrf =6>> y 6>> m.f., fl fc ^rfkcísi
(:)
-7 3
ka, surbifral `akflms `f pufhcas fl cm

Gixtfkm. Cm gfdar fvi`flkim `f fsf pfria

`a euf flkaltrm`m fl cms fxkmvmkialfs `f
Yukuitm, Ftcmtalba, [mltm Kmtmrilm Pmym
f tm y [mltm Kruz Pmymtm, fl cm Gixtfkm M ct m ,.
- (ems
emsff Kruz ), msç kaga fl cm kuflkm `fc rça
Ufr`f, fl cm Gixtfkm `f cm Kastm (emsf ~ ~
(
m
,

Komrka). [il fghmrba, omy kcmras il`ikias

Lc & i 4 +  .4.-4) F
`f fstm eargm `f vi`m sf`fltmrim fl `akf
`akf 'Ir .
= .S
.
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lms `f pufhcas pfqufýas ta`mvçm ilfxpca

ilfxpca  - , •.•. S - I

=/ .:...'="
rm`as fl ta`ms cms Gixtfkms.
Gixtfkms. [acmgfltf fl ..... "

fc ^rfkcísika Pmr`ça, kaga sf om ofkoa

fvi`fltf fl cas sitias `f Yukulmgm `f Pf
,. tp

. ~ " ' . . -  t tI

paskacucm y Pm
Pmy
ymtm, kagflzmral m mpmrf
kfr f`ieikias `f prahmhcf usa pôhcika ,
~ •.
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,' i/iiççiie / I
4 = 
=eette1
,
- ~ ç . i <
cibfrmgfltf `iefrflkim`as `f cms rfsi`fl "'.¡-, . . .
cm kims kagulfs `fc pufhca. Msigisga, mc
Xfkalstrukkiûl `f ulm mc`fm gixtfkm `fc ^rfkcísika (=6>>-6>> m.K.) , emsf Kruz . Fl fstm épakm surbif
uf ^rfkcísika Gf`ia y Pmr`ça karrfspal`fl
ral `akflms `f pufhcas sf`fltmrias fl cm Gixtfkm. Fl cm Gixtfkm Mctm , mc ibumc quf fl Gfsamgérikm , cm
km
cm kfrígikm `fkarm`m y cms eiburiccms kagu kfrígikm `fkarm`m y cms eiburiccms tuvifral kmrmktfrçstikms "a cgfkms  , Gís tmr`f , fl fc ^ rfkcísika Pmr`ça
Pmr`ça,,
lfs m ta`m Gfsamgérikm quf tiflfl m vf- surbfl fl cm rfbiûl cas f`ieikias pôh cikas
cikas",
", fltalkfs paka `iefrflkim`as `f cas `f usa omhitmkialmc.
 CM GI_PFKM y CA[ GI_PFKA[ / 89

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Oumdumpml). Lufstra kalakigiflta `fc `f

a²² ~
brml ecarfkigif lta `f cm kivicizmkiûl gix
 
B

tfkm fs rfsuctm`a `f cigitm`ms fxkmvmkia -

lfs y rfkarri`as iltflsiva-fxtflsivas `f
(=

mulquf fc pfria`a Kcísika fl cm Gixtfkm rl

fspfrm ta`mvçm fstu`ias `ftmccm`as. D .i
Fc pfria`a `f urhmlisga fl cm Gixtf
Gixtf  ca
km la fs fc `f ulm brml kmpitmc, kaga fl F
cas kmsas `f Galtf Mchíl, Pkatioumkml, `4
Koacucm a Fccmdçl. Cm Gixtfkm sf kmrmk jr

tfrizm par ul pmtrûl `f kfrkm `f `as `a  QS

kflms `f kiu`m`fs `f tmgmýa gf`imla, ta  kI
`ms cigitm`ms m ulm pahcmkiûl `f la gí s I

`f =8>>> omhitmltfs.
Cm vi`m fl pufhcas pfqufýu s a mjcfms (

pu`a kaltilumr , pfra mpmrfkiû cm kiu`m`

y fstf prakf s a `f urhmlizmkiûl trmlsear
gû cm kivicizmkiûl gixtfkm. [urbiû ul sis sis rf.
tfgm `f kiu`m`fs, pufhcas `f tmgmýa gf 
`imla y gflar kuyas tfrrflas y rfkursas
lmturmcfs
lmturmc fs kaltracmhml f iltfbrmhml F s tm tm
`as pucçtika
pucçtikass `f s`f cm
cmss kiu`m`fs kmpitmcfs.
kmpitmcfs .
Xfkalstrukkçûl `f ulm kiu`m` gixtfkm `fc Kcísika Pfgprmla,
Pfgprmla , emsf Xmgas . c Kcísika fl Gfsamgéri-
[iguctílfmgfltf, flkaltrmgas fspfkim km fs silûliga `f urhmlisga. Fl cm Gixtfkm, fstf pfria`a sf kmrmktfrizm par ul pmtrûl `f kfrkm `f `as
ci zmkiûl cmharmc, fstrmtieikmkiûl sakimc
sakim c sf `akflms `f kiu`m`fs `f tmgmýa gf`imla , kal la gís `f =8 >>> omhitmltfs .
eargmral mc g f la s trf s kcmsfkcmsfss sa kimcfs
kimcfs)) ,
rfcibiûl eargmc ka kal
l smkf r`atfs
r`atfs),), fskritu
fskritu
rm , ul kmc
kmcffl`mria sa ei stikm `a , rfspcml`f
rfspcml`f tumcfs fleakm`as m cm efrtici`m` y cm s eufr kucm,, quf ilkcu
kucm ilkcuyyf cm mgpcimkiûl y usa `fc
kifltf mrtf fl gilimturm, gfrkm`as y ka ka zms `f cm l m turmcf
turmcfzm,
zm, cm vflfrmkiûl `f cas brml sis tfgm `f tfrrm
tfrrmzms
zms KAAdctcte ul pmtrûl
gfrkia iltfrrfbialmc. ^ar supufsta cm mlkfstras y cm pfrgmlflkim `fc ulivfrsa: fkalûgika `f gfrkm` as rfbialmcfs y par
Gixtfkm pmrtikipû fl fc brml mpabfa `fc ul mrtf ` fci km`a pc pcmm sgm`a fl pilturm ôctiga, fc kagfrkia m cmrbm `istmlkim.
K císika fl Gfsamgérikm pfra, cmgfltm  mComdms pif`rm, gm`frm, kfrígikm y kalkom @urmltf fc ^askcís
^askcí sika s ur b iû fc msfl
hcfgfltf, par emctm `f fstu`fstu`iias sistfgíti fl gilimturm:
gilimturm : ul m l a tmhcf tfklacab
tfklaca bçm mbrç- tmgiflta gís brml`f `f cm Gixtfkm y ulm
kas, cas `ftmccfs `f fsf b rml cabra môl la
sf kagprfl`f hifl.

FC ^A[KC
^A[KCÍ[IKA
Í[IKA CM É^AKM
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Fc mpabfa y cm kucgilmk
kucgilmkii ûl `f cm ku ctur m
gixtfkm prfois
prfoi spílikm tuva cubmr fltrf 96>
y =68> `.K., `urmltf fc ccmgm`a ^askcísi
km emsf Lmtivi`m`). F l fstm épakm sal
gukoa gís visihcfs y rfkalaki`as cas
brml`fs cabras `f cas c t c `zmoui.
Fltrf atras cas fcfgfl tas g ís igpar
tmltfs `f cm kucturm gix
gi x tfkm sal4 cm arbm
arbm
lizmkiûl pacçtikm: fc sistfgm `f fstrmtieikm
kiûl fl trfs brml`fs kcmsfs sakimcfs4 rfyfs
yym tluou a yym taliýf), lahcfs tkry tmom) y
bfltf kagôl tmy luu a tqyyuku, ilkcui`as
tfrrmzbufras a tqy situl`kryu): cm fskri turm
pcmsgm`m fl gmluskrita s ahdftas, galu 
gfltas msç kaga fcfgfltas mrquitfktû
likas brmhm`a s a piltm`as: cm kiflkim ms 
tralûgikm y cas kmcfl`mrias: ulm rfcibiûl
Xfkalstrukkiûl `f ulm `ili ýuu 
ýuu  kmpitmc-kmhfkfrm , y sus siqui
siqui   hmrrias `fc ^askcísika 96>-=68> ` .K.),
mvmlzm`m quf palf `f rfcifvf
rfcifvf krfflkims
krfflkims,, emsf Lmtivi`m` . Fl fstm épakm , fl quf fs gís visihcf fc ýu `zmoui 
`zmoui  Fstm`a gixtfka, ula `f cas rmsbas ?>
aerf l` ms y smkrieikias, msç kaga atras ri ri-- kucturmcfs fs cm fstrmtieikmkiûl sakimc fl trfs kcmsfs4 rfyfs, lahcfs y bfltf kagôl . km
k im

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`f cms kiu`m`f
kiu`m`fss g mya
myarf
rf s `f Gfsamgéri
km4 Ilbuitfrrim-Kaixtcmoumkm. Fstm kiu`m`
mpmrfkiû rfpfltilmgfltf m mghas cm`as
`fc rça Brml`f `f Kai x tcmoumkm, fl fc gis
ga sitia fl `al`f fstmrçm msfltm`a [ml
Duml Hmutistm Kaixtcmoumkm `urmltf cm Ka
calim , fl cm cagm brml`f `f Ilbuitfrrim.
Fc írfm urhmlm aribilmc gf`çm mpraxigm
`mgfltf 5 jg fl `irfkkiûl lartf-sur y ;
jg fl cm fs tf-afstf , =? jg 8 a =?> >>> om.
Mulquf gu y brml`f y `ivfrsieikm`m, la
frm tml galugfltmc kaga cms brml`fs
kiu`m`fs `fc Kfltra `f Géxika. Fc kfl
tra kçvika-kfrfgalimc kuhrçm la gís `f
=> om y fc rfsta `f cm kiu`m` tflçm gicfs
`f kmsms `f cm bfltf kagôl, ulm quf atrm
kmsm `f cas lahcfs rfprfsfltmltfs `f cas
rfy
rf yfs, pcmzms mhifrtms, kmrrulas y tfrrmzms
mbrçkacms. [f kmckucm quf fstm kiu`m` sur 
biû y sf `fsmrraccû mpmrtir `f =86> `.K.:
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l
Ir
=-
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.),
[ Ha`m `f 9 Íbuicm , Buirlmc`m `f Kmkma m) kal
kal 6 Cmbmrta,
km cas gixtfkas sf rfcmkialmral gf`imltf mcimlzms hmsm`ms fl gmtrigalias , trmtm`as pacçtikas,
kimcfs.. Kû`ikf Luttmcc 
kimcfs Luttmcc   cíg. 08.
08 .
fl mcbôl gagflta euf pufsta `f rfkfp 
kiûl `f trihuta pmrm fc igpfria kucoum
gfxikm. Atras kfltras urhmlas `f cm Gix
tfkm eufral4 Pututfpfk, fl cm Gixtfkm `f
c Kastm: [ml Duml Cmbulm `f ^utcm, Pf
Pf 
paskacucm, Pmgmzucmpml, Ymlouitcíl,
Mkoiutcm, Cagm `fc Hmrria [ml ^f`ra `f
Pcmximka y Picmltalba, fl cm Gixtfkm Mctm:
y [mltimba Oumxacatitcml, fl cm Gixtfkm
Hmdm. Pututfpfk y [ml Duml Cmbulm euf
ral kiu`m`fs brml`fs y pacçtikm y fkalû
gikmgfltf guy igpartmltfs `urmltf fc
^askcísika.
Mulquf cm rfkiél fxkmvm`m kiu`m` `f
Yukul`mm (Pfpaskacucm) frm gís pfquf
ým (gís a gflas 6>> om) quf Kaixtcmoum 
km, Pututfpfk y [ml Duml Cmbulm, frm gí
gíss
galugfltmc y `ivfrsieikm`m
`ivfrsieikm`m..
@fhf `fstmkmrsf quf `fs`f fc Kcísika
Pfgprmla omstm fc ^askcísika y cm ccfbm`m
Cmbmrta, _ipf h) fl fc Pfgpca `fc Kifca fl Picmltalba f) . @fs`f fc Kcísika Pfgprmla y omstm fc ^askcís
pacçtikas , mlfxialfs , kagfrkia y u pmtrûl `f ritumcfs rfcibiasas y sa 
A[IFX
`f cas furapfas, fxistçm fl cm Gixtfkm fc
urhmlisga y ul sistfgm pacçtika `f kiu`m
`fs, pufhcas, mc`f
mc`fms
ms y rmlkofrçms , iltf
brm`a par gf`ia `f mcimlzms gmtrigalim
cfs,trmtm`aspacçtikas,mlfxialfs,kagfrkia
y ul pmtrûl hifl fstmhcfki`a `f pfrfbri
lmkiûl y ritumcfs rfcibiasas y sakimcfs.
Fltrf 96> `.K. y cm kalquistm fspmýa
cm akurriû ulm rfvacukiûl kucturmc y mrtçs
tikm. Fs cm épakm `arm`m `f cas sfýarças
Fstm`as, `f rfyfs y rfilms kaga fc sfýar
? Uflm`a a cm sfýarm 9 Tmkmtf: `f cm brml
kalvfrbflkim `f eicasaeçm, rfcibiûl, pacçti
km, tfklacabçm y sflsihici`m` fstétikm, quf
`ia cubmr mc mrtf gixt fka `f cas kû`ikfs,
cm kfrírrukm pacikragm`m, fc oufsa brmhm
`a kal eiburms y tfxtas eilas, fc mrtf cmpi
`mria, cm dayfrçm gís igprfsialmltf `f
Gfsamgérikm y m`fgís, fc kmsi `fskala
ki`a mrtf gurmc `f cm rfbiûl.
^askcísii
 CM GI_PFKM y CA[ GI_PF
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CM KACALIM 4 quixtfpfk, [mltimba Oumzacatitcml, [ic

[icmk
mkm
m 8. V l m rfcmkiûl pfrgmlfltf kal cm s
FC BXML KALUFLIA FLPXF yampml a Pfkagmxtcmoumkm, f l cm
cm Gixtfkm eufrzms `f cm l mt urmcf zm y cas f fgfltas
GI_PFKA[ y F[^MÝACF[ Hmdm:
Hmdm: Pututfpfk, Wmgictfpfk a Wi k myml, fl eul`mgfltmcfs `f cm efrtici`m`: cm eufrzm
cm Gixtfkm `f cm Kastm. `f sa c y f ritga `f ul ulii vfrsa, f ilerm 
Ccfbmr al cas furapfas y kal fccas su bf l  Lufstras fstu`ias sahrf ca
cass gixtfkas, gul`a kaga eufltf `f mbum y `f efrtici
tf,, sus ilsti tukialfs, sus i`fms y sus `fsms
tf su kucturm y su cmrbm oistarim, las pfrgi  `m`: fc mbum, cms luhfs
luhfs,, fc v iflta, ca s mli
trasms flefrgf`m`fs virucfltm s. Fl cu bmr tfl pfrkihir sfis igpartmltfs kmrmktfrçsti
kmrmktfrçsti-- gmcfs,, cm
gmcfs cmss pcmltms sicvfstr
sicvfstrfs
fs y` a gf stikm`ms
` f ulm kaleraltmkiûl via viacfltm
cfltm pracalbm  y ca s gilfrmcfs. Fstm arifltmkiûl igpcikû
`m, `urmltf cms prig frms `ékm`m
`ékm`mss `f cm Ka ul vmsta si sistfgm sighûcika, gmlief
gmliefstmstm`
`a
calimm sf `ia ulm m`mptmkiûl gutum fltrf
cali fl f c kalkfpta y rfprfsfltmkiûl `f @z m 
`as kucturms. Cms ilstitukialfs gís fei oui. Kal cm Kalquistm fspmýacm fstf kal-
kifltfs eufral cm rfci rfcibiû
biû l kri
kriss timlm, fc s is vflia
vf lia sf fxtfl`iû m cas furapfas, cm kris
tfgm pacctika , cm fkalagçm rfbialmc, il  timl`m` y s u kaldulta `f krfflkims,
tfrr fb
fbialmc
ialmc f iltfrlmkialmc. ritumcfs y sçghacas, y mc sistfgm pacç 
@ f fstf brml kakallvflia gixtf
gixtfka-ka- fu
fu tika-fkalûgika fspmý
fspmýac.
ac.
rapfa fxistfl fcakufltfs fdfgpcas . ;. V l sflti`a `f kaltilui`m`
^rigfra, cm kafxistflkim `f cas i`ia quf cas om b uim`a sifgprf: rfkala-
gi xtf ka y fs pmýac fl cm rfbiûl.
gms gixtf kigiflta `f pmsm`a, prfsfltf y eu 
[fbul`a,, cm pf r sis
[fbul`a sistflkim
tflkim `f gfrkm`as tura, vflfrmkiûl `f cas mltfpmsm`as,
y tfklacabçm mbrçkacm (kaga cms pcm pc m l - cm brml igpartmlkim ` f ritumcfs, cm sml
tms prfoispílikms a fc sis tfgm `f tfrrm ti`m` `fc gul`a eçsika-fspiritumc gix
zms kaa 4)'I3I3), msç kaga ` f il`ugfltmrim f tfkm y fc v çlkuca pfrpftua kal cm Gixtf
igpcfgflta s il`çbflms kaghilm`as kal km y fc pu f hca lm tm c.
fcfgfltas f=.=tapfas iltra`uki`as fl ra`m 0. Cm sak if`m` gixtfkm prfoispílikm y
cm rf
rfbb iûl . Pfrkfra, fc sistfgm pacçtik a-m` kacalimc r fkalak
fkalakiû
iû y ahsfrvû f prilkipia
gili strm
strmtiva
tiva ilcra`uki`a par cas fspmeia `f fst
fstrmtieikmkiûl
rmtieikmkiûl sak
sakimcimc y fc r fka
fkalakigifl
lakigifl
cfs p fra m`mptm`a m kast ughrf s cakmcf s, ta `f brupas sakimcfs kal `iefrfgfs kmrmk
kmrmk 
kaga ca cass ka l s fdas il`çbflms trm`ikialm tfrçstikms, pasihici`m`fs y privicfbia
privicfbiass. Fstm
Kmhfzm `f mvf. Cm kfrígikm pacikragm gixtfkm
cfs. K u mrta, brm l`f s f`ieikias rfcibiasas, kalkfptumcizmkiûl fstí hi f l rfprfsfltm`m
sf kagfrkiû fl brml pmrtf `f Gfsamgérikm. par
m`fgís `f kastughrfs y krfflkims fura  fdfgpca fl kiu`m`fs `fc ^askcísika , kaga Koa
fl cm fvi`flkim mrqufacûbikm, cas kû`ikfs,
pfms gís trm`ikialmcfs,
trm`ikialmcfs, qu
quff sf fx pr f smra
smrall cucm y Galtf Mchíl . GLM . cm `akugfltmkiûl oi oiss tûrikm kalvflkialmc
fl ibcfsims y g a lmstfri
lmstfrias,
as, kaga ca s `f Yml
Yml  
EAPA G XKA MLPALIA ^MKOFK] I XMçKF[
y cm cflbu
cflbumm gixtfkm `f sibca 4M'UI .
ouitcíl , Pfpa sk a cucm a Kaixtcmoumkm. 6. Cas gi xtfkas sf fgpfýmral f l fc ID
]uilta, cm m `mptmkiûl `fc pmtrûl fspmýac kms sakimcfs y eica sû eikm
eikmss `urmltf s u a`i fghfccfkigiflta `f cm vi`m kal fc mrtf fl
^
`f pcmlfmkiûl urhmlm m cas puf pu fhca s y kiu s fm `f ; >>> mý a s : gilimturm, cm fsk riturm y cm kalsfrvmkiûl `
`m`fs prfoispílikas , kaga sf rfecfdm fl = Vl prakfsa kalstmltf `f m`mptmk iûl `f cm lmturmcfzm, msç kaga kal fc rfspfta KI
cm s rfki fltf s fxkmvmkialfs fl Yukul`mm, y eicasûeikm , tfklacûbika-fk
tfklacûbika-fkalûgikm,
alûgikm, saki mc y m`girmkiûl omkim galt mýms, rças, kuf kuf 
fl pufhcas y kiu`m`fs `k cm rfbiûl kaga y pacçtik
pacçtikmm m cms kal`ikialfs y fxibf
fxibflkim
lkimss vms, riskas y pfýmskas latmhcfs, ccmlas ef p
Pfpaska
Pfpa ska cucm
cucm,, Pcmximka A Kaixrcmoumkm, fl lmturmcfss y kucturmcfs ` f cm Gixtfkm y fvfl
lmturmcf kul`as, fc kifca
ifca,, cms luhfs,
luhfs , cms fstrfccms y p
cm Gixtfkm Mctm: [ml ^f`r a y [ml ^mhca Pf- tumcgfltf, `f gul`a. ca s pcmlftms. rf

cm

f
Z

b
cm
ri
ID

Kc

ti

a
c mpabfa y cm kucgilmkiûl `f cm kucturm gixtfkm prfoispílikm tuvifral cubmr `urmltf fc ^askcísika 96>-=68> ` . K .  . l fstf pfria`a ouha ul brml `fsmrra rr

cca `f cm fskriturm pcmsgm`m fl gmluskritas, ahdftas, galugfltas y fcfgfltas mrquitfktûlikas. Brmhm`as fl pif`rm l iquf kmcizm) `f cm emkom`m `fc ^mcm l
kia Xfmc `f Yukul`mm. fc

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  -
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l-
x-
f-

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=>
l-
,k
4tm Cm kucturm gixtfkm prf`agilû `urmltf fc ^askcísika fl fc sur `f Géxika brmkims m cm kalvfrbflkim `f emktarfs fkalûgikas y pacçtikas
pacçtikas.. Cm gmfstrçm fl cms
pifzms `f kfrígikm fs guf strm `f fcca. Umsidm
Umsidm kal eargm `f kmlbrfda.
kmlbrfda. GLM
`m EAPA44 GMXKA MLPALIA ^MKOFKA
EAPA X cfF[

cmcc
cm
5. @fs`f tifgpas prigar`i
prigar`imcfs,
mcfs, cas pcarm`m , y rfkalakf quf fs kmgpa mhifrta
pcarm`m, hcikm Gfxikmlm, quizís cm lmkiûl gís sfl
fc gixtfkas sf oml m`mptm`a m cas kmghias y rfkfptiva pmrm cas rfkiél ccfbm`as, ccfla tigfltmc, lastícbikm y cfmc m sus rmçkfs fs
fl par gf`ia `fc krfkigiflta y gavigiflta `f rfta s y aparruli`m`fs pmrm mltrapûca  fc ýu smvi, cm lmkiûl gi
gixx tfkm
tfkm.. tcA
6l `f cm pahcmkiûl, fc gmltfligiflta `f ul bas, mrqufûcabas, oi starim`arfs, cilbóis
cilbóis tms
ra kagpcfda mbrçkacm `fpfl`ifltf `fc kucti f ilvfstibm`arfs `f atrms `iskipcilms. Xa l mc
mc`` [par
[parfs,fs, Ftlaoistarim`a r y mrqufûcaba
mrqufûcaba.. @ aktar
cf va `f gmçz, eridac, kmcmhmzm, koicf y atrms Fstm írfm kucturmc mhmrkm ul a s 06 >>> fl mltrapacabçm par cm Vlivfrsi`m` `f Om rvmr vmr`` . ^r a
4f- pcmltms, msç kaga par cm ilvflkiûl y mg  efsar f g ér it itaa fl mltrapacabçm `f cm Vlivfrsi`m`
Vlivfrsi`m ` ` f
jg 8, y la f s tml rfkalaki`m kaga fc Um
Uml`` f rhic t. @i rfktar ` fc prayfkta mrqufacûbika Yuku
Uml Yukull 
:y pcimkiûl `f ul sistfgm `f mbum y sufcas ccf`f Amxmkm , fc Kfltra `f Géxika a cm `mm ^ufhca Uifda Pfpaskacucm, Amxmkm. Mutar y f`i f`ittar
rfprfsfltm`a par cms tfrrmzms kaadcuu a za lm gm ym
ym.. [f
[fbb urmgfltf, fl ul eutura `f vmrias cih
cihras
ras y mrtçkucas sah rf cm kucturm gixtfk
gixtfkm.m.
cmgm-- har`a.
cmgm prûxiga, cm Gixtfkm ms msugirí
ugirí fc cubmr quf
cf karrf s pal`f fltrf cms g ís kalaki`ms ^MXMCFFXGÍ[ ..
KM[A Mcealsa, Xfyfsy rfilas `f cm x tfkm, EKF, Géxika ,
KALKCV[iÛL kivicizmkialfs `f Gfsamgérikm y `fc gul =922.
, Jk44lt U. yDa
Daykf
ykf Gmrkus (f `s .), PofKcau` ^fapcf
`a mltibua . M`fg ís, omy KDuf rfkar`mr quf .
EI   LLFXY

Mkm`fgik ^r^rfss,
fss, L f w Yarj
Yarj,, =9?;.
@fs`f fc ^rfkcísika Pfgprmla omst m cm ccf
ccf cm kucturm gixtfkm la l a `fsmpmrfkiû kal cm BMXK
BMXKiM GMXPcLFT, Hfrlmr`a , Cm kalvf.rsial `f 2 G a l a
bm`m `f cas fspmýacfs fs guy fvi`fltf quf Kalquistm, li `urmltf fc pfria`a kacalimc, çI. @ al @ag ilba `f Buzgíl   , fl Mrqufacabçm Gfxi
fxi--
kmlm va C U, lôg. 85, pp. 60-69
cm Gixtfkm `f Amxmkm kalstituyf ulm vm li fl cm
cmss rm`ikmcfs trml s eargmkialf s lm lm XAGFXA EXD2 2 D , Gmrim `f cas Ílbfcfs
Ílbfcfs,, Fkalagçmy vi`m `f cas
rimltf rfbialmc pragilfltf fl cm trm`ikiûl kialmcfs `f ca s sibca
sibca s _I_ y xx. Fxistf oay fspmýacfs , Im   xcfKmMDca4 =6=9-/
=6=9-/28>,ILMO,
28>,ILMO, Géxika.
[GI 'rO Gmr y Fcizmhfto, ^ifcccrf c^ ricilberagMl`flc [ ac/Ihfr.
gfsamgfrikmlm. Brmkim
Brmkimss m mh ul`mltfs rf
rf fl cm Gixtfkm, fl ta`ms pmrtf s `f Géxika Gfxika4 Gixtfk ^cm kf [ibls ml` Lmgfs Vlivfrsitd' a e
kursas mrqufacûbika s oi st ûrikas y cilbóis y fl kumcquifr pmrtf `fc gul`a m`al`f Ajcmoagm ^r fss, Largml, =9 2;.
[^AXF[ , Xalmc`, L//II Lcc`zmhcci
Lcc`zmhcci.. m Gixtfkm `f Amxm(a. m
tikas, y mcbulas fstu`ias quf fgpfzmral o ml ccfbm`a casca s gixtfkas fl su brml `ií s
) - kal cas `f Mcealsa Kmsa fl cm `ékm`m `f parm `f m`mptmkiûl. Gukoas oml mhml`a
fva cukiûl `f cm kucturm gixcfkm `fs`
fvacukiûl `fs`ff cas prig
prigffraD D i ~ h c a D
prfkcísikas omscm cm Il`fpfl`flkim  IFF^A Am._;Km, 8>> 8>>-- .
[^AX F[ Xa l m c` y Lfccy Xahcf s Bm r kim kim,, M ^r foispmlik
=9;>, mcba pa`fgas fltfl`fr `f cm trm`i
=9;>, trm`i lm`a cm Gixtfkm, pfra s us karmzalfs sf sfl
l (pastfcmssik)) Kmpitmc Kfa fr il Kacalimc PrlCc[g
(pastfcmssik PrlCc[g@Ic.4@Ic.4

kiûlgixx tfkm y su fvacukiûl. Ca quf smhf

gi tigifltas y pflsmgiflt
pflsmgifltas as pfrgmlfkfl fl Fxkmvmlaa s mt Yukul`mm ^u fhca Uifda `f Pqx<[K@
Fxkmvmlaa
cucm , Amxmkm, Gfxika  , fl Cao ggrmDI - .
gas, fl rfmci`m`, fs paka. V l m lufvm bf su tifrr m y su trm`iki
trm`ikiûû l. Ka ga sf rfecfd m
 

 ra
 ra va c. =? lôg, ; ^^, ;;;-;6;.

ccm- lfrmkiûl `f fstu`imltfs f ilvfstibm`arfs fl cm Kmlkiûl gi xt xtff km , fltrf cas gôcti RILPFX Gmrkus, Kfrra `f cms Mulms. t em .Sc.4<4zr.
Hmdm, Kmsm `f cm Kucturm `f Oum dumpml. a.x.k.. =995.
flkufltrm fc írfm guy mtrmktivm y pa k a fx- pcfs b rupa s étlik
é tlik as quf eargml cm Xfpô-
 CM G I_PFKM y CA[ GI_PFKA[
I_PF ;;

@A[IFX

um g c pm l mxmkm
GM X BMXIPM BM_IACM BALTÍCFT

mgkcucpml sf `istilbuf par

O
su mrquitfkturm y fskucturm
galugfltmc, msç kaga par
sus ilskripkialfs kmcfl`íri
C(
kmei. Cm kiu`m` `fstmkm par su tmgmýa, pufs
ccfbû
ccfbû m fxtfl`frsf par gís `f 8 jg 8 , y par
tm
su calbfvi`m`4 mckmlzû ul gicflia y sahrf B
viviû m atras kfltras urhmlas kaltfgpa 
rílfas `f cm WS¡Zdxtfkm Mctm, kaga Yukuitm y
Galtflfbra. [u akupmkiûl om si`a kcivckci- KI
`mfl ufspfria`as: OumgfcucpmlI,`f0>> h
m =>> m.f.: Oumgfcucpml l, `f =>> m.f. m ef
8>> D. f., fl fc kumc tuva ulm b rml fxpmlsiûl
`fgabríeikm, y Oumgkcucpml PIP `f 8>> m k4
5>> `.f., pfriaDa fl fc quf su tmgmýa `is
gilu yf pfra kaltilôm cm kalstrukkiûl `f l.

f`ieikias. Oumgfcucpml -kalstrui`m sahrf ul sistfgm cagm-kfrra kal tfrrmzms fl cms cm`frms `fc Yukulil`mhm, Kf  c

Cm kiu`m` euf kalstrui`m sahrf ul sis rra quf Uacû

Uacû  - fstmhm arbmlizm`m fl kaldultas mrquitfktûlikas galugfltmcfs sfpmrm`as fl trfs lôkcfas
fc
prilkipmcfs y `as sfkul`mrias. Cms cm`frms eufral livfcm`ms pmrm kalstruir tfrrmzms omhitmkialm
omhitmkialmcfs.
cfs.
tfgm cagm-kfrra kal rfrrmzms fl cm s cm`fcm`f `,
rms `fc Yukulil`mhm, Kf rra quf Uacû". tf
Fstmhm arbmlizm`m fl kaldultas mrquitfk o.
tûlikas galugfltmcfs sfpmrm`as fl trfs p
lôkcfass prilkipmcfs y `a s sfkul`mrias.
lôkcfa sfkul`mrias. Cms
cm`frms
cm`frms eufral livf
livfcm`ms
cm`ms pmrm kalstrui r tf
tf 
rrmzms quf eufral akupm`ms
akupm`m s par cm pahcm
pahcm
kiûl y kaofsialmhmlcas lôkcfas kçvika-
kçvika -kf
kf
rfgalimcfs.
Cm mrquitfkturm galugfltmc kalstmhm
`f brml `fs pcmtmeargms livfcm`ms fl ear 
gm fskmcalm`m, kal sistfgms `f `rflmdf
pcmlieikm`a y eargmcgfltf kalstrui`a. Fl
akmsialfs, sahrf cms pcmtmeargms sf fcfvm
hml hmsmgfltas pirmgi`mcfs
pirmgi`mcf s y rfsi`flkims
`f emgicims `f cm fcitf. Fstms fx
fxtfl
tfl sms f`iei
kmkialfs eargmhml pcmzms
pcm zms kal fskmcilmtms
quf cms kagulikmhml.
Fl cm kigm `f Yukulil`mhm sf flkufl Cms tfrrmzms cmgm-har`a eufral ul sistfgm mbrçkacm kmrmktfrçstika `f cm Gixtfkm Mctm. [f kalstruçml kfr
trm f lôkcfa galugfltmc `fc prigfr kal km `f `rflmdfs y hmrrmlkms kal fc eil `f kmptmr cas sf`igfltas pravflifltfs `f cagms mcf`mýms .
dulta. Mc arifltf fstíl mcbulms eartieikmkia
eartieikmkia
Fc
lfs, `as kmltfrms `f cms quf sf ahtflçm
pi
pif`rm, msç kaga írfms fl quf sf fcmharm sf oml ccfvm`a m kmha fxkmvmkialfs mrqufa
mrqufa cm efkom `f rmruakmrhala gís mltibum `fc K

hml ilstrugfltas hiemkimcfs `f pf`frlmc. cûbikms. Fc Brupa mc ^alifltf `f cm Ibcfsim sitia, ;>6 m.f. Fl cms fsquilms `f fstms fx
fx  sf
Mc pif `fc kfrra, mc surfstf, sf cakmcizml `as sf msifltm fl ulm cagm fl kuya erfltf tflsms pcmtmeargms sf cmhrmral b ciea
cieass km
km cm,,
cm
pc
kaldultas sfkul`mrias. s ur sf kalstruyfral tfrrmz
tfrrmzms
ms sahrf ul fdf cfl`írikas kal fc sistfgm `f fskriturm `f
pf
Cas atras `as kaldultas mrquitfktûli fstf-afstf, cms tçpikms pcmtmeargms `f cm smrraccm`a fl Galtf Mchíl. tf
kas sf flkufltrml sahrf ulm cagm mcmrbm Gixtfkm kal fsquilms gfbmcçtikms. F l fc Fc Brupa `f cm Ibcfsim sf fl k ufltr m mc
mc cm
`m, fl fc sfktar arifltmc `fc sitia, fl cas quf prigfr livfc `f akupmkiûl sf flkaltrû sur `fc sitia y fs f quf tiflf ulm gmyar tf

;0 MX]VFACABIM GF_IKMLM
 

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h F[PFC = @F F[]V IL [VXe[rF @FC FA rEI aa f

O VMGF
VMGFCCVC^ML

u ~

I
:

= gicpm =; gala

- {I  

'
4 ~
eritû
=;pf`fgmc
, 4Q4 4=.. .

c rt ¡brf 6 gufrtf ±5mbum1

§
d
; lakof

Cas gixtfkas `fc pfria`a Oumgfcucpml (=>> m.K.-8>> `.K. `.K .) uticizmral fc sistfgm `f fskriturm zmpatfkm fl cms ilskripkialfs kmcfl`írikms. Cms efkoms rfbis
trm`ms puf`fl rfefrirsf mc kmcfl`mria ritumc `f 85> ` im s a sfr laghrfs `f pfrsalms.
pfrsalms . Cms ilskripkialfs, tmghiél flkaltrm`ms fl fstfcms, oml si`a iltfrprf
iltfrprf 
tm`ms kaga ulm fstrmtfbim pacitikm `f cm fcitf gixtfkm pmrm ahtflfr prfstibia y fstmhcfkfr mcimlzms. m) Ilskripkialfs kmcfl`írikms, fsquilm surfstf, F`ieikia K,
Brupa mc ^alifltf `f cm Ibcfsim
Ibcfsim,, Oumgfcucpml , Amxmkm. h [istfgm `f fskriturm fl Oumgfcucpml.

kagpcfd i`
i`mm` mrq
mrquitf
uitfktûlikm.
ktûlikm. Pmghiél sa flkufltrm ul gusfa kagulitmria fl fc quf ci zm ral rfkipifltfs `f kfrígikm `f brml
hrf ul fdf fstf-afstf sf kalstru yfral fl sf fxoihfl pif
pifzms
zms ahtfli`
a htfli` ms fl cms fxkmvm
fxkmvm kmpmki`m` quf dulta kal rfstas `f ouf
ouf 
eargm fskmcalm`m `as pcmzms y ul dufba `f kia lfs mrCcufa
kialfs mrCcufacûbikms
cûbikms.. sas ougmlas sal fvi`flkims `f hmlquf
pfcatm. Fl cm pcmzm supfriar om
omyy trfs f`iei
f`iei Oumgfcucpml fs hufl fdfgpca `f cms tfs fl cas quf sf prmktikmhm fc kmlihmcis
kmkialfs quf pfrgitfl fc mkkfsa par fc pa  prigfrm s fcitfs gi
gixx tfkms y sf krff quf su g a ri ramc kaga u lm eargm `f iltfrkmghia
lifltf: `as `f fcc ccms
ms eargml ul kaldulta arbm li
lizm
zmkiûl
kiûl fstmhm eargm`m par brupas rf`istrihutcva fltrf cm fcitf. F l fstms rfsi
rfsi`flkim c `f emgicims
rfsi`flkimc emgicims `f cm
cm fcitf
fcitf km`m ulm sakimcfs
sakimcfs `ivi
`ivi `i`a
`i`ass fl cilmdfs km`m ula `f `flkim s tmghiél sf flkaltrmral tmccfrfs
4f- kal ulm tughm msakim`m y kal ul tfgpca cas kumcfs fstmhm flkmhfzm`a par ulm em fspfkimcizm`as fl cm gmluemkturm `f m`ar
as
fl fc cm`a fstf
fstf.. F c dufba `f pfcatm fs ula gicimm `f cm fcitf m`gilistrmtivm quf kal-
gici las `f gikm. ti
`f cas gís mltibuas kalaki`as f l cm Gix tra
tr a cmhm y arbmlizmhm fc trmhmda `f sus `f
tfkm Mctm. Fc Brupa `f cm I bcf cfsim
sim om si`a pfl`ifltfs. F l cm rfsi`flkim `f ulm
Gmrbmritm Kmxiac m Kalzí.cfz. MDaq u fû ca
cabb m . Il vfs
fsti
tib
b m
omhicitm`a pmrm su visitm y fl fc kfltra `fc emgicim `f cm fcitf sf f lkaltrû hmda fc pisa `arm `f cm @irfkki
@irfkkiû
û l `f Fstu`ias Mrqufacûbika
Mrqufacûbikass `fc
pahcm`a `f [ml Gm rûl Oumgfcucpml sf cm tughm `f ulm pmrfdm. Pmghié
Pmghi é l sf cakm- ILM O.

m f

fr-

Fc Mctmr `f cas Krílfas euf cakmcizm`a sahrf ulm

pcmtmeargm kalstrui`m `fltra `f ul rfkilta `f
cfc 0> g'.
g '. Cas krílfas karrfspal`fl m kumtra pfr
'x - salms `f mcta fstmtus,
fstmtus , ym quf mcbula tiflf guti
4m cmkiûl `fltmrim , y eufral ga`ieikm`as pasgartfg
pasgartfg,, Oumgfcucpml `fstmkû fl cm Gixtfkm kaga pra`uktar `f urlms. urlms . Éstms sf oml flkaltrm`a msakim`ms m
cf-
pufs kal fc eil `f fxoihircas sf cfs oikifral `as ritas `f vflfrmkiûl `f krílfas, fl cas mdumrfs eulfrmrias `f tughms y fl cas uticizm`as fl kfrfAcAe' cms
pfrearmkialfs fl cm pmrtf eraltmc
eraltmc.. ^rahmhcfgfl `f emgicims `f cm fcitf
fcitf.. Cms urlms tiflfl ul fstica `istiltiva y fl mcbulms sf vf m @zmo ui , `ias `f cm a }
tf , eufral vflfrm`as fl ritas `f efrtici`m` mbrika vim y fc rfcígpmba , y lavfla `im `fc kmcfl`mria ritumc. m) Ahdfta =;, =; , Mctmr `f cas Krílfas AAdf-.a 6
mc cm a fl fc kucta m cas mlkfstras . Brupa mc ^alifl rfsi`flkim `f ulm emgicim `f cm fcitf (Oumgfcucpml , =>> m.K. m.K .-8>> `.K.) Ahdft
Ahdftaa =0
=0,, Mctmr `f cas Krm
ar tf `f cm Ibcfsim , Oumgfcucpml. lfas.. Oumgfcucpml .
lfas
 OVMGFCVC^ML . AM_MKM ;6

@A[IFX

Oumgfcucpml y
Pmymtm Amxmkm
M L@XFR J . H MCJML[JY, EFCI^F @F DF[Ô[ LMUM XIUFXM, P FXF[M ^MCAGMXF[ X A@XIBVFT

su `flsi`m` pahcmkialmc omstm f c ^askcí-

sika. Oumgfcucpml fs ul fdfgpca `f usa
`f pcmtmeargms pmrm krfmr fspmkias y f`i
f`i--
eikias galugfltmcfs tçpikas `fc urhmlis -
ga fl cm Gixtfkm (kaga fl Pfpaskacucm).
C
Fl fc sitia
sf kalstruyfral tfrrmzms kaca-
o
kml`a rfccflas m ca cmrba `f vmrims kacilms. ri
Fl cm trm`ikiûl urhmlm `f cm Gixtfkm, cms
pcmtmeargms y brupas `f pcmzms eulkialm -
ral kaga lôkcfas a kfltras `f kaar`ilm -
kiûl . Fstf tipa `f `istrihukiûl sf om fl - h
kaltrm`a tmghiél fl Pmymtm, sitia `fc t.
^rfkcísika, ca quf subifrf quf praviflf `f m
tifgpas mltfriarfs m c ilikia `fc urhmlis- `
ga: sf sibuiû uticizml`a pastfriargfltf k
f ilkcusa omstm lufstras `çms fs ul rmsba o
kmrmktfrçstika (fdfgp
(fdfgpca
ca `f fcca fs cm fxis-
tflkim `f siftf hmrrias fl cm arbmlizmkiûl
`f cm kiu`m` `f P cmximka). )
=
tD

ms ilvf s tibmki alfs `iribi`ms `

par [tfpofl Jawmcfwsji, Ml - l
`rfw Hmcjmlsjy y Cmurm [tivfr

C
k
Rmcso uhikmr al m Oumgf uc- `
pml fl f ^rfkcísika Pfrgilmc, kal ulm k
pahcmkiûl `f 8> >>> pfrsalms, ul kíckuca f
gmyar mc prapufsta pmrm Galtf Mchíl fl `
fsf gagflta. [il fghmrba, cm fxtflsiûl [I

tfrritarimc `f Galtf Mchíl ilkcuyf vmrias l

vmccfs y brupas étlikas, gifltrms quf cms p
kmpitmcfs gixtfkms kalt racmhml sûca pf - k
qufýas tfrritarias. Fc pmtrûl gixtfka `f
mctms pahcmkialfs fl pfqufýas tfrritarias m4
pacçtikas kaltiluû omstm f ^as kcísika
kcísika,, ca `
quf subifrf ulm kaltilui`m` kucturmc `u - f¡
rmltf gukoas sibcas. l
Cm urhmlizmkiûl `f Oumgf ucpml ka-
y
gf l zû fl f sibca IU m.f. y cm kiu`m` euf Kc
krfkifl`a `urmltf cas sibuifltfs =>> mýas. ^
Fl Oumgfcucpml, ulm `f cms kiu`m`fs ís brml`fs `f cm Gixtfkm Mctm , sf usmral pcmtmeargms pmrm krfmr
Fc sitia euf mc gflas pmrkimcgfltf mhml- fspmkias y f`ieikias galugfltmcfs
galugfltmcfs.. Fstf sistfgm `f `istrihukiûl fs mltfriar mc urhmlisga
urhmlisga,, ym quf sf rt

` a lm`a omkim 0>> `.f. y va cvi

cviûû m rftagmr usû `fs`f fc ^rfkcísika fl fc sitia `f Pmymtm . q
 ;5 MX]VFACABIM GF_IKMLM
i-
 a ka y quf pmrtikipû fl rf`fs `f iltfrkmghia,
d
s
c .
Cas fltifrras ougmlas `f Pmymtm kal fvi`flkims `f krfgmkiûl sal cas gís tfgprmlas `fskuhifrtas
-
omstm moarm fl Gfsamgérikm. Cm krfgmkiûl lafrm ulm príktikm kagôl m ta`ms ms sakif`m`fs gfsamgf
.s . rikm lms tfgprmlms.
c[
m-
m ^ar su pmrtf, Pmymtm euf ulm `f cms kmkm
4 
hfkfrms fl cm épakm prfurhmlm `f cm Gix
fc tfkm Mctm y euf pmrkimcgfltf mhml`alm`m
4cf msç kaga cms viccms a mc`fms
mc`fm s `fpfl`ifltfs
s mcrf` f`ar `f ;>> m.f.: m c pmrfkfr,
`f fccm, mcrf`f
rf kfrkm `f 0 >>> pfrsalms mhml`almral f c
¡ cubmr quf omhitmral par ca gflas `urml-
s tf = >>> mý a s. Cas gmpms quf sf f mharm
il ral y cms fxkmvmkialfs fl cm pcmzm kfltrmc
y fl cms pcmtmeargms kal galtçkucas fl
Pmymtm praparkialmral fvi`flkims `f fsm
trmlsikiûl. Fs `urmltf fc ^rfkcísika Pm r 
`ça kuml`a mpmrfkiû fl Oumgfcucpml m
gmyar fskmcm, f tipa `f `istrihukiûl fspm
fspm
kimc kal pcmzms y galtçkucas sahrf brml-
`fs pcmtmeargms sfgfdmltf m cm `istrihu
`istrihu 
kiûl fl Pmymrm. Cm rfcmkiûl fltrf cas
fspmkias pôhcikas y cm pasihcf gibrmkiûl
`f cm pahcmkiûl `f Pmymrm m Oumgfcucpml
subifrfl quf f ilikia `f prakfsa `f urhm
lizmkiûl fl Oumgfcucpml pu`a omhfrsf
pra`uki`a fl ulm sacm bflfrmkiûl, fs `f
kir, fl gflas `f gf`ia sibca.
Kuml`a kagflzmgas lufstra trmhmda
mrqufacûbika fl Pmymtm, cas mltfkf`fltfs
`irfktas `f cm trm`ikiûl urhmlm gixtfkm la
frml fvi`fltfs. [il fghmrba, cms fxkmvmkia
lfs `fgastrmral quf cas omhitmltfs `f Pm
ymtm ym pasfçml rmsbas kmrmkrfrÇstikas `f cm
kivicizmkiûl gixtfkm `urmltf cas pfria`as
^rfkcísika Pfgprmla y Gf`ia. Omstm f
mr
sf gagflta la sf oml flkaltrm`a prufhms
quf subifrml quf cms
cms tfklacabçms a ea rgms
Fl cas fltifrras krfgm`as fl Pmymtm sf flkal
trmral eiburiccms `f hmrra y kaccmrfs `f kalkom f
ilkcusa sf oml cakmciz m`a eiburiccms quf rfprfsfl
tml pfrsalms qufgm`ms .
`f bahifrla `f cm kivicizmkiûl gixtfkm euf
rml igpartm`ms. Moarm kaltmgas kal il
eargmkiûl quf kaleirgm quf cm `flsi`m`
pahcmkialmc `f cm Gixtfkm Mctm mckmlzm y
supfrm m cm pahcmkiûl fstigm`m pmrm cm
Kuflkm `f Géxik
Géxikaa y fc vmccf `f Amxmkm: `f
@A[IFX
moç cm igpartmlkim `f kaltilumr kal cas fs
tu`ias `f ^rfkcísika fl cm Gixtfkm Mctm.
^mrm f sibca _I m .f. Pmymtm krfkiû kal
si`frmhcfgfltf y kagflzû cm kalstrukkiûl
`f f`ieikias la rfsi`flkimcfs y fspmkias pô
pô
hcikas.. Éstf fs f gagflta fl quf mpmrf
hcikas
kiû cm kagpcfdi`m` sakimc fl `ivfrsas cubm
rfs `f Gfsamgérikm, ilkcui`as sitias fl cm
rfbiûl zmpatfkm y acgfkm. Cm pcmzm prilki
pmc `f Pmymtm gi`f gís `f 9> g `f cmrba y
tiflf fspmkia sueikifltf pmrm mchfrbmr m gi
cfs `f pfrsalms, y krffgas quf sf rfmcizm
ral mktas pôhcikas m cas kumcfs mku`iû cm gm
yarçm `f cm pahcmkiûl. Ahdftas rfkupfrm`as
fl cms fxkmvmkialfs fl Pmymtm rfvfcmral quf
f sitia tuva akupmkiûl `urmltf f ^rfkcísi
kal hmsf fl ulm pra`ukkiûl mrtfsmlmc em-
gicimr. [f oml flkaltrm`a írfms `f trmhmda
pmrm cm pra`ukkiûl `f ahdftas `f ahsi`imlm
y kfrígikm, m`fgís `f rfstas quf il`ikml cm
emhrikmkiûl fcf arlmgfltas `f kalkom gm gm 
rilm, gikm y pif` rm vfr`f, fltrf atras.
Cas fltifrras ougmlas `f Pmymtm quf
gufstrml fvi`flkims `f krfgmkiûl sal cas
gís tfgprmlas `fskuhifrtas omstm moarm
fl Gfsamgérikm. Cm krfgmkiûl la fs ulm
príktikm kagôl m ta`ms cms sakif`m`fs
gfsamgfrikmlms tfgprmlms, kaga cm zm zm
patfkm y m acgfkm, ca quf il`ikm quf ym om om
hçm `iefrflkims i`facûbikms y `f i`flti`m`.
F l kû`ikfs gixtfkas y krûlikms fspmýacms
tfgprmlms sf gflkialm quf fl f ^rata 
oistûrika gixtfka sf usmhm cm krfgmkiûl
kaga pmrtf `fc sistfgm gartuaria. Fc kal-
(fxta `f cas fltifrras krfgm`as fl Pmymtm
ilkcuyf eibur
eiburiccms
iccms `f hmrra y kaccmrfs `f ka l
kom: sf oml flkaltrm`a eiburiccms `f hmrra
quf rfprfsfltml pfrsalms qufgm`ms.
qufgm`ms. Vla
`f cas il`ivi`uas krfgm`as euf fltfrrm`a
fl pasikiûl sf`fltf, pasturm rfcmkialm`m
kal cm mutari`m` fl cm mltibum f s a m g é r i ~
km. Cm príktikm rfgprmlm `f krfgmkiûl fstí
vilkucm`m kal cm mpmrikiûl `f sakif`m`fs
dfrmrquizm`mss fl cm mltibum Gixtfkm Mctm, y
dfrmrquizm`m
rfeufrzm cm i`fm `f quf cas `akugfltas ois
tûrikas las myu`ml m kagprfl`fr kaltfx
tas kucturmcfs mltfriarfs.
• Ml`t
Ml`tffw J. Hmcjmlsj
Hmcjmlsjyy. Mrqukûcaba pAt cm Vlivfr
si`m` `f cccilais `` [ur. @irfktar `fc ~ t a Ear
gmtiva .G.ixtfkm
G.ixtfkm Mctm Amxmkm.
• Ef cip
cipff ` f Dfsôs Lmvm Xivkrm. Mrqufûcaba par cm
FL MO. Kacmharm`ar `fc ^rayfkta Eargmtiva Gixtfkm
Mctm,, Am xmkm.
Mctm
• P f rfsm ^mcagmrf
^mcagmrfss Xa `rçbu
`rçbufz
fz.. Mrqufûcabm par cm
FLM O. Kacmharm`arm `fc ^ra^rayyfkta Eargmtiva Gixtf
Gixtf 
km Mctm
Mctm,, Amxmkm.

@A[IFX
Kfrra ` f c s
Gilms Amxmkm
f
rra `f cms Gilms sf cakmcizm mc
lartf `f cm kiu`m` `f Oumdum
Oumdum
Amxmkm.. Fc sitia
pml fcf Cfûl, Amxmkm
mrqufacûbika gufstrm rmsbas
kmrmktfrçstikas `f cas kfltras urhmlas prf
prf 
oispílikass `f cm Gixtfkm, kaga @iquiyô,
oispílika
Galtf Lfbra, Oumgfcucpml , Yukuitm y
Yukuýu`moui. Mhmrkm mpraxigm`mgfgf
gf`ia jicûgftra kum`rm`a y tuva ulm pa -
hcmkiûl `f fltrf = >>> m 8 >>> omhitmltfs.
[itum`a fl ulm pasikiûl `feflsivm, kaltm
hm kal ulm mgpcim fxtflsiûl `f tifrrms
kuctivmhcfs kfrkmlms mc sitia y euf fc
fc kfltra
rfktar fkalûgika, pacçtika y kucturmc pmrm
kaguli`m`fs `fpfl`ifltfs `fltra `f ul
rm`ia `f ulas =>-=6 jg.
Kfrra `f cms Gilms
Gilms Amxmkm gufstrm rmsbas kmrmktfrçstikas `f cas caskfltras
hm kal ulm mgpcim fxtflsiûl `f tifrrms kuctivmhcfs kfrkmlms mc sçtça y euf fc kfltra rfktar fkalûgika pacçti A y kucturmc pmrm kaguli`m`fs `fpfl`ifltfs.
G XKV[ R I LPFX
Kfrra Df cm cmss Gilms euf eul`m`a fl fc
^rfkcísika Pmr`ça par bfltf prakf`fltf
`f [mltm Pfrfsm, sitia uhikm `a 8 jg mc sur,
t4l fc gmrbfl o4KWucfr`a `fc rça Gixtfka.
[il fghmrba, su ecarfkigiflta gís latm
hcf tuva cubmr fl fc Kcísika, k ~ m l ` a mpm
rfkiû fl cm Gixtfkm Hmdm `f Amxmkm y ^u f 
hcm cm kucturm ýuiýf, kal ul fstica prapia
`f mrquitfkrurm, fskr fskriturm
iturm,, kfrígikm, eibu 
riccms y ur l ms (Ý u iý f, tifrrm kmcifgf , fs
fc laghrf gixt gixtfkafka `f cm Gixtfkm Hmdm .
Kfrra `f cms Gilms fs fc ôlika sitia mr 
qufacûbika mhifrta mc pôhcika fl cm Gix Gix
Hmdm,, y par omhfr si`a fxtflsivmgfl
tfkm Hmdm fxtflsivmgfl
tf fxpcarm`a praparkialm gukom
ileargmkiûl sahrf cm kucturm ýuiýf.
kfltras urhmlas prfoispílikas `f cm Gixtfkm.
Gixtfkm. [itum`a fl ulm pasikiûl `feflsçvm kaltm-
OVMGFCVC^ML y PMYMPM . AM_MKM ;-
Cas trfs pultas gís fcfvm`as `fc kfrra
fstíl kuhifrtas par pcmtmeargms fskmcalm
`ms `f pif`rm, gifltrms quf cms cm`frms euf
ral rfccflm`ms y livfcm`ms pmrm krfmr fspm
kias fl cas kcuf sf fCcieikmral ul gfrkm`a y
= =l kaldulta pmcmkifba. Fc pmcmkia kufltm
kal kumrtas, ul pmtia kfltrmc kal fskmcilm
tm y ulm tughm brml`f, cm tughm 6, fl fc
cm`a apufsta m cm fskmcilmtm. Fl cm s cm`frms
sur y afstf `fc kfrra sf flkufltrml par ca
gflas trfs kaldultas `f kmsms kal tug 
hms, prahmhcfgfltf kfltras `f hmrrias
kaltracm`as par emgicims `f cm fcitf.
Cas f`ieikias `f cm emst4 Luiýf Pfgprm
lm (;>>-6>> D.f.) sal `f hcaqufs `f pif
`rm, gifltrms quf cas `f cm Ýuiýf Pmr`çm
f
y
k
`
I
 ;? MX]VFACABçM GF_IKMLM

@A[IFX

Fl cm fcmharmkiûl `f cms vmsidms Fl Kfrra `f cms Gi

ýuiýf sf uticizû ul hmrra quf lms, cm fskriturm par
kaltflim ermbgfltas visi ca kagôl sf pcms
hcfs `f gikm. Ca gís gû fl cípi`ms `f
`istiltiva `f cm kfrígi pif`rm kmcizm cakmci
km ýuiýf sal fc kacar zm`msfl cms tughms.
tughms.
mlmrmldm`a-kmeé y cas Fstm cípi`m -flkal
kmdftfs kal hmsf mlu- trm`m fl cm pmrf` `f
cmr.. Mulquf omy vmsi
cmr . cm tughm 6- gufstrm fc
dms ilkism
ilkisms
s, par ca bflf sçghaca `fc mýa kal ulm
rmc cm kfrígikm ýuiýf hmrrm quf rfprfsfltm fc 6
kmrfkf `f `fkarmkiûl. y gís mhmda ul bciea tur
EAPA   G XKV[ RILPFX
RILPFX
qufsm) fl ul gm rka kum`rm
`a kal atrm hmrrm y pultas,
pultas , pa
sçhcfgfltf fc laghrf kmcfl`ír
kmcfl`í rçka
`f ul bahfgmltf

 A (6>>-?>> `.K) prfsfltml

=- cmdms oarizaltmcfs `fcbm
`fcbm 
`ms, kacakm`ms kaga rfccf
rfccf
m- la fltrf cmdms brml`fs y
y brufsms fl pasikiûl vfrtikmc,
tm eargml`a cm kalstrukkiûl kmrmktfrçsti-
kmrmktfrçsti-
m km kalaki`m kaga hcaquf y cmdm .
fc Fl Kfrra `f cms Gilms sf flkufltrml
4¡ s fdfgpcas `f fskriturm ýuiýf -s çghacas brm
ca hm`as fl hmdarrfcifvf
hmdarrfcifvf-- fl cípi`ms `f p i ~ ` r
=- kmcizm. Bflfrmcgfltf sf trmtm `f ul bciea
) kfltrmc4 fc laghrf `f ul pfrsalmdf, mkag
pmým`a par siblas `fc kmcfl`mria. @as cí 
m- pi`ms `f fstf tip
tipa,
a, prahmhcfgfltf kal la g 
f hrfs `f bahfrlmltfs `f cm kiu`m`, fstmhml
çm fgpatrm`ms fl cms pmrf`fs `f cm tughm 6.
Fl [ml ^f`ra y [ml ^mhca Pfquixtfpfk,
ulas 86 jg mc lartf fcf Kfrra fcf cms Gilms, cm
fskriturm sf pcmsgû fl hcaqufs `f hmsmcta fl
fc fxtfriar `f cms pcmtmeargms galugfltmcfs:
kaltiflfl sçghacas kal laghrfs `f pfrsapfrsa
lmdfs y gufstrml fskflms `f kalquistm.
Cm kfrígikm ýuiýf tiflf pmstm gikíkfm
gikíkfm,,
`f kacar mlmrmldm`a-kmeé. Cm eargm gís
kagôl fs fc kmdftf kal hmsf mlucmr. Fs
guy sigicmr m cm Mlmrmldm`a @fcbm`a, pra
`uki`m fl Ixkmquixtcm, ^ufh cm fl cm eral
tfrm ýuiýf, 26 jg mc lartf `f Kfrra `f Cms
Cm s
Gilms.
[al kagulfs cms eiburiccms y sichmtas of
of
koas fl gac`f y piltm`as `f mgmricca, rada
y vfr`f. Pmghiél sal tçpikms `f cm kucturm
ýuiýf cms ccmgm`ms kmhfkitms kacasmcfs ,
rfprfsfltmkialfs `f kmhfzms `f bufrrfras
asihcfgfltf fcfkmpitm`ms
fcfkmpitm`ms-- ofkoms fcf
pif`rm fl Kfrra `f cms Gilms y fcf kfrígi
kfrígi
km fl atras sitias `f cm rfbiûl.
C ms urlms ýuiýfs, tmghiél `f pmstm gi
kíkfm y emhrikm`m kal pifzms
pifzms ofkoms fl gac
`f, rfprfsfltml `iasfs,
`iasfs , erfkufltfgfltf fc
tm- @ias `fc Eufba. Kalstml `f ul rfkipifltf
pmrm qufgmr ilkiflsa y ulm hmsf kum`rm-
lfl kumrtas rfktmlbucmrf s `ispufstas mc-
rf`f`ar `f ul pmtia a fl eargm cilfmc fl
ulm tfrrmzm mlbastm. Cas fltifrras ougmla
ougmlass
mpmrfkfl
mpmrfkfl kagôlgf ltf fl pasikiûl ecfxia
ecfxia
lm`m, fl pazas kirkucmrfs `fhmda `f cas kumr
kumr
tas `f cms rfsi`flkims y mkagpmým`as par
vmsidms `f kfrígikm. Omhçm tughms rfktml 
vmsidms
bucmrfs a kum`rm`ms quf mcadmhml il`ivi`um
il`ivi`um
cfs `f fstmtus fcfvm`a, mkagpmým` as par vm vm
sidms, m`arlas `f pif`rm vf r`f y m vfkfs ulm
urlm, kaga cm quf mpmrfkiû fltrf cm mltfkí
gmrm y cm kígmrm fl cm tughm 6.
@f s`f fc ^rfkcísika
^rfkcísika,, cas omhitmltfs `f cm
rfbiûl gixtfkm omhcmhml praragixtfka y
pmrm fc Kcísika sf omhcmhml lugfrasms vm
rimltfs.. Mcbulms pif`rms brmhm`ms flkaltr m
rimltfs
`ms fl Oumgfcucpml y YukCIIcu`moui subifsubif
rfl quf cas bahfrlmltfs `f cm s kaguli`m`fs
`f cm Gi'{tfkm Mctm, kuym mrquitfkturm y kfrí 
gikm frml rfcmtivmgfltf sflkiccms, m`quiti.f
ral fstmtus y pa`fr cakmc gf`imltf mcimlzms
kal pfrsalmdfs `f cm Gixtfkm Hmdm, kuym kuc
turm frm gís `fsmrraccm`m.
Kfrra `f cm s Gilms, mc ibumc quf atrg
kfltras `fc Kcísika fl cm Gixtfkm y fl
Amxmkm fl bflfrmc, euf mhml`alm`a om om
kim ?>> `.K., mc egmc `fc Kcísika, par rmza
lfs môl la `ftfrgilm`ms. Fs prahmhcf quf
f c mhml`ala sf omym `fhi`a m ul kmghia
kcigítika - q u f mefktû cm pra`ukkiûl `f
mcigfltas- y m cm ilkmpmki`m` `f cm fcitf
pmrm gmltflfr cm fstr
fstrukturm
ukturm sakia
sakiapacçtikm
pacçtikm..
Fc pmpfc ` f Kfrra `f cms Gilms fl cm kuc
F ltrf cas fcfgfltas kmrmktfrçstikas `f cm kucturm turm gixtfkm `fc ^a skcísika môl la sf om
ýuiýf sf flkufltrml cms urlms. Fstm urlm cakmci `ftfrgilm`a. t 8
zm`m fl cm tughm 6 gufstrm cm tçpçk
tçpçkm
m hmsf kum`rm
`m y fstí eargm`m par pifzms ofkoms fl gac`f y Gmrkus Riltfr. Mrqufûcaba
Mrqufûcaba.. @aktar fl mltrapacabçm
f lsmghcm`ms
smghcm`ms.. Xfprfsfltm mc
mc `ças `fc eufba , quf parcm Vlivfrsi`m` `f Mrizalm. Ilvfstibm` ar `fc Kfl
Kfl
Amxmkm.. Fltrf =9?2 y =99; rfmcizû fxpcarm
tra o cMO Amxmkm
sastçflf fl sus gmlas ulm dçkmrm pmrm tmhmka.
tmhmka.
EAPA   G XKV[ RILPFX kialfs fl Kfrra
Kfrra `f cm s Gilms
Gilms..
 KFXXA @F CM[ GILM[.
GILM[ . AM_MKM 9

@A[IFX

L ikmyudu
ikmyudu   Amxmkm
U FXÛL IKM ^É X FT X A@XçBVFT CMVXM X. [PIUFX - RMC[O

c kfltra `fc sfýarça,y o itmyu, `f [ml Duml sil `u`m fs

fs

F
Mulquf fc u u

`f Pfpaskacucm a Yukul`mm sf tuva kaleargm`a par cas omhitmltfs `f ta

flkaltrmhm fl fc vmccf y kufl `ms cms cagm s mltfs gflkialm`ms, cm
cmss fxkm
fxkm
km `fc rça `f Pfpaskacucm. Gís vm k ialfs rfmci zm `ms par Ufrûlikm ^érf z
mccí `fc vmccf, fcyuouÇcmyu sf fxtfl`çm m zalms Xa`rçbufz sf fleakmral fl fc kfrra Likm
kfrkmlms kaga cas vmccfs `f Cmbulms y cm s yudu parprfsfltmrul gfdarfstm`a `fkal 
tifrrms mctms `f Yukulmgm m c lartf y fc kiûl. F l cm s cm`frms lart f, larf stf y
sfrvmkiûl.
sfrvm
vmccf `f Luýu y cm kuflkm ` f L`umymka, mc fstf cms tfrrmzms fstíl kmsi iltmktms y gi`fl
sur. Fcyuouitmyu fstmhm kaleargm`a par omstm =6> g `f cmrba y ?-=8 g `f mlkoa.
ulm sfrif `f VV a kaguli`m`fs s udfta y F l cm s tfrrmzms gís mgpcims sf cakmcizmral F
mhmrkû mpraxigm`mgfltf 0?8 jg 8  `fltra kagpcfdas `agéstikas quf akupmhml fcml  f
`f ca s kumcfs sf oml rfbistrm`a
rfbistrm`a ;6
;600 msfltm
msfltm  koa tatmc `f cm
cmss t f rrmzms
rrmzms.. [f f lkaltrmral
gifltas `f` f c ^askcísçka. M pg²tir `fc lôgf  tmghiél ulm sfrif `f tfrrmzms mlbastms 8-
ra, tmgmýa y `flsi`m` ` f rfstas mrqufacû
mrqufacû  5 g `f mlkoa) quf pfrgitçml suhir mc kfrra
bikas, sf krff quf tuva ulm pahcmkiûl a ci fbmr m za lm s kçvika
kçvika--kfrfgalimcf
kfrfgalimcfss a rf
rf r
gíxigmm `f 5= 25= pfrsalm
gíxig s. Cm kiu`m` km 
pfrsalms. si`flkimcf
i`flkimcfss `f cm kcmsf lahcf . [f k rff quf k
pitmc `f Pf p aska cucm a Yukul`mm sf `istil
`istil fstms tfrrmzm s mlbastms la sû ca sfrvçm l f
buf par su tmgmýa 8;9 om ), mrquitfkrurm y kaga rmgpm s `f mkkfsa sila tmghiél h
pahcmkiûl. kaga pa si hcfss írfms `f kuctiva y kaga ka l 
sihcf
Fc lzg `f [ml Duml tuva ulm akupmkiûl Cm kfrígikm pacikragm -ahdfta `f cuda iltfr trmeufrtfs pmrm fstmhicizmr cm s tfrrmzms su  `
rf si`flkimc quf sf fxtfl`im p a r vmrias kf
kf  kmghim`a fl cas gfrkm`as `f cm Gixtfkm M ctm pfriarfs .
pfriarfs. f
rras y kmým`ms, prilkipmcgfltf @iquila y flkaltrm`m fl cms kmsms `f Likmyudu subifrf Fl Likmyudu sf fxkmvmral `as uli`muli`m c
quf sus omhitmltfs bazmral `f hiflfstmr fka
Likmyudu. Fl fstas kfrras om y rfstas `f km `fs `agé stik ms `fc ^askcísika cakmcizm`ms `
lûgika y fstmhici`m` sakimc.
sms, tfrrmzm s y pazas tralkakûlikas `fc A PA ² U FIitÛLI K XA@ XI BVFT sahrf tfrrmzms rf s i`flkimcfs, m gitm` `f cms tD

^as kcísika. Fl cm kigm `f km`m kfrra omy

rfstas `f galtçkuca s y pcmtmeargms quf pa 
sihcfgfltf eufral cms rfs
rf si`flkim
i`flkimss `f cm la 
hcfzm cakmc a f`ieikias kçvika-
kçvika -kfrfgalimcfs
cakmcfs. ^ar su tmgmýa y pahcmkiûl, @iquc
la euf cm kmpitmc cakmc. Mulquf Yukul`mm
kmpitmc,, mcbulas luu
eulbiû kaga kiu`m` kmpitmc
tuvifral kifrta brm`a `f mutalagçm ritumc
y kçvikm. [us ci`frfs cakmcfs bazmral `f mu
tari`m` y fl sus kmpitmcfs cakmcfs cas omhi
omhi 
tmltfs pu`ifral pmrtikipmr fl mktivi`m`fs
kçvika-kfrfgalimcfs.
Fc kfrra `f Likmyudu tiflf ul mspfkta
fskmcalm`a `fhi`a m cm kalstrukkiûl `f tf
tf 
rrmzms. Cm fvi`flkim `f mktivi`m` rfsi`fl
kimc prfoispílikm sf fxtifl`f m`fgís m atrms
cagms, cms
cms quf prfsfltm l ul pmtrûl sigicmr
mc `f Likmyudu: cms kalstrukkialfs gmgmya
ya
rfs fl cms kigms y cms cm`frms fstíl kagpcf
kagpcf
tmgfltf fskmcalm`ms par tfrrmzms quf sir
vifral kaga zalms rfsi`flkimcfs, rmgpms
`f mkkfsa y pasihcfs fspmkias `f kuctiva l cms tfrrmzms `f cms cm`frms lartf   larfstf y fstf `fc kfrra Likmyudu sf cakmcizmral kagpcfdas `agés
y `f mktivi`m` pôhcikm. tikas quf akupmhml fc mlkoa tatmc `f fsas tfrrmpcflfs. Kmsm =  =   Likmyudu
Likmyudu..
 0> / MX]VFACABIM GF_IKMLM

@A[IFX

mcbulas ahdftas `f cuda fl cas gfrkm`as

`f cm Gixtfkm Mctm y sf kaltmhm kal cas
gf`ias pmrm fstmhcfkfr kmsms hifl kals
trui`ms quf eufral krfkifl`a mc pmsmr cas
mýas. Fstm fstmhici`m` rfsuctmrçm fl ulm
`rmgítikm ga`ieikmkiûl `fc pmismdf, mc
krfmrsf kifltas `f tfrrmzms pmrm cm vivifl
`m y cm mbrikucturm.
Cm kagpcfdi`m` mrquitfktûlikm `f cas ýuu
la sf kagpmrm kal cm `f cm kmpitmc, Yukul

:- `mm.. Cms kaguli` m`fs sudfta kaltmral kal

`mm
 - ul gflar lôgfra `f fstrukturms kçvika-kf
kçvika-kf
=- rfgalimcfs, cms kumcfs eufral `f gflar tm 
T gmýa, pfra sil `u`m fc l/tu `f [ml Duml euf
=- `f sugm igpartmlkim pmrm fc yuouitmyu `f
=- Yukul`mm. Fstf luufstmhm fstrmtébikmgfl
y tf cakmcizm`a fl fc pmsa lmturmc par cms ga l 
l tmýms omkim fc Umccf `f Pmgmzucmpml y
. Oumdumpml, mc lartf, y fc Umccf `f Lakrux
l tcíl, mc fstf. Fc luu `f [ml Duml frm igpar
Fc kfrra `f Likmyudu gufstrm ul mspfkta fskmcalm`a `fhi`a m cm kalstrukkiûl `f tfrrmzms quf sirvifral
- kaga zalms rfsi`flkimcfs, rmgpms `f mkkfsa y pasihcfs fspmkias `f kuctiva y `f mktivi`m` pôhcikm. tmltf m`fgís fl fc íghita kagfrkimc, ym quf
l kagulikmhm m Yukul`mm kal cm Gixtfkm
Hmdm, fc Umccf `f Amxmkm y cm Kuflkm `f Géxi
a cm`frms fstf y larfstf. Mghms kmsms tuvif qufýa kumrta kal ul pisa `f fstuka kal ka. Fc kaltmr kal ul l/tu fl [ml Dgg la sûca
ral pmtias kfltrmcfs rfkuhifrtas `f fstu
fstu  `fkcivf a kmlmcfs `f `rflmdf, y mcim`a ul pfrgitçm cm gmlutflkiûl `f ul tfrritaria
cf ka, `feili`as par cas kumtra cm`as par pfqufýa kmdûl rfccfla `f kflizms y pif`rm pacçtikmgfltf fstrmtébika ymbrçkacmgfltf
l kumrtas rfktmlbucmrfs `f fl`fquf (lag vackílikm qufgm`m y kumrtfm`m. Cms kmsms rika, sila tmghiél kalstituçm ulm eufltf ig
ig
l hrf cakmc pmrm cm pif`rm kmckí
kmckírfm
rfm , kal pi eufral kalstrui`ms fl emsfs, m ca cmrba `f partmltf `f trihuta pmrm cas kmkiqufs.
sas `f fstuka y eabalfs kum` rm`as mcilfm
mcilfm cas mýas, sfbôl cm
cmss pasihic i`m`fs a lfkf
lfkf Cas `mtas rfbialmcfs gufstrml quf cm
`as kal pif`rm vackílikm. Fc mkkfsa m cas si`m`fs `f sus omhitmltfs. arbmruzmkiûl `fcyuouitmyu euf kagpcfdm y
kumrtas frm par fc pmtia y cm gmyarçm `f Cas `mtas mrqufacûbika s `f Likmyu  la sig pcfg
pcfgfltf
fltf dfrírquikm
dfrírquikm.. Gifltrms q uf
c- cas pisas `f fstuka gastrmhml rfstas du subifrfl quf fc 2=g mc quf pfrtflfkçm mcbulas ==VV cakmcizm`as `fltra `fc Umccf
I[ `f pibgflta rada. Fl km`m kmsm sf flkal  bazû `f kifrta brm`a `f hiflfskmr fk a  `f Pfpaskacucm tuvifral gmyar igpartml
c[ trû ul tfgmzkmc, kalsutui`a par ul pf - lûgika y fstmhici`m`. [f tflçm mkkfsa m kim y kagpcfdms kmpitmcfs cakmcfs, atras
cakmcizm`as fl írfms gís mcfdm`ms mchfr
mchfr
bmhml pahcmkia cfs ==f =>rf[ y fA c mr
q uitfkturm gmrbilmc. Cas Dmtas ftla
oistûrikas subifrfl quf cas yuouçt yu

kaltilumgfltf lfbakimhml sus tfrrita

rias y f l fstf dufba pacitika fltrmhml cas
ýutc kuym cakm cizmkiûl y kaltrihukiûl fka
lûgikm y pahcmkialmc frml `f igpartml
kim fstrmtébikm. Cas kagulfras `fc ýuu `f
[ml Duml fstm hml iltfbrm`as mc yuouitmyu
par trm`ikiûl, krfflkims y fkalagçm, pfra
`fltra `f su pasikiûl kaga sudftas ca 
brmral lfbakimr kifrta brm`a `f fstmhici
`m` rfsi`flkimc, hiflfstmr fkalûgika ymk
kfsa m cas gfrkm`as rfbialmcfs.

a Ufrûlikm ^érfzXa`rçbufz. @aktarm fl mltrapacabçm

par cm Vlivfrsi`m` `f Bfarbim. ^raefsarm fl mltra

pacabçm fl cm Vlivfrsi`m` `fc Lartf `f Mrizalm. Il 

vfstibm cm mbrikucturm, tfrrmzms y fc pmism

pmismdf
df prfo ispíli
km, oistûrika y kaltfgparílfa `f cm Gixtfkm Mctm.
a Cmurm X. [tivfr
[tivfr--Rmcso. @aktarm fl mltrapacabçm par
cm Vlivfrsi`m` `f Uml`frhict. Ilvfstibm`arm il`fpfl
`ifltf quf rfsi`f fl Lmsoviccf, F .V.M. Om trmhmdm`a
s- Cms `as kmsms fxkmvm`ms fl Likmduyu tuvifral pmtias kfltrmcfs rfkuhifrtas `f fstuka m), kumrtas `f fl`fquf fl cm rfbiûl gmym y fl cm Gixtfkm Mctm, fl fspfkimc
fspfkimc fc
pif`rm kmckírfm) tmghiél kal pisa `f fstuka h) y eabalfs kum`rm`as `f pif`rm vackílikm f). Kmsm 8, Likmyudu. vmccf `f Pfpaskacucm.
 LIKMYVDV , AM_MKM 0=

  A[IFX

f
o

Pfpaskacucm Amxmkm q
q
é

LFCCY G. XAHCF[ BMXKiM. XALMC@ [^AXF[

p
a
i
c sitia mrqufacûbika `f ^ufhca Uif Uif

F
t

da `f Pfpaskacucm Yukul`mm) m a
kaltiflf cacass rfstas `f ula `f cas ca s
gís igpartmltfs kmkikmzbas gix gix  Z¡

tfkas `fc ^askcísika. [f cakmcizm 8 jg mc surfstf =

`f [ml ^f`ra y [ml ^mhca f p a ~ k a c u c m Km 88>> fc

gftras slg), sahrf ulm galtmým quf sf fcfvm z

88> g sahrf fc eértic vmccf. f
@urmltf fc pfria`a ^askcísika 96> -   688 e

`.K) yfc kacalimc tfgprmla = 688-=5>>), fc si O

tia mhmrkû kfrkm `f 89> om, fltrf =>>> y =66> k

`.K., kuml`a cm kiu`m` euf trmscm`m`m mc laraf s C
tf, vmccf mhmda, `fhi`a sfburmgfltf m cms fpi`f
fpi`f l
gims quf msacmral m cm pahcmkiûl il`çbflm. o
pfsmr `f sfr ul sitia `f tmltm igpartmlkim,
M
fc trmhmda `f ermy Ermlkiska `f Hurbam, fskrita Pfpaskacucm euf ul sitia igpar-
mcrf`f`ar `f =5;>
=5;>,, la praparkialm `mtas igig  tmltf `urmltf fc ^askcísika y fl l
partmltfs sahrf fc sitia a sus omhitmltfs, su rf
rf cas kagçflzas `f cm Kacalim. fc
Xfcifvfs fstica
fsticakû`ikf
kû`ikf gixtfka
mbrupmkiûl u atrm ileargmkiûl ôtic sahrf cm kiu q
(m) y rfcifvfs kal cm ecar `f cis `f
`m`. Mulquf fl fc Kû`tô Gfl`akila mpmrfkfl cas ri
cas `agilikas y fc galabrmgm
wpûligas `f Pfpaskacucm y ulm cistm `fc trihu `f cm Uirbfl Gmrçm fl f l`f- q
t quf sf fltrfbmhm m cas mztfkms, la sf ilkcu yf quf  , pif`rm kmcizm, rfkartm`a cm
gmyar ileargmkiûl. h) . ^rakf`fl `f Pfpaskacucm
Pfpaskacucm..
EAP]4MXKOIU] @FC ^XAYF KPA PF^A[KAc.VCM. ILMO
Kaga rfsuctm`a `f cm fxpcarmkiûl mrqufa b
cûbikm `fc sitia, quf kagflzû m pm.rtir `f 8>>0, si
sf fstmhcfkiû quf cm zalm kfrfgalimc sf flkufl rr
trm fl cm pmrtf supfriar `fc kfrra y quf fl P
cms tfrrmzms `f cms cm`frms omhçm uli`m`fs omhi IP

tmkialmcfs y kmgpas `k kuctiva. Fltrf cms kals

trukkialfs igpartmltfs sf flkufltrml4 fc
Dufba `f ^fcatm: cm Brml ^cmzm, rfkilta kçvika [I

kfrfgalimc cakmcizm`a fl cm kughrf `f Yukul kf

`mm: ul brml kagpcfda rfsi`flkimc, prahmhcf- rr

gfltf `f cm kcmsf bahfrlmltf,yym tluou fl cf
gf`ia `f cm zalm kfltrmc, quf kaltiflf kals- pi
trukkialfs `fc ^askcísika y kacalimcfs tfgprm c

lms: ul írfm rfsi`flkimc `f mcta fstmtus, prahm  fc

hcfgfltf `f cas lahcfs, tmy taoa, fl ulm KI

pcmtmeargm fcfvm`m quf sf fxtifl`f ulas

8>> g lartf-sur y gi`f 8> gftras fstf-afstf: aW

tfrrmzms rfsi`flkimcfs `f cm kcmsf kagôl, tqy luu,

tqy yukm a tqy situl`qyu fl cms cm`frms gf`ims mr

> 
arifltmcfss `fc sitia: ul kagpcfda rfsi`flkimc `f
arifltmcf ml
cm fcitf, msaki m`a m ul írfm kçvika-kfrfgalimc mc rr

afstf: ul sistfgm `f tfrrmzms mbrçkacms ]mgm `i

y,
har`a a kaa-yue./ , fl fc sur `fc sitia: cm Ibcfsim Fltifrra `f ulm gudfr `f cm fcitf il`çbflm. Cm igpartmlkim `fc fltifrra rfsi`f fl quf m cm gudfr sf cm
Uifdm y fc kalvflta `agilika, kagpcfda kals- cf `ia ul trmtmgiflta eulfrmria prfoispílika. mulquf euf sfpuctm`m fl tifgpas kacalimcfs.
kacalimcfs . cm
 08 / MX]VFACABçM GF_IKMLM

@A[IFX

trui`a om kim =6;> y =66>: cm B rml Kmczm`m `f

cms Kufvms
cms Kufvms,, quf `fcigitm cm za lm galugfltmc.
Fs `fkir, sf trmtm `f ul sitia `fc ^a skcí
kcíssika
quf sahrfviviû kal ga`ieikmkialfs om s tm cm
épakm kacalimc tfgpr mlm, kuyms fvi`flkims mr
qufacûbikms `fgufstrml quf eargû pmrtf `f
ulm pfqufým fcitf `f pufhcas quf fdfrkçml ul
pa`fr tatmc sahrf cm
cmss pahcmkialfs kirkul`mlt fs
a s udfta
udftass , eargml`a vfr`m`f ra s kmkikmzbas.
Cm hmsf `f cm fkalagim `fc sitia frml fc trihu
ta, fc kagfrkia, fc kuctiva `fc gmiz y atras kuc
tivas tfgparmcfs `f tifrrms mctms.
Fl t rf cas omcc
omccmzbas
mzbas mrqufacû b ik
ika
a s igpar Cms vmsidms pacikragms `f Pfpas-
tmltfs om
omstm
stm cm efkom sf flku
flk u fltrm cm Aerfl`m kacucm pfrtflfkfl m cm trm`ikiûl `f
=-=6, `f tipa eulfrmria,
eulfrmria , `f`ikm`m m ulm gudfr cm kfrígikm pacikragm gixtfkm
mulquf fl ul fstica cakmc.
`f mcta rmlba sfpuctm`m fl cas cigitfs `f cm pcm EAPA44 MXKOIUA @FC
EAPA ^XAYF PA PF ^][KACVCM
^][KACVCM   ILMO

zm, quf ym fl cm Ka cali m sf om

omhh çm kalvfrti`a fl
fc mtria `fc tfgpca kmtû cik a. Cm aerfl`m fstí
eargm`m par kfrkm `f 6> >>> pfqufýas ahdf
tas4 kufltms, kmritms, pflmtfs, gilimturms, hr a
kofs, oufsas tmccm`as y puci`arfs, fltrf a tr tras.
as.
Cm igpartmlkim `fc fl titiffrra r fsi
fsi`f
`f fl quf m cm
gudfr sf cf `ia ul trmtmgiflta eulfrmr
eulfrmria
ia prf
oi spílika, m ulquf euf sf puctm`m fl tifgpas
kacalimcfs.
x Fl cms pcmzms quf kaleiburml fc lôkcfa ga g a
fl lugfltmc `fc siti
itia
a sf o ml cakmci zm `a kifltas `f
im. fltifrras ou g mlas kacfkti
ka cfktivas
vas y siguctílfas, ca
4>
quf il`ikm quf ul brml lôgfra `f pfrsalms gu
`f
rifral mc gisga tifgpa.
tifgpa. [f ilei
ileiffr f qu f fstas fs
fs 
lm
c f- qufcftas sal pra`ukta `f cms fpi`fgims quf msa
`a cmra
cmr a l cm
cm rfbiûl m cm ccfbm
fbm`m
`m `f cas furapfas.
m. Atra omccmzba ig p artmltf fs ulm cípi`m kal
3MO
bcieas, qu f rfvfcm mspfktas p aka kalaki`as `fc
sitia.. Cas trmhmdas mrqufacûbikas, ca
sitia cass `aku 
gfltas y cm oistarim armc `fc ^ufhca Uifda `f
Pfpaskacucm a Yukul`mm oml mrradmmrradm`` a il ea r  Cas gasmikas quf m`arlmral cas guras `f cas f`ieikias `f Pfpaskacucm tuvifral `isfýas bfagé -
trikas y `f tfdi`a `f pftmtf.
gmkiûl sa hr f su
s u rikm trm`ikiûl kucturmc, sahrf
mspfktas kati`imlas y ritumcfs, sahrf cm vi`m `f
u l m kiu`m` quf trmskfl`iû fc trm ug m `f omhfr
si`a fvml
fvm l bfcizm`a par cas `agilika s, y quf euf
kalquistm`m, ga`ieikm`m, `ifzgm`m y eil mc 
gfltf trmscm`m`m m atra cubm r. @urmltf cm Ka
calim y cas mýas pastfriarfs Pfpaskacucm rfku
pfrû su arbu cc a f ig p artmlkim, y ccfbû m sfr ul m
igpartmltf kmpitmc pacçtikm y fkal fka l ûgikm: o ay
fl `çm fs ul rfefrflt
rfefrfltff ah ci bm
bm`` a `f cm mlkfstrmc
kucturm rlixtfkm. ti'

• LfVy G.
G . Xahcf
Xahcfss Bmr`m. Mrqufûcabm. cl vfstibm
vfstibm`arm
`arm `fc
c LM O Y gifghra `fc [L
[LCC Mutarm `f `ivfrsms ahrms sa
sahrf
hrf cm
mrqufacabçmm `f Am xmkm y su kalsfrvmkiûl pmtrigalimc.
mrqufacabç

• Xalmc` [par
[parfs.
fs. Ftlao istarim`ar y mrqufûcaba. @aktar fl
mltrapacabçm parcm Vlivfrsi`m` `f ¡¡mrvmr`. ^raefsark gé gé
rita fl mltrapacabçm `f cm Vlivfrsi
Vlivfrsi`m`
`m` `f Uml`frhict. K a
`irfktar (ka
(kal
l LfVy G . Xahcf s `fc prayfkta mrqufac
mrqufacûbika
Yukul`mm ^u fhc hca
a Uifd
Uifda
a Pfpaskacucm, Amxmkm (8>>0 omstm
' sf cm efkom). Mutar y f`itar `f vmrias cihra
cihrass y mrtçkucas sahrf Fc tmgmýa y cm téklikm kalstruktivm `f fstf f`ieikia,
f`ieikia , situm`a mc Fstf `f cm ^cmzm ;, `fgufstrml quf
cm kucturm gixtfkm. Pfpaskacucm euf ul cubmr igpartmltf `urmltf fc ^askcísika.
 PF^A[KACVCM, AM_MKM / 0;

@A[IFX

Pututfpfk Yuku @zmm)

V L IG^FXIA @FC ^A[KCÍ[IKA
FL CM G I _ P F K @F CM KA[PM
MXPOVX M. DAYKF, GMXK L CFUILF
f
b
kmkiûl fs môl tfgm`f `fhmtf
`fhmtf.. Cas `mtas `ml m
cm igprfsiûl `f quf fc sitia `f Pututfpfk frm
pfqufýa y lm`m igprfsialmltf @fs` f
=9?5 fc Hm
Hmda
da Xça Ufr`f ,flc mkas tm`fA mxm
km, om si`a kflrra `f cm ilvfstibmkiûl quf om
fgpfzm`a m kcmrieikmr cm mrqufacabçm `f Pu 
tutfpfk. Fstm ilvfsti
ilvfstibmkiûl
bmkiûl ilkcuyf fxkmvm
fxkmvm 

kialfs mrqufac
mrqufa cûbikms fl =? sitias y ul rfk
rfka a
rri`a fl ul írfm `f =68 jg z.
@urmltf cm tfgparm`m `f kmgpa `fc mýa
8>>>, fc rfkarr i`a rfbialmc
rfbialmc sf fxtfl`iû pmrm
kuhrir Pututfpfk, kal ca quf sf rfvfcû fc
tmgmýa `f fstm mltibum kiu`m`. Fc rfkarri 
`a `fgastrû quf Pututfpfk kuhrf 8= jg z,
par ca quf fs ula `f cas sitias gís brml`f
brml`fss
`fc ^ askcísika fl Gfsamgérikm. Cas rf rfss uc 
tm`as `f cms fxkm
fxkmvvmkialfs y `fc rfkarri`a,
msç kaga ul mlícisis `f cas kû`ikfs gixtf
gixtf
kas, myu`ml m fltfl`fr cas arçbflfs y fc `f`f 
smrracca `f Pututfpfk. Cas rfcmtas sahrf
Pututfpfk fl cas kû`ikfs mhar`ml cm trmvf

Fl Komckmtalba Gixtfkm Mct m . fl fc Pfgpca `f cm Gufrtf . smltumria `f cm `iasm 9 Oifrhm, Krílfa m) . sçm `f cas gixtfkas omkim cm kastm par gf
m Uflm`a . Bmrrm `f Dmbumr h) rfkihiû cas fghcfgms uticizm`as fl cm eul`mkiûl `f rfilas. Kû`ikf Lu- `ia `f ul oéraf `f cm fcitf4 fc sfýar ? Uf 
tt . cíg . 00. lm`a, Bmrrm `f Dmbumr. Lufstras `mtas K
mkcmrml kaltrm`ikkialfs fltr f ca mrqufacû
bika y ca ftlaoistûrika, y pfrgitfl ul gf rf

M
^rilki^ias `f =688, sûca ulas
kumltas gfsfs `fspués `f cm
kalquistm `f cm kmpitmc mz tfkm
`f Pflakotitcml, Ofrlíl Kar
tés flviû ul fdérk
fdérkita
ita kagml` m`a par ^f`ra
`f Mcvmrm`a omkim cm kiu`m` gixtfkm `f
Pututfpfk (Yuku @zmm fl rlC {tfka ) , situm
il`ikml quf m cm ccfbm`m `f cas fspmýacfs, dar fltfl`igiflta `f Pututfpfk `urmltf fc
Pututfpfk `agilmhm ul igpfria quf mhmr ^askcísika Pmr`ça.
kmhm 86 >>> jg T m ca cmrba `f cm kastm `fc
^mkçeIka. Mcvmrm`a ccfbû m Pututfpfk kal CA[ AXçBFLF[
8>> sac`m`as fspmýacfs y ul fdérkita `f kf
gicfs `f zmpatfkas `f Pfoumltfpfk paka Mltfs `fc mskflsa `fc igpfria `f Pututf U
`fspués `f efhrfra `f =688. M prilkipias pfk, fc Hmda Xça Ufr`f euf omhitm`a par [=

`m fl fc pif `f galtf quf `m m cm pcmlikif `f gmrza, Pututfpfk euf kalquistm`m y su gís `f 8 >>> mýas. Fl fc ^rfkcísika Pfg tm
kastfrm `f Amxmkm. @f s`f cm eul`mkiûl `f bahfrlmltf euf mprfsm`a. @fsmeartulm`m prmla (=5>>-2>> m f ) ym omhçm pfqufýms sm

cm kiu`m`, m eIlmcfs `fc sibca _I par fccfbfl
`mria bahfrlmltf ? Uflm`
Uflm`a, a, Bmr rm `f Dm
Dm
bumr, Pututfpfk euf cm kmpitmc pacçtikm
`f ula `f cas sfýarças gí gíss pa`frasas `f
Géxika. @akugfltas kacalimcfs mltibuas
gfltf, cm aprfsiûl y cms fpi`fgims rípi`m
rípi`m mc`fms, y fl fc ^rfkcísika Gf`ia (2>>-0>> M
gfltf `ifzgmral m cm pahcmkiûl. m.f.) ym sf flkufltr ml fvi`flkims `f kag pf
M pfsmr `f cm igpartmlkim `f Pututfpfk pcfdi`m` sakimc. @urmltf fc ^rfkcísika Pfr
Pfr il
fl cas mrkoivas kacalimcfs tfgprmlas, paka gilmc (=6> m.f.
m.f.--86> `.f.) mpmrfkiû fc kfl
sf smhf `f cm mrqufacabçm `fc sitia y su uhi
uhi-- tra urhmla `f Xça Uifda, fc kumc pmrm fc fr
 00 / MX]VFACABçM GF_IKMLM

@A[IFX

FC [FÝAX ? UFLM@A 
UFLM@A  
BMXXM @F DMBVMX

Cas kû`ikfs subifrfl quf cm gibrmkiûl `f

cas gixtfkas m cm rfbiûl `fc Hmda Xça Ufr
`f fstuva rfcmkialm`m kal cms mktivi`m`fs
`fc sfýar ? Uflm`a, Bmrrm `f Dmbumr,
Dmbumr, quifl
lmkiû fl =>5; `.K. fl fc pufhca `f Picml
Picml 
talba. Mulquf ? Uflm`a ccfbmrçm m sfr ba
hfrlmltf `f Picmltalba y `f Pututfpfk,
lilbula `f s us pm`rfs tuva mcbulm rfcmkiûl
b flfmcûbikm kal cms emgicims bahfrlmltfs
`f fsas sfýarças. Fstm vfz, fc mkflsa mc pa 
`fr `fc sfýar ? Uflm`a la fstuva hmsm`a
fl cm ofrflkim `f ul sfýarça fxistfltf, sila

Kal sus sfbui`arfs, quf ccfvml cas fghcfgms m) pmrm cm eul`mkiûl `f rfilas, ? Uflm`a, Bmrrm `f Dm fl cm eul`mkiûl `f ula lufva
lufva.. Fc sfýar ?
bumr h) vimdû omkim cm kastm. [ighûcikmgfltf , fsf vimdf tfrgilû kal cm qufgm `f ilkiflsa fl ulm kml Uflm`a sf euf `f Picmltalba kuml`a tflçm
Ufr`f.. Kû`ikf Kacaghila-Hfkjfr, cíg. 5.
kom `f dufba `f pfcatm f) fl fc Hmda Xia Ufr`f =? mýas `f f`m` y sf `iribiû m cm kastm `fc
Il
rm ^mkçeika kal cm gftm fspfkçeikm `f krfmr ul
ef rfilm`a. Cas kû`dkfs `fgufstrml quf su
m- trmv
trm v fsçm kagflzû kal ulm igpartmltf rf
rf
,m uliûl kal cm sfýarm 9 Oifrhm, fl su sml

u- tumria fl Komckmtalba. F l fstm dultm,

m- ? Uflm`a rfkihiû ahdftas usm`as fl kfrf

>- galims fefktum`ms fl cm eul`mkiûl `f kfl
tras pacçtika-rfcibiasas, ilkcui`as ul hucta
ia smbrm`a, ul hmstûl `f pf`frlmc, ul pfz `f
rm ara y ul fsku`a fl eargm `f kmcmvfrm. Fc

fc sfýar ? Uflm`a y sus sfbui`arfs vimdmral

ri- fltalkfs omkim cm kastm ccfvml`a kalsiba
  8, cas ahdfta s ritumcf
ritumcfss `f Komckmtalba. Cm trm
trm
fs vfssçm tfrgilm kal fc sfýar ? Uflm`a quf 
vf
ci--
ci gml`a ilkifl
ilkiflssa fl ul dufba `f pfcatm. Fstm
=> ,
fskflm fs sfbui`m par ulm prakfsiûl `f sif sif
f tf il`ivi`uas, km`m ula kmrbml`a ula `f
f cas ahdfta s smbrm`as `f Komckmt alba omkim
Fl fc Hmda Xça Ufr`f, ? Uflm`a, Bmrrm `f Dmbumr m) eul`û fc rfila `f Pututfpfk h). Fl fc ^askcísika
rf fc tapûliga gixta `f Pututfpfk-D
Pututfpfk-Duquicm.
uquicm.
Pfgprmla ==>> `.K.), fsm rfbiûl fstmhm `flsmgfltf pahcm`m par fgibrmltfs `f cm Gixtfkm Mctm.
Mctm . Û²
²f - `ikf Kacagh ila² Hfkjfr, cíg. 6. Cm rfprfsfltmkiûl `f`fcc sfýar ? Uflm`a ccf 
tf v ml`a m kmha ritumcfs `f eul`mkiûl, y fl
r Q kmgila m cm rfbiûl `fc Hmda Xça Ufr`f,
f
as Kcísika Pmr`ça (6>>-?>> `,K ccfbû m sfr cm tm fc Kcísika Pmr`ça. @urmltf fc ^askcí gufstrm quf éc euf vista KA I c c A fc eul`m`ar
û- kmpitmc `f ula `f cas sfýarças gís pa`f  sik a Pfgprmla, sil fghmrb a, fc sitia fs  `f ul kfltra pacçtika lufva fl Purutfpfk.

cf- rasas `f Amxmkm. Xça Uifda mchfrbmhm ig 
² fc prfsialmltfs fstrukturm
fstrukturmss galugfltmcfs y
fl igpalfltfs galacitas `f brmlita sf
brmhmral `f gmlfrm fxpfrtm igíbflfs `f
cm `ilmstçm rfilmltf. Kaga gukoas atras
kfltras urhmlas gfsamgfrikmlas, Xça
tf Uifda `fkm
`fkmyyû mc eilmc `fc Kcísika. Fc ^askcí
^askcí
tuva km si `fsomhitm`a, ca quf `fgufstrm @f spu é s `f su ccfbm`m
ccfbm`m,, ca
cass kû`ikf
kû`ikfss guf s
quf cm kiu`m` `fc ^askcísika Pmr`ça la trml mc sfýar ? Uflm`a kalquistml`a m `a 
sf `f s mrraccû ` f ulm kaguli`m` mltf kflms `f pufhcas kastfras y rfkihifl`a tri
tri
riar, s ila quf euf eul`m`m kaga ul kfl huta `f kaguli`m`fs sudf
sudftms.
tms.
tra pacçtika lufv a . Eufltfs mrqufacûbi Fc sfýar ? Uflm`a kalsibuiû eul`mr ul
kms, ft l a oistûrikms y cilbóçstikms il`ikml rfila fl Pu tu tfpfk `fhi`a m ulm kaghilm
qu f cm eul`mkiûl `f Pututfpfk euf fc rf  kiûl `f kirkulstmlkims oistûrikms, pacçtikms,

ar sika Pfgprmla euf ul tifgpa `f ermbgfl suctm`a `f cm ccfbm`m `f cas gixtfkas ýcccc fkalûgikms y fkacûbikms. Cas `mtas mr
mr
l - tmkiûl pacçtikm,
pacçtikm, `f `ftf riara `f cms pa`fra ` z   ut m cm rfbi û l `fc Hmda Xça Ufr`f qufacûbikas `fgufstrml quf mc prilkipia
cms sms ilstitukialfs `f bahifrla, y `f bufrrms
bufrrms.. omkim ==>> `.K. Ca
C a s `mta s quf tflfgas `fc sibca _II cm rfbiûl `fc Hmda Xça Ufr`f
>> Msç,, fc pfria`a prfkf`fltf mc mubf `fc ig 
Msç il`ikml ulm gibr m kiûl gmsivm, ym quf fc pu`a omhfr si`a vuclfrmhcf m mtmqufs fx
fx
g pfria `f Pututfpfk s f kmrmktfrizû par cm í rfm ta t m c `f cm zalm mugfltû `f 068 om tfrlas `fspués `fc kacmpsa `f Xça Uifda,

fr ilfstmhici`m` pacçtikm y cas kaleciktas. fl fc ^a s kcí sika P f gprmla m 8 ;=6 om  kal cm suhsibuifltf ermbgfltmkiûl pacçti
pacçti
4l - Cm akupmkiûl `f Pututfpfk kagflzû kim fc ^as kcísika Pmr`ça, ul ilkrfgflta km. Fc sfýar ? Uflm`a tmghiél pu`a om
fc fl fc ^rfkcísika Pmr`ça y kaltiluû oms- `fc 6=8
6=8   . hfr fdfrki`a ulm fstrmtfbim `isfým`m pmrm

@A[IFX
? Uflm`a
Uflm`a Bmrrm `f Dmbumr msfburû fc ecuda `f gfrkmlkçms `fc Hmda Xia Ufr`f mc Kfltra `f Géxika gf
`imltf ul rita `f pfrearmkiûl lmsmc. Fsf ritumc ca kalvirtçû fl tfkuotci
cfkm-koikoigfkm. Kû`ikf Lutrmcc cíg . 68 .
tagmr v fltmdm `f cm `ivfrsi`m` fkacûbikm `f
ul karrf`ar quf ihm `fs`f cm kastm omstm
mctas.. Cm rfbiûl `f Xça Ufr`f ilefriar
cas mctas
sf kmrmktfrizû par ulm brml pra`uktivi`m`
mbrçka cm , msç kaga par ul m `ivfrsi`m` `f
rfkursas pravflifltfs `f
` f cms tifrrms
tifrrm s hmdms,
cas kumcfs frml vmciasas pmrm cms pahcmkia
lfs `f cms rf
rfb ctms,, fltrf cas quf sf
b ialfs mctms
flkaltrmhml kmkma, smc, pcugm s ` f quftzmc,
mcba`ûl y pf skm `a. Mc tagmr kaltra c `f cas
skm`a.
rfkursas kastfras, ? Uflm`a pu`a msç om om
hfr rfprfsfltm`a ulm mcimlzm mtrmktivm pmrm
cmss rfbialfs mctms. Fc mkkfsa
cas lahcfs `f cm
m rfkursas kastfras pu`a omhfr si`a ul emk 
tar fl cm mcimlzm fltrf f sfýar ? Uflm`a y
ul sfýarça pa`frasa `f cm rfbiûl `f cas mc
tas, quf kaltrihuyû mc éxita `f prigfra
pmrm eul`mrPututfpfk y `frratmrmcas kag
pfti`arfs cakmcfs.
Cas kû`ikfs gufstrml quf fstm mcimlzm
fstuva eargm`m par ul brupa `f fxtrmldf
ras,, quiflfs ccfvmhml pu f s tm ulm gískmrm
ras
lfbrm quf cas `istilbuçm - m fccas y m su cç`fr,
Dmbumr-- kaga tactfkm-koikoigf
f sfýar 0 Dmbumr
kms, y quf m`fgís ccfvmhml mhmlikas y hms
talfs, ilsiblim `f cas kagfrkimltfs. Fstm
mcimlzm euf sfccm`m par ca quf fs quizís f
fvflta gís emgasa fl cas kû`ikfs4 fc rita
`f pfrear mkiûl lmsmc `f sfýar ? Uflm`a fl
PVPVPF^FK YVKV @TMM
@TMM)) / 6
quf Pututfpfk. Éstf tflim ulm arbmlizm
kiûl iltfrlm kagpcfdm, gôctipcf
gôctipcfss zalms `f
mrqui tfktur m pôhcikm, rfsi`flkims `f mcta fs
tmtus, pasihcfs hmrrias, pra`ukkiûl `f mr 
tfsmlim fspfkimcizm`m y mktivi`m`fs ritumcf s.
Frm kagôl cm kfrígikm pacikragm `f fsti fsti
Gixtfkm-- ^ufhcm, mc ibumc quf cm ahsi`im
ca Gixtfkm
lm. Fltrf cas rfstas mrquitfktûlikas sf fl 
kufltrml kifltas `f tfrrmzms rfsi`flkimcfs,
kigifltas y galtçkucas. Gukoms `f cms tf
kigifltas mrquitfktûlikas
rrmzms y cas vi
sihcfs fl cm supfreikif frml rfcmtivmgfltf
ga`fstas y prahmhcfgfltf frml pmrtf `f
rfsi`flkims `f cas pcfhfyas. Omhçm kumtra
írfms sfpmrm`ms par mrquitfkturm, cms kum
cfs prahmhcfgfltf frml rfsi`flkims `f cm
fcitf a f`ieikias pôhcikas msakim`as kal mc 
bôl hmrria siqut). Vl dufba `f pfcatm `fc
^askcísika Pmr`ça kfrkmla mc sitia `f [ml
Ermlkiska `f Mrrihm -quf krffgas frm pm r
tf `f Pututfpfk- pu`a sfr tmtphiél cm kml
kom ritumc `f sfýar ? Uflm`a rfprfsfltm
`m fl ca
cass kû`ikfs
kû`ikfs..
Fc
Fc kfltra kçvika
kçvika--kfrfgalimc `f sitia fs
gf ko
tfkuotci   sfýar g ifghra `fc cilmdf rfmc tac tmhm fl ulm brml pcmtmeargm, sa hrf cm kumc ==
sf kalstruyû ulm ibcfsim fl f pfria`a kaca sf
mta s armcfs subifrfl quf fl
limc.. Mcbulas rf mtas
limc
fsm pcmtmeargm sf flkaltrmhm f pmcmkia `f
=>92 `.K., f kumc cf kaleiriû f tçtuca `f tf- bahfrlmltf `urmltf fc ^askcí
^askcíssika Pmr`ça y
kuotci, y ca kalvirtiû fl gifghra `f cilmdf f pfria`a kacalimc tfgprmla. Fsta sf ka l 
kacalimc
rfmc tactfkm-k oikoigfkm. Cm ahtflkiûl `f
tactfkm -koikoigfkm. eirgm par cm prfsflkim `f kumtra `iskas fl
tçtuca `f tfkuotci euf tmghiél pmrtf `f cm fs
fs  cmss pmrf`f s `f cm ibcfsim,
cm ibcfsim, cas kumcfs `fkarm
`fkarm
trmtfbim pacçtikm kal cm kumc ? Uflm`a pu`a hml cas pmcmkias
pmcmkias `f ^askcísika Pmr`ia y sf
rfkcmgmr fc trala `f Picmltalba, su cubmr rfprfsfltml fl cas tfgpcas `f ca
cass kû`ikfs, tm
lmtmc, y fstmhcfkf r msç ulm sfbul`m `ilmstçm Fl Pututfpfk sf oml `fskuhifrta akoa pc
fl fsf sfýarça omkim = 9? `.K. @fspués `f galugfltas brmhm`as fl pif`rm. F l fc tu
cm mskfl`flkim `f sfýar ? Uflm`a fl Pi Galugflta 5, fc g ís fspfktmkucmr, sf rf cm 3
cmltalba, Pututfpfk `fsmpmrfkiû `f cas kû  prfsfltm m Itzpmpícatc, gmripasm `f ahsi eu
`ikfs, ^mrm fltfl`fr cm oistarim kastfrm fl `imlm" - `iasm `f Kfltra `f Géxika-, kal
f rfsta `f ^a skcísika, fs lfkfsmria fltal emukfs y kal cm cflbum fstirm`m, fstm ôctigm `f
kfs mcfdmrlas `f cas trfs kû`ikfs y vacvfr m fl eargm `f kukoicca. [u vfstigfltm ilkcu
ilkcu tf c
cass `mtas mrqufacûbikas, msç kaga m cas `a 
ca yf ul tfzkmkuitcmpieci - f s pfda `f fspmc`m- y g4
kugfltas kacalimcfs mltibuas. ul qufkoquégóc kal kukoiccas `f ahsi`imlm tm c
fl fc har`f. Fstf galugflta fs ulm fvi fl
F_^CAX KIALF[ `flkim mrqufacûbikm `f cm mcimlzm fltrf fc rl
FL PVPVPF^FK sfýar ? Uflm`a y cas tactfkm-koikoigfkms, hm
kaga ca gufstrml cas kû`ikfs. @akugfl uk
Cas rfsuctm`as `f rfkar ri`a rfbialmc kail tas kacalimcfs tfgprmlas f oistarims armcfs g4
ki`fl kal cas `akugfltas,cas kumcfs gufs rf mtml tmghiél quf cm bfltf `f Pututfpfk `f
trml quf Pututfpfk kaltiluû sifl`a ul sf `fkcmrmhm sfr tactfkm y m`armhm igíbflfs fs  
fs
ýarça pa`frasa omstm cm kalquistm `f Itzpmpícatc. tmc
fspmýacm. @urmltf fc ^askcísika Pmr`ia, Fc rfkarri`a mrqufacûbika gufstrm fc tm `f
=;
Pututfpfk mhmrkmhm 8 om. F l kagpm gmýa y cm kagpcfdi`m` `f Pututfpfk mlti rm3
rmkiûl, Gikomfc [gito fstigm quf Pfla bua y fs kalsistfltf kal `akugfltas ka bm
kotitcíl kuhrçm = ;6> om, mulquf fs kcmra calimcfs, cas kumcfs `fskrihf l fc sitia kaga
kumcfs yf
quf cms pahcmkialfs `f cms kiu`m`fs `fc fc kfltra `f ul igpfria fxpmlsialistm quf ah
Kfltra `f Géxika eufral gís brml`fs `agilû b rml pmrtf `fc sur `f Amxmkm. Pu Pu-- cfss
cf
 5 I X]VFACABI GF_IK L

@A[IFX

m rígikm pacikragm `f fstica Gixtfkm-^uf

4cf hcm, kmskmhfcfs, ul omkom y ul pulzûl a
s kilkfc `f kahrf. Cas gmcmkmtfs frml kagu-
  - lfs, ca quf ilkc
ilkcikm
ikm cm pra`ukkiûl `f tfxticfs
4s..
4s `f mcba`ûl pmrm usa cakmc f iltfrkmghia.
ti- [f rfkupfrmral gís `f = >>> ahdftas
m `f ahsi`imlm pravflifltfs `f ymkigifl
l- tas `f ^mkoukm (0;%) y Atizmhm (60%). Cm
mhul`mlkim `f ahsikcimlm `f ^mkoukm ilkci
f- km iltfrkmghia kal fc Kfltra `f Géxika,
 
sfburmgfltf par tfcm `f mcba`ûl, kmkma y
tf atras pra`uktas kastfras. Cm kmlti`m` `f
f kfrígikm pacikragm, ahsi`imlm y ahdftas
ra `f kahrf supfrû ca quf om si`a fxkmvm`a
m fl cms rfsi`flkims kagulfs fl cas mctas `f
cm Amxmkm, ca kumc ilkcikm quf cas pcfhfyas `f
u- Pututfpfk tflçml gmyar mkkfsa m fstas hif
fc lfs y quf prahmhcfgfltf sf hflfeikimral
cl `fc pa`frça sakimc y fkalûgika `f Pu u tf
I- pf k a Cms ilvfstibmkialfs rfmcizm`ms par
l- Dmgif Emr`f subifrfl quf cm kfrígikm pa 
m- cikragm `f fstica Gixtfkm-^ufhcm euf usm
`m prilkipmcgfltf fl efstivi`m`fs rigmcfs,
Fc Galugflta 5 `f Pututfpfk rfprfsfltm m cm `iasm Itzpmpícatc,
Itzpmpícatc , gmripasm `f ahsi`imlm , `fi`m` tactfkm
s y quf trmlsgitçm lakialfs kagulfs sahrf
ikoigfkm.. Fstí vfsti`m kal ul tfzkmkuitcmpicci, fspfda `f fspmc`m m) , y ul qufkoquégitc h) kal kukoi
ko ikoigfkm
mc ccas `f ahsi`imlm fl fc har`f . Fstf galugflt a y kû`ikfs kacalimcfs fl qu f cas omhitmltfs `f P ututfpfk cm i`facabçm f i`flti`m` `fc brupa, fspfkimc
-
sf `fkiml tactfkms mpayml cm i`fm `f cms mcimlzms fltrf fc Hmda Xça Ufr`f y fc Kfltra `f Géxika . gfltf mkfrkm `f tfgms kaga bufrrm, smkri
4l eikia y pmkta kal cas kciasfs.
fc Mulquf ta`mvçm emctml ilvfstibmkialfs
y tutfpfk saduzbû m pufhcas `istmltfs kaga y cas ahdftas ilkc
ilkcikml
ikml quf ca
c a s omhitmltfs `f sahrf fc Pututfpfk mltibua y su igpfria,
=- Mkoiutcm, =86 jg mc lartf, y Pfoumltfpfk, cm Xfsi`flkim M kciserutmral `f ulm gmyar pa`fgas mprfkimr par prigfrm vfz ulm rf
4l 86> jg mc fstf. Fc trihuta pmbm`a m cm km km  riqufzm quf sus vfkilas `f cm Xfsi`flkim H, cmkiûl f ltrf cas `mtas mrqufacûbikas y cas
m- pitmc ilkcuçm `fs`f ara, kahrf, pcugms, tfx mulquf mghms pmrfkfl omhfr si`a omhitm fgaoistûrikas, ca kumc `fgufstrm quf Pu
,f ticfss y kmkma, `f cms kaguli`m`fs hmdms, oms
ticf oms  `ms par bfltf kagôl. gtfpfk euf fefktivmgfltf ul kfltra igpf
s tm kakoiliccm y gmltms `f mcba`ûl, `f cas Fltrf cas ahdftas `f cms `as rfsi`flkims rimc pa`frasa y ul kaltflkcifltf igpartml
=> pufhcas `f cas mctas. Mulquf Pututfpfk omhçm mcbulas hiflfs sultumrias, kaga kf- tf fl fc gul`a `fc ^askcísika Pmr`ça.
fc tuva iltfrkmghia kal Pflakotitcml, cms rf
f- cmkialfs pacçtikms fltrf cas `as igpfrias
• Mrtour M. Da ykf. ^raefsar msakim`a f l mltrapacabçm
,=- eufral tflsms
tflsms.. `f cm Vlivf
Vlivfrrsi`m` `f Ka carm`
carm`a,
a, Hauc`fr. [us fstu`ias
Il Fl Pututfpfk sf fxkmvmral cas vfstibias ilkcuyfl ilvfstibmkialfs mrqufacûbikms y pmcfamghifl
cm `f `as rfsi`flkims cakmcizm`ms
cakmcizm`ms fl kcistiltms tmcfs gucti`i ski pcilmrim
pcilmrimss fl
f l Amxmkm, f l fspfkimc sa hrf
mltibums sakif
sakif`m`fs
`m`fs kagpcfdms fl fc Hmda Xça Ufr`f.
d tfrrmzms fl cm pmrtf lartf `fc sitia, mpraxi • Gmrk L. Cfvilf. Xfk fkiifltf
fltfgg f lt f kalkcuyû su tfs
fsis
is
y gm`mgfltf =.86 jg mc larafstf `f cm ^cm ^cm `aktarmc fl cm Vlivfrsi`m`
Vlivfrs i`m` `f Ka carm`a, Hauc` fr4
tmeargm `f cm Ibcfsim. Cm Xfsi`flkim M sf Ciljilb Oausfoacô ml` ^acity mt Cmtf ^astkcmssik
cm
^fria` Yuku @ zmm (Pututfpfk), M Gixtfk Kmpitm Kmpitmcc al
'=- flkaltrmhm fl cm tfrrmzm supfriar `f ul kf tof Kamst ae Amxmkm, Gfxika .
fc rra f ilkcuçm vmrims fstrukturms quf ra`fm
.6, hml ul pmtia kfltrmc. Cm Xfsi`flkim H frm
^MXM CFF X GÍ[ . .
= ulm kmsm gís pfqufým cakmcizm`m mpraxi EAX@I:,:, Dmgif PI., =`",cab)S c`fltic)S ml` crals4 M D/cct& i GiD..=K
EAX@I
4s gm`mgfltf 8>> g mc s urafstf `f cm Xfsi Xfsi ^a Dkhragf4 ^AecfryDrag >Dtf^astkcassV Yukm @Tma (Putuefpft),
(Putuefpft),
Amxara, Gtxira tfsis `f gmfstIÇ. =. @fpmrtmgflt a `f Ml -
4k `flkim M, fl cm kigm `f ulm kacilm hmdm. Cm trapaccabçm, Vlivfrsi`m` `f Kacarm`a, Hauc`fr, 8>>5.
trapa
4s fstrukturm prilkipmc `f cm Xfsi`flkim H fs dAy fF, M lour M., Cm mrqufacabçm `fc Hmda Xça Xça Ufr`f ,
fl Mffl/as, 2, 8>>5, pp. =5-;5.
tmhm sahrf ul galtçkuca, ecmlqufm`a par = kg
D AyfF
AyfF,, Mrtour M., Ml`rfw Rarjilbfr y Fyral Omgmll ,
m `as a trfs fstrukturms. Cas ahdftas rfkupf
~ ~
' 'Purut
'Purutff pfk4 V l kfltra igpfrimc `fc ^askcísikafl cm Kas
c- rm`as fl cms `as rfsi`flkims rfecfdml ulm msidm `f kfrí gçkm pacikragm fstica Gixtfkm-^uf tm `fr Amxmkm 
titm.r Amxmkm   , fl
fcAmxmKtD
Lfccy G. Xahc fs f`.) Fstrukturms
lc/tibua. G fDcarim `f j/(P rrfg paci-
, Gfsm Xf`al`m
)- bmgm `f mktivi`m`fs `agéstikms q uf ilkcu
ilkcu hcm. Fl Pututfpfk, fstm kfrígçkm, usm`m prilkipmc Mioía   ' LM   , Gfxika, 8>>0, pp. 8>6-8;>.
`f GalcfMioía
gfltf fl ritumcfs , trmlsgitiû g f ` im l t f tfgms C FU ILF Xfsi`fltimc
Xfsi` fltimc FxkaUAoAls mc YIc V @zaa eDc-
=> yfl prfpmrmkiûl `f mcigflta
mcigfltas,
s, trmhmda fl mrf L

=/ccfpff), m u e ^asekcmssif Gixtff Km^icmcaa Ih f Kamsc i

`f bufrrm, smkrieikia y pmkta kal cas ` i a s f s kal
cf ahsikcimlm, pra`ukkiûl `f tfxticfs y ritum kfptas rfcibiasas f i`facûbikas `f Fstm`a.
Amxmfm, G,xifa, 8>>5, ileargf eilmc prfsfltm`a m cm
EMG[ I, www.emrl
www.emrlssi.arb
.arb// r fp a g / A[>;= / il`fx.otgc
W cfss `agéstikas. Cas rmsbas mrquitfktûlikas
cf EAPA   MXKOIUA
EAPA @F M. DAYKF
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@A[IFX

Cas kû`ikfs `f
cm Gix
Gixtfk
tfkm
m Mctm
Mctm
OI[PAXIM[ F CILMDF[
Y BFLFMCABçM[
GMLVFC M OFXGMLL CFDMXMTV

Cas kû`ikfs gixtfkas prfoispílikas kaleargml ul igpartmltf brupa `f `aku -

gfltas kuym tfgítikm prilkipmc fs cm lmrrmkiûl oistûrikm y bflfmcûbikm `f cas
`ivfrsas cilmdfs quf bahfrlmral fl fc pfria`a ^askcísika . M`fgís
M`fgís   kalstituyfl
cms ôlikms eufltfs pmrm mkfrkmrsf m cms eargms `f arbmlizmkiûl pacçtikm `f cm
mltibum sakif`m` gixtfkm .

k
E
k

4
W

b
`
b
f
f

m
tI

Fc tapûliga `f Ymlouitcíl m) kal cas bahfrlmltfs 0 Uflm`a h) y = Mbum f . Kû`ikf [f/`fl,

[f/`fl , p =0 `
 0? / MX]VFACABçM GF_I KM LM

@A[IFX

C
m oistarim prfoispílikm `f cas
`ivfrsas brupas `f pa`fr quf
fstmhcfkifral sus cilmdfs y bf
lfmcabçms fl cm Gixtfkm Mctm
trmlskurriû `urmltf fc ^askcísika, ftmpm
quf kagprfl`f `fs`f fc sibca _ omstm fc
_UI `.K. Fl `ikoa cmpsa, `f mkufr`a kal
cas kû`ikfs, cabrmr al fribirsf mcbulas kfl
tras ofbfgûlikas bahfrlm`as par casyym
laghrf gixtfka quf siblieikm rfy a sf

ýar quf mrtikucmhml, mcrf`f`ar `f sç, ulm

fxtflsm rf` `f mcimlzms gmtrigalimcfs kal
eufrtfs igpcikmkialfs pacçtikms y fkalû-
gikms fl fc livfc rfbialmc.
^rfkis mgfltf cas sfis
sfis kû`ikfs gixtfkas
`f aribfl prfoispílika quf sahrfvivifral Lmkigiflta `f cm sfýarm = Gufrtf `fc
`fc írhac smbrm`a Kû`ikf Ha`cfy,
Ha`cfy, cíg =
m c Kalquistm fspmýacm, eufral fcmharm
fcmharm
`as fl fsas kfltras `f pa`fr pmrm rfbis
trmr tmlta cm eul`mkiûl `f mcbôl sfýarça
kaga cm oistarim y bflfmcabçm `f sus sa
hfrmlas.
  Cas bahfrlmltfs gixtfkas, fl bflfrmc,
sf kalsi`frmhml oidas y `fskfl`ifltfs `f
=? cas `iasfs, par ca quf gukoms vfkfs frml

l fstmhcfki`ms mcimlzms gmtrigalimcfs fltrf

cms prapims fcitfs pmrm kalsfrvmr c purf
m zm `fc cilmdf `ivila. Fstm lmturmcfzm smbrm
`m `fcyym ca ilvfsôm `f emkuctm`fs fspf
kimcfs pmrm bahfrlmr, par ca quf frm fc
ôlika il`ivi`ua quf pa`çm `ftfltmr cas
sçghacas `f pa`fr y sfrvir kaga ul fl
cmkf `irfkta kal cms `fi`m`fs.
F l mcbulms píbilms `f cas kû`ikfs sal
rfprfsfltm`as vmrias sfýarfs lmkifl`a `f
kfrras, rças, írhacfs y pif`rms, ca quf palf
`f rfcifvf fc aribfl smbrm`a `fc sahfrmla
y ca kalstituyf fl fc brml eul`m`ar `fcci
lmdf quf gmltfl`rí fc pa`fr fl ta`m c
kaguli`m`. ^ar ca tmlta, fcyym fdfrkiû fc Lmkigiflta `fc sfýar Mbum m) `fc Kfrra ^rfkiasa `f Dmctfpfk h) par cm iltfrvflkiûl `f cas `iasfs
pa`fr la sûca fl fc íghita pacçtika y sa = Gufrtf f) y = Gavigiflta `) . Kû`ikf [fc`fl, p =
kimc, sila tmghiél fl fc rfcibiasa y ritumc.

CA[ Û@I F[ GI_PF A [
Cas gmluskritas prfoispílikas quf sa -
hrfvivifral m cm Kalquistm fspmýacm sal
cas kû`ikfs Ha`cry, Luttmcc Uil`ahalflsis,
[f/`fl y K ghila-Hfkjfr. Mulquf fl ri
bar fc Kû`ikf [f/`fl euf tfrgilm`a m gf-
`im`as `fc sibca _UI, sf kalsi`frm `f ari-
bfl prfoispílika `fhi`a m quf la
fxis tf lilbulm ilecuflkim fspmýacm fl su
fcmharmkiûl.
[il fghmrba, `f mquç fl m`fcmltf vay
m rfefrirgf m akoa rfcmtas oistûrika-pik
tabríeikas fl vfz `f omhcmr ôlikmgfltf
`f sfis kû`ikfs. Fs `fkir, fstmgas fl rfm-
ci`m` mltf akoa `akugfltas oistûrikas
fcmharm`as fl `istiltms épakms y par `i
vfrsas mutarfs. ^mrm fxpcikmrlas gfdar4 cm
gmyarçm `f cas kû`ikfs prfoispílikas quf
ofgas y flcistm`a, sf kagpalfl `f ulm
pmrtf mlvfrsm y atrm rfvfrsm quf la kals
kals
tituyfl ulm uli`m`: fc û`ikf Luttm//, par
fdfgpca, tiflf fskrita par mghas cm`as
`as oistarims `istiltms quf la sf rfcmkia
lml fltrf sç, la sal kaltilumkiûl ulm `f
cm atrm y m`fgís eufral fcmharm`ms par
vmrias mrtistms fl `iefrfltfs épakms.
Fc cm`a mlvfrsa `fc U i l`ahalflsis rfbis
trm ul fxtrmar`ilmria rfcmta sahrf cas arç
bflfs `fc gul`a sfbôl c kasgavisiûl
gixtfkm, pfra fl cm pmrtf `fc rfvfrsa kal
tiflf ulm rfcmkiûl sukiltm `f cm bflfmca 
bçm `f Picmltalba quf euf fcmharm`m fl
ulm épakm gís tmr`çm. @f fstm gmlfrm, gf
pmrfkf quf cas kû`ikfs las gufstrml ul
pmlarmgm môl gís mgpcia `f ca quf sf
omhçm igmbilm`a, pufs fs pasihcf mlmcizmr
mlmcizmr
cas `f gmlfrm sfpmrm`m y kui`m`asm y la
ôlikmgfltf mhar`mrcas `f gmlfrm bcahmc.
Uistas msç, km`m ula `f cas kû`ikfs gixtf
kas lmrrm,
lmrrm , par ca rfbucmr, cm
cm oistarim bfl fm
fm
cûbikm `f ul saca sfýarça kal pultas `f
vistm guy pmrtikucmrfs y prapias `fccilm-
df quf cas gml`û fcmharmr, pfra quf flri
qufkf cm lmrrmtivm oistûrikm kal `ivfrsms
 CA[ KÛ@IKF[ @F CM GI_PFKMMCPM / 9

@A[IFX

kas puf`f fstmhcfkfrsf ulm kralacabçm

quf uhiquf kagpmrmtivmgfltf cms prahm-
hcfs épakms `f fcmharmki
fcmharmkiû
û l `f km`m ula
`f cas kû`ikfs.
^ar fdfgpca cm pmrtf mlvfrsm `fc Xa` 
  i I y rfvfrsm `fc U±l`ahaccfccsô omhrçml

si`a rfmcizm`ms omkim fc sibca _UP, kfrkmlm i

Gmtrigalia `f cas sfýarfs ? Kalfda m) y 5 Oifrhm ch , `f Pfazmkamcka. Kû`ikf Luttmcc, Cm`a 8,
cíg  ; >
trm`ikialfs quf fl gukoms akmsialfs la
ccfbml m kailkifcir.
^ar atrm pmrtf fxistfl gmluskritas quf
mktumcgfltf sf flkufltrml piltm`as par
8,
Mulquf hrfvf cm oistarim `f atras
pufhcas tmghiél euf rfprfsfltm`m fl cas
kû`ikfs kaga par fdfgpca cm `f Pcmxim
ka Mkoiutcm Mpamcm [ukoixtcíl y Pfa-
ym cm Kalquistm pufs kaga gflkialm-
gas fc mlvfrsa `fc Ha`cry kalkcuyf kal f
fc gmtrigalia `fc sfýar 0 Uflm`a pfr r
salmdf quf euf kaltfgparílfa `f cm ccf
bm`m `f ca s fspmýacfs. Gifltrms quf fc f
Uicc`ahalfccsô rfvfrsa rfbistrm ulm oista f
rim ilkagpcftm quf pmrfkf omhfr si`a rfm f
cizm`m kal gukoa mprfsurmgiflta tmc vfz r.
m kmusm `f cm ccfbm`m `f cas kalquistm`a ti
rfs m cm rfbiûl Amlsfl =99? . r.
^ar su pmrtf fc K ghila-Hfkjfr pr f  E
sfltm ulm rrmfcikiûl oistûrikm y fsticçstikm k
quf sf mpmrtm `f cas `fgís `akugfltas. l
Lmrrm cm hiabrmeçm `fc sfýar ? Uflm`a
Bmrrm `f Dmbumr `fs`f cm pfrspfktivm `f
cm Gixtfkm `f cm Kastm y `fhi`a quizí m m
fstm prakf`flkim f c kû`ikf kalsfrvm ul ti

fstica piktûrika quf la kaltiluû fl ta`m

ul ôlika
ôlik a cm`a pfra quf gufstrml ilfcikias
`f omhfr si`a uticizm`as par mghas. Pmc
fs fc kmsa `fc Kû`ikf [f/`g quf oay fl `çm
kalsfrvm fl sus píbilms cm oistarim `fcci 
lmdf `f Wmctfpfk pfra fl mcbôl gagflta
fxistifral tfxtas piktûrikas fl su sfkkiûl
rfvfrsm `f cas kumcfs ôlikmgfltf sf ah 
zmkamcka kuym ileargmkiûl sf cakmcizm `
fl fc Ltcttm/c mlvfrsa y Ha`cry rfvfrsa cm Gixtfkm `urmltf cas sibcas kfrkmlas h̀
h
prilkipmcgfltf. m cm Kalquistm. Fs `fkir cm trm`ikiûl kas
tfým pmrfkf omhfr si`a cm gís rikm fl fs l
EFKO [ F FC HAX KiÛL tica f ikalabrmeçm pfra la cm flkaltrm-
gas fl atras `akugflta s pravflifltfs
Fl térgilas bflfrmcfs la sf om pa`i`a `f cms
cms rfbialf s vfkilms m pfsmr `f quf pa- rc

sfrvml mcbulas rmstras. fstmhcfkfr môl kal prfkisiûl cas mýas fl `rçmgas uhikmr `ikoa gmlu sk skrita
rita omk im fc
Fc Kû`ikf Kacaccchicca-Hfkjfrtmghiél fstí quf eufral fcmharm`as fstas gmluskri- sibca _cU. r

piltm`a par ul saca cm`a y mulquf fm cm tas . [mcva fc Kû`ikf [f/`fl quf euf kalkcui cgfl tf fc Kû`ikf L/cttmcc euf rfm
Eilmcgfl
Eilm a
mktumci`m` rfkalakfga s fl éc `as gmlus
gmlus  `a kal sfburi`m` omkim =665 la fs pasi  cizm`a fl épakms fcis
fcistilt
tiltms
ms `ur mltf ul cmr b
kritas `istiltas
`istiltas   eargmhml mltibumgfltf hcf efkomr kuíl`a euf ofkom cm gmyarçm ba iltfrvmca. Ca quf oay kalakfgas
ul gisga `akugflta quf euf `ivi`i`a `f cas `akugfltas. [il f g hmrba
hmrba tagml
tagml kaga pmrtf rfvfrsm a Cm`a = euf fcmharm h
fl `as pmrtfs a ermbgfltas `urmltf cm ftm `a fl kufltm cm tfgparmci`m` pcmsgm`m `a mltfs quf cm sfkkiûl mlvfrsm a Cm`a 8
^
quizí ilkcusa m prilkipias `fc sibca _cU:
pm kacalimc tfgprmlm. fl sus rfcmtas cm karrfcmkiûl kmcfl`írikm gifltrms quf fc Cm`a 8 tmc vfz euf kal-
h
^ar su pmrtf fc Kû`ikf Ha`cry sf flkufl `f cas mýas gixtfka
gixtfkass kal cas kristimlas y s

trm piltm`a par mghas cm`as. Ca quf oay kalsi`frml`a mcbulas kritfrias fsticçsti- kcui`a m eilmcfs `fc gisga sib
sibcca. KI

kalakfgas kaga Ha`/ry mlvfrsa rfbistrm

ta`m cm oistarim y bflfmcabçm `fc prfstibia B
sa pufhca `f Picmltalba ca quf iltfbrm F
ulm rfcmkiûl guy kagpcftm `f fsf cubmr
`fs`f sus arçbflfs gçtikas omstm fcgmtri- M
galia `fc sfýar 0 Uflm`a bahfrlmltf rç
quf viviû cm ftmpm `f cm Kalquistm fspm fc
ýacm: fc Ha`/ry rfvfrsa
rfvfrsa   m su vfz sf flkmr o 
bm `f lmrrmr cm oistarim prigar`imc `f ul =S
brupa `f bahfrlmltfs quf rfsifcifra
rfsifcifral
l fl tm
ul sitia kalaki`a kaga Cubmr `fc Hucta y

`f _ipf pufhca môl la i`fltieikm`a fl cm Kc

bfabrmeçm gixtfkm pfra quf `fsfgpfýû fc
ul pmpfc guy igpartmltf fl cm oistarim fci
tfgprmlm `f cm rfbiûl mltfs `fc m`vfli p
giflta `fc sfýarça `f Picmltalba. Kalquistms `f ? Uflm`a Bmrrm `f Dmbumr m) . Kû`ikf Kacaghila,
Kacaghila , cíg. 5. kf
 [ A / M X]VFACABçM GF_IKMLM

@A[IFX

m CA[ [ ÝAXças GI_PFKA[ Dmctfpfk, par su pmrtf, omhçm fstmhcf

@ ^ar gf`ia `f cas kû`ikfs pa`fgas mkfr
kmrlas m cm s eargms `f arbmlizmkiûl sa
(- kimc y pacçtikm quf cas prapias brupas gix 
l tfkms `fdmr a l pcmsgm`ms `f gmlfrm
m il`irfktm fl fstas gmlu sk ritas,, par ca quf
skritas
=- fs emktihcf ccf vmr m kmha fc fstu`ia `f cm
l kagpasikiûl y lmturmcfzm `fc sfýarça
gixtfka.
[mhfgas quf pmr m fc pfria`a ^askcísi
km fsas brupas fstmhml arbmlizm`as fl
- kaguli`m`fs `f `iefrfltfs tmgmýas y fl
c- kmhfzm`as rfbucmrgfltf par ul bahfr-
 z lmltf quf pfrtflfkçm m ulm emgicim a m ul
- cilmdf fspfkçeika. Fstms flti`m`fs pacçtikms
gmltflçml fstrfkoas vçlkucas fltrf sç,
pu f s fxistçml kfrkmlas cmzas `f pmrfltfs-
4m ka quf cf s pfrgitçml fstmhcfkfr mcimlzms.
s. gís a gflas `urm`frm s. c térgila gi gix
x
4c, tfkm `f yuvu tmyu yuvui, fstfrm : tmyu,
cf tr a la ) pmrfkf `fsiblmr m`fkum`mgfltf
m m fsf tipa `f arbmlizmkiûl quf rfefrçm tml 
.l ta mc msfltmgiflta gisga `f cm kaguli
fstmhcfki
ki
`a pmrm fltalkfs ulm guy igpartmltf
mcimlzm kal su vfkila y ftfrla rivmc, fc
sifgprf pa`frasa Picmltalba. @ f tmc gm
lfrm quf fltrf mghas sfýarças omhçml ca
brm`a ulm fspfkif `f `agilia rfbialmc
kal `as kfltras rfktarfs quf kaltracmhml
cm Gixtfkm Mctm .
Mc pmrfkfr, m prilkipias `fc sibca xv  
Ymlouitcíl y Dmctfpfk krfmral ulm eufrtf
mcimlzm trms fc gmtrigalia `f => Gala,
Ccuvim quf Hmdm `f c Kifca, sfýar `f Dmctf
Dmctf 
pfk, kal cm sfýarm 6 Mbum, Ýuou quf Lmkf
`f cm Da ym oidm `f cas sfýarfs `f Ymloui
tcíl. ^rfkismgfltf fl cm píbilm =0-IU `fc
Kû`ikf [ f/`fl sf gufstrm fc tapûliga `f
Ymlouitcíl kaleargm`a par fc b ciea ya`-
za vmccf , y jfof pmtia , rfprf sf ltm`a
par ul fcfgflta kirkucmr ra`fm`a `f pcu
g ms, par ca quf kaleargm fc laghrf `f
Ya`za Jfof, a Ya`za Kmoi, Umccf Ml -
koa , Umccf Fxtfl`i`a , fc laghrf gix 
tfkm `f Ymlouitcíl .
Fc gmtrigalia `fc sfýar `f Dmctfpfk
kal ulm `fskfl`ifltf `f cas sfýarfs `f
Ymlouitcíl ihm m bmrmltizmr, sil `u`m , ulm
sûci`m mcimlzm fltrf mghas sfýarças. ^fra
cas prahcfgms ofrf`itmrias quf flerfltû
fc cilmdf `f Dmctfpfk igpi`ifral cm kalsaci
kalsaci 
`mkiûl `f `ikom mcimlzm, ca quf ccfvû ilf
vitmhcfgfltf m ulm bufrrm fltrf mghas
pufhcas. F l prigfr cubmr, fc prapia sfýar
=> Gala guriû fl kirkulstmlkims `fska 
laki`ms, pufs fl fc Kû`ikf [ f/`fl ôlikmgfl
tf sf gflkialm quf su fspasm tuva quf km
sm r sf fl sfbul`ms lupkims kal ul
pfrsalmdf `f atra pufhca, kalkcuyfl`a msç
fc vçlk uca fltrf Ymlouitcíl y Dmctfpfk.
M eartulm`mgf::ltf:: pmrm ` sf::ýarça `f
Dmctfpfk , ym omhçm lmki`a fc ofrf`fra mc
,,-.

d
cm `m` kaga m cm pmrfdm `f bahfrlmltfs quf
)s

-
cm rfbçm (Pfrrmkimla, 8>>= ) .
s Cm fxtfl sm rf` `f mcimlzms gmtriga-
s limcfs fltalkf s fxi s tfltf fl cm Gixtfkm
m- sf kalstituyû kaga ulm `f cm cmss prilkipm
cfs `ilígikms `f iltfrmkkiûl fltrf lugf-
) - rasas pufhcas . Fs pa si hcf quf m pmrtir `f
sihcf
fc cms cfdmlm s a kfrkmlm s rfcmkialfs `f pm 
rfltfska quf frml fstmhcfki`ms f ltrf `a s
m- a trfs sfýarças igpartmltfs, sf omyml rf
r b ucm`a ulm sf rif `f prfrra bm tivms, `fhf 
sfrif
)s rfs y `frfkoa s quf gmltflçml fc fquici 
m- hria trihutmria, pacçtika y gicitmr `f ulm
8, pfqufým rf biûl. [il fghmrba, fstf eríbic
U  hmcmlkf pa`çm eíkicgfltf `fsfstmhicizmr
sf y kal`ukir m ulm bufrrm fltrf vm
vmrims
rims
kaguli`m`fs.

BVFXX [ U CI LT [
FL FC U CCF F LAKOI_PCÍL

Mcrf`f`ar `f ca s si sibcas _ L y xv, `as sfýa

rças igpartmltf s pmrfkfl omhfr `agilm`a
fc pmlarmgm b fapacçtika `f cm épakm4 Yml Yml
ouitcíl fl f c fxtrfga p alif
ouitcíl,, fl alifltf
ltf `fc v mccf `f
Lakoixtcíl, yDmctfpfk
Dmctfpfk,, fl cm pmrtf
p mrtf surarifl
tmc `fc gisga vm ccf. ^mrm fsf g a gflta,
vmccf.
Ymlouitcíl la frm ta`mvçm fc pa`frasa km
kikmzba quf ihm m prprffvm
vmcfk
cfkff r `urmltf ta`a
fc sibca _.UI, pfra mc gflas omhçm fgprfl-
`i`a ym ul latmhcf `fspcifbuf `f mcimlzms
ms y bufrrms quf prahmhcfgfltf ca
pacçtikms
pacçtik
kal`udfral m cm s uprfgmkçm. Aerfl`ms y ahdftas `f`ikm`as mc `ias 2 Ecar m). Kû`ikf Uil`ahalflsis mlvfrsa   cíg. =?.
 CA[ KÛ@IKF[ @F CM GI_PFKMMCPM / 6=

@A[IFX

laghrf ; Gala, dmbumr `f Eufba mtmkû

mc rfkié
rfkiéll suh i`a mc trala = Gala. Fs `i
eçkic i`fltieikmr mc sfýar ; Gala, pfra `f
mk ufr`a kal mcbulms krûlikms
kr ûlikms ka calimcf
calimcfss
fxistiû ul kmkiquf `f Ymlouitcí
Ymlouitc í l ccmgm`a
; Gala, quf rfsistiû cm ka lquistm gfxikm
ar`flm`m par Gaktfzugm =.
Kaga gfrm supasikiûl, fltalkfs fc
mt mquf `f ; Gala sahrf Wmctfpfk euf quiqui 
zí ul lufva iltflta par pmrtf `f Ymloui
tcíl pmrm
p mrm `agilmr m su lufva rivmc y fx
tfl`fr msç su `agilia par c m pmrt f surfstf
`fc vmccf `f Lakoixtcíl. [fbôl fc Kû`i  f

[fc`Ktc,dmctfpfk lulkm euf `ahcfbm`a, pfra

Gmtrigalia `fc sfýar `f Dmctfpfk => Gala, Ccuvim quf hmdm `fc Kifca m) kal cm sfýarm 6 Mbum h) , oidm
`f =>6 sfçiarfs `f Ymlouitcíl. Kû`ikf [f/`fl,
[f/`fl , p . =0.
trala: sf ccmgû ; Gufrtf ^ídmra ^rfkia^rfkia 
sa, y tuva quf kaltrmfr gmtrigalia ` fs
` f gu y pfqufýa kal s u prigm, ccmgm`m
; [frpifltf, Buirlmc`m `f Ecarfs `f Km
kma pmrm msfburmr cm pasfsiûl `fc sfýa
rça. L a ahstmltf m pmrtir `f fsf gagfl 
ta Dmctfpfk euf mtmkm`a sukfsivmgfltf
par vmrias pufhcas, ula `f cas kumcfs euf
quizí Yulouitcíl.
Mcrf`f`ar ` fc mýa 9 pf`frlmc
pf`frlmc,, =080, fc
Kû`ikf [ fc`ftc rfbistrm fc prigfr mtmquf m dm c
tfpfk par pmrtf `f ul pfrsalmdf `f la g 
hrf ? Íbuicm, Íbuicm quf hmdm `fc Kifca. Fl
cm píbilm =6-
=6 -IU `f fsf gmluskrita, sf ah 
sfrvm fc kaghmtf fltrf ? Íbuicm
Íbuicm y fc sf ýar
; Gufrtf `f Wmctfpfk, ymulquf la sf gufs
trm fc rfsuctm`a `f` f cm bufrrm, fs pasihcf su
su
palfr quf cm `feflsm par pmrtf `f ; Gufr
tf rfsuctû fxitasm, ym quf la om omyy il`ikia
il`ikiass
`f quf Wmctfpfk eufrm kalquistm`a. Fc ga-
uvm `f fstm bufrrm l a fs lm`m kcmra, pfra
mc pmrfkfr euf pr a vakm
vakm`m
`m par fc lmkigifl
ta `fc sibuiflt
ibuifltff of r f`fra mc trala `f Wmc
tfpfk, quifl ccfvû par laghrf = Gala
Ccuvim-[ac Bmlsfl, 8>>>8>>> .
 . Fl rf s ugfl krfa quf pa`fgas `mr
L a ahstmltf fs ib umcgfltf pasihcf
quf fc mtmquf m W mctfpfk omym si`a fl ka l 
trm `fc prapia ; Gufrtf, pufs su pasikiûl
pacçtikm frm ta`mvçm guy fl`fhcf y r fsuc
fsuc
tm lmturmc quf eufrm ul ahdftiva vimhcf pmrm
atras sfýarças quf huskmhml fxpml`ir
sus `agilias.
Cm situmkiûl `f Dmctfpfk pmrfkf omhfr
sf fstmhicizm`a `urmltf mcbôl tifgpa, pfra
fl fc mýa ; pf`frlmc, =000, guriû ; Gufr
tf y `fdû moarm fl fc trala m = Gala. [il
fghmrba, lufvmgfltf cm s prftfl sialfs `f
sfýarça
sf ýarçass mcf`
cf`mýas
mýas rf
rfsspfkta m cm kalquis
tm `f Wmctfpfk la sf oikifr
oikifraa l fspfrmr, puf s
fl fc mýa ? kmsm
kmsm,, =009, ul pfrsalmdf `f
atras pufhca
pufhcass sudftas
sudftas m Ymlouitcíl kalti
lumral cm bufrrm, par ca quf fs f s prahmhcf
quf pmucmtilmgfltf Dmctfpfk pfr`ifrm fc
kaltrac y `agilia `f su r fb fbiûl.
iûl. Ilkcusa,
Ilkcu sa,
mcrf`f`ar `f c[;?,Dmctfpfk sastflçm ul ci 
tibia fl kal trm `f Ymlouitcíl par cm pa 
sfsiûl ` f cm fstmlkim `f Tmoumtcíl, ul puf
hca quf omhçm si`a kalquistm`a p a r
Dmctfpfk `fs`f fc sibca _IU.
las kufltm `f cm flargf riqufzm `aku
gfltmc quf praparkialml ca s kû`ikfs
gixtfkas pmrm kagprfl`fr la sacmgfl
tf cas
ca s prakf sas oistûrikas, sila tmghiél
prakfsas
cmss `ilígikms `f iltfrmkkiûl quf fxistif
cm
ral fl fstms rfbialfs y quf las myu`ml
m pfrkihir ulm sakif`m` fl kaltilua
gavigiflta. N
Gmlufc M. Ofrgmll C f dmrmzu. @ ak tar f l fs fstu`i
tu`ias
as
gfsamgfrikmlas par cm VL eIG. Il vfst ibm`a r `f
tifgpa ka gpc f ta f l f c K IF [M[-@E . [f f sp
spfkimci
fkimcizm
zm
f l fc mlícisis `f kû
kû`ik
`ikfs
fs y `akugfltas `f cm Gix Gix
tfkm, msç kaga f l cm
cm oi sta rim prfoispílikm ) kacalimc
`f cm rfbiûl. Gifghr a `fc [i stfgm Lm k ial m c `f
Ilvfstibb m`arfs.
Ilvfsti

^MXM CF F X GÍ[ .  

HAALF, Fcizmhfto Oicc , [cari s icc X ` mcc` Hca kj   ^i kIa -

rimc O istarifs a IofMztfks tc l` M=ixtfks Vlivfrsity ae
Pfxms ^r fss, Mustil, 8>>>.
Kû`ikf Luccmcc. Ca`a =4 cm vi`m ` ? Uflm`a fstu fstu`ia
`ia il
il 
tra`uktaria
tra`uktaria f iltfrprftmkiûl `f` f cígilm s par Gm
Gm--
lufc M. Ofrgml
lufc frgmla a Cfdmrmzu
Cfdmrm zu,, Mrqufacabcm G fxikmlm
f`iki
f` ikiûl fspfk
fspfkimc
imc 8;, 8>>5.
d ML[FL, Gmmrtf
Gmmrtfll, u^urp asf ml` ^ravflif l kf ae Zo
Zoff
Gixtfk Ka`ikfs , f l Il`imlm d Accrlac a Oispal ik
Il`imlm
Cit frmcccrfs lughfr =;, em=c=99? , pp. ;=-06.
W ML[FL , Gmmrrfl y Bmhilm Murarm ^ é rfzDigélfz Cm
`ilmstçm `f M`ucf. Ois tarim citfra/ccrm f i`facabçm `f I
rfi
filla gixtfka Xfsfmrk o [koaac KLS_ D[), Vlivfrsi²
tfit Cfi`fl, Cfi`fl,
Cfi`fl , Pof Lftofrcml`s, 8>>>.
P F XX   KI MLA Jf v il , Pof Gixcfks >= KacalimcAmxmkm.
Ýcc`zmoui O iscAry [i
[ixx c ff cc co to aubo
r Fibotffc/to Kfc/
curifs   [tmlear` V li vf rs i ty ^r fss [tmlear` Km ci²
curifs
earlim , 8>>=.
PXAIJF, Lm lk
lkyy, Po   Ka`fx Kacaecchic/a-Hfkjfr tfsis `f
Po `f I
csfýar ; Gala m) `f Ymlouitcíl mtmkm Dmctfpfk h) , quf fs `fefl`i`a par = Gala f . Kû`ikf [f/`fl , ` a ktArm`a il
iléé`itm, Vlivfrsity ae Cal` a l , =9
=9220.
p.=5.
 68 / MX]VFACABIM GF_IKMLM

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zm
x-
imc Fl Mkmtcíl.
Mkmtcíl . Kfrra `f cm Daym 
Daym  (m), cas omhitmltfs `f cms gixtfkms Mctm
Mctm y Hmdm fstmhcfkifral rfcmkialfs `f pmrfltfska
pmrfltfska.. Kû`ikf `f Pucmlf,
Pucmlf , cíg
cíg.. 9 .
`f

Cas `akugflt
`aku gfltas
as piktabríeikas
piktabríeikas
`f cm Gixtfkm Hmdm
[FHM[PIML UML @AF[HVXB

Cm Gixtfkm Hmdm, fl cas cçgitfs `f cas mktumcfs fstm`as `f Amxmkm. Bufrrfra y ^uf
hcm, fs ulm zalm kal ulm oistarim kmsI `fskalaki`m. [il fghmrba, cm Calm fs rikm fl
`akugfltas piktabríeikas quf omstm moarm oml si`a paka fstu`im`as. M`fgís `f
r²

mcbulas kû`ikfs bflfmcûb,kas,

bflfmcûb,kas, omy pilturms quf trmtml sahrf f' trihuta. cm tflflkim
 `f cm tifrrm y cm pra`ukkiûl `f smc
@AKVGFLPA[ @F CM GI_PFKM HMDM / 6;

@ A [IF X

ie

8
3
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w
f

s4

i
Cas om hit
hitmm ltfs `f cm i x tfkm Mct
M ctm
m tuv
tuviif ra l kal
kaltm
tmkkta ka
k a l fc írfm lmo um, Ka l f c gm
Kal gm trigalia `f`f cm pr il kfsm `f Pi cm
cmlltal
talb ba m) ka gf lzû fc
fc cil mdf `fc
ka ga ca ` f gu fs
fstr
trmm cm pas tu rm, mc
m c sf lt
ltmm rsf, ` f c ms gudfrfs m) q uf sf ^uf hc a `fc D mbumr
bumr.. @ftrís ` f fcc
fccm
m fstí fc
f c em
e m ga
gasa
sa Pf gpca `fc
`f c Kif
K ifca
ca h).
vfl. û `i kf @ f ofsH. Kû `i
`ikf
kf Fbf
bfrtrta
a l 8 ?9 6.

Muliýf
cm Gixtfkmsfr Hmdm pusifral laghrf `f rias igpartmltfs sfýarças gixtfkas. Fc fc
hmaribfl `fc Kû`ikf `f Pfkagmx¡cmoumkm fstm
hifl fstmhcfki`a. fstm
, par tifrrm kíci`m . Kal fstm laghrf pmrm cm rfbiûl (Ýuliýf) fs tmg
hrfvf ermsf iltra`uda ermy Mltalia `f cas hiél fc laghrf gixtfw `f Palmcí, quizís Xacca `f Pucml F l =99=, Gmry Fcizm
f

Xfyfs fl =69; fsm paka kalaki`m rfbiûl
gixtfkm fl cas cigitfs `f cas mktumcfs fs
tm`as `f Amxmkm, Bufrrfra y ^ufhcm. Cm
rfbiûl fs galtmýasm y eargm pmlf `f cm
[ifrrm Gm`rf `fc [ur, kal cm Gixtfkm Mctm
mc s u rfstf y cm Galtmým `f Bufrrfra mc
afss tf, pfra sus kughrfs la mckmlzml cms
af
ul cubmr fghcfgí tika `f cm rfbiûl.
rfbiûl. Fstf sf hfto [gito `fgastrû quf fl fc Xacca `f Pu-
ýarça ilkcuçm - s fburmgfltf gf`imltf u lm emccf sf rfprfsfltml =6 bflfrmkialfs `f cm
rf` `f rfcmkialfs b flfmcûbikms- m cas suh kmsm rfmc
rfm c `f Mkmtcíl m praxigm`mgfltf
sfýarças `f Mtaymk y [icmkmyampml. Atras `fs`f ilikias `fc sibca _IIP om omss tm gf`im`as
kfltras `f igpartmlkim frml Mkmtcíl, Koi `fc sibca _UI
_UI)) y rfbistrm cm
cm pmrtikipmkiûl `f
cm, ^ftcmckilba, cxitcíl y ^imxtcm fl fc mktumc cas bahfrlmltfs `f Pfazmkumcka, sfýarça E
fstm`a `f ^ufhcm: Ioumctfpfk-
Ioumctfpfk -[ukoi qu icm- `f brm
brmll prfstibia fl cm Gixtfkm Mctm, fl su c

mcturms `f fstms vfkilm

vfkilms.
s. Mpraxigm`mgfl zmcm, Duxtcmoumkm y Pfkagmxtcmoumkm fl cm eul`mkiiûl `urmltf cm sfbul`m gitm` `fc si-
eul`mk
tf cm gitm` `f cm Gixtfkm Hmdm fstí situm pmrtf akki`fltmc au,,,mqufým, y Oumd
Oumduu mpml, b ca _II. C m prfsflkim `f bahfrlmltfs y la  f
f l trf =g = 8>> Y= 0>> gslg y sus rças
`m fl I-Iumdacatitcíl
Iumdacatitcíl,, Pfzamtcí
Pfzamtcíll , Pfquixtfpfk y hcfss `f cm Gixtfkm Mctm fl cm Gixtfkm Hmdm
hcf =
ccfvml fc mbum `f cm [ifrrm Gm`rf `fc [ur Kayatfpfdi fl cm pmrtf arifltmc. fl ulm efkom tml tfgprmlm ccmgm cm mtfl M

omkim cm kuflkm `f c rça Mtaymk-Hm

Mtaymk-Hmcc sms mc
lartf.
Oay fl `çm, cm Gixtfkm Hmdm fs ulm zalm
miscm`m y latarimgfltf gmrbilm`m, sahrf
ta`a fl su pmrtf akki`fltmc. F l cm pmrtf
arifltmc, mcrf`f`ar `f Oumdumpml y Pfquix
tfpfk, cm fxistflkim `f ul fstica pmrtikucmr
gmlieifsta fl cas gmtfrimcfs mrqufacûbikas
`fc pfria`a Kcísika -ccmgm`a Ýuiýf- ea
gfltû fc iltfrés `f mrqufûcabas `fs`f cm
`ékm`` m `f cas sfsfltm, pfra cm mrqufacabçm
`ékm mrqufacabçm
f oistarim `f cm gmyar pmrt f `f cm rfbiûl fs
virtumcgfltf ul kmpçtuca `fskalaki`a.
`fskalaki`a. L a
ahstmltf, fxistfl igpartmltfs tfstigal
tfstigalias
ias
oistûrikas -fltrf fcc ccas
as `akugfltas pikta
bríeikas `fc sibca _ U = q u f oml rfkihi`a fs
kmsm mtflki
mtflkiûl omstm cm efkom.
M cm ccfbm`m `f cas furapfas m cm Gixtf
km, fc tfrritaria fstmhm `istrihui`a fltrf vm-
kiûl y subifrf ulm pacçtikm `f fxpmlsiûl b
a VG LPA[ `fs `f cm Mctm omkim cm Hmdm. Vl sfbu l`a ci
`fs`f = 
lmdf fl fstf racca fs quiz ís fc `f Koicm.
Koicm . f
Cas bahfrlmltfs `f fstas sfýarças pr a g a Kû`ikf @ fofsm. ^asihcfgfltf `fc írfm `f E
vifral cm pra`ukkiûl `f cihras bflfmcûbi Izôkmr, rfprfsfltm tmghiél `as cilmdfs, pfra m
kas, `akugfltas trih trihuu tmrias y gmpms, `f `f cu
cubmrfs
bmrfs `fskalaki`as. M pfpfsmsmrr `f cms rf f
cas kumcfs mcbulas sf oml kalsfrvm`a oms cmkialfs pacitikms kal cm Gixtfkm Mctm, fc fs f
tm oay. F l tatmc sf oml i`fltieikm`a `ifz `a
`a tica `f fstas `akugfltas rfvf
rfvfcmcm kaltmkt as = 
kugfltas pravflifltfs `f fstm írfm4 fc Xa- kal fc írfm `f omhcm líoumtc mc lartf: par f
cca `f Pucml f  cas kû`ikfs ccmgm`as @fofsm fdfgpca, cms gudfrfs sal rfprfsfltm`ms fl f
Fbfrtal 8?96 y Hfkjfr DI cas gmpms `f [ml cm ccmgm`m pasf `f gudfr mztfkm .
Uikfltf `fc ^mcgmr  `f _akoitfpfk fc ^askarcf- Kû`ikf Fbfrtal 8?96. Xfprf
Xfprfsfltm
sfltm fccilm
sigIA La. ;5 y fc ccmgm`a Ciflza Gixtfka IDI df `f ul cubmr ccmgm`a ^ufhc a `fc Dmbumr,
msç kaga fc Kû`ikf `f Pfkagm  cmoumkm y cm fc kumc la om si`a i`fltieikm`a kal kfrtf `
Bflfmcabçm `f Ibumctfpfk .
@urmltf gukoa tifgpa, ul igpartm l 
zm fl cm bfabrmeçm mktumc. [iblieikmtivm `k
gfltf, fc cilmdf kagiflzm kal fc gmtriga
tf prahcfgm rfcmkialm`a kal fstas `a k u  lia `f ulm prilkf sm `f Picml talba,
gfltas frm cm emctm `f ul cubmr `f prakf Gixtfkm Mctm, quf vivçm mcrf`f`ar `fc mýa K
`flkim prfkism
prfki sm pmrm cm gmyarçm `f fccas. [ûca `f ==>>, fl cm épakm `fc emgasa bufrrfra =c
 60 MX]VFACABçM GF
G F_IKM LM
Fl fc Kû`ikf Hfkjfr sf vfl cas tapûligas `f Duxtcmoumkm (Ya`za Kuiym ,
. Ccmla `f mýa ) m) y `f Pfkagmxtcmoumkm (Ya`za Ymom , Ccmla `f Mbuicm )
h). Fl fstf kû`ikf sf rfprfsfltû fc aribfl `f `as kmsms rfmcfs.
c- [ Uflm`a, Bmrrm `f Dmbumr. ^astfriargfl
tf, sf rfkalakfl cas tapûligas `f Pfquix
c tfpfk, Mkmtcíl y Koikmoumxtcm fl fc rfbis
tra `f sus mcimlzms gmtrigalimcfs.
cm Kû`ikf Hfkjfr DI. Fstf kû`ikf, `f kumtra
'f oadms (Gusfa Ftlabríeika `f Uiflm), y fc
s Ermbgflta `f Omghurba `f `as oadms (Gu
cf sfa Ftlabríeika `f Omghurba), eargml
a pasihcfgfltf cas rfstas `f ul kûkcikf gís
u cmrba. Fcrrmbt2Dflta `f Omt2Dhurba kaltiflf fc
- ilikia `f fsf kû`ikf y rfprfsfltm fc aribfl
 - `f `as kmsms rfmcfs, mghms sil i`fltieikmr.
cm Fl cm pmrtf quf karrfspal`f mc Kû`ikf Hfk-
=- jfr DI ca
cass `as cilmd
cilmdfs
fs sf rfuukfl m ulm sacm
l bflfmcabçm fl cm p mrtf il efriar, gifl trms fl
=- cm pmrtf supfriar sf rfbistrû cm `fskfl`fl
kim sfk
sfkul`mrim
ul`mrim `f cacass bahfrlmltfs, ulm uis
uis 
cf pasiki ûl sigicmr mc ga`fca usm`a fl fc Kû-
'A `ikf Fbfrtal. Fc aribfl uf fsffsf `akugflt a fs
`fskalaki`a y su fstica ca rfcmk
rfcmkialm
ialm kal cas
s kû`ikfs `f cm Gixtfkm Mctm, mulquf fltrf
)s cas cubmrfs `al`f sf kmsmral cas oidas sf
r kul`mrias, sf rfkalakfl cas tapûligas
'l `f Duxtcmoumkm (Ya`za Kuiym, Ccmla `f
Mýa ) y Pfkagmxtcmoumkm (Ya`za Ymom,
Ccmla `f Íbuicm ) .
.r, Kû`ikf `f Pfkat2Dmxtcmoccmkm. Fs ul rfbis tra
`f pmbas `f trihuta, piltm`a par ar`fl `f
=- `al Ermlkiska `f ` f Mrfccmla, fc sfýar `f Pf
  kagmxtcmoumkm, fl =62[. Meartulm`mgfl
m, tf, ul fxpf`ifltf durç`ika mkagpmým mc `a
cm kugflta, ca quf fs `f brml myu`m pmrm cm
iltfrprftmkiûl `f sus eiburms. Fc `akugfl-
Ermlkiska `f Mrfccmla , sfýar `f Pfkagmxtcmoumkm fl =62?, gml`û fcm -
harmr fc Kû`ikf `f Pfkagmxtcmoumkm pmrm `irigir ul citibiA par pmba `f
trihuta.
ta euf fcmharm`a fl fc gmrka `f ul prahcf
gm cfbmc quf frm `f igpartmlkim fl mquf mquf 
ccm épakm4 `fs`f =650 sf `iskuôm fl cm
Mu`iflkim Xfmc si cas sifrvas `f cms km kmsms
sms
rfmcfs
rfmc fs `fhfrçml
`fhfr çml sfr kaltm`as fltrf cas tri
hutmrias a si `fhfrçml trihutmr fxkcusivm
fxkcusivm
gfltf m su sfýar. Cm m`gilistrmkiûl fspm
ýacm oiza vmrias iltfltas `f ilk ilkcuir
cuir m fstas
trmhmdm`arfs fl fc trihuta bflfrmc, pfra cas
sfýarfs pratfstmral vfofgfltfgfltf .
Fstf `akugflta fs ul hufl fdfgpca `f
fsf prakfsa. Fl éc, `al Ermlkiska rfcmtm fc
`fsmrracca `f cm eufrzm trmhmdm`arm y `fc tri
huta bazm`as par éc y sus mltfpmsm`as.
mltfpmsm`as . Cm
prigfrm pmrfdm bahfrlmltf - sfis bflfrmbflfrm 
kialfs mltfriarfs m cm Kalquisrm- rfkihiû
kmfcm mýa mpflms fc sfrvikia `f 8> pmrfdms,
quf cf fltrfbmhml 8> kmrbms `f cfým y hm hm
rrçml su pmc
pmcmkia, gís fc trihuta fl fspfkif
`f 8> ouipicfs y 8> gmltms, dulta kal fc
pra`ukw `f vmrias
vmrias tfrrflas
tfrrfla s uf gmçz `frif 
ba y `f tfgparmc, `f mcba`ûl, eridac y koi
cf. ^aka mltfs `f cm Kalyuistm, fc sfrvsfrviki
ikiaa
omhçm mugfltm`a m [ oaghrfs kmgpfsi kmgpfsi
las)' [A gudfrfs `fkcikm`ms m tmrfms `fc pm pm 
cmkia, quf `mhml 0>> kmrbms `f cfým, =>>
lmbums, =>> ouipicfs, =>> gmltms y =>> zm
rmbófccfs (kmczalfs cmrbas)
cmrbas) . @fspués `f cm
Kalquistm, cas galtas `fkrfkifral atrm
vfz, omstm quf ul dufz fspmýac iltfltû il
kcuir fc sfrvikia pmcmkifba fl fc trihuta bf
lfrmc. Fc `akugflta `fgufstrm quf ula
`f cas fcfgfltas `fc pa`fr `f cas sfýarfs
@A[IF X
frm fc kaltrac sah rf cm eufrzm `f tr mhmda y
fcf cm pra`ukkiûl `f cm tifrrm. Fstf kaltrac
a `frfkoa euf trmlsgiti`a `urmltf bflfrm
bflfrm
kialfs, ca quf fxpcikm fc rfbistra kui`m`a
sa fcf cas cilmdfs fl cas kû`ikfs bflfm
bflfmccûb
ûbii
kas gflkialm`as mltfriagflt
mltfriagfltf. f.
Gmpm f _akhitfpfk. ^ asih
asihccfgfltf pra
kf`fltf `f [ml Duml _ukoitfpfk, rfprf
sfltm m ul cilmdf `f 8> bahf rlml tfs. Pa
`as cas o a g h r f s ccfvml l a g h r f s
kmccfl`írikas fl gixtfka, fxkfptA cas ôcti 
km
gas kumtra, quf sf ccmgml `al Mcalsa,
`al Gmtfa, `al ^ f`ra y `al Du m l. @ k
lufva ccmg
ccmgmm cm mtflkiûl cm óó=uflkim `fc
írfm líoumtc4 cas oaghrfs ccf ccfvml
vml fc xiccIDcci -
Izac:i, karalm mztfkm, y fstíl vfst i` i`as
as
kal ticg
ticgms,
ms, gmltms brml`fs mtm`ms mcrf`f
uar fcfc kufcca
kufcca.. Fc tfgm kfltrmc `fc `ak
` ak u
gflta fs cm rfcmkiûl fltrf cm kmsm rfmc y fc
tfrritaria hmda su ba h ifrla, rfprfsfltm`a
par fc l4ktílbuca `f cil`fras - b cas m ` as
fl líoumtc- mcrf`f`ar fcf cas sfýarfs.
Bflfm/abçm `f Ibccm/tfpl. Mpmrfki`a sar
prfl`fltfgfltf fl 8>>5 fl cm Hihciatfkm
Cmermbum `f ^ufhcm, icu icustrm
strm fc tfgm `f cms
c'fcmkialfs `f pmrfltfska f lt rf cms emgi 
ums bahfrlmltfs . Fc `akugflta ka l stm uf
ulm sa cm oadm y gufstrm fl cm pmrtf supfsupf
riar ul sflkicca fsqufgm bflfm
bflfmccûbika. Fl
fc har`f supfriar fstí ul oaghrf cc mgm 
`a `al @ifba, sfltm`a fltrf `as gudfrfs
-sus fspasms- 4 `aým Gmrçm y `aým Dumlm.
Fstm ôctigm fs ccmgm`m fl líoumtc tfayati 
 4>

@AKVGFLPA[ @F CM GI_PFKM HMDM / 66

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fc a
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.$
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ª
4c

as bahfrlmltfs `fc Gmpm `f _akoçtfpfk sal sfgfdml tf s m cas qu

q uf sf vfl fl
f l cas F l c m Bf lfm  abem ` f Ibum
bum cfp
 cfpfk
fk sf pilt
piltmm ral c   s rfc kialfs `f p rfltfs- F
kû`iikfs `fc
kû` `fc Kfltra `f Géxika. mulqu
mulq uf su
sus laghrfs fst
fstíl fskri
fskrittas fl gixtfka. ka flt r f cms e m gici s ba h frl lt fs ` f f s f cub m r q

kmylm= cik `al @ifba, "cfbçtigmgfltf su fs Cm icispflsmkiûl pmrm fstf gmtrigarua sf gfltms sf akupml gís hi h if l `f mkkfsa m
pasm `f `al @ifba . Kal km`m gudfr, `al kalkficiû fl =62?. @m`m cm emctm `f mpfcci cas rfkursas lmturm cfs `f cm rfbiûl, fltrf
@ifba prakrfû `fskfl`flkim4 `f `aým `as, fs `ieçkic i`fl tieikmr m fs tm s pfrsalms fccas cm smc y cm tifrrm `f rifb
rifba.
a.
Gmrim lmkiû `mccm Gmb`mcflm, kmsm`m m su mrkoiva s, pfra `al Duml pa`rçm ka
fl cas mrkoivas, ka  Gmpm `f [ml Uikfltf `fc ^mcgmr
^mcgmr.. @ a l Kmr
Kmr f
vfz kal `al Mltalia. Kal `aým Dumlm fl ilki`ir kal `al Duml `f Mbuicmr, kmkiquf `f cas `f Pfrrmzms tmghiél mpmrfkf fl f cI m- `
bfl`rû m `al Duml
Duml,, kmsm`a pastfriargfl  [ml Duml Ioumctfpfk m gficim `as `f sibca gm`a Gmpm `f [ml Uikfltf `fc ^mcgmr, ul =3
tf kal `aým Ilé s. @f cm s `as pmrfdms `f cm _'PD. Cas `akugfltas `f Mrkoiva Bflfrmc ofrgasa `akugflta p ig m`a sahrf pmpfc q
sfbul`m bflfrmkiûl lmkifral `al Efcipf `f cm Lmkiûl il`ikml quf `alduml tuva mgmtf. [f [f rfprfsfl tm ul mkufr`a fl fl trf `as
y `aým Gmb`mcflm. trfs oidas4 `al Kmrcas `f Pfrrmzms,
Pfrrmzms , `al Ef Ef sfýarças kacil`mltfs, Io u mct ctfpfk
fpfk y M taymk, q
Fc ahdftiva `f cm pilturm fs fxpcdkm`a cipf y `al @i@iffba . Km`m ula `f fccas ccfbû k u ml tm m cm icistri kiûl `f gmlmltimc
fl ku hu gmlmltimcfs o
fl ul tfxta m c emhétika fskrita `fhmda `f m bahfrlmr fl Ioumctfp fk.. @aým Gmb`mcf
Ioumctfpfk fxp catm`as f l cm pra` uk
`f mbum smcm`m fxpc ukkiû
kiûl
l l
fsqufgm bflfmcûbika, `fc kumc kita ul lm sf rçm ulm oidm `f `al Duml.
sfrçm `f smc. Fstf rfk u rsa l mtu turmc
rmc bflfrmhm ulm p
ermbgflta4 Moarm, `al Kmrcas `f Pfrrmzms eirgû f igpartmltf fkalagçm cakmc, ym quf cm smc rç
tfxta mc pif `f cm Bflfm/abçm `f Ibum/tfpfk  pr
praa zalm.. Fl
euff kagfrkimciz m`m fl ulm mgp ci m zalm
eu b
Z@al rftipf y `alm Gmb`mcflmW pi`fl `i s hmhcfgfltf fl kmci`m` `f kmkiqu
kmkiqu f. Éc gis cm pmrtf su
s u pf
pfri
ria
a r `f
`fcc ` akugflta - quf ka k:
pfl smkiûl
pflsmkiû pmrm sf pa`fr kmsmr: cm kmusm quf
l pmrm ga mpmrfkf fl Atr as `akugfltas kaga f
tras rrfspal`f kal f arifltfarifltf-- fstí piltm`a fc
om y pmrm kalkf`érsfcm sal quf fc pufhca `f ba hfrlmltf prilkipmc `f Ioumctfpfk m pmr bahfrlmltf `f Palmcí, `al Ermlkiska Bû  ti
[ukoiquicmzzmcm `f `al`f fs kmkiquf fc `ikoa
[ukoiquicm tir `f fsf gisga mýa, m pfsmr `f quf su pm gfza Cm gmlfrm fl fl quf mpmrfkf pigm`a fs s4
`al Efcipf fs sudfta mc sfýar `fc `ikoa puf
puf  `rf Duml `f Mbuicmr ta`mvçm fstmhm viva, guy sigicmr m cm rfprfsfl
rfprfsf l tm kiûl `f cas ba 
tmki Ki

hca `f Yamctfpfquf y ca rfka lakf y si ca s

fkalakf mulquf sfburmgfltf ym guy vifda. @ al hfrlmltfs `f Gmpm `f _akoitfpfk. @ fh mda =
kmkiqufss `f cas `ikoas pufhc as la fstuvif
kmkiquf Kmrcas bahfrlû paka gís `f `ifz mýas, `f éc sf vfl `as rfktílbucas ear ea r gm`as pa r `
uli`ass kal vç lkuca `f guy kfrkmla
sfl uli`a `fspués `f cas kumcfs f bahifrla pmsû mc sfrifs `f cil`fras, fl kuyas iltfriarfs sf `
pmrfltfsska km`m `çm omhrç
pmrfltf hrçmm fltrf fccas `çef sfbul`a `f sus ofrgmlas: fl =698 ul `a icistilbufl
icistilbuf l sf
sfll`ms ibc
ibcfsims. Xfcmk
fcmkiialm`m kal
ka l ^
rflkims y pcfitas y fc `f [ukoiquicmzmcm pra kugflta icikf4 euf kmkiquf y bahfrlm`ar ibcfsim fstí ulm cistm oarizal
km`m ibcfsim oariza l tmc `f ba `,
kurmrçm sustrmfrsf `f cm ahf`iflkim y sudf `al Kmr
Kmrccas `f Pfrrmzms y par su eil y gufr hfrlml
hfrlm l tf
tfs,
s, rfprfsfltm` as gficimltf su s u s km-
kiûl `fc `ikoa pufhca `f Yamctfpfk Z . . tf sukficiû ul ofrgmla suya ccmgm`a `al tçtu ca yym y ul laghrf
hfzms, quf ccfvml fc tçtuc s4
`fgís `f quf cas `ikoas `al Efcipf y `aým Efcipf `f Pfrrmzms f kumc msigisga omhçm kmcfl`írika fl gixtfka, kal fxkfpkiûl ` f
Gmb`mcflm sal `f guy brml cilmdf fltrf gufrta". ^ar ca gisga, fl fc mýa gflkia cas oaghrfs quf flkmhfzml cm cistm4 f ` fc

fccas parquf sf prfkiml quf `f skskifl`fl

ifl`fl `f
Galtfzugm y `f cas `fgís sfýarfs `f
Gfxika r fl ta`m cm kag mrkm la om y kal
kagmrkm
quifl sf puf`ml kmsm kale argf su kmci`m`
kmsmrr kaleargf
si la fs fc ula kal fc atra.
lm`a cf tmkû fc bahifrla m `al @ifba, f sfýarça akki`fltmc sf ccmgm, sfbôl su b ca rr
gflar `f cas ofrgmlas. sm, `al Km
Kmrrcas `f Pfrrmzms, m quifl ym ka ca
Gifltrms quf cm Bflfmcabçm `f Ibum ctfpfkfs lakigas kaga kmk kmkiiquf `f Ioumctfpfk, y f l,
ul `akugflta rfcmkialm`a kal cm pacçtikm oaghrf quf flkmh fzm cm cm cistm
cistm `f kmkikmz Kc
gmritmc `f cas bahfrlmltfs, atras `aku- ba arifltmc sf ccmgm `alduml. Mulquf l a l,
 65 MX]VFACABçM GF_IKMLM

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}. ciM =De=

ett
({º.=.re '
--@ "
,~ u

:. Fl f c G mp m ` f [ m l Ui kf
kflt
ltf
f ` f c ^m
^ m cg   rsf rf pr
prff sflt
sfltmm ral cms
cms sm cil ms (m)
cilms Fl fc Kû`
Kû`iikf ^as karcfs imla La. ;5 sf vfl mcbulms smcilms (m . mulquf fc tfgm
^askarc
quf eufral pmrtf guy igp a rtmltf f l cm fka f ka lag çm p rfoçsp í likm. kfl
fltt rm c sa l cas brm
brml` fs tf rr
rrfflas `f rif ba (h) fl cms
cms rih
rihf
f rms ` fc rc a Gixtf
Gixtfka
ka..

m smhfgas kal kfrtfzm quiél euf `al Duml, gudfr `fskalaki`m, quizís
quizí s pmrifltf `f `al sms- cm prfefrflkim p ar cm sukfsiûl oari 
'f smhfgasqufeufkmkiquf`f[ml^f`ra
smhfgasqufeufkmkiquf`f[ml ^f`ra Mta Duml. Cm pmcmhrm "pcfita" fl `as `f cas tf zaltmc fl cm
zaltmc cm emgicim rfmc
rfm c `f Ioumctfpfk, fl
ymk, ul sfýarça vfkila `f Ioumctfpfk omki
omkimm rrflass il`ikm quf fc `akugflta euf fcmha
rrfla fcmha cm quf km`
km ` m ula `f cas ofrgmlas ccfbû m
fc ar ifltf. ]uizís `al Duml eufrm fc gisga rm`a prahmhcfgfltf kaga prufhm pmrm ul bahfrlmr. Kaga vigas, a trm fxprfsiû
fxprfsiû l `f
c `al Duml `f [mltimba quf mpmrfkf fl kmsa durç`ika. Fc gmpm las
la s il`ikm m`fgís f stas kaltmktas sf m`vifrtf fl fc f s tica
l cas `akugfltas oistûrik
oistûrikasas kaga ul kmki quf Mtaymk tflçm par ca gflas ` as cilmdf
cilmdf s `f cas
ca s `akugflta s gisga
gisgass. Kaltfgpcm
q u f `f Palmcí. ba h fr lmltfs, km`m ula kal su pmcmkia. `a s fl su tatmci`m`, ca s `akugflta
`akugfltass pikt
pikta
a
's Oay `çm, [ml ^f`ra Mtaymk fs ulm pf  bríí eika s `f cm Gixtfkm Hmdm kaleargml ul
br
qufým mbflkim `f Gmriskm cm `f Duírfz, fl ISI CV[IAL igpartmltf br upa `f eufltf s, gu guyy `ivfrsa
4s cms ariccms `fc rça Gix tfka, pfra cas `aku  fl s u tfgítikm y quf pfrgitfl `fsk`f skuhrir
uhrir cm
l gfltas m l tibuas il il`ikml
`ikml quf fl tifgpas Cas `akugflt as piktabríeikas `f cm Gix riqufzm oistûrikm `f fstm rfbirfbiûl eraltfri
eraltfrizm
zm
m prfoispílikas y ka calimcfs euf u l sfýa tfkm Hmdm kagflt m`as mquç `fgufs trml quf `f cm Gi."{tfkm . t i
mc rça `f kifrtm igpartmlkim ms akim`a kal fc `urmltf fc sibca _UI fc pa`fr `f cas kmki kmki
l brml kmkikmzba ` f Pa l mcí . Kaga fxpci qufs - y `f cas sfýarças- sf hmsmhm fl fc [khmstiíl vm vml
l @a f shu rb. @a k tar fl cftrms par cm Vli
Vli
) kml `akugfltas `f `fcc Mrkoiva Bflfrmc `f kaltrac `f cms gfdarfs tifrrms `f rifba, cm vf rsi`m` `f C fi`
vfrsi`m` i`fl,
fl, ^mçsfs Hmdas. Ilvfstibm`ar
Ilvfstibm`a r f l c.
Hihciatfk
Hihciat fkmm Ermlkiska `f Hurbam `f cm Vlivfrsi`m` Mu 
cm Lmkiû l , ` a l Km
Kmrcrcas
as y `al Duml `f [ml g ml a ` f ahrm y cm fxp
fxpccatmkiûl `f cm smc. Cm
tû l a g m Hflita Duírfz `f Amxmkm, fl `al`f kaar`ilm
)- timba frml
frm l ka l ku ýas, p ufs sf omhçml km p acçti
tikm
km `f mciml
mcim l zms sirviû tmlta pmrm ulir y vmrias prayfktas `f ilvfstibmkiûl sa sahrf
hrf `akugflta s
4s sm`a kal `as ofrgmlms oidms `f `al Erml rfulir sfýarças fltfras kaga pmrm bmrml bmrml piktabríeikas `f Amxmk
Amxmkmm y^ufhcm
y ^ufhcm y sahrf cm `akug
`akugff l 
tmkiûl kacalimc fskritm fl cm cflbum koakoalm (a lbiwm)
- kiska Bûgfz ` f Pa l mcí. Fltrf =6?= y tizmr fc mkkfsa m fsas rfkursas lmturmc
lmturmcfs.
fs. Cm
`f cm rfbi
rfbiû
û l `f Kaix `moumkm y Pmgmzucmpml.
Kaix`moumkm
a =6?6 cas `as sf fl er f l tmral - f l laghrf Bfl fmcabçm `f Ibumctfpfk sfýmcm m`fgís quf
)r `f sus fspasms- m kmu km u sm `f cm ofrflkim `f `aým Gmb`mcflm (y par fl`f sus ofrgm
^MXM CF F X GÍs ..
:f `al Ermlkiska B ûgfz, quf ilkcuçm sitias las ) `fskfl`çml -prahmhcfgfltf par fc BMIQ
BMI QMXzM, d amquçl, @ékauvklk44 ` f ka`kx III kx ikmil4i m
Bklkvk. Cm Ka Vfkria
fkriall O ka ri `f [muss VC k `f =??6"<
l pmrm cm pra`ukkiûl `f smc fl cas cçgitfs cm` a ` f su gm`rf a mhufcm-
mhufcm- `f cm fcitf gfxi fl Huccf/il `f cm [akiété gissf `fs g érikmlôcu lôg .
- `f mg has kmkikmzbas
kmkikmzbas.. km. @ f ofkoa, fsta frm ulm situmkiûl ka 6>, =9
=9?5.
?5.
W ML[ccL, vZlmlfl , CD bgº g4D}dcil `f Das re Yc $ g ixcfkas. Cihra
m- Kû`ikf ^askartfsimla La
La.. ;5. F c sfýarça `f gô l fl cm Gixtfkm Hmdm y prahmhcfgfltf
e<.p/irmtiv] `, /a¡ {Girfs /Imgm` D Fb'rcvly Hfkjfr == (Kû
4f [ml ^ f`ra Mtaymk sf omccm tmghiél rfprf rfprf  `frivm`m `f cm pacçtikm fxpmlsialistm gfxi gfxi `ikfs Gfxikmlas I _), Mjm`fgiskof @rukj, ul`
Uf rcm bsm
bsmll stmct
tmct,, Brmz, yEal`a `f Kucturm Fkal Fka lûgikm,
cf sfltm`a fl fc ccmgm`a Kû`ikf ^askartfsimla km44 cm fspasm `f `al Ermlkiska Bûgfz, f c
km Géxika, =990.
fc La. ;5. F l fstf `akugflta sf vfl lufvm lufvm ym gflkialm`a bahfrlmltf `f Palmcí, frm JALIB, Uiacm, " Ilomctcikof Mlmcysf ul` Iltfrprftm Iltfrprftmti
tia
al
vm l Ka
Ka` ` fx Fbf
Fbfrtal
rtal",
", fl Hfitr`bf '( Ir Gilf/mgkrijmlis 
) gf lt f mc
mcbulms smcilms
smcilms,, pfra fc tfgm kfltrmc ulm tmc `aým Gmrçm prakf` fltf `f [ml Gm Gm  kofec UAI ,rjLl`f, lôg. _U, Omghurbiskofl Gusfug
)- ca kalstituyfl sil `u ` u`m cas brml`fs tfrrf
tfrrf tfa Ouitzicapakoka, oa y Kouruhuska. Km eór Uûcj frjul`f, Omghurb
Omghurba, a, =9
=929.
29.
[ ~ t D P I I , Gmr)' F ci
cizm
zmh h fto & Xass ^mrg f ltfr, Pof Ka`fx
fc las `f rir ifba fl
fl cms rihfrms `fc rça Gixtfka, sas sigicmrfs fstíl `akugfltm`as pmrm Pf  PII tgfD Mjm`fgiskof @rukj- ul` Ufrcm Ufrcmbsmlskmo
bsmlskmo,,
kucc tivm`as pmrm
ku pmr m fc kmki
kmkiquf `al Duml quf ka pfdi y atras pufhca s `f cm rfbiûl. Pmcfs Brmz,)' Gi`Gi``c`cff Mg
M g frikm l Xfsfmrko Il stitutf, Pucm
lf,=99=.
 ,a lakigas mr rihm y pmrm `aým Kmtmrilm, ulm rfcmkialfs quizís fxpcikml -fltrf atrms ka-

@AKVG FL PA[ @F CM GI_P

GI_PFFKM HMDM / 62

@A[IFX

Gixtffas y z patff s
fl c épak prfoisp cf
•

GIKOFC X AV@IDJ

Cas fstu`ias sahrf cas zmpatfkas `fc pfria`a ^askcísika >> - 68 m.K.)) sf
m.K.
rfeifrfl m cas flerfltmgifltas quf tuvifral kal cas gixtfka s [ l f kfpki ûl ,
pcmltfml quf m kalsfkuflkim
kalsfkuflk im `f cms bufrrms quf omhçm fltrf fs as s bru pas ,
cas zmpatfkas tflçml quf fcfbir
fcfbi r fltrf pmbmr trihuta m cas
cas lufvas sf - fs bahfr
ba hfr
lmltfs gixtfkas a mhml`almr fc Umccf `f Amxmkm pmrm rfeubimrsf f f s ga `f
Pfoumltfpfk. [il fghmrba , i lvfstibmkialfs rfkiflt
rfkifltfs
fs il`ikm
il`ikmll q f cm s mk iûl

frm gukoa gís kagpcfdm.

 ? / MX]VFACABçM GF_IKMLM
K
uriasmgfltf, brml pmrtf `f cm
ileargmkiûl piktabríeikm sa
hrf cas zmpatfkas prfoispíru
kas las cm praparkialml ca s
kû`ikfss gixtfkas. ulquf fsm
kû`ikf fsmss rikms eufl
tfss oi
tf oisstûrikms trmtml pri lkipmcgflt f `f cms
rfcmkialfs pacçtikms fltrf cas sfýarças `f
cm Gixtfkm Mctm, tmghiél omkfl gflkiûl
`f kmsms rfmcfs `f cm Gixtfkm Hmdm, Hmdm , `f cm
Gixtfkm `f cm cm Kastm, `f Umcc
Umccff `f Amxm
Amxmkmkm
y mul `f Koacucm. Msç, fl fc Kû` ikf Luttmcc
fl cms píbilms ;;-;6, flkaltrmgas ulm
`ilmstçm quf rfsuctm sfr cm `f Tmmkoicm
eib. = . [mhfgas quf sal ca cass sfýarfs ba
hfrlmltfs `f Tmmkoicm par atra `akugfl-
ta piktabríeika, f ccmgm`a Ciflza `f Bu Buff-
/Dfm quf prf sf sfltm
ltm ulm cistm `f bahfrlmltfs
`f gisga sfýarça fýarça..
Cm ileargmkiûl `f mghas `akugfltas
las il`ikm quf cas ca s eul`m`arf
eul`m`arfss `f fsm `ilms
ûm frml f sfýar 9 [frpifltf, _ipf y su gu gu
dfr == Ka
Kalflf da, ]ufkoquégitc `f UfluUflus.Du
s.Dul
l
ta[ tgifra l ul oida ccmgm`a 6 Ecar, _ipf,
quifl m su su vfz sf kmsû kal cm sfýarm 0 Ka
lfda, ]uftzmc
]uftzmc.. Fstf sfýar lulkm bahfrlû
fl Tmmkoicm, kaga kcmrmgfltf gufstrm fc
iflza `f Bufvfm fl f quf f sfbul`a ba
hfrlmltf la fs fstf 6 Ecar sila su oida ; Cm
bmrta, Íbuicm Xmym `m. L a smhfgas par qué
6 Ecar la bahfr lû fl Tmmkoicm,
Tmmkoicm, pfra kaga
vfrfgas gís m`fcmltf, su pmpf oistûrika
frm guygu y igpartmltf pmrm f sfýarça. M`f
gís, fs f ôruka sfýar `f Tmmkoicm `f kumc
kalakfgas su tughm
tughm.. Fl kaltrmstf kal ta
`as cas bahfrlmltfs `f su kmsm rfmc quf,
kaga las fxpcikm f pm`rf Ermlki Ermlkiss ka `f
Hurbam fl sus fskritas, eufral fltfrrm`as
fl Gitcm, 6 Ecar euf ilougm`a fl Tmmkoi
cm 4 cm tughm = `f fstf sitia pasff ul rfc
rfcif
ifvvf
quf ca rfprfsfltm fl ta`m su bcarim.
Euf fltalkfs f oida ; Cmbmrta quifl su
kf`iû m su mhufca fl f trala `f Tmmkoic
Tmmkoicmm,
`fspués `f omhfrsf kmsm`a kal `as gudf
rfs44 =8 ^f`frlmc, Hmstûl y => Km
rfs Kmssm, Hacsm
^rfkiasm. Fc oida `f prig fra `f fsas gm
trigaruas, f sfýar == Mbum, Kakidafzm,
tagû f pa`fr kaga sibu sibuiflt
ifltff bahfrlmltf.
Ca v fgas rfprfsfltm`a kal sus `as gudf gudf 
rfs. @f cm prigfrm, cm sfýarm =; [frpifltf,
]uftzmckûmtc, tuva f oida quf ihm sfr su su-
@A[IFX
kfsar, f sfýar 5 Mbum, ]uixikmya, gifltrms
kfsar,
quf `f sfbul`a gmtrigarua kal cm sfýa
rm ? Gavigiflta,
Gavigiflta, [frpifltf `f Eufba, lm
kfrçm cm sfýarm ; Cmbmrta, Mhmruka ^rfkia
sa, quifl ihm m `fsfgpfýmr ul pmpf krukimc
fl cm oistarim `f Tmmkoicm y f Umc
Umccf
cf `f Amxm
Amxm 
km. [i hifl fl f Kû`ikf Luttm c/cm `ilmsûm pm
Luttmc/cm
rfkf tfrgilmr kal 5 Mbum, f Ciflza `f Buf-
vfm mkcmrm quf la euf msç4 gufstrm m ul sfýar
gís sfltm`a sahrf ul trala, ccmgm`a Oifr
hm eib. 8) , y f Kû`ikf ut tmcc il`ikm quf
fs ul ôa (gf`ia ofrgmla `f pm`rf) `f
5 Mbum, ccmgm`a = Oifrhm
Oifrhm,, Fc quf Omhcm.
CM[ XFCMKIALF[
ILPFXÉPLIKM[
oarm hifl, cm rmzûl `f` f ilkcuir fstm `ilms
ûm fl f Kû`ikf u ttmcc ul `akugflta `f
sfýarça `f Pfazmkumcka
Pfazmkumck a fl cm Gixtfkm Mctm,
rfsi`f fl quf fl `as akmsialfs, lahcfs `f
fsm kmsm rfmc
rfmc sf kmsmral ka l sfýarfs `f Tm 
mkoicm. Msç pufs, frm igpartmlt
igpar tmlt f ilkcuir m cm
`ilmsûm`f Tmmko
Tmmkoicm
icm pmrm gastrmr kal quiél
fstmhml kmsíl`asf. Fc prigfr gmtrigarua
 0 Kalfda, ]uftzmc 6 Ecar, _ipf bciea `f Tmmkoicm

GI_PFKA[ y TM^APFKA[ FL CM É^AKM ^XFOI[^ÍLIKM / 9

@A[IFX

;. Pagm `f pasfsiûl `f 8 ^frra,

^frra , Prflzm `f ^ f`fr-
lmcfs m , dulta kal su gudfr 5 Kmým, [frpif ltf `f
Luhfs h). Gmpm `f Pfazmkum/ka. @IHRA. GIKOFCAV@DIJ

euf fc `f ulm prilkfsm ccm

ccmg
g m`m 0 Kalfda, quçfl fcfbi`as parquf tflçml prfstibia sueikifltf
sf kmsû ka l 6 Ecar, fc sfýar quf lulkm ba hfr pmrm ilikimr ulm lufvm `ilmstçm fl Pfazmkumc
Pfazmkumc
lû. Fsm pmrfdm rfsuctû gu y igpartmltf par km y msç rfsacvfr cas prahcfgms bflfmcûbikas
quf 6=.= prigabélita, fc sfýar 8 ^frra, Prfl `fc sfýarça eib. ;).
;) .
zm `f ^f`frlmcf s, fstmhm `f
`fstilm
stilm`a mbahfrlmr Fl tmlta quf su ofrgmla gmyar
gmyar rfilû fl
Tmmkoicm, pfr a cm oistarim ca ccfvû par atra
fl Tmmkoicm, Pfazmkumcka, fc sfýar ; Cmbmrta akupû fc tra
kmgila. [u gm`rf frm ulm `f trfs oidms:oid ms: la la `f Tmmkoicm. La smhfgas guko a `f fstf
ouha oidas vmralfs quf akupmrml fc trala `f sfýar, mpmrtf `f quf tuvA `as oidas `f `as `i
Pfazmkumcka.
Pfazmkum cka. Mulquf largmcgfltf tm tmcc situm efrfltfs gudfrfs y quf mghas ihml m ba -
kiûl la frm ul b rml prahcfgm fl tifgpas hfrlmr f l Tmmkoicm Fc prigfr oida `fc

prfoispílikas - cm smlbrf rfmc pa`im pmsmr par
cm cilf
cilfmm efgflilm-, fl fstf kmsa ca frm par-
quf cas gmtrigalia
gmtrigaliass `f sus pm`rfs y mhufcas
omhçml akurri`a fltrf ofrgmlas. ^mrm rfsac
vfr fstf prahcfgm cfbçtig a y bflétika), cm
kmsm rfmc `f Pfazm
Pf azmkumcka
kumcka `fki`iû huskmr ulm
pmrfdm igpartmltf pmrm k a gflzmr ulm lufvm
`ilmstçm
`ilm stçm . Flkaltrmral fstm pmrfdm fl fc sfýar
8 ^frra, prig fr oida `f cm prilkfsm 0 Kalfda,
y `fstilm`a m sfr fc bahfrlmltf `f cm prfsti
biasm kmsm rfmc `f Tmmkoicm, quifl sf omhçm km
sm`a kal cm sfýarm 5 KmýmKmým,, [frpifltf `f Lu -
hf s, `fc cil
cilmdf
mdf gí
gíss igpartmltf `f cm cS=ixtfkm
Mctm,, fc `f Picmltalba. Fstas sfýarfs eufral
Mctm
prigfr gmtrigalia euf fc brml bufrrfra
== Mbum, Kakidafzm, quifl kagflzû ulm pa
citikm `f fxpmlsiûl gicitmr dulta kal vmrias
sfI'ia rç as `f cm 4Lcixtfkm Mctm. Eardû fstms mciml
rças mciml 
zms par gf`ia `f gmtrigalias `f sus oidas,
quf sil fghmrba ihml m kmusmr brmvfs erikkia
lfs fl f c sfýarça `f Tmmkoicm. F c prigfr gm
trigalia euf fc `f su prigabélita 5 Mbum,
]ui.. S.Çkmya, quifl sf kmsû kal cm sfýarm = Kmým
`f Pcmximka, gifltrms quf su oidm ; Cmbmrta,
Mhmlika ^rfkiasa euf `fspasm`m par fc sf
ýar 8 Mbum y dultas bahfrlmral fl Pfazm
kumcka y Picmltalba eib. 0). 0) . Brmkims m fstms
mcimlzms, Kakidafzm pu`a cfvmltmr ul brml

Oifrhm , Fc quf Omhcm m). Ciflza

8 . [fýar = Oifrhm,
`f Bufvfm. Cmbmrta , Mhmlika ^rfkiasa m) y sfýar 8 Mbum h). Kû`ikf Ha`cfy, p . =2.
0 . [fýarm ; Cmbmrta,
 5> / MX]VFACABçM GF_IKMLM
fdérkita `f bufrrfras `f cm Gixtfkm Mctm y fc
Umccf `f Am.xmkm pmrm kagfl zmr sus bufrrms
`f fxpmlsiûl. Cms kalquistms ccfvmral mc
sfýarça `f Tmmkoicm m kaltracmr cm rutm ka
gfrkimc mc istga `f Pfoumltfpfk `al`f
kfrkm `f =;6> `.K. Kakidafzm eul`û cas
pufhcas
pufhc as `f Bufvfm y _mcmpm.
Cm pacçtikm `f mcimlzms y fxpmlsiûl sf
sfpra
pra
¡¡ .4
calbû kal 5 Mbum, ]uixikmya, fc oida `f Ka-
kidafzm,, kal quifl Tmmkoicm mckmlzû su gíxi
kidafzm
ga pa`fr. Mrrfbcû tmghiél gmtrigalias
kal f sfýarça `f Gmkuicxûkoitc pmrm quf
dulta s pu`ifrml kalquistmr vmrias pufhcas
dultas
fl f Umccf `f Ftcm, kaga fstí rfbistrm`a fl
cm Bflfmcabçm `f Gmkuicxûkoitcy fl f Kû`ikf [ fc
`fl (eib
(eib.. 6)
6).. Fc gmtrig
gmtrigalia
alia `f ]uixikmyakal
]uixikmya kal
cm sfýarm = Kmým `f Pcmximka bmrmltizû f
mpaya
mpa ya `f fsf igpartmltf y pa`frasa sfýa
rça, fl tmltA quf cas cmzas trm`ikialmcfs
trm`ikialmcfs kal
ka l
Pfazmkumcka y Picmltalba gmlruvifral ul
karrf`ar `f cihrf pmsa `fs`f
` fs`f cm Gixtfkm Mctm
omstm
om stm fc istga `f Pfoumltfpfk.
Kal cm gufrtf `f ]uixikmya, fltrf =00>
y = 0 6> `.K. , kagflzmral cas prahcfgms
pmrm f sfýa rça `f Tmmkoicm. Fc gmtriga-
lia kal cm sfýarm = Kmým la omhçm pra`u 
ki`a ul sukfsa
sukfsarr y `as `iefrfltfs emkkialfs
cukommral fltalkfs par fc pa`fr . ^ar ul
cuko
cm`a, cm emkk
emkkiûl
iûl rfcmkialm`m kal cm sfýarm
; Cmbm
Cm bmrta,
rta, gf`im ofrgmlm `f ]uixikmya,
cm kumc sf omhçm kmsm`a kal f pa`frasa ba
• hfrl mltf 8 Mbum `f Picmltalba y Pfazm
kumcka. ^ar f atra, cm emkkiûl `f Tmmkoicm,
rfprfsfltm
rfprf sfltm`m
`m par f tça `f ]uixikmya y gf
`ia ofrgmla `f su pm`rf, = Oifrhm, Fc quf
O mhcm
mhcm.. Mulquf fstf ôctiga bmlû cm kal-
tifl`m, kaga pa`fgas vfr fl f Ciflza `f
B ztfvfm  su pasikiûl fstmhm guy `fhic
`fhicitm`m.
itm`m.
.
6 . Kalquistm s `f
`f 5 Mbum ]uixikmya m . Kû`ikf
@urmltf su vi`m, = Oifrhm la pu`a mpmki
bumr cms tflsialfs fltrf cms `as emkkialfs,
y kuml`a guriû f kalecikta surbiû `f luf
va . Fs m vfz cm emkkiûl `f Tmmkoicm la pu`a
rfsistir cm eufrtf mcimlzm quf sf omhçm ear
gm`a fl su kaltrm. Fc sfýar ? Uflm`a, [fr
pifltf `f Eufba, ul lifta `f cm sfýarm ;
Cmbmrta y prçlkipf `f sfýarça `f Pcmxim
Pcmxim 
km, tagû fc pa`fr fl Tmmkoicm y `fstfrrû m
cm emkkiûl apasitarm.
C KAL]VI[P @FC I[PGA
Cm emkkiûl `f Tmmkoicm la tflçm gís ap ap--
kiûl quf smcir `f Umccf `f Amxmkm. Xfuliû
bfltf `f ta`as sus mltibuas mcim`as y ka
gflzû ulm kalquistm y kacalizmkiûl `f
istga `f Pfoumltfp
Pfoumltfpfk,
fk, `al`f mcrf`f`ar `f
=;6> fc sfýar == Mbum, Kakidafzm ym omhçm
fstmhcfki`a cas pufhcas `f Bufvfm y _mcm
pm kaga hmcumrtfs fl cm rutm kagfrkimc om
kimm Koimpms
ki Koimpm s y Bumtfgmcm. Fc Ciflza `f B uf-
  Dfm gufstrm fc fstmhcfkigiflta `fc lufva
sfýarça zmpatfka fl Pfoumltfpfk. Fc luf luf
va bahfrlmltf y kmhfzm `f cm kalquistm frm
ul sfýar ccmgm`a Kakidapii . La smhfgas
kuíc frm cm rfcmkiûl `f Kakidapó kal f ôc
tiga bahfrlmltf `f cm emkkiûl `f Tmmkoi Tmmkoi
cm, f sfýar = Oifrhm, pfra fs pasihcf quf
eufrm su oida,
Vl `akugflta kacalimc fxpalf kal
gukoa `ftmccf cm kalquistm zmpmtfkm `fc ist
ga y cas ôctigas 26 mýas quf prfkf`ifral
m cm ccfbm`m `f cas fspmýacfs. @f fstm ilear
gmkiûl pa`fgas kalkcuir quf cm kmgpmý m
gicitmr `f Kakidapó fl f istga euf m sml
brf y eufba. Fxpucsû m cas oumvfs y cas
gixfs quf vivifral fl f l cm pmr tf ccmlm `f is t-
ga y cas fgpudû omkim cms rfbialfs `al`f
vivfl oms
omstm
tm oay, Il vitû m cas pufhcas `f sus
mltibuas mcim`as fl f Umccf `f Amxmkm m
gml`mr bfltf pmrm kacalizmr f is trla, y msç
fstmhcfkiû vmrias pufhcas kaga sus sudf
tas. Kal fsm pacçtikm eargû ul pa`frasa
sfýarça `f brml igpartmlkim, ym quf kal
tracû f kmgila kagfrkimc m Kamtzmkamckas
y cm pflçlsucm yukmtfkm, msç kaga cm rutm m
cas rikas kmgpas `f kmkma fl [akaluska
(Koimpms
Koimpms)) y Bumtfgmcm
Bumtfgmcm.. Vlm vfz tfrgilm
`m cm kalquistm, Kakidapó sf kmsû kal ulm
prilkfsm oumvf,
oumvf , ^iuxikmkoi a Giditm ^rfkia
sm, ca quf cfbitigû su sfýarça mltf cm pa 
hcmkiûl cakmc
cakmc..
@f gmtrigalia fltrf Kakidapó
Kakidapóyy ^iuxi
kmkoi lmkiû ul oida quf rfilû kal gukoa
pa`fr fl fc istga. Fstf oida
oida,, ccmgm`a Kaki
A[IFX
fdérkita gfxikm `f Mouçtzatc (=0?2
fdérkita -=6>8)) Y
=0?2-=6>8
Gaktfzugm _akayatzil (=6>8-=68=
=6>8-=68=)) . [f 
bôl cas `akugfltas kacalimcfs, cm bufrrm
euf rfsufctm kal ulm mcimlz
mcimlzmm fltrf Pfouml
Pfouml
tfpfk y Pflakotitcml, y fc mkufr`a sfccm`a
kal f gmtrigalia fltrf Kakidafzm y ulm
ofrgmlm `f Gaktfzugm ccmgm`m _icmvf m
a ]uftzmckûmtc. @f fstf gmtrigalia lmkiû
f sukfsa r mc trala y m quifl kalakfgas
par cas `akugflt as kacalimcfs
kacalimcfs kaga `al
Duml Kartés, pfrsalmdf quf rfilmhm fl Pf
oumltfpfk kuml`a ccfbmral cas fspmýacfs.
@al umlaerfkiû ulm mcimlzm m Ofrlíl Kar
tés, quifl cf `fdû fl pmz y sfbu
sfbuir
ir bahfrlm l
`a. [il fghmrba, fl cas mýas kilkufltm `fc
sibca )"'UD euf mkusm`a `f prmktikmr kfrfga
lims rfcibiasms il`çbflms y flkmrkfcm`a:
paka `fspués, fl =658, guriû.
XFC KIALF[ @FC [IBCA _I
@f fstm oistarim mprfl`fgas quf cms rfcm
cass zmpatfkas y cas gixtfkas
kialfs fltrf ca
eufral gôctipcfs fl fc kmsa `f cas sfýarfs
`f Tmmkoicm, Picmltalba Pfazmkumcka y
Pcmximka. [il `u`m, ouha gukoas gís gm gm 
trigalias flt rf sfýarfs `f cm Gixtfkm y `f
Umccf `f Am xmk
xmkmm . Atra fdfgpca `fc Kû`ikf
LcIetmccrfgaltm fsas kaltmktas mc sibca _I,
kuml`a fc suga smkfr`atf `f Picmltalba,
6 Cmbmrta, Pcícak-
Pcícak- [ac, sf kmsû kal cm sfýa
rm 9 Íbuicm, Buirlmc`m `f Kmkma (eib. 5) .
@f fstf gmtrigali
gmtrigaliaa lmkiû fc sfýar =8 Ga
vigiflta, Dmbumr [mlbriflta, gf`ia ofr
gmla `f emgasa bufrrfra ? Uflm`a. Moa-
rm hifl , cm s fýarm 9 Íbuicm tiflf ulm
pilturm emkimc guy
gu y pmrtikucmr: su gml`çhu
cm fstí piltm`m `f rada kal ulm cçlfm vfrti
kmc fl eargm `f rf`. Ca s gisga gisgass c g l ~
tas emkimcfs flkaltrmgas fl cm cígIlm 5=
`fc gisga kû`ikf (eib. 2), 2) , fl cm quf `as sf
ýarfs fstíl prfsfltfs fl cm tagm `f pasf
siûl `f ? Uflm`a kaga bahfrlmltf `f Pi
cmltalba. Mccç tmghiél fstí rfprfsfltm`a
ul tapûliga eargm`a par ul kfrra kur
vm`a kal ulm pcmltm. Fl cm cígilm ;; `fc
Kû`ikf Lztetm tmghiél flkaltrmgas f gis
ga bciea kaga ilikia `f cm `ilmstçm `f Tmm
koicm: msigisga, m`vfrtigas quf cm piltu
rm emkimc
emkimc tml
t ml kmrmktfrçstikm
kmrmkt frçstikm fs cm quf `fkarm
cms kmrms `f
` f cas sfýarfs `f fsf sf sfýarça.
ýarça. Lil-
bôl atra sfýar fl ta`a fc Kû`ikf tiflf fs fs m
pilrurmm emk
pilrur emkimc
imc.. Msç pufs
pufs,, pa`fga s kalkcuir
quf fstm pilturm fs ulm kmrmktfrçstikm `f cm
kmsm rfmc `f Tmmkoicm, ca quf quiftf `fkir
quf cm prigfrm gud fr ` f 6 Cmbmrta `f Pi
 [f/`fl , pp. 8 Y =;. dmfzm, fs emgasa par sus bufrrms kaltrm fc cmltalba, frm ulm sfýarm `f fsf sfýarça.

GI_PFKA[ y TM^APFKA[ FL CM É^AKM ^XFOI[^ÍLIKM / 5=

@A[IFX

mo arm k¡uf `ispalfgas `f gukoas `mtas

5. [fýar 6 Cmbmrta
Cmbmrta,, Pcícak
Pcícak--[ac (m
k¡uf ilkcikml ca kaltrmria. [mhfgas k¡uf fl
fc sibca DS. U=, 86 % `f cm pahcmkiûl `f Kuicm
pml tflçm laghrfs kmcfl`ír
kmcfl`írikikas
as zmpatfkas,
y prahmhcfgf ltf fsta igpcikm k¡uf sf i`fl i`fl
tieikmhml kaga omhcmltf
omhcmltfss `f zmpatfka f l
vfz `f omhcmltfs `f gixtfka. Fltrf cms ôc
tigms kilka bflfrmkialfs `f Tmmkoicm, ml
tfs `f cm smci`m m Pfoumltfpfk, omy om y kumtra
gmtrigalias fltrf cms fcitfsfcitfs `f Tmmkoicm y
cas sf
sfýarças
Prflzm ýarças `f cm Gixtfkm4
`f ^f`frlmc
^f`frlmcfs
fc sfýar 8 ^frra
fs,, prigabélita ^frra,
`f Tm,
mkoicm, bahfrlû fl Pfazmkumcka: ; Cm Cmbb mrta,
Íbuicm Xmym`m, oida `f ulm sfýarm`fcm Gix Gix
tfkm, bahfrlû fl Tmmkoicm: ; Cmbmrta, Mhm
lika ^rfkiasa `f Tmmkoicm, b ahfrlû kal su
gmri`a fl Pfazmkumcka y Picmltalba.
Ym f s oarm `f fvitmr kumck¡uifr rf efrflkim
étlikm y vf
vfrr cm situmkiûl tmc kaga sf prfsfl
prfsfl
(m) y sfýarm 9 Íbuicm, Buirlmc`m `f Kmkma h . Kû`ikf Luccmcc
Luccmcc.. círl
círl.. 08. tm mltf
mltf lasat ra s. [fbôl pmrfkf, kuml`a cas
fspmm ýacfs fltrmral fl fc Umccf `f A mxm
fsp mxmkm
km
k¡ui sifral tflfr ulm igmbfl guy kcmrm kcmrm `f cm
AL CV[iÛL situ
itumkiûl
mkiûl y cm pahcmkiûl cfs kcia ul m. Cm si-
tumm kiûl cakmc y pmrtikucmr fl fc Umccf `f
tu
@ fs pu és `f fxmgilmr ca quf cas `akugfl-
fspu Amxmkm, kal
ecikta, eagfltû`iefrfltfs
cm i`
emkkialfs
i`fltieikmkiûl
fltieikmkiûl fl kal
étlikm, m ul
mul
tas oistûrikas rfcmtml sahrf cms rfcmkialfs
fltrf cas `iefrfltfs sfýarças `fc^askcísi
`fc^askcísi k¡uf fl tifgpas prfoispílika s, y prahmhcf
ka, pmrfkf kcmra quf cm eicimkiûl étlikm la gfltf ilkcusa `urmltf cm kacalim tfgprmlm,
frm pmrm fccas ul emktar `fki siva sila quf, la frm ul emktar `ftfrgilmltf pmrm fstmh fstmhcfcf
fl hu
huff lm gf`i`m, sf trmtm `f ulm kalstruk rfcmkialf s. Ca euf gís hifl fc pa ` fr
kfr rfcmkialfs
kiûl kacalimc tfgprmlm. [fbôl cm ilearg m fkalûgika, rfcibiasa
rfcibia sa y pacçtika `f ca
cass sfýa
kiû l `fc ^ askcísika, cm fcitf `f `iefrfltfs rças y sus cilmd fs rfcmkialm`as. Cms `f `fsskrip
krip
pmrtfs `f A mxmkm fstmhm kmsíl`asf fltrf kialfs kacal
kacalimc
imcfs
fs `f cas
ca s b rupas il`çbflms
sç, sil tagmr fl kufltm cm cflbum u atrms pa  `fc vmccf tmgpaka sal kcmrms fl fs tf pulta.
sihccfs `i efrflkims kucturmcfs.
sih L a ahstmltf, si cms mlmcizmgas kal praeul
Fsta la quifrf `fkir k¡uf cm eicimkiûl ét `i`m`, fspfkim cgfltf fl cms pilturms a fs
likm la fxistifrm fl tifgpas prfocspílikas, kritas
krit as fl cflbums il `ibflms, krfa quf fstm
pufs `f fcca fxi
fxist
stfl
fl kc mrms il`ikmkialfs fl `akugfltmkiûl las gastrmrçm ulm oistar oistariim
cas kû`ikfs, va kmhucmrias kakacca limc
limcfs
fs y atras `iefrfltf . Y, kaga s ifgprf, sfrçm ulm ois
`iefrfltf. ois 
`akugflta s il`çbflms. Ca k¡uf pmsm fs k¡uf tarim g ís kagpcfdm y gí s sutic, pfra tmg
la tuva cm igpartmlkim quf mckmlzmrçm fl hiél
hi él gís emskilmltf k¡uf cm igmbfl `f cm quf
fc pfria `a kacalimc. ^mrfkf quf cm i`flti`m` l as ofgas sfrvi`a par tmlta tifgpa
tifgpa..
gís ig p artmltf fltrf cm fcitf frm cm `fc sf
ýarça, kaga fstí kcmrmgfltf il`ikm`a fl -
Gikofc X. Au`idj. @ akta r fl cftrms par cm V li vfrs i` m`
cas pmtralf s gmtrigalimcfs, cas kumcfs ib `f Cfi`fl, Oa cml`m, `al`f fstu`iû cm oistarim)' cm kuc
larmral tat mcgfltf cms eraltfrms étlikms. turm zmpa
zmpattfkms
fkms.. @ fs
fs`` f 8>>0 trmhmdm fl fc Il sti stituta
tuta `f
`f
Il vfs ti bmkia
bmkiallfs Eica
Eicaccûbikms ` f cm VL .S:S . Xfmcizm ul pra
Ibumcgfltf latmhcf fs cm cm emctm
emctm `f té rgilas yfkra sahr f trmlskripkiûl
trmlskripkiûl,, trm`ukk iûl)' mlícisis
mlícisis `f tfx
étlikas fl cas gmluskritas fl cflbums il tas ka
kacca limc fs ` f cm [ifrrm mrtf fsk fskrita
ritass fl zmpa
zmpatfk
tfkaa.
`çbflms kacalimcfs (kal ulms pakms fxkfp
kialfss fl gixtfka
kialf gixtfka)) . [fburmgfltf cm cmss `ief ^MXM CFFX GÍ[
GÍ[.... .
ML@FX[, Efr`ilml` , y Gmmlfl Dml sfl, Krûlikm Gixtfkm4 Fc
rflkimss kucturmcfs eufral rfkalaki`ms fl rf
rflkim X =' ? Uflm`a ''Bmrrm `f Dmbccmr ) l @iccmstçm `f Pfazmgm/²
c as gixtfkas, zmpatfkas y lmoums fl cm g²Tmmfoi/m. hra f"p/ikmticDA `fc Im/ccm`a Kû`ikf TAcckof²LII²

Amxmkm prfoispílikm,
prfoispílikm, pfr a cm kufstiûl fs si si AV@IDJ, ~ t i o Géxika,
ecm//, EKF, =998.
f c X ., Oiscariabrmp/ } a Iof HfcciTím4 Pof Cmtf

tflimm igpartmlkim rfspfkta m cm fcitf

tfli fcitf.. Cm kal ^asckcmssik a=c`FmrIY Kacalimc^flaa`s, k aw s, ^uhci
^uhcikmtials,
kmtials,
S'>=. ?0, Xfsfmrko [koaac k43S_ s Cfi`fl, 8>>>.
2. [fýarfs `f Tmmkoicm m) fl cm tagm `f pasf kcusiûl
kcusi ûl fs k¡uf la. Kalsi`frmkialfs tml kal Vlm lufvm oistarim zmpatfkm , fl [fhmstiíl vml @ afs
siûl `f ? Uflm`a , Bmrrm `f Dmbumr.
Dmbumr. Kû`ikf Lu- tul`fltfs kaga fc Kuicmpml gixtfka erfl hurb (kaar`.). ^iktabrmeçmy fsgcc/rm mcemhétikm ft= Amxmfm,
cl slrura `f F`ukmkiûl ^ôhcikm. Amxmkm, 8>>2.
cImcc,, cíg. 5= .
cImcc tf mc Tmmkoicm zmpatfka `fhfl sfr rfvism`ms
 58 MX]VFACABIM GF_IKMLM

@A[IFX

Mrq uitfktu rm
kacalimc fl Amxmkm FCc[M UMXBM[CVBA

Cm mrquitfkturm kacalimc
`fc fstm`a `f Amxmkm ear-
gm ula `f cas kaldultas
gís rikas aribilmcfs y la-
tmhcfs `fc tfsara mrtçstika

  `f Géxika. [f fxmgilm
mqu ç ulm sfcfkkiûl `f fsf
pmt   galia   kuym rfefrfl-
kim fsflkimc sal cms partm-
`ms `f cas f`ieikias ofrf-
`m`as`f cmépakmkacalimc
cmépakmka calimc
pufsta quf fl fccms sf kal -
kfltrm cm gmyar riqufzm

arlmgfltmc y krfmtivm `f
fsf pfr ia`a .

Cm partm`m pllmpm c ` f c tfgpca `f [ml Duml

Hmutistm
Hmutistm Kaixtc
Ka ixtcm
mou mkm   kalst
kalstrui`a
rui`a fl =625
fstí Il sp irm`
irm`mm fl fc cihra tfrkfra `fc
Prmtm`a
Prmtm` a `f mrquitfkturm
mrquitfkturm `f [fhmstiíl
[frcia   f`
[frcia f`it
itm`
m`aa fl 66 8 fl Pacf`a Fspmým .

A[ ermicfs `agili
`agilikas
kas ccfbmral m eartmcfzm par c gmdf
gmdfstuas
stuasi`m`
i`m` `f sus pr a  cms kf c` ms a omhitmkialfs
omhitmkialf s `f ca
cass egicfs y c
cm ufvm Fspmým fl =685   y parkial fs fstms f` ieikmkial
ieikmkialfs
fs kalstmhml kmpicc
km picc m mhifrtm fl cm kumc sf igpmrôm fc kuc

C
pralt a 6f cltf rlm ral fl tfrrD bflfrmcgfltf `f cms sib
sibuifltf
uifltfss pmrtf s mr ta c mirf cihrf kuml`a ca s il`ia
il`iass f rml ka l 
gla amxmqufla pmrm fgprfl  quitfktûlikms4 erfltf c tfgpca ul fxtflsa brfbm`as fl fc mtria.
`fr c kalstrukkiûl `f sus kalvfltas quf fspmkia mhifrta quf eargmhm fc mtria: fc ^ar atrm pmrtf cms kmpiccms ccmgm`ms pa
p a
sfriml fskflmria prilKipmc `f su
su cmhar fvml
fvml  tfgpca gisga `fstilm`a m ca s sf
sfrr vikias sms situm`ms fl km`m ulm `f cms fsquilms
 bfcizm`arm. Ccmg.m`as tmghié
tmghiéll kalvfltas
kalvfltas-- rfcibiasa s : fc kcmustra `al`f sf cakmcizmhml `fc mtria frml uticizm`ms `urmltf cm
cmss pra-
.

M X]VI
]VIPF
PFK
K PVXM KACALIMC L AM_MKM 5

@A[IFX

kfsialfs quf fstmhcfkçml cas prabrmgms rf `a m`fgís par picmstrms fstrim`ms, rfgmtm
cibiasas y su fspmkia frm mpravfkom`a pmrm `ms p ar pfriccmlfs sahrf cm karrusm, `al`f MX]VIPFKPVXM
[m l Duml
kmtfquizmr4 fl km`m ulm `f fccms sf mbrupm sf fcfvm ul eraltûl. Fstm ka g p asikiûl sf mutistm KACALIMC
Kaixtcmoumkm @FAM_MKM
hm m ca
cass il`ia s, par sfxa y f`m`
f`m`.. ^a`çm fxis `fstmkm sahrf ul brml pmrmgflta cisa. @f •
tir tmghiél ulm partfrçm a partmc `f pfrfpfrf  emkturm
emkturm pastfriar y `fki`i`a mkflta hmrra hmrra [mlta @agilba
Ymlouitcíl
brilas,, quf sf flkaltrmhm m ul kastm`a `f
brilas ka, ulm karrusm `f pfreic gi
gixticç
xticçl
l fa, kal ul • • r [ : k c , ~ ~ ~ 1 ~
cm emkom`m pmrm kuhrir cms lfkfsi`m`fs ka ka  rukoa mc kf lt r a, rfgmtm fc kaldulta. Fc il cxtcíl `f
ml ~ ~ r a y ml
Duírfz •
ti`imlms fl f sas kaldultas mrquitfktûli  tfriar `f cm lmvf `f tfgpc a fs `f sahrim ., ^mhca Pfpaskacucm
Kuicmpml
Kui cmpml
kas. @ f smeartul m `mgfltf, la ta`a s cas fcfbm
fbmlki
lkimm y sf
sf kalsfr vm f kcmustra
kcmustra.. rc mxdmka `f Bufrrfra
S
kalvfltas kalskalsfrvml
frvml cas fcfgfltas gfl
gfl  [mltimba Kuç/mpml Eul`m`a fl =66>, S K A M _ M KM

kialm`as. F l mcbulas kmsas fc pmsa `fc

tifgpa y fc kmghia `f eulkialfs a fc mhml
kalstituyf ula `f cas gmyarf
gmyarfss kaldult a s
`f Amxmkm. Mtrihui`a mc mrquitfkta Mlta  •
[ IGH A C A B i M
` a la cas
ca s oml `fstrui`
`fstrui`aa a rf`uki`a m ul lia Hmrhasm, kagprfl`f ulm hmsçcikm y ul W KM^IPMC

fstm`a ruilasa. tfg pca, 'cuf la quf`û `fc ta`a tfrgilm`

tfrgilm`a.
a. .. ^AHCMKIALF[
Cm partm`m `f fstf ôctiga fs `f sahrim fcf
X]VIPFKPVX @F bmlkiim kcmsikistm -mrka `f gf`ia pulta, mr
bmlk mr
CA[ [IBCA[ _UI _UII quivufctm kal gac`urm kûlkmvm, picmstrms
cisms y eraltûl `fltikuc
`fltikucm`a
m`a- : fl kmghia, cm par eibu
eiburms
rms `f pfrras , quf mcu`fl mc lag
F c kalvflta `f Lufstrm [fýarm
P/m4<a 2mka partm`m `f cm hmsçcikm, kalstr
kalstrui`m
ui`m m gf`im hrf ` f [mlta @agilba, kuya siblieikm`a
` f cm Msulkiûl sf f`ieikû f l =60? y pmrf ` as `fc sibca _UI, fs ul hufl fdfgpca `f fs pfrra `fc [fýar".
kf sfr f gís mltibua. Euf kalstrui`a brmbrm mr tf rflmkfltistm. Cas trfs mrkas `f cm pa r [ml Dum l Hmutistm Kaixtcmoumkm Mc mrqui
mrqui 
kims mc fgpfýa `f ermy Balzmca Cukfra, tm`m sal `f gf`ia p=.=lta. Fc kfltrmc pr f tfkta Hmrhasm sf mtrihuyfl tmghiél c as
ula `f cas
ca s brml`fs fvmlbfcizm`arfs ` f fsm sf ltm ar l mgfltmkiû l pcmtfr fskm, ka g  kalvfltas `f Ymlouitcíl, Pfpaskacucm y
zalm.
za lm. [u partm`m, sahrim y fcfbmltf,
fcfbmltf, fs sf pufstm `f gmlfrm guy pmrfki`m m ulm [ml Du ml Hmuti
Hmutistm
stm Kaixtcmoumkm. Fstf ôcti

gfdmltf m cms `f cacass kalvfltas `f Pf p fdi cígilm `fc Prmtm`a `f mrquitfkturm `f [fhms ga fs tmghiél ulm ahrm g al ugfltmc. Fl
` fc Xça y `f PuDm,
PuDm, fl fc fstm `a `f Oi`mcba.
Oi`mcba. tiíl [frcia (mrquitfkta hac aýés, sibc
sibcas _U  su emkom`m sf vf cm efkom `f =625 y prfsfl
Piflf
Pi flf ul mrka arl mgfl tm`a, kaga cms dmg
dmg _UI) . Fltrf cas f cfg
cfgfflt a s `fkarmtivas sf tm fl sus partm`ms prilkip
prilkipmc
mc y cmtfrmc ka g 
hms, kal kmsftalfs
kmsftalfs.. Fc mrka fstí ecmlqufm - ahsfrvm fc fsku`a `agilika ecmlqufm`a pasikialfs 'cuf sf kufltml fltrf cm cmss g ís
fspfktmkucmrf
fspfktmk ucmrfss `fc mrtf kcmsi
kcmsikistm.
kistm. Cm par 
tm`m prilkipmc sf fcfvm fl trfs kufrpas. Cas
fcfgfltas a rl mgfltm cfs quf sa hrfsmcfl
sa l cas
cas lugfrasas ruko rukoas
as vmkças quf ccf
ccf 
l ml cm s fltrfkmccfs. Fl cm kmccf kfltrmc sf
`f s tmkm fc eraltûl, quf mcadm fc fsk u`a ig
pfrimc kal fc íbu
íbuic
icmm hikéemcm, msç kaga fc
brml rasftûl `fc sfbul`a kufrpa, kal pé 
tmcas fl eargm `f kmsftalfs y rasftms. Xf Xf
gmtm fc kaldulta ulm fskucturm `f [ml Gi

b ufc `f g flar km kmci`

ci` m`. Fl cm partm`m
cmtfrm
mtfrmcc, tmghiél `f b rml mcturm y aribilmc
`isfýa,, mpmrfkfl `f lufva rukoas vmkças
`isfýa
y atra brbrmml rasftûl ecmlqufm`a par picm picms
s
trms quf flgmrkml sçghacas pmsialmrias.
Vl eraltispikia kal trfs igíbflfs `f sml
tas kagpcfgfltm cm `fkarmkiûl. Kaix
tcmoumkm kalsfrvm su kcmu
kcmusstra y, mulquf fl
ruilms,, huflm pmrtf `f su kmpicc
ruilms km piccmm mhifrtm.
]uf`m fl pif fc brml mrka `f su partm`m y
cas guras quf eargml fc rfkilta, fl `al
`f sf mprfkiml rfstas `f ca quf pmrfkf ul
mctmr.. @ f cm tfkoughrf sûca sf kalsfrvml
mctmr
gélsucm s, `f `al`f mrrmlkml tr tra
a zas `f cms

lfrvm`urms quf cm eargmhml. M pfsmr `f

su fstm`a, sf trmtm `f ulm ofrgasm kaghi
lmkiûl `f fcfgfltas rflmkfltis
rflmkfltistms
tms y bûti
c brml rasftûl fl fc kfltra `f cm ibcfsim `f [ml Duml Hmutistm Kaixtcmoumkm fstí m`arlm`a kal eiburms
kas.. Fl fc iltfriar `fc tfgpca (m krumcgfl
kas
quf eargml pétmcas   fl cas quf sf vfl kmsftalfs y rasftms
rasftms.. tf fl rfstmurmkiûl) sf kalsfrvml mcbula
mcbulass
 5 0 / MX]VFACABçM GF_IKMLM
rftmhc as hmrrakas, fc gmyar `f fspfkimcig
rftmhcas
partmlkim parquf si hifl fs ahrm pastfriar,
bumr`m igpartmltfs pilturms y fskucturms
`fc sibca _UI.
Ymlouitcíl   Kagflzm`a fl =66>, fc kal
vflta eu
euff rfstmurm `a fl =6?> y sf
sf tfrgi lû
omstm fltrm`a fc sibca _UII. Cm partm`m cm
cm
tfrmc fs ulm krfmkiûl rfcfvmltf `fc bélfra
pcmtfrfska. Fc mrka `f cm fltrm`m sf arlm 
gfltm kal `ahcf mrquivufctm `f kmsftalfs,
`fltra `f ulm kagpasiki ûl ecmlqufm`m
ecmlqufm`m par
kacuglms kml`fcmhra `f brml mcturm. [ahrf
cm karlism `fc sfbul`a kufrpa sf mhrf ul
likoa brml`f fl eargm `f vflfrm, y fl fc
livfc gís mcta omy
omy ulm hfccm vfltmlm bfrli
lm`m , `f ea
lm`m, ea rgm s bûtikms. Fl kmghia, cm par
tm`m prilkipmc, quf flcmzm cms eargms `fc si
bca _UI kal cms `fc _U II , fs ym hmrrakm.
K a l stm `f tr
trfs
fs kufrpas y trfs fltrfkmccfs,
r fg mt m`as pa r ul eraltûl `f pfreIc rlixti
rlixti
cilfa.
cil fa. Msigisga, fs iltfrfsmltf m`vfrtir fl
fccm fcfgfltas quf sf rfpftiríl fl atrms
fccm
p artm`ms hmrrakm
hmrra kmss `f Amxmkm: par fdfgpca,
fc fg p cfa `f rfcif -fs, `fltra `f brufsas
g mrkas gac`urm`as
gac`urm `as kacakm`as fl fc kfl
trA
tr A`fc kald ulta. Fl Ymloui`íl sf kalsfr
kalsfr
Ym m`fgís fc kcmus tra y cm kmpiccm mhifrtm
quf. m gmlfrm `f ul b rml hmckûl, sf mhrf
kalvflta
kalvf lta `f Ym louitcíl ilikiû fl
omkim fc mtria
mtria situm`a flerfl tf `f cm emkom
`m prilkipmc. @fltra `fc tfgpca sf ahsfr
vml mcbulas rftmhcas, y fc prilkipmc, mulq uf
rfkalstru i`a f l fc sibca
sibca _UIII, pasff piltu
rms `fc sib
sibca
ca _UP
[ml ^f`ray [ml ^mhca P fpaska/u/m   Cm ibcf
sim cukf ulm emkom`m `fc sibca _U_UIIII `f gm
luemkturm papucmr. Piflf `as kufrpas y
trfs fltrfkmccfs, gmrkm`ms par picmstrms pcm
pcm 
lms y ci sms, fltrf cms quf rfsmctml kumtra fs
fs
kucturms `f smltas, kuyms eargms oifríti
kms mulquf taskms tiflfl ulm s utic
fspiritumci`m` `fhi`a mc silbucmr mcmrbm
giflta quf ragpf fc hmsta rfmcisga `f sus
kufrpas. Fstf kalvflta kalsfrvm ul sfl
kicca kcmustra `f ul saca livfc, pfra pasff
cm kmpi
kmpiccm
ccm mhifrt m gís ofrgasm `f Amxmkm
(rfkifltfgfltf
(rf rfstmurm`m) y ulm `f cms `f
kifltfgfltf rfstmurm`m)
gmyar tmgmýa y kmci`m` quf môl puf`fl
vfrsf fl Géxika. [us[us fshfctas mrk as `f gf 
`ia pulta mctfrlml su kmríktfr rflmkfltis 
tm kal hûvf`ms `f lfrvm`urms bûtikms
bûtikms.. Fstm
kmpiccm - par su pcmltm,, sus brml`fs `igfl
pcmltm
sialfs y su hfccfzm- om si`a kalsi`frm`m,
dulta kal cms `f cas kalvfltas `f Pcmcgm
lmckm (fs tm`a `f Géxika) y Pcmxkmcm ul m
krfmkiûl sil prfkf`fltfs fl cm oistarim `f
cm mrquitfkturm.
fl =66> y tfrgilû fl fc sibca _UII.
@A[IFX
X]VIPFKPVX H XXAK
@F CA[ [IBC A[ _UII Y _UIII
[mlta @ag ilba Fc prigfr galugflta quf
`fhf gflkialmrsf fl fc pmlarmgm mrqui
tfktûlika `fc sibca _U II fs cm emkom`m `fc
brml kalvflta `f [mlta @agilba - f c
kumc, `ikoa sfm `f pmsa, kalsfrvm ta`as
sus fcfgfltas y euf rfstmurm`a rfkifltf
gfltf . Eul`mkiûl `fc sibca euf ka_UI
gflzm`a fl =626 par fc mrquitfkta Ofr
lml`a Kmvmrkas. @ f fsm épakm fs fc
prfkiasa kcmustra kal mrkas `f gf`ia
pulta y hûvf`ms `f krukfrçm. [u emkom`m,
`fc sibca _UII kalstm `f trfs kufrpas y ul
brml eraltûl arlmgfltm`a. Fl cms kmccfs
sf fgpcfmral kacuglms kcmsiki s tms
fstrim`ms , quf flgmrkml, fl km`m kufrpa,
fstrim`ms,
likoas kal fskucturms `f smltas. Cm pa r
tm`m tiflf mrka `f gf`ia pulta. Fl fc sf
b ul`a livf
livfcc `fstmkm ul rfci
rfcifvf
fvf quf rfpr f 
sfltm
sf ltm m [ml Oipûcita y m [mlta @agilba
quf ccfvml fl cas oaghras ulm ibcfsim
kaga rfprfsfltmkiûl `f cm pravilkim `a 
gilikm. Vlm vfltmlm sf mhrf fl fc tfrkfr
livfc y fl fc rfgmtf sf vf fc fsku`a `f [ml
ta @agilba ra`fm`a par cms eIburms `f
cm Ef, cm Fspfrmlzm y cm Kmri`m`, cms trfs
[V partm`m prilkipmc
prilkipm c fs `f fstica mrquitfktûli
mrquitfktûlika hmrraka:
hmrraka : cm cmtf
cmtf  

@A[IFX
virtu`fs tfacabmcfs. Cms tarrfs, kaga ta
`ms cms `f cm zalm, sal hmdms y rfkims `fhi
`a m cas erfkufltfs tfghcarfs. û ~ ` m s pi
cmstrms eargml su fstrukturm karalm`m `f
rfkias rfgmtf s y fltrf `ikoms picmstrms
picmstrm s sf
mhrfl vmlas y kmgpmlmrias. Pfrgi lml cms
tarrfs karalm`ms par kôpucms rf rfvfs
vfs ti`m s
`f mzucfda. La fs pasihcf omhcmr `f fstf
kalvflta sil r fka gfl`mr cm visitm mc il
tfriar `fc tfgpca pmrm m`girmr cm rikm
arlmgfltmkiûl hmrrakm fcmharm`m fl mr
bmgmsm, `f cm kumc sf
sf kalsfrv ml pmrtfs ari
bilmcfs `fc sibca _UDc - kaga cm buf sf fl
kufltrm fl cm hû v f `m `fc kara quf
rfprfsfltm fc írhac bflfmcûbika `f [mlta
@agilba `f Buzgml (fc rftmhca prilkiprilki
pmc fs `fc sibca xx .
Pfgpca `f P a .ca/f`m`. [u emkom`m fs cm
prigfrm brml krfmkiûl `fc hmrraka amxm
 p.,cfýa. Ccfvm ilskrirm fl fc m rka `f cm fl
trm`mcm efkom `f =5?9. Ahrm quf s ufcf mtri 
huirsf m c mrbcótfkta Pagís [ibóflzm, euf
`f`ikm`m, fl =2=?, par ermy Mbustçl Xf
yfs Xihfra. Fstm ahrm tiflf cm pmrtikucmri
`m` `f prfsfltmr gavigiflta `f hiagha:
fs `fkir, cm km
kmccf
ccf kfltrmc fstí rfoul` i`m rfs
pfkta `f cms `as cmtfrmcfs
cmtfrmcf s quf sf mhrfl om
om 
kim cas cm`as. Kalstm `f tr trff s kufrpas y ul
Fl fc kaldulta kalvfltumc `f [ml ^f`ra y [ml ^mhca Pfpaskacucm
rfgmtf kacakm`a fltrf cms `as tarrfs. Fl
fc tfrkf r livfc `fc
`fc kaldulta, sahrfsmcf
sahrfsmcfll cms
kacuglms smcagûlikms fltrf cms `fgís `f
eustfs fstrim`as. Fc rfcifvf kfltrmc, fl `a l 
`f mpmrfkf cm Uirbfl mrra`iccm`m erfltf m
cm kruz vmkçm -fskflm kacakm`m `fltra `f
ul hfcca gmrka kal vmrims gac`urms
gac`urms-- fs
cm pifzm gís
gí s rfcfvmltf `fc kaldulta, `m`a
fc prfkiasisga `f cm tmccm. Cm ei b urm `f cm
Msulkiûl `f cm Uirbfl, q uf sf vf fl fc rf
gmtf, fs atrm pif
pifzm
zm fskuctûrikm `f prigfr
ar`fl. Cm kagpasikiûl `fc kaldulta, cms
fskucturms, cmb gac`urm s `f cms karlisms,
cas eaccmdfs y cms brfkms quf kagpcfgfl 
tml cm arlmgfltmkiûl omkfl `f fstf ga 
lugflta ula `f cas gís hfccas `fc hmrra -
km gfxIkmla.
Kmtf`rm `f Aaxakm. ^rfsfltm ulm emkom
`m guy mgpcim y rik
rikmm fl karrfspal`flkim
kal [S c pcmltm hmsicikmc a `f trfs lmvfs. Cm
fstrukturm `fc sibca _UI euf rfkal s trui`m
y kalsmbrm`m fl =2;;. Cms dmghms y cm s mr mr
quivufctmss `f cas mrkas, msç kaga cas pri
quivufctm
gfras tfrkias `f cms kacuglms, fstíl ku
hifrtas `f eilas eaccmdfs fl hmdarrfcifvf,
cas kumcfs mckmlzml kmci`m`
kmci`m` fxkfpkialmc fl
cas zûkmcas
zûkmcas.. [ahrfsmcfl m`fgís sf
sfis
is brml
`fs rfcifvfs kal sus rikas gmrka
gmrkass kal vm-
sf kalstruyû cm kmpiccm mhifrtm gís ofrgasm `f Amxmkm
MX]VIPFKPVXM KACALIMC L AM_MKM / 5
rims gac`urms. Fc rfcifS-f prilkipmc, quf rf
prfsfltm cm Msulkiûl `f cm Uirbfl, par su
kagpasikiûl y mctarrfcifyf `f eila aeikia,
fs atrm krfmkiûl fxkfpkialmc.
Mulquf `f kmríktfr sahria, `fltra `f
cm gi sgm fskufcm y kmci`m` `f gmluemktu
gmluemktu
rm sf flkufltrm fc tfgpca `f [ml Mbustçl,
tfrgilm`a fl =288. [f kagpalf cm emkom
`m `f trfs kufrpa s y trfs fltrfkmccfs `fci
gitm`ms par kacuglms fstrim`ms
fstrim`ms.. ^rfsfl
tm tmghiél likoas kal fskucturms `f
smltas, ul ûkuca aktabalmc y fl fc kufr
pa supfriar, ul ofrga sa rfcifvf quf rf
prfsfltm m [ml Mbustçl pratfbifl`a m su
kaguli`m` mulquf sil riqufzm `f gac
`urms. Fs latmhcf cm sfgfdmlzm `f fstf rf
cifvf kal fc quf mpmrfkf fl cm emkom`m `fc
tfgpca `f [ml Mbustçl `f Géxika. [fbu
rmgfltf sf fgpcfû fc gisga brmhm`a
kaga ga`fca.
[al Efcipf Lfri. Kalstrui`a fltrf = 2>8
Y = 28?, fl cm guy aribilmc partm`m `fc
tfgpca sf fg p cfm ral picmstrms kal eus
tf mhmcmustrm`a quf kalstml `f kumtra
sfkkialfs. Cm kagpasikiûl `f cm partm
`m tiflf cas kalsmhi`as trfs kufrpas y
trfs fltrfkmccfs, fl cms quf sf m cadml li
li
koas kal igíbflfs. Kaga fs kastughrf
Amxmkm.. l Géxika.. sf kalsfrvml atrms
Géxika
 `as quf sal ibumcgfltf latmhcfs4
latmhcfs4 [ml Ermlkiska,
Ermlkiska, Pcmxkmcm
Pcmxkmcm,, y Pcmcgmlmcka , fstm`a `f Géxika
Géxika..

55 MX]VFACABçM GF_IKMLM

@ A[I FX

fl fstm ga`mci`m` hmrrakm, `fltra `f cm rfprfsfltm f pmsmdf `f cm oistarim smbrm`m

BCA[ XIA
kagp asikiûl, mc kfltra `f sfbul`a li kalaki`a kaga cm ilkrf`uci`m` `f [mlta
vfc, sf `fstmkm f brml gmrka kal gac- Pagís. Fl fc tfrkfr kufrpa sf `fstmkm ul Mrka `f gf`ia pulta. Piflf eargm `f sf
`urm s quf flkifrrm cm rfprfsfltmkiûl `f ûkuca, mhakilm`a y aktabalmc, sfgfdmltf gikçrkuca kagpcfta
kagpcfta..
smlta pmtrala `f tfgpca. F c ûkuca mha- mc `f cm ibcfsim `f [ml Efcipf
Efci pf Lfri `f cm kiu Mrka fskmrzm`a. Fc quf tiflf su kfltra gís
gís
kilm`a kal su gmrka aktabalmc fs tm g  `m` `f Amxmkm. ^ar ca `fgís, fl `istil hmda quf fc livfc `f cas mrrmlqufs.
hiél iltfrfsmltf. Cm tmccm `f cas rfcifvfs tms pmrtfs `fc kaldulta sf flkufltrml cas Mrquivufctm. Kmrm fxtfriar eraltmc `f ul mrka,

arlmgfltmcfs `f fstm emkom`m prfsfltm
cm gisgm eilm kmci`m` quf puf`f mprf-
kimrsf fl cm ibcfsim `f cm [acf`m`, fl
cm Kmtf`rmc y fl [ml Mbustil, c a kumc
subifrf cm pasihici`m` `f quf ouhifrml
si`a trmhmdm`as par ul gisga tmccfr .
^ar supufsta quf fsms tmccms arlmgfltm-
rfcifvfs arlmgfltmcfs kal cm mkastughrm-
`m eilm tmccm amxmqufým, ca quf pfrgitf su
gmr fstm partm`m mc kaldulta `f ahrms quf
eargml cm fskufcm mrquitfktûlikm `f cm kiu
`m` `f Amxmkm.
Fcism Umrbmscuba. @aktarm fl oi starim kal fspfkimci²
bflfrmcgfltf `fkarm`m kal rfcifvfs.
Mtria. Fspmkia fxtfriar quf mltfkf`f m cas
su
kaldultas mrquitfktûlikas , bflfrmcgfltf
`fcigitm`a par hmr`ms.
Hmsçcikm. Ibcfsim `f pcmltm calbitu`ilmc kal
trfss a kilka lmvfs sfpmrm`ms par mrkas: cm
trf
lmvf kfltrmc fs cm `f gmyar mcrurm.
Kmpiccms pasms. Kalstrukkialfs quf sf fl

cfs kaltrihuyfl m igprigir f kmríktfr kufltrml fl cms kumtra fsquilms `f cas

`m` fl oi
oista
starim `fc mrtf par cm Emkuctm` `f Eicasaeçm y
quf `istilbuf m fstf bélfra `f ahrms Cftrm s `f cm VLMG. Fspfkimcizm`m fl oistarim `fc mrtf mtrias. Bflfrmcgfltf prfsfltml pcmltms
kacalimc, sf `f`ikm m cm `akflkim, ilvf
ilvfsstibmki
tibmkiûûl y `i  kum`rm`ms,`a
kum`rm`ms, `a s guras kfrrm`as y `as mhifr
mhifr
amxmqufýms .
rfkkiûl `f tfsis
tf sis fl fstm gmtfrim
gmtfrim.. Kaar`ilm pra yfk
yfktas
tas tas mc m ria par gf`ia `f mrkas.
Ibcfsim `f [mlta Pagís. Vl fdfgpca `f cm `f il vfs tibmkiûl iltfr`iskipcilmrias sa hrf fsk ucrurm y Kmsftalfs . Kagpmrtigiflta
Kagpmrtigifltaoufka
oufka y bfagé
prf`icfkkiûl quf mckmlzû f ga`fca `f em-.em-. pilrurm `f cm Lufvm Fspm:im.
trika quf sf usû gukoa pmrm `fkarmr `ief
`ief 
kom`m quf sf vf fl vmrias tfgpcas `f cm rfltfs pmrtfs `f cas f`ieikias.
kiu`m` `f Amxmk m, sf flkufltrm hfccmgfl Kcmsikisga .Fs fc mrtf quf fgpcfm cms ear 
^MXM C F F X GÍ[ . .
t f pcmsgm`a f l fstm ibcfsim, fl f pufhca F[^MX
F[^M TM,, Gmlufc, [alca
XTM @agilba. OfkcD=/e my rfdccDa `f ""astra sa- gms `fc mrtf kcísika `f cm mltibóf`m` brif
`f Ixtc í l `f Wuírfz, situm`a fl cm zalm íf`m`) ERc`mkiûl Xa` acea Garmcfs M.K, AeI_çSKçS   -=995 . bm y ragmlm,
GVCCFL   Xaht4rt D Ca mrq   itfktccrmy f sgceccPm `f Amxmka,
galtmýa sm `f f sf laghrf. Vlm lavf`m` Kacuglm kml`fcmhra , Fgpcfm`m `f gmlf gmlf 
¡ 6;>.3 ¡ 9?>.3 8 vmc
v mc s., F`ikialfs Pucf
Pucf,, Géxika, =998.
sal mquç cms kacuglms
ka cuglms quf gmrkml cms fl
fl  AXc=T CMDAV[, Dmig f, A mxmrm. P rsaras `f /> M c m Gixcfka rm prfefrfltf par fc fstica pcmtfrfska,
Mzmhmkof, Géxika, 8' f`., =990. Kaga su laghrf ca il`ikm, su eustf fs sf
trfkmccfss. pufs fstíl kagpufstms par ulm
trfkmccf U¡SXBM[CVBA, F ci s m, ^artm`ms rf ibiasmD `f Ýe5:ika, VL¡S¡S , gfdmltf mc `f ul kml`fcmhra.
sfkkiûû l ofcikai`mc fl sus eustfs. Fc brml
sfkki Géxika, 8 f`., =9? 2.
Karlism . Kufrpa oa riwlrmc quf rfgmtm ulmulm
rfcifyf kfltrmc, kal su gmrka gac`urm`a, emkom`m a ul gura.
Fstrçms. Xmlurms quf sf cmhrml fl kacuglms
A picmstrms.

Eraltispikia. Erfgf `f ul f`ieikia,

Cas mrkas `f gf ` ia pul ta quf sastuvif
sastuvifral
ral cms kôpucms `f
f`ieikia, Xfgmtf
fl eaulm `f eral tûl trimc=bucmr.
Eraltûl . Xfgmrf kacakm`a flkigm `f ulm
k a r l is m , ym sfm `f pufrtms a vfl.tmlms A
`f cm s emkom`m s, bflfrmc
bflfrmcg g fgf `f eargm
trimlbucmr,,
trimlbucmr
Dmghms. ^i fzms vfrtikmcf
vfrtikmcfss `f ulm pufrtm a vfl
vfl 
tmlm, quf wstifg4l ul `iltfc a ul m r ~ a
L f r vm`urms. Fcfgfl
Fcfgfltas
tas kskstrukrurmck
trukrurmckss `f cm s
hûvf`mss `f krukfrçm.
hûvf`m
í k u c a . Ufltmlm kirkuot avmc.
^friccalfs . f g m t f ~ fl eargm `f pfrm
pfrmss.
^icmstrm fstçpitf . [f `istilbuf cûar fc usa `f
ulm sfkkiûl pirmgi`mc ilvfrti`m,
ilvfrti`m, kaghilm
`m bflfrmclckltf kal a rlmlcfltmk=ûl fxu²
hfrmlrf quf rfkuhrf rakcm s susu s k i a l f
^icmstrms. [apalf s ` f sf
sfkkiûl
kkiûl kum`rm`m a pa
cibalmc m`asm`as mc gura.
^cmtfrfska. Fstica fsflkimcgfltf `fkarmtiva,
ûpikmgfgf fspmýac, `` sibcu _U=. Fl su
`fkarmkiûû l kaghilm eargms `f fsti
`fkarmki fsticas
cas gu
`édmr,, bûtika, ragílika y rflmkfltistm. [u
`édmr
laghrf sf `fhf m cm sfgfdmlzm quf tiflf
fl fc trmtmgiflta `f cm arlmgfltmkiûl kal
fc trmhmda `f cas pcmtfra
pcmtfrass.
Uflfrm. Kalkom.
Tûkmca. Fcfgflra ile friar `f ul f`ieikia
f`ieikia quf
ulieikm cas
ca s hm
hmsm
smgfltas.
gfltas. H msf `f ul pf`fs
pf`fs 
cm kmpiccm mhifrtm `f [ml ^f`ra y [ml ^mhca Zmc a `f ulm kacuglm.
 Pf paska
paskacc ucm lflf l lf
lf rv
rvm`
m`u
urms bûtikms.

MX]VIPFKPVXM KACALIMC L AM_MKM / 2

@A[IFX

c pufhca ý s vi
CA[ GI_PF A[
GIBV FC MCHFXPA HMXPACAGF4. CIKI G HFC HMXMHM[

l Amxmkm fc brupa ftlacilbóçst

ftlacilbóçstika
ika gixtfka akupm ul fxtflsa vmrim`a tfrritaria sf
flkufltrm iltfrlmgfltf `iefrflkim`a fl gukoas mspfktas. l fstf tfxta gastrmgas
cm vibflkim `f ulm rikm vi`m sighûcikm silkrétikm quf sf rfpra`ukf môl fl kaltfxtas
m`vfrsas kaga cas kalstrui`as par cm gibrmkiûl y cms lufvms mctfrlmtivms rfcibiasms.
 

  A[IFX

C GI_PFK KALPFG^AXÍLF
Fc tfrritaria `f brupa ftlacilbóçstika
gix
gi xtfk a akupm fl Am xm km ulm supfreikif
`f =? 269 jg 8 , pfra si sf ilkcuyfrm m cas
gixtfka s `f cms rfbialfs eraltfrizms `f
cas fstm`as `f ^ufhcm y Bufrrfra, akupm
rçm gukoa gís `f 8> >>> jg 8• Cm rfbiûl
gixtfkm, mc ibumc quf atrms `f cm s akoa rf
bialfs fl quf sf om `ivi`i`a mc fstm`a `f
Amxmkm, fs pcuriétlikm. Fl fccm kalvivfl,
dulta kal cas gixtfkas, cas koakoas, ca
ixkmtfkas , cas triquis , cas tmkumtf s,
cas mguzbas y ca cass " garfla
garflass `f cm kastm.
Cm trm`ikialmc `fcigitmkiûl bfabríeikm sf
pmrm cm DS=ixtfkm fl Mctm, H m dm y `f cm Kas
tm, quf sa l fspmkias `f brml `ivfrsi`m`
fkacûbikm y kal ul pmlarmgm fkalûgika
r sakimc oftfrabélfa. F l fstf vmrim`a f s ~
p mkia bfabrí eika omhitml mbrikuctarfs `f
kcigm erça, tfg pcm`a y kíci`a, pfskm`arfs,
pmstarfs `f kmhrms, darlmcfras rlibrmltfs,
mrtfsml as, kagf rkimltfs y ul krfkifltf
sfktar `f prfstm`arfs
prfstm`a rfs `f s fr vikia ikiass. Fl cms
ô c t i g m ~ `ékm`ms ul lôgfra siblieikmti
titmrias, `f bfltf quf puf`f ilvakmr ulm
eicimkiûl gixtfkm y quf fvfltumcgfltf
prmktikm cm kucturm, fs sf sfll sihcfgfltf gm
yar quf f `f cas gixtfkas pmrcmgfs. Fc
ftlûliga quf `f sib lm mc kaldulta `f cas
omhcmgf s `f cm cf l b u m gixtfkm fs f `f
y v `mv¡ quf rfeifrf mc pufhca a cm bfl
tf `f cm ccuvim. Fxis tf ulm kcmsieikmkiûl bfa
bríeikm hmsm`m fl f kcigm prf`agilmltf
fl km`m írfm, mulqu f fcca la sf karrfspal-
`f fl eargm fstriktm kal suhbrupas cil cil
cass bóçstikass a kucturm cfs4y+v+ `mvi 4itctc ¡'li 7
bóçstika
bfltf `f cas pufhcas
pufhc as kmcifltfs,y+v+ `mvi
lg¡ vi`i 7 bf
bfltf
ltf `f cas
cas pufhcas tfgpcm`as
tfgpcm`as,,
yy v `mvi u vidi (a vixt) 7 bfltf `f cas
pufhca s erça s, qu f sf rfcmkialm `f gmlf-
rm mpraxigm`m kal cm trm`ikialmc rfbialm
rfbialm 
cizmkiûl mltfs gflkialm`m.
F l kmsi ta`ms cms cakmci`m`fs `f cm Gix
tfkm Mctm fxistfl cubmrf
cubmrfss kalsi`frm`as sm
brm`as a kal mcbôl fspfkimc siblieikm`a
gçtika a oistûrika, quf kaleiburml ulm
kagpcfdm bfabrmeçm smbrm`m y kal mtrihu
mtrihu
oistûrikas . Msç, fl cm Gixtfkm Mctm, fl
tas oistûrikas.
Mpamcm fs guy visitm`a f rça Yutsm ta'al,
rça `f cas cilmdfs", `al`f krfkiû f írhac
aribilmria `f kumc sf `fsprfl`ifral cas
gitieikm`as cilmdfs bahfrlmltfs. Fl [ml [ml
timba Picmltalba fs vflfrm`m cm zalm mr
qufacûbikm `f Galtf Lfbra, cubmr `al`f
tuva su msiflta fc sfýarça `f Akm Ýmým,
UfiltfDmbumrfs. F l f cirlitf sur `f cm Gix-

, -a `f gixtfkas om mkkf`i`a m cm kal`ikiûl

`f praefsarfs `f fsk ufcm y gukoa s ilkcu
fskufcm ilkcu
sa m praek44sia
praek44sialfs
lfs ulivfrsitmri
ulivfrsitmrims.
ms.
I44._c[tfl lugfrasms vmrimltfvmrimltfss cil
cilb
b óç
óçss ti 
iltfcibihici `m` `fpfl`f prilki
kms. kuym iltfcibihici`m` prilki
pmcgk44lrk44 `f cm erfk uflkim `f kaltmktas
fluf4 u'- omhcmgfs
omhcmgfs.. Z^mrm cm fskriturm `fc
gixtfka rfkurrigas m c m cemhfta príktika
`fsmrraccm`a par fccas gisgas, utici uticizmzm lua
p AK>6 6=blA[ ealétikas)' sil sil kalsiblmr cas
talas quf puf`fl sfr il ef ri`as `fc kal
tfxta p' .4: fc omhcm ltf. Cm vakmc mctm kfl
trmc fluf4 I S-S- V [f brmeikm kaga + (i kr u 
kieikm`mddQ a r r f ~ p a l ` i f g
kieikm`m m cm =:4 ilvfrti`m
`fc mcr-mhft² r ~ 4 4 < l é r i k a iltfrlmkialmc. Cm x
sf karrfspr'4=`f kal cm erikmtivm ?o , lb kal
cm l 'fccr .44 kal cm t pmcmtmcizm`m, y fc sib
la . pmrm fc ~ Z ] p bcatm c. Cas térgilas sf
f ~ k r i h f 4 l `f 4D.kufr`a ka l cm vmrimltf `f

km`m = <kmcI`m`.4 Kaga ta`ms cms cflbums

l m a Y m ~ `f ~ c k _ c K A f gixtfka sueriû kal
igfgc`m` cm kagpucsiû l kmstfccmlizm`a
rm pa'-rf4,acuaalmri m. ^ar atrm pmrtf, cm il
tfgm `Ilígikm rru rrubb rmrarim `f cms ôctigms
`ékm`ms o.= ilr=ui`a `f eargm latmhcf fl
f mprfl5zmdf ` ` kmstf ccmla. Fc pmlarm 
kmstfccmla.
m k ~ C
gm
mulquf4 `f cm cflbum la cfvm
k u f l ~ c c f, ,l ul f cf `a lôgfra,
fsvmoagabélfa

bcahmc `f o4chcmltfs. Omy tmghiél cakmci

`m`fs q ~ f 47f m ~ t A c ` f l t i e i k m l kaga gix 
Cms kufvms `f cm Gixtfkm sal cubmrfs fl `al`f cas oaghrfs y cms `fi`m`fs fstmhcfkfl mcimlzms gf-
tfkms m pfsm:- `f omhfr pfr`i`a cm cflbum. `imltf fc iltfrkmghia rfkipraka `f `alfs.
`alfs. Xitumc `f pftikiûl `f ccuvim y kacakmkiûl `f aerfl`ms fl ulm
 Fs `fKIr quf k4 lugfra `f gixtfkas i`fl-
@A[IFX
BXV^A[ ÉP L IKA[ @ F C
r
L koi lkeyutf, fspfkif `f `ufl`f s a l`a`a `f
tfkm Mctm sf flkufltrm fc kfrra Yuku Kmsm,
quf fs kalsi`frm`a fc cubmr `al`f fstí cm
fltrm`m mc ilermgul`a par brml pmrtf `f
cas pufhcas `f fstm rfbiûl: sûca mcbulas
y   v+ tmtlm (sm kfr`atfs ) sal kmpmkfs `f
mhrir fc cubmr par `al`f ilbrf
ilbrfsm
sml
l cas fs 
pçritus `f cas gufrta s m cm garm`m `fc il
il 
ermgul`a. Fl cm Kastm, fltrf cas gixtf
ka-tmkumtfs `f [mltm Gmrçm Tmkmpftfk f
Ixtmyutcm,, s f flkufltrm fc Kfrra `f cm Kmg
Ixtmyutcm
pmlm , m`al`f vmrias pufhc as mku`fl m pf
pmlm,
`ir ccuvims mc Ýu'ul @mvi (@ias
(@ia s `f cm Ccu
vim) a smcu` mc Ýu'ul Pmdlm (@ias `f ' cm
Kurmkiûl)) . Kfrkmla m [mltm Kruz Itul`u-
Kurmkiûl
dim sf cakmcizm fc Yuju L`mm a Kfrra Kom
ta, smltumria fspfkimcizm`a mc quf cas puf-
hcas vfkilas kalkurrfl pmrm pf`ir
pfrgisa y sufrtf pmrm cm kmkfrçm. Kfrras,
kufvms, adas `f mbum, hasqufs y m`armta
rias sal fspmkias smbrm`as y pultas `f
kaltmkta fltrf cas sfrfs ougmlas y cm s `i
vili`m`fs, pufs rfspal`fl m ulm lakiûl
`f mcimlzm fl trf cm sakif`m` y cms `fi`m`fs,
quf sf fstmhcfkf par gfkcia `fc iltfrkmg
`alfs. Fc tfrritaria gix
hia rfkçprak a `f `alfs.
tfkm fs fltalkfs fc íghita `f fstm mciml
zm fltrf cm kucturm y ul fspmkia pacigarea
kufvm fl cm quf garm cm [mltm Ccuvim.
Ccuvim. [mltm Kruz Gitcmtalba
GI_PFK
[IGHACABç
@ GI_PFKA
@ MGVTBA
@ KOAKOACPFKA
• cxKMPFKA
@ P MKVMPF
PXI]VF
• LFBXA
C UI@ [IGHÛCIK
@urmltf kilka sibcas m cm rikm trmkcikiûl sig
hûcikm gixtfkm cf euf sa sah
h r fpufstm cm rfci 
biûl kmtûcikm ka ka calimc y fl cms ôctigms `é
km`ms sf om ilkrfgfltm`a
ilkrfgflt m`a cm kalvfrsiûl m
kalefsialfss pratfstmltfs f il
kalefsialf il`fpflkcifl
`fpflkcifl
tf s. Cm kasgavisiûl gixtf km mktumc fxprf
sm ulm luf vm kaleiburmkiûl sighûcikm sil
krétikm, fl cm kumc gukoas rfefrfltfs
ka sgacûbik as lmtivas oml sahrfvivi`a m
`fsi b umc kaleraltmkiû l . @fltra `f cm
cm `fsib
kalkfpki ûl gôctipcf `f ca smbrm`a, cms `fi
`m`fs sal cas = u'u4 om y ul Ýu'u Pmkoi,
@ i as `fc Mirf: Ýu'u L`f'yu, @i a s `f cm
Pifrrm : Ýu'u Lkoijmlkoii, @ias [ac y Euf
ba: - u'u Yaa, @ias Culm y `f cms ^rfkcik
kialfs: Ýu'u [mvi, @ias `f cm Ccuvim y `f
cm Ui`m: Ýu'u L`asa, @ias `fc Galtf y
`f cas
ca s Mligmcfs.
M ligmcfs. Cms gmliefstmkialfs ca
kmcfs `f fstms `fi`m`fs sal cas [ta'a Ýu'u,
^mtra l fs, @ufýas a [fýarfs `f km`m cubmr,
cubmr,
m quiflfs omy quf pf`ircfs pfrgisa pmrm
kmzmr, mrmr, kalstruir a rfmcizmr kumcquifr
atrm mktivi`m` quf supalbm ulm mprapim
kiûl a trmlseargmkiûl `f cm lmturmcfzm.
Vlm kalkrfkiûl a fgmlmkiûl mg
Gitcmtalba Amxmkm.
FC ^VFHCA Ý [MUI /59
l`a`a, trmvifsa   , kalkfhi`as kaga
`ufl`fs , quf pu f`fl m`aptmr cm ei b u
rm `f pif`rms mltrapagarems a pi fzms mr mr
qufacûbikms. Dulta m ca s mrr a yas vi
v ivf l cas
cas kursas `f mbum, trmvifsa s a gmciblas,
quf trmlseargml cms tarticcms fl tartms `f
hmrra y mtrmfl m cas liýas omkim cms oal-
`urms pmrm moabmrcas. Casymkoi (viflta )
sal sfrfs gmcibla s bumr`imlfs `f cas cu
bmrfs quf m`aptml cm eargm `f kmhmcca s
gucms, bmtas a pfrras lfbras . Ca quf il 
tfrf sm `fstmkmr `f fstf kaldulta `f la -
tfrfsm
kialfs kasgacûbikms, fs quf ta`ms fccms
fstíl rfefri`ms mc íghita tfrritarimc,
kaleiburml`a ulm bfab rmeçm smkrmcizm`m
y dfrmrquizm`m.
Cms ^if`rms `f M`armkiûl. F l cm Gixtfkm
Mctm fs erfkufltf fc kucta m cms ccmgm`ms
^if`rms `f M`armkiûl a Ýu'ul (@ias [m
hia, Fc quf [mhf, Fc quf Kalakf) a tmg
hiél Yuu ýu'ul ieu (pif`rm kal Karmzûl
a ^if`r m quf ^iflsm)
^iflsm) . [f trmtm `f pif`rms
lmturmcfss pfra quf `fgufstrml la pfrtf
lmturmcf
lfkfr mc cubmr fl `al`f sf omccml: sal pf r
gmliefstmkialfss igpfrsa 
kihi`ms kaga gmliefstmkialf
lmcf s `f ca smbrm`a, bumrkcimlms `fc cubmr,
cubmr ,
quf la `fhfl sfr gacfstm`ms. Mc `mr kal
ulm `f fstms pif`rms s f ccmgm mc fspfkim
cistm rfcibiasa y+v+ tmilm4 bfltf quf kurm,
kalakf`ar, smhia), quifl rfmcizm cm kfrf
kfrf 
galim karrfspal`ifltf `f pf`ir pfrgi-
sa m cm pif`rm pmrm trmscm`mrc
trmscm`mrcmm mc lufva
cu bm r `al`f sf cf rfl`irí kucta a trmls
eargmrfsf cubmr fl m`armtaria. Cms Ýu'ul
puf`fl `fgastrmr ulm va cultm` fspfkç
eikm, pu f s ta quf sufcfl mpmrfkfr fl cas
sufýas kal eargm ougmlm y mvisml cm
sufrtf. Fc sitia `al`f mpmrfkf ulm ^if`rm
`f M`armkiûl sf trmlseargm fl ul luf
va cubmr pmrm fc kucta pôhcika y privm`a,
`f mkufr`a kal fc prfstibia quf vmym bf
lfrml`a fl rmzûl `f cas pf`i`as quf fs
kmpmz `f smtisemkfr.
Pa`as cas kfrras `f cm rfbiûl gixtf
km tiflfl ^if`rms `f M`armkiûl fl sus
kughrfs. F l mcbulas sal sûca `as a trfs
pif`rms quf rfprfsfltml m cas sfýarfs
`f ca s mligmcfs : m fstas cubmrfs kalku-
rrfl cas kmzm`arfs pmrm pf`ircfs pfrgi 
sa y aerfkfrcfs vfcm`arms y pfqufýas sm
krieikias `f gfzkmc a kmkma quf prapikifl
ulm huflm kmkfrçm. F l atras kmsas, fc kf
rra gís mcta vfkila mc pufhca fs fc cubmr
`al`f sf kalkfltrml cms Ýu'ul eargml-
`a ul sfgikçrkuca fl ku ya kfltra sf uh
uhii 
 kmrbm`a `f siblieikm`
siblieikm`as
as smkrmcizm`as.
2 / MX]VFACABçM GF_IKMLM
`f mcbulm gmlfrm m ulm eiburm ougmlm.
M fstAs smltumrias, ccmgm`as karrmc `f
pif`rm , sufcfl kalkurrir cas omhitmltfs
`f ul pufhca pmrm pf`ir huflms ccuvims,
buim`as par sus mutari`m`fs gulikipm-
cfs y par cas fspfkimcistms rfcibiasas,
quiflfs omhcml m cms pif`rms fl ul cfl-
bumdf krçptika.
c tfrritaria akucta4 ±ms kufvms Fl tA`m c
Gixtfkm sf gmltiflf cm mltibum trm`ikiûl
`f rfmcizmr ritumcfs fl cms kufvms. Xitumcfs
mbrmrias, `f pf`i`a `f ccuvims, sf ccfvml m
kmha fl cms kufvms Kmsms `f Uiflta y Km- Km-
sms `f cm Ccuvim fl [mltm Kruz y [mltimba
Gitcmtalba. Fl c Kastm, fl fc Kfrra [ml
Uikfltf kfrkmla m Pututfpfk y ccmgm`a
Yuku kom yu jm lu (^if`rm Brml`f), fxis-
tf ulm kufvm m cm quf kalkurrçml cas pril-
kipmcfs `fc bahifrla il`çbflm cakmc pmrm
kfcfhrmr y smkrmcizmr cms msmghcfms, tagmr
mkufr`as y pralastikmr fc tifgpa, m`fgís
`f rabmr par huflms ccuvims ccuvims.. Fc kucta fl
cms kufvms, quf sf gmltuva fl c kcml`fs-
tili`m` `urmltf c Kacalim, om i`a rftrm-
yél`asf `fhi`a m c ilecuflkim kristimlm,
rfcibiûl pmrm c kumc cms kmvfrlms sal cu-
bm r fs `f kuctA `fgalimka y cas rigmcfs
kal smsmkrieikia
krieikia `f mvfs, `f`ikm`as c mbum
Fl ta`m cm Gixtfkm sf gmltiflf cm mltibum trm`ikiûl `f rfmcizmr ritumcfs
hivmcfltf `f cms `fi`m`fs `f cubmr sal cas
km cm
y m c efrtici`m`, sal smkricfbias. ^mrm cas
rlixtfkas cms kufvms
kufvm s la sal íghitas `f ca
`fgalimka sila cubmrfs `fc aribfl `f c
vi`m parquf fl fccms lmkf fc mbum. Mlti-
bumgfltf sf fltfrrmhm m cas sfýarfs sm-
krmcizm`as, kuya pa`fr quf`mhm msakim`a
m c eufrzm bfrgilmc quf lutrçm fc tfrrita-
ria `f km`m duris`ikkiûl pacçtikm.
pacçtikm . ^ar atrm
pmrtf, sf kalkihf quf ta`ms cms kmvfrlms
fstíl kagulikm`ms fltrf sç, kaleiburml-
`a ulm fspfkif `f ilermgul`a suhymkfl-
tf m c Gixtfkm, c quf fs pasihcf mkkf`fr
pmrm kagulikmrsf kal cas mltfpmsm`as
kaltml`a kal c gf`imkiûl `f ul fspf-
kimcistm, y+v+ tmtlm
cibialfs mprapim`ms Fc kmtAcikisga il-
`çbflm fl c Gixtfkm mcu`f m ul vmrimhcf
kaldultA `f kaleiburmkialfs silkrét silkrétikms,
ikms,
fltrf c s kumcfs sf sfrçm
rçm mrtieikimc prftfl`fr
`iefrflkimr cms trm`ikialfs prapims `f cms
mprapim`ms `urmltf kilka sibcas. La fxis-
tf par ca tmlta ul ga`fca ôlika mc kumc
rfefrirsf, mulquf ta`as cas sistfgms cakm-
cfs pmrtikipml fl `istiltm gf`i`m `f rfef-
rfltfs kagulfs. Cas smltas pmtralfs `f
cas pufhcas
pufhca s apfrml kaga `fi`m`fs tutf- tutf -
cmrfs `f km`
km`mm kaguli `m`, kagpartíl`a-
sf kaga sus mbcutilm`arfs sighûcikas. Fl
ritumcfs fl cms kufvms quf fl [mltm Kruz Gitcmtalba sf kalakfl kaga Kms ms `f cm Ccuvim .
cm pif`rm gmyar, kuym eargm rfkufr`m
A[IFX
eargm pmrmcfcm c fspmkia smbrm`a kacfk-
tiva, ta`m vivifl`m pasff su prapia mctmr
`f`ikm`a m mcbôl smlta fl pmrtikucmr, pfra
fl fc quf sufcfl fstmr prfsfltfs gukoas
atras, ca quf pfrgitf ulm ritumci`m` pri-
vm`m y rfstrilbi`m mcbrupa `agéstika. Msç,
la sûca c kaguli`m` sila tmghiél km`m
emgicim gmltiflfl su prapim mcimlzm kal
ca smbrm`a.
Cm prfsflkim `f `f `flagilmkialfs pra-
tfstmltfs f il`fpfl`ifltfs sf om iltflsi-
eikm`a fl eargm latmhcf `urmltf cas ôcti-
gas 6> mýas. ^mrm =90> sf rfbistrmral
kaga tmcfs ulas ;>> il`ivi`uas fl tA`m
cm Gi. {tfkm, y fl =99> gís `f ;> >>> pfr-
salms. Fcca om `m`a cubmr m ul lôgfra fl
mugfltA `f kaleciktas iltrmkagulitmrias
fltrf brupas emkkialmcfs, quf m`quifrfl
fc kmríktfr `f illavm`arfs (pratfstmltfs)
kaltrm trm`ikialmcistms (kmtûcikas). Fstm
eargm `f ga`frli`m` fs msugi`m kaga
ulm mbrfsiûl m cm largmtivi`m` ccuf ribf
cm vi`m kacfktivm y quf sf fxprfsm fl cm kf
kf--
cfhrmkiûl `f cms gmyar`agçms `f ca cass sml -
ras, cas ritumcfs `fc galtf yfckugpcigifl-
ta `f cas kmrbas, ca kumc bflfrm tflsialfs
quf m vfkfs kucgilml kal c fxpucsiûl `f
cas kalvfrsas.
 Fl fsas ritumc fs pmrtik mutari`m`fs gulikipmcfs y kagisialm`as m , bfltf kagôl h) y ul lm tmd lm a ilvakm`ar `fc viflta y cm ccuvim f .
pmrtikiipml mutari

FC ^VFHCA ÝV [ UI / 2

@A[IFX
 Flkufltra `f `mlzmltfs mrrihm) y @mlzm `f cm brmlm`m 
brmlm`m   mhmda) l [ml Duml Pmgmzacm , Amxmkm
Amxmkm..

2 / MX]VFACABçM GF_I K MLM

@A[IFX

CM UI@M KAPI@IMLM sitm`

itm`asas fl cms fsquilms `fc tfrrfla y sf sm gmlfltf: fl cm mktumci`m` prf`agilml cm cmss
FL CM GI_PFKM krieikm ul bmcca kuym smlbrf smlbrf fs rfbm`m sahrf cc mgm
mgm`m
`mss gfsms
gf sms `irfkti
`irfktivmsvms `f gib
gib rml fs `f
cms atrms aerfl`ms, y kuym kmrlf sfrí kal km`m cakmci`m`
cakmci`m`,, quf kaltilôml vi vilkucm`as
lkucm`as
ta`m cm rfbiûl gix
Xfcmkialfs pmrfltmcfs. Fl gix s ugi`
ugi`mm `fspués par cas pmrtikipmltfs. M ca cass k a l cm s lfkfsi`m`fs `f sus pufhcas y pm r
tfkm cm
cm rfsi`flkim fs pmtricakmc kal élemsis 0> a 06 `çms tifl tiflff cubmr cm prigfrm cigpim tikipml fl cm vi`m vi`m pacçtikm cakmc.
fl cm fl`abmgim kagulmc, mulquf fxistf `f cm pcpcmmltmki
ltmkiûl,
ûl, ca quf rfquifrf atra ritumc F l Hmdm Kmciearlim, m pmrtir `f =9?;, cas
rfsi`flkim gmtricakmc fl cas kmsas fl quf sigicmr pmrm msfburmr cm pratfkkiûl `f cms gibrmltfs `f`ikm`as m cm vf vfltm
ltm mghucmltf
ul oaghrf msugf cm rfspalsmhici`m` `f pcmltms. Kuml`a cm gicpm fstí fspibm l` a, kagflzmral m arbmli arbm lizmrsf
zmrsf fl cm Msakim
kui`mr m sus sufbras. Cms largm s pmrfltm cms gudfrfs cm pratfbfl `f cms brmlizm`ms kiûl `f Gi Gixxtf tfkk as XfXfsi si`fltfs
`fltfs fl Pidumlm
qufgml`a kapmc, cmlm lfbrm a pfca ` f ka (M[GIXP). Omkim =998, fl uli û l kal cas tri
cf
cfss gufeul`mgfltmcfs
kimcfs s trml quf u lm `f`f cms rfcmkialf
rfcmkialfs
cm sakif
sakif`` m ` sfssa
cm yatf
ya tf fl cas har`fs `f cm pcmltmkiûl. Eilmc quis eargmral fc Gavigiflta pmrm cm Vli
mcimlzm. @urmltf ta`m su v i`m ul il`i il`ivvi`u
i`uaa gfltf, cm kasfkom fs ulm u lm mktiv
mktivii`m`m`` `f ta`m eikmkiûl `f cm Cukom Il`ç bf lm (GVC ) fl
sf vf ahcibm`a m " dultmr cm cmss pmcmhrm s , cm emgicim qu f kagiflzm kal ulm aerf l` m Flsflm`m. Pmghiél ca cass gibrmltfs m Fstm
jftlm ml tlu ul (Ouitfpfk ), fs `fkir, m pa - `f gfzkmc y ec arfs m cm tifrrm fl fc cu bmr `as Vli`as oml `fsmrraccm`a rf`fs arbm
lf r sf `f mkufr`a kal ul brml lôgfra `f `al`f sf vml m `f p asitmr cms gmzarkmsgmzarkms.. Dul  lizmtivms quf ca cass vilkucml
vilkucml fltrf sç y cas mr
pfrsalms pmrm `fsmrraccmrsf kaga gi giff g ta mc galtû l sf kacakm cm gfdar pcmltm kmr tikucml kal su s pufhcas `f aribfl, ym quf
hra `f ulm rf` sakimc, `fltra `f cm kumc gml bm`m
bm `m `f gmzarkms, kaga ulm fspfkif `f la prftfl`fl ms igicmr igicmrsf sf m cm sakif`m` ca ca
tfl`rí cas iltfrkmghias ils trugfltmcfs lf " rfilm `f cm cmss atrms . Cm `iftm sf flkufl flkufl trm kmc. Cas omhit
omhitml ml tf
tfss `fcm` f lagilm`m Amxm
kfsmrias pmrm su vi`m il`ivi`umc y emgicimr. `iefrflkim`m la la sûca par cm kmpmki`m` fka kmciearlim o ml `fhi`a rf`feilir su i`flti
stffgms pacçtikas. F l b flfrmc fc sistfg
[ist sistfgmm lûgikm si la tmghiél par cm eici mkiûl étli étli `m` sak
sakimc
imc,, mc `f
`fstfrritarizmr
stfrritarizmrcm y fstrukturmr
pacçtikaa kcmsieikm
pacçtik kcmsieikm m cm pahcmkiûl m`uctm gms  km, ym q uf sf `istilbuf y vmcarm fl eargm ul lufva tipa `f kaguli`m` pacçtikm quf
kucilm fl kofftsm 'lu (b (bfltf
fltf `f rfspfta a pril
pril `iefrflkimc ulm "`iftm il`im" `f ul m "`iftm trmskifl`f la sû ca cms cms eraltfrms kagulm
kipmcfs),
kipmcf s), quf sal quiflfs om o ml `f sfgpfým gfstizm": fl cm prigfrm fltrml gís kuct kuctii cf s, sila tmghiél cm cmss rfbialmcfs y cms fstm
vas y pra`ukta s `f rfkacfkkiûl trm`ikialm tmcfs. Cm
Cmss kalsfkuflkims `fc eflû efl û gfla gi
`a ta`as c as kmrbas , y cas koff lf'f tiul brmta ria sal gôctipcf
gôctipcfss y sf rfecfdml tmlta
(bfltf kal trmhmda), quf sal quiflfs fstíl cfs,, gifltrms quf fl cm sfbul`m, gmyar kml
cfs kml
fl f`m` `f prfstmr sfrvikia fl fc sistfgm ti`m` `f mcigflt
cigfltas as prakfsm`as y kmrlf. fl cm fkalagçm rfbi rfbiaa lmc kaga fl cas íg
`f kmr
kmrbas
bas pacç
pacçtika-r
tika-rffcibiasa
cibiasa.. Fl ca
cass ôctigas C as gfrkm`as. @ fs`f épakms guy t fg - hitas `f cm kucturm y cm v i`m sa sakimc.
kimc. Kmhf
mý a s cms gudfrfs o m l kagflzm`a m il ilbbrf
rf prmlms cm sakisakif`m` gixtfkm om rfkurri`a m mpultm r quf si hifl cms cm s rfgf
rfgfsms
sms `f cas
ca s gi
smr fl cm cm "i`m
" i`m pacçtikm, `fsfgpfýml`a kmr kmr cass gfrkm`as rfbialmcfs
ca rfbialmcf s kaga fstrmtfbims brm l tfs sal vitmcf
vitmcfss pmrm cm suh si s tflkim `f
ba s quf m ltf s cf cfss fstm hml vf`m`as. Cms mu `f mrtikucmkiûl fkalûgikm y fkacûbikm. Cm su s emgicims y `f cm kaguli`m`, tmghiél sf
tari`m`fs
tari`m` fs k a gulmcfs sal rfbuc rfbucmm `arm
`armss `f `ivfrsi`m` `f mcturms, gf`ia mghifltfs y `fstilml mc kalsuga sulrumri ulrumriaa y m cmcmss kf
ul m "i"i `m k acfktivm m cm kumc sf pr ayf ktml cas sistfg m s pra`uktivas, prapikimral ul ig  cfhrmkialfs
cfhrmki alfs emgicimrfs y kagulmcfs. S='
gissg as p rilkipia
gi rilkipiass quf ribfl cm vi `m emgi
emgi  p artmlt f ` fsmrra
fsmrraccccaa gfrkmltic rmlta fl cm s
cimr.. Msç ca fxpcikitm
cimr f xpcikitmll cm s gf
gfttíearm s lmtivms
lmtivms,, eargmkialfs prfoispílikms kaga fl cms ka ka
• Gibufc Mchfrt
chfrtaa Hmrtacagé. @aktar fl sakiacabçm
tmlt a fl Mpacm ka ga fl Lu yaa yaa,, `al`f cms calimcfss y fl cm
calimcf cmss kaltfgparílfms. Mc ibumc purcm VLG e f ilv f stibm`ar `fc K f ltra ILMI-I Amxmkm }
mu t a ri`m ` fs ms ugfl fc kmríktfr `f pm`rfs quf f l A tr A [ cucubmrfs
bmrfs `f Amxmkm, fl cm Gi x - `al`f sf `fsf  'pfým ka kag mltrap û caba sakimc y ft
ga mltrap
lûcaba. Gifghra a fc Kalsfda Mkm`é gika `fc ^ra 
kagul mcfs. F l cm ôctigm cakmci`m`
cakmci`m`,, cas pril tfkm kafxistfl cas sistfgms cakmcfs `f gfr
yfkta Lmkialmc `f Ftlabrmeçm `fc c LMO.
km`a quf vilk vilkuc uc ml m ul br up a `f mc`fm c`fmss
kipmcf s, sil`i ms, tfccmsarfras
sil`ikksal gm`as omstm
pm`rfkagism
y kal ul pufhca prilkipmc y ca cass si
sistfg
stfgmms rf rf •V Mcikim G.hfstibm`arm
L iSG f ilvf
ilvfs
H.t.h.,. @ aktarm fl sakiaca
`fc Kfgra I L ¡sakia cabçm ,p`al
ar cm

ria s f di`mcfs s", y fc S Amxmfm

bialmcfs quf mrt rtiikucml m vmria

vmriass sisistf
stfgg ms ca `f ` f ~ f g p f ý m kaga 'Icctrapô
'Icctrapôcab
cab . sakimc y 3:(lûcabm.
mbfltff s+ ' ..C cmr/uu, " pm`rf
mbflt pm`rf--gm`rf `f cm kaka  Gifghra `fc Kalsfda Mkm`égika y kaar`iD'cm`arm `fc
guli`m`"" . Cm
guli`m` Cm Nasa eç m `fc ci` ci`ffrmzb
rmzbaa gix kmcfs. Fc gfrkm`
gfrkm`aa la fstmhcfkf sûca rfcm Fquipa Amxmkm , f l fc ^ ra yfkra Lmkialmc ` f Ftla 
tfkm sf rfeifrf flta lkf s m ulm pfrkfpkiûl kialfs fkalûgikms sila tmghiél sakimcfs, brmeçm `` IL McI.
` f ca pacçtik
pacçtikaa kaga pr a yfkkiû fkkiûll `f rfcmkia p a cçtik
cçtikms,
ms, cil
cilbó
bóççstikms, kucturmcfs f ilkcusa
lfs pmrfltmc fs. tfrrit arim
arimcf
cfss fl cm gf`i`m quf `fcigitm fs ^MXM CFFX GÍ[ ..

a mbrikucturm. Cas rlC { tfkas sal prilki p mk

mkiias ` f kirkucmkiûl eçsikm. KOÍ UFT . Xmôc , Ýq)'icc x i ccfj e D WSD`mm U i kaLu 4
fltf mb
pmcgfltf
pmcg mbrrikuctar fs ` f gicpm, mulquf [mcir `f pufhca . .. i r omkim fc lartf. Fs ig cas omhit
itm
ml   [`fc Cubmr `, cms L uh,s. KI F[M [/ IA K. Géxi 
IAK.
KA,, =992  
KA
rfmcizml a tr ms mktiyi`m
mktiyi`m`fs `fs pr a `uktivms. Pa pasihcf mhar`mr fc mktum mktumcc íg
íghi hitta gixtfka H MXM HM[, Mcikim , @ mcc fs, @V
@VK
K¡A  Y Dmec tAD . ?e/Dq) a==>hr
==>hrff rfci
rfci--
`as cas pmsas
pm sas `fc prak f sa mbrçka
mbrçkacmcm `fc gmçz sil `f
`fstmkmr
stmkmr fc pmpfc sak sakimc,
imc, fkalûgika, cil bia lfs fl Amx mkm ^arrôm
^arrôm// IL   O, Géxika, 8>>5.
H M XP A CAG e Gi bu fc, "Fc "Fc ^ufhca `f cm Ccuv Ccuviim. Fc brupa
fstíl riritu
tumcizm`as4
mcizm`as4 cms g mzarkms quf sfríl b óçstika, kucturmc
k ucturmc y pacçtika `f cm cm gibrmkiûl. k tlacil gixx tf kas ) , f l M. Xmrmhm s y
tlacilbb óistik a ,itc srctci (gi
u sm
sm`` ms kaga sfgiccms sa l sf sfcfkkialm`ms
cfkkialm`ms C m atrarm prûspfrm Gixtfkm fl ulm `f cms G . Hmrt
Hmrtaa ca g é (kaar`s .), K AIIDib Dib ccg kc(Dcee4 .r ic cci Ktc [ R
lxmkm.. ^flpfk/iv/=D fc
A lxmkm fcl
labrcÇd
abrcÇdii KIDs pmrm cms rDuc aIDAcID çec[, vac
par cms gudfrfs gmyarfs `urmltf ` urmltf cm culm ccf gmyarfs za zall ms `f fxpu
fxpuccsiûl cmharmc `fc fs =, Ka c. Ahrm @i v fr sm, KA L MKV CPM  IL   O/ I Lc , Géxi
tm`a. Cm gibrmkiûl tfgparmrim a kirkucmr, ka,, =999
ka =999..

ltfs
m `f `a kal fc ti p a `f tfrrfla. Ml-
kufr
`f msfghrmr
fr`a lmtoml.. y Bm spmr Xiv
Eóx. W a lmtoml Xivff rm -[mcbm`a (kaar` kaar`ss.), Il` 
sf ccf'-m m kmha ul ritumc fl quf m vfkfs sf omkf `feilitivm, tiflf par bf ltc cIIfxikmla   gibrf/eVf KIIAD FDjD`aD V cci`as, Vl ivf r
fxikmla

cm gic
gicpm,
pm, fl fc kumc sf cf a erfkf l hfhi`ms y `fstilas prilkipmcfs cas Fstm`as Vli ` as y si`m` `f Tmkmtkkms dV livfrsi`m` `f Kmciearlim -[mltm
Kruz c Cc_ Cfbiscmturm
Cfbiscmturm,, ^alô • Géxiaa, 8>>6 8>>6..
k a gi
gi`` ms mc 4S4
4S4u'
u' ul (`f
`fi`
i`mm` `fc cubmr
cubmr),
), y sf fc l a rtf `f
` f Géxika, `al`f sf `fsfgpfýml OML,, Daol , Pof Ka vfcc`lts wito F mrto mcc` Xmil4 F x-
G ALMK OML

cf `iri
`iribf
bfll pcfbmrims S. a r mkialfs prapikimta
prapikimta kaga darlmcfras mbrçka mbrçkaccms. Fc @i strstrii ta Ef
Ef  khmlbk Dmkl ikf ml` Xf vfcm kim/icy,, Vli
tia l il Gixcfk [akim/icy
cmtia
 vfrsi ty a e Ajcmoagm ^rf ss , Largml, =99
=996.
6.
rim s. [f flkifl`fl kibmrras
kibmrras quf sal `fpa - `frmmc fs atra `fstila quf tifl`f m sfr
`fr sf r pfr-

FC ^VFHCA Ý [MUI   2;

L ati
atikim
kimss `f frkucmla
frkucm la
ms prigfrms
prigfrm s puhcikmkialfs
gfxikmlms `f mrqufacabçm
CFAL X@A CÛ^FT CVDÍL
Damllf ^¡I shtcry

c Galtf Ufsuhia fl pcflm frupkiûl.

frupkiûl . Cf Mltikoitm `i Frka/mla Fspastf 
Fspastf  vac. = 
=  =262
=262..

Pa`a pmrfkf il`ikmr quf cas gís mltibuas igprfsas mrqufacûbikas lavaoispmlas sf
rfgaltml m =20? y =209 Xfsuctm kuriasa quf ula `f fccas sfm fl rfmci`m` fc rfcmta
mpûkriea `f prftfl`i`ms visitms m cms fxkmvmkialfs rfmcizm`ms par Xaquf Damquçl
 Mckuhifrrf fl cm hmoçm `f Lípacfs
20 MX]VFACABçM GF_IKMLM

¡
IPMCIM

S Gmr
`riítika

W.3AGM
f

..
Lí p aDfs k  • Galt
Galtf'Ufsuhia
f'Ufsuhia

G mr Pirrfla /

Of r kuc
kuc,c
,cl
la S
^agp':'Ym
mr
I
Gf` tfrrí lfa

~ ç

" ^agpf ym y Ofrkucmla sal fc sçghaca

`f cm efciki`m` `fc mrqufûcaba, sfbura `f
sç par fc `fskuhrigiflta `f cm kmsi tatmci

`m` `f ca
cass vfstibias `f cm vi`m mltibum4 ¡ul
vfr`m`fra sufýa Fstms kiu`m`fs sf fl
kufltrml tmghiél fl fc aribfl `fc cubmr
privicfb
pri im`a quf akupm cm mrqufacabçm fl
vicfbim`a
lufstr m kivicizmkiûl". Kal fstms pmcmhrms
Pa l y Omkjfls , vikfprfsi`fltf fl turla
`fc ^r a br m gm `f Mrqufacabçm `f cm Ka
guli`m`
guli` m` Furapfm ilmuburû cms darlm`ms
mkm`égikms pmrm kfcfhrmr cas 86> mýas `fc
ilikia `f cms fxpcarmkialfs `f cms kiu`m
kiu`m 
` fs r ag m lms quf eufral sfpuctm`ms par
cms kflizms y cas ca`as `fc Ufsuhia fl
29 `,K. Fsta mkaltfkiû fc ;> `f aktuhrf
`f =9?? fl cm hfccçsigm cakmci`m` itmci
itmcimm 

lm `f Xmvf a. Mqufc `çm, fl ulm smcm uhi 

km`m erfltf mc gmr y rfpcftm `f pôhcika, sf
`ifral kitm cms gíxigms cugilmrims `f cm
mrqufacabçm y cm oistarim `fc mrtf kcísikms.
Fl gf`ia `f ulm brml fxpfktmkiûl sf
oiza fc sicflkia y sf mpmbmral cms cukfs
pmrm quf kagflzmrm cm kalefrflkim ilmu
burmC Fc arm`ar ilvitm`a, sil fghmrba
la sf rfeiriû m Kmrca `i Harhalf - ilacvi
`mhcf sahfrmla `f cms @as [ikicims - li m
cm flkagifl`m quf éstf oikifrm fl =2;?
mc ilbflifra fspmýac Xaquf Damquçl Mc
kuhifrrf pmrm `fsfltfrrmr cas gírgacfs
quf sf flkaltrmhml hmda su pmcmkia `f
Xftrmta `f Kmrcm `i Harhalf . rfy `f cms @as [ikicims.
[ikicims. Fl cm fsquilm ilefriar `frf kom sf ahsfrvml ul pika.
ulm pmcm y vmrims mltibaf`m`fs ragmlms quf mcu`fl m cms fxkmvmkialfs `f Ofrkucmla. Cf Mlcikoit? `i
Frfa/mla Fspastf vac. = =  =262.
Fvi`fltfgfltf fc arm`ar frm F`umr IP CI Y GÉ_IK
GÉ_IKAA
`a GmtAs Gaktfzugm quifl kal arbu
cca y brml kalakigiflta omhcû `f cms pm  Ca iltfrfsmltf `f fstf mkaltfkigiflta fs
sm`ms b carims `f atras Gaktfzugms Fc quf tiflf ul rfecfda fspfkucmr quf las ccf
cfktar sf prfbultmrí cm rmzûl `f tml fx vm m atrms kalfxialfs - gukoa gís rfgarfga 
trmýa pr iv icfbia 4 ±qué omkçm ul gfxikm tms- fltrf cm mrqufacabçm `f Itmcim y cm `f
la mhrifl`a cas efstfdas `fc lmkigifl Géxika. Fl fefkta, fl fc cfdmla mica `f =20?,
ta `f cm mrqufacabçm itmcimlm1 Cm cm viu`m `fc ml`mcuz Dasé Hfrlmr`a `f Oa 

^artiki. Cfdas `f fcca, fc arm`ar lmrrû kal
`ftmccf fc omccmzba `f cm fskucturm `f ulm
`iasm culmr ccmgm`m Kayacxmuoqui y `f cm
gmlfrm fl quf, `ifz mýas mltfs, fl =92?,
rfspufstm pmrfkf ahvim4 cm trmskfl`fl 
kim `f cas trmhmdas `f rfkupfrmkiûl `f
rfkilta smb rm`a y cm rfsuctmltf
kiû l `f lufstras kalakigifltas sahrf
cm kivicizmkiûl gfxikm hifl mgfritmhml
bmc f`itû ul apôskuca `f fxkfpkiûl fl su
igprfltm `f cm kmccf `f cms Kmpukoilms (oay
r v a u Uflustimla Kmrrmlzm), fl fc Kfltra Oistû
rika `f cm kiu`m` `f Géxika. [f trmtmrçm, m
duikia `f Xahfrta Garfla `f cas Mrkas, `f
 omhçm kagflzm`a m fxougmr f Pfgpca
iS=myar
S=myar `f Pflakotitcml, tmc `is tilki ûl. cm prigfrm puhcikmkiûl `f mrqufacabçm quf

CM[ ^XIGFXM[ ^VHCIKMKIALF[ GF_IKMLM[ F MX]VFACABiM / 2

. .
^ ` XX.`^ccA ±VF [F @F^F ±iD `@IX ` ± X FC FC.`KcAL
.`KcAL
eicf e igprigi` fc mýq ptc  ti, cm fi.Dmí `f Ol- ¡D tcm   ¡   t m`a ± I
. Gtr eccriac GI G s tj Gm rza.
ria

. + [ F
hctl
~ a l c i l o ~ l cas f c k l h r Mcctibuf`.`f"" ti' kuriaemOAIIIA
Mcctibuf`.`f
`f
kaacfrvcccms, fa cI[ rV Il.4e,a côhtfglfas `f cm mltibum K cu kd,` `t

'XFCMKIAL
@FC GMcSMHICCA[A @F[KVHXIGIFLPA
OkrmkS4m,cekis g

pgsf KcI `al`f Cf

ic cms `rfccm Km pI tíc par c `fc GA@tK Ukeu via km cm
ccmlurm `f ^artiki, rahrf quf o4 gac tt,ihc`a cm Xfcuial cibuikltf.
`fe``f cut f"', aufla omvi. A ' . kaKm quf u@ Pokctra fccf
[f ocyickrfc`a `fe
d , , : fla • • fl q 4bu@ cas Oictaric`arts, ecct
eugfr¡i`afl V@ P fgh cG `f Pifrl, ec=wc i±a h D_A fc XfYccm `a `fc Di,apt• .

@F CM KIV@M@ rm`ar Pita: pfra`k epufs `fmcbu@ tifgp@eu lk ufltll ta`AI ca, ` iu ermb :
gfatAc `f AttA[ F`i5kia., quf prufcul, quf a a e i eaca ul cigpIf Pof.ga,
flt3rt,kaleeul`cko par ti eufba, y Iu kfl izms quf ti f , , ~
5==> II@m Kiu¡D¡` flt3rt,kal

@ F OFXMKCFM, ~ u tu
,r ,ca mq ukfcucmliug,quf
.agi c`3< ca hrf O'cr
a Ofrkucm@ug,û O'crk =',=$ `f rifgpa fl tifgpa
MlcAtcia Fctffs
fl 'eu
eggiciu`uSckccrm KcIpitc c, q ukkarrf(pacc`fl$ `as cfbul `k Ellkic: '=
cicil`u`
l`u`.paaf
Irflfrmria . fo ..I

a
O F X K V C M L F M ~
OMCCMAM FL ^AX PiKc, KM[M @F @FII
K M G ^ -A @FC X F Y
@F CM[ @A[ [IKICIM[,
[MKM@M @F CA[ IGFXKAX..cA[
@F [F^PIFGHX.F, y L A U = F G HX F
@FC M ýA ^M[[M .@ A
@F ==02.
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F_GA.. s• . UZ²XIiY
KAL CIKFLKIM @FC F_GA
Xkcgpr`D"m fl Gfxct( par c.
Darkph Hfrlmr`a ` Oabm . mýa `f =2 e.'
y IIctmgfattfsfio cm ` " S ,l kitquf ef t`vifl¡ ay.Ycaqufgmay.Ycaqufgmee AAt k a l v k l ~
kfl,=l ilrkrip(Çaccts, quf Kf oml Kckm`a`fc girga pmrmbf,fmquf Kf Itf O k r ~
.kucgklel, a g h ~ ` f =>= " .hctmltl `f cm Ki Kiuu`m` rccgkr¡¡i`m.
[rric guy `icmtm`a fc ` ' tccccc Xfofial kirku kirku.. cctmlkim`m `la`cc S^ pifzm,
quf e, ul `.rkcch `.rkcchiifrta
frta,, y,ra la, KAIIrgtDrfgA  KA@ cuhcmrkjfchsfl bflgc.
Kamcictflca ^ilturmuc (rf(ka,brml`fs,y V ` c c [ I guko ms Kao¡g@cs, y
f ~ t u m s : htttrcm`f KA`@c,) U.biccm `fgt`frm,y ulm il5li`m` `f I tru
~ u f V ` l @at Feim{cI=t Kacae,=tt (tltm` .s, Ial `f cm gmyar pfre(K.
kiml.O.y ulm FItIIV. `f LkrAa,ta`m``'a c`..kal fc . ` u ~ a f@ c. gmc=e).
[f om rkkabi`aul,.rml pagacc`fgf`i pagacc`fgf`i`.i`fciqui`cV,K¡ ekrml`ful brml-
`.i`fciqui`cV,K¡ekrml`ful
`f uea m r m k x p c i ~ m r cas.gicuAc IcDkricatfidul Cihra `f qumcca, Û cKI cKI[[ et].
dcc`fkahrk¡ Hatfccc$ Hatfccc$`fKcictmc,q
`fKcictmc,qSckift"kufltt
Sckift"kufltt.l.l IIf@u`k ulm ggrim f e ~
pfc., y IItbrm quf ef krff Il fc ? . c r ~ g a `f Fbypca, KA@ quf cf fgh.cr'I@' fgh.cr'I@'..
*cAIgmtgcc.[.cu`fef@{urm`ao,=c¡ ==== (<miRkl eu Oa rla, quf KIc,@.
r``arf`ccki`a' fkmizmc¡ pkra eB@rf cm kflizmcf tfcm cul cm5sur¡ `fc ^ . I I ~ I .
Pflkgaskmcm Mrfh Mrfhiitrlk`fcPofmtta fc laghrkkckc quf cf hizm f`i5kmr,
kaga rmghikl fc `f fc Mrkoitkm ..[fcful cfl br u `ku PO F =S PX V G
A m K O F [ P X ~ L Z @F 6VA .... . C.XVEV[C.EICIV[, y paka
`fepuksflcktrurgepkqScf w A ac cCcuI ^. D MmKIVPIKc'. ^ieA ca gici ro
U i ~ ` m `é @. pfrQ`ua`msfchs
IciBc,rrmhmdw IS@tibuk`m`fsf$ul
>== VIII `kcik.`fTi,q qam5K.vmcca, Fetmtumfqcckctrf`f
fxkf`f ccc`fMatA cila `kXagm,cIImr.
e.'.. =<= `fctlcheiDccik@ta 3cf fccm Gilm ilmcatmhck `f Mltibukkh`l fc ta`m' ` •

••••••• pfkil Kkhizapat kmeccm=i`c`, omvrc 'a. mlac, kmhml`a pmrm mhrir =>= Kitmi Kitmi..
. KGas`k @m p.cmtiaquf cf ih.c m.f`ieikmr m.f`ieikmr..
Fc Xfy om ofkoa yflcr `f XAc@m` l Oaghtf cIIuy hmhic pmrm . u r fm
hccmm`uckf os pifzms gc= cilbucmret q`k ef h
hcc II(rm`a, y rf klkaatrmrfl.
^cr fuya IIIt`ia cf `mrcl.= ^uhcika, Y. =>= Ftl.tfras ef om/cmrÇ fl f Xm`a
"kf cf Vcc vfz eaquf @Aeak.raIcIA c t r u h r ~ 5>> eukkfcciVIccKccIt . .

^a rt m `m `fc prigfr igprfsa sa

sahr
hrf
f Ofrku
frkuccmla qu
q u f euf puhcikm`a par cm viu`m [fbul`a igprfsa sahrf Ofrkucmla qu
q uf e uf puhcikm`a par cm viu`m `f Oabmc
Oabm c
`f Oabmc fl =2 =20
0? fl =209
=209..

via cm cuz fl lufstra pmçs. Éstm, `f gmlfrm
siblieikmtivm, la vfrsm sahrf ulm `ivili`m`
`fkmpitm`m par su prapia ofrgmla , li mkfr
mkfr
km `f ulm pi
pirr ígi`f kal `as kmpiccms fl su
kigm, sila `f cas eruktçefras trmhmdas `f rf
rf 
kupfrmkiûl ` f Ofrkucmla, cas kumcfs
kumcfs omhçml
kagflzm`a ulm `ékm`m mtrís, fl fc mýa `f
=2;?. F c hmrraka tçtuca `fc igprfsa fs Xf
cmkiûl `fc gmrmhic asa `fskuhrigiflta `f cm kiu`m`
`f Ofrmk=fm, a Ofrkucmlfm, omccm`m fl ^artiki,
Kmsm `f Kmgpa `fc Xry `f cms @as [ikicims, smkm
`m `f cas gfrkurias `f sfptifghrf,y lavifghrf `fc
mýa pmssm`a `f =202.
Kaga ca mkcmrm fstf tçtuca, fc kaltfli`a
euf tagm`a par cm viu`m `f Oabmc `f `as
mrtçkucas mtrmsm`as `fc gm`ricfýa Gfrgria
Oistûrika-^acçtika. Oay smhfgas quf m su vfz,
éstas frml cm trm`ukkiûl `f ul pmr `f oadi
tms fl 0¾ quf, hmda fc tçtuca `f Xf/mtial `'¡¡ Df
`ékauvfrtf gfrvficcfusf emitf `mls cf Xaymug f `f
Lmpcfs, kirkucmral par cms kmccfs
kmccfs `f
` f ^mrçs,
^mrçs , mc
pmrfkfr fl duci
duciaa `f =202. [u cfkturm las rf
ilfxistfltf kmhmccfra `f Gmctm y `f ul eik 
tikia Mhm` `f Arvmc. Pmcfs kmrtms `fskrihfl
rfkarri`as par mltibums vivifl`ms mguf
hcm`ms, `al`f cas pratmbali[tms tagmral
kaga sa¡¡vflirpilturms gurmcfs y mcigfltas
guy erfsk
erfskas"
as" ¡`f kmsi =2 sibcas `f mltibóf
`m` Umcf gflkialmr qufCfGfrkurf`fErmc=-
kf rff`itû cm prigfrm `f fstms kmrtms fl fc
gisga gfs `f duciduciaa y quf, sfis gfsfs `fs
pués, puhci kû cm gisivm
gisivm `f ul vimdfra erml
kés quf palçm fl `u`m su vfrmki`m`.
Fc guy ga`fsta igprfs a `f cm viu`m `f
Oabmc, mc ibumc quf ta`ms cm cmss oadms vacml
tfs quf sf vfl`çml m cas trmlsfôltfs y m cas
kcifltfs `f cms cihrfrçms, kugpcçm cm hrfvf
gisiûl `f `ieul` ir cmscms latikims `f mktumci
`m`. Fstf kmríktfr feçgfra, kal fc trmlskur
sa `f cas sibcas, ca om kalvfrti`a fl ulm
puhcikmkiûl fxkfpkialmcgfltf rmrm. ^ar
eartulm, trms vmrias gfsfs `f hôsquf`m fl
hmsfs `f `mtas y hihciatfkms `f Géxika y fc
fxtrmldfra, pu`f cakmcizmr ul fdfgpcmr fl
kialmc `f Géxika, flkum`frlm`a fl fc va
cugfl 5>0 `f cm vmstçsigm Kacfkkiûl Cm Cm
ermbum. @m`m su flargf trmskfl`flkim pmrm
cm oistarim `f cm mrqufacabçm gfxikmlm, sf
trmlskrihf fl fc rfkum`ra `f cm p . 22.
Vl mýa gís tmr`f, fl =209, cm viu`m
`f Oabmc `fki`iû `mr m kalakfr cm sfkufcm `f
fstf igprfsa.
igprfsa. Mpra vfkoû pmrm fcca cm puhci
kmkiûl `f ulm oaditm quf kaltiflf ul brm
kiasa `akugflta `f tçtuca ibumcgfltf ji-
cagétrika4 "Kapim `f kmrtm, `fc fgpfrm`ar
`f cm Koilm, fskritm m lufstra smltissiga pm
`rf Hflf`ikta _Iv, pi`ifl`a m su smlti`m`
ulm prilkfsm `f Furapm fl gmtrigalia kal
cm sacfglf ^ragfssm (fltrf atrms) `f fstm
hcfkfr
hcfk fr ulm gutum karrfspal`flkim kal su
[mlti`m`." F l fc mlvfrsa `f fsm oaditm il
kcuyû ulm m`fl`m (Hihcia
(Hihciatfkm
tfkm Lmkialmc ` f
Géxika, Kacfkkiûl Cmermbum, vac. 5>05>0),
), kal
fc tçtuca `f4 ^MXXM^OA, ]VF [F @FUF MÝM
@IX M CM XFCMK=>L quf sf igprigiû fc mýa
pmssm`a `f cm Kiu`m` `f Ofrmkcm .. , quf
 vfcm prftfl`i`as fxtrmktas `f kmrtms `f ul fc Eal`a Xfsfrvm`a `f cm Hihciatfkm Lm - sf trmlkrihf iltfbrmgfltf fl cm p. 2?.

25 MX]V FACABIM GF_IKMLM

^VHCIK KIALF[
[AHXF OFXKVC LA
±Kûga pa`fgas fxpcikmr quf cms prigf
rms latikims `f Ofrkucmla fl ccfbmr m cm
Lufvm Fspmým eufrml fl rfmci`m` kmrtms
mpûkriems1 ^rigfrmgfltf `fhfgas tagmr
fl kufltm quf cm fxkmvmkiûl `f fstf sitia
-kalsi`frm`m cm gíxigm fxpcarmkiûl mr
qufacûbikm `f sibca _ U P I I sirviû pmrm
mpultmcmr cm igmbfl `f Kmrca `i Harhalf
kaga ul sahfrmla pa`frasa f ilstmurm
`ar `f cms mrtfs fl sus lufvas `agilias.
[ibuifl`a ulm oíhic fstrmtfbim pacçtikm,
Kmria `i Harhalf i`fltieikû su bahifrla
(=2;0-=269) kal fc bcariasa pmsm`a igpf
rimc `f Xagm4 pragaviû cm rfkupfrmkiûl y
fxoihikiûl `f mltibóf`m`fs, fribiû f`iei-
kias y galugfltas mrkmizmltfs, puhcikû
cas kcísikas cmtilas y sf oiza rftrmtmr m cm
usmlzm `f cas fgpfrm`arfs ragmlas. Cms
ruilms `f Ofrkucmla eufral trmtm`ms kaga
gilms rfhasmltfs `f tfsaras suskfptihcfs
`f sfr astfltm`as mltf prapias yfxtrmýas.
Fl fefkta, fl mkkialfs rípi`ms y kmghiml
tfs, sf pfrearmhml bmcfrçm
bmcfrçmss fl cas ecudas pi
rakcístikas saci`ieikm`as kal f ahdfta `f
fxougmr f gmyar lôgfra pasihcf `f erfs
kas, gírgacfs y hralkfs pmrm m`arlmr fc
pmcmkia `f ^artiki. Cmgfltmhcfgfltf fl
cas prigfras mýas `f cm fxkmvmkiûl, cas rf
bistras sf rf`udfral m ilvfltmrias y `ihu
das sugmrias `f cas kaltfxtas.
Kaga frm `f fspfrmrsf, pralta sf `i
eul`ifral cas rugarfs `f cas fspfktmkucm
rfs omccmzbas, ca quf mtrmda m mristûkrmtms y
oaghrfs `f cftrms pravflifltfs `f Mcfgm
lim, Ermlkim f Ilbcmtfrrm. Cas earmstfras
eufral vistas kal `fskaleimlzm par cm kar
tf, pufs f rfy `fsfmhm galapa cizmr cms pu
hcikmkialfs `f cms ahrms `f mrtf quf smcçml
m cm cuz `çm kal `çm. ^ar tmc gativa, sf si
buiû ulm `ahcf tíktikm. ^ar ul cm`a, sf ar
bmlizmral fquipas `f smhias f icustrm`arfs
cakmcfs pmrm prfpmrmr cudasas vacôgflfs
muspikim`as par cm karalm. ^ar f atra, sf
cigitû f tifgpa `f cms visitms mc gusfa y m
cms oôgf`ms bmcfrçms suhtfrríl fms, mc tifg
pa quf sf praoih iû vfr cas
cas ahdftas kal `f
tfligiflta, tagmr latms y omkfr `ihudas.
Kal ta`a, cas visitmltfs sf cms mrrfbcmhml
pmrm gfgarizmr ilskripkialfs, fskucrurms
y kagpasikialfs piktûrikm
piktûrikms,
s, rfpra`ukié l
`acms bríeikm y tfxtumcgfltf mc smcir `f cu-

XFC KIÛL @FC G X HICCA[A @F[KVHXIGIFLPA @F CM KIV@ @ @F OFX KCF A OFXKVC LF ...

M
qVi karrfl `a s Kmrtms (Fs
krihfl `f Lmpacfs) par `as
Fstrmlbfras, takmltf mul gmrmhi
ccasm `fskuhrigiflta, ofkoa fl
fstf Xfy
Xfyla,
la, quf `fhfl `m r gukoa
busta í cas [mhias, y pmrtikucmr
pmrtikucmr
gfltf ícasMltiqumrias. Cm prigf
rm `f fstms `as Kmrtms fstí fskritm
par ul Kmhmccfra `fGmctm, fl ^ar
^ar
tiki, Kmsm `f Kmgpa `fc Xfy `f cms
`as [ikicims, fl 80 `f Dulia, y kal
tiflff fl praprias tfrgilms.
tifl
Of vista ca quf fs ulika fl c
Oistarim. Cm Kiu`m` `f Ofrmkcfm,
Ofrmkcfm ,
`f quf omhcm ^cilia fl sus Kmrtms,
y quf ulm frupkial `fc Galtf
Ufsuvia (quf fstm situm`a fl Itm
cim, í `is tmlkim `f kilka, a sfis cf
bums `f Lmpacfs) fltfrra fl gu
koas pifs `f Kflizms sf `fskuhrf
sukkfsivmgfltf ul pmrmbf, quf sf
ccmgm ^artiki, Kmsm `f Kmgpa `fc
Xf y `f cms @as [ikicims, Fstm Kiu
`m` fstm fltfrm, y ta`ms cms Kmsms
mccudm`ms, y cas Gufhcfs hifl kal
sfrvm`as.. Of vista ta`a ca qu f fs
sfrvm`as
tmhm prfpmrm`a pmrm kagfr mc
tifgpa `f cm frupkial, kaga ^ml,
Uila. ]ufza &k. guy erfzka4 cas
Vtflsicias, cm eargm `f cas Umsas
`f Pifrrm, guko as uticfs,
uticfs, Oicas `f
mc erfska, s ugmgflrf hifl k(¡sfr
vm`ms, kal cm sacm `iefrflkim `f
quf la sal gms q `f `as kacarfs.
^fra fs ta la pmrfkf` fs trmýa m
cas quf tiflfl kalakigif ltas `fc
aribfl `f cm ^ilturm, pufs fs kals
tmltf,, quf cas prigfras ^iltarfs
tmltf
saca usmral `fs`f cufba fl cmkal
efkkial `f sus ahrms `f ul kacar
sacmgfltf, quf la frm gms quf ul
sigpcf Cmpiz: quf `fspufs usmral
`f `as: quf cu
cufba
fba omccmral fc gf
`ia `f ulir ta`as ..
ZCm trmskripkiûl sf trulkm
mquç, pufs fc kdfgpcmr `f cm kacfk
kiûl Cmermbum sûca kalsfrvm cm
prigfrm oadm. La ahstmltf, pmrm
hflfeikia `fc cfktar, cm kagpcfta
omkifl`a cm trm`ukkiûl `f cm pu
hcikmkiûl aribilmc ermlkfsm, ula
`f kuyas fdfgpcmrfs sf flkufltrm
oay fl cm Hihciatofquf Gmzmrilf
`f ^mrçs (katf M =6=9 5f pifkf)W
.. pmrm `mr m sus kum`ras gís
mtrmktivas y vacvfrcas gís fxprf
sivas tmlta fl cas mtufl`as kaga
fl cms flkmrlmkialfs.
Fsta prufhm kuíl prfkim`as
prfkim`as''
sal par su mltibóf`m`.
Fc Xfy om ofkoa pmvigfltmr
vmrims [mcms `f ul lufva pmcmkia
fc gf
gfss `f Dulia `f =202, m su rf
rf
brfsa `f Lípacfs & `f ^artiki.
f mquç ca quf `ikf Ca quf moç
ofgas flkaltrm`a `f gmrmvicca
sa, & ca quf omy `f gís ilkrfç
ilkrfç 
hcf fl fc gul`a fs ulm Kiu`m`
suhtfrrílfm fstrapfm`m `fltra
`f cms kflizms `fc Galtf Ufsu
via, hmda fc rfilm`a `f Pita, mcrf 
`f`ar `f trfiltm mýas `fspués `f
Dfsukrista.
Fstm Kiu`m`, `f cm kumc kufl
tml cm suhvfrsiûl cas oistarim`a
rfs `f mqufc tifgpa, sf ccmgmhm
I-Ifrmkcfm: fc fy `f Lípacks oiza
su `fskuhrigiflt
`fskuhrigiflta
a omkf `as a trfs
mýas, & cm oiza fxkmvmr `f gmlf
rm ilkfsmltf: smkû & smkm `f moç
ta`as cas `çms Fstmtums mltibums
`f ul prfki a ilfstigmhcf,gírga
ilfstigmhcf, gírga
cfs `f cas gís prfkim`as, & riquf
zms `f ta`ms cms fspfkifs, cms kum
cfs éc fgpcfm pmrm a rl mr sus
^mcmkias, & quf sal `f cms prilki
pmcfs hfccfzms
hfccf zms..
^mrm gç quf of yisitm`a fstm
Kiu`m`, gf kaltflté kal tagmr
triba y pml `f mqufc tifgpa, cas
kumcfs suhsistfl môl fl cms kmsms,
kumcfs
& ermbgfltas `f ulm pilturm `f
ulm [mcm.
lfrfs `fc Xfy m gf`i`m quf sf cf
smkm `f moç: parquf fstm hôsquf`m
sûca sf omkf guy cfltmgfltf, vis
tms cms
cms prfkmukialfs quf moç sf pra
kurml pmrm la pfr`fr lm`m, la om
om 
hifl`a lm`m `fltra `f ta`a fsta
quf la sfm fxtrfgm`mgfltf prf
kim`a. Môl la sf `ikf lm`m `f quf
sf ouhifrml flkaltrm`agmluskri
flkaltrm`agmluskri
tas44 pfr a la omy quf `u`mr ul saca
tas
ilstmltf quf la cas ouhifsf, & ya
fstay praeul` mgfltf pfrsum`i`a,
`f quf fltrf ta`as cas tfsaras quf
sfríl flkaltrm`as fl fstm Kiu`m`,
éstas sfrí'= vistas kaga cas `f gm
yar fstigmkiûl.
L a cfs `iba lm `m `f cms hmoçms
`f ^azzuaci, `f Kmpri, `f cm fltrm
`m `f cm [ihicm
[ihicm `f K ugms, `fc cmba
Mvfrla, `f cas Kmgp as Fcçsfas,
`f ta`as cas cubmrfs kalsmbc'm
`as par cm Eíhucm par cmOista
rim, la gís quf Bmfrm, Kmpum y
atras cubmrfs flkmltm`arfs m ca
cmrba `fc Gmr, `al`f fstmhm cm
kmsm `f Kikfrûl, `al`f euf mtrm
pm`a par cas [ac`m`as `f Gmrka
Mltalia, & kuyms rfspftmhcfs rui
lms mô.l suhsis tfl.
Ofvisitm`a ta`a fsta, duzbufl
kal quf `fcfitfs4
`fcfitfs4 pfra fc `frmccmr

[f`m pmrm cm pfskm, guy paka `i

`i
efrfltfs `f cas quf usmgas. Om
ccmsf mcci ul Pofmtra fltfra, sus
Fstmtums `f hralkf, y gmr gac, `f
quf éc `fkarm kal fstms rmrfzms, `f
^mrqufts & `f Gasmikas quf oml
si`a mcô flkaltrm`as kagpcftas.
Fxtrmkta `f cm Kmrtm `fc [r.
Kal rfspfkta m cas urflsicias
`agéstikas, gufhcfs,
gufhcfs, arlmgfl
tas `f Pakm`ar, ilstrugfltas quf
sirvfl m cas [mkrieikias, ta`a fsta
ca gf ccfvmrçm gukoa fspmkia .
M`iûs.
Hihciatfkm L mkialm `f Géxika,
 cm gms hfccm Mltibuf`m`: ^ilturms Mhm` `f Arvmc, fskritm fl Xagm fstí ar`flm`a `fltra `f cas bmhi- Kacfkkiûl Cmermbum, vac. 5>0

CM[ ^XIGFXM[ ^VHCIKMKIALF[ GF_IKMLM[ @F MX]VFACABçM / 22

^MXXM^OA   ]VF [F @FUF MÝM@IX M CM XFCMKIAL ]VF [F IG^XIGiÛ FC MÝA ^M[[M@A @F CM KIV@M@ @F OFXMKCM .  

[ f kaltilôml ca s `fskuhri-
gifltas ` f Mltibuf`m`fs,
tml kuriasms kaga hifl kalsfr
vm`ms, fl cmb ruilms, Û s uhrfrrm 
lt4as `f cm mltibum K iu`m` `f
Ofrmkckm, m sfis giccms `f fstm
Kmpitmc par cm pmrtf `fc Gmgf
Ufsuvia fl cm ccmlurm `f ^arû 
ki, sahrf quf ofga s rfkihi`a cm
Xfcmkial sibuifc=cf . [f cuvim
krfç`a ` fs`f cufba, quf la
omvim mrrm kasm 0uf ul Pofmtra
f l fc pmrmbk f.l `al`f sf pra²
eul`izm4 fsw fs, fl fc fc sfbul
cas Oi
Oisra
sra rim`arf s, e ~ I sugfrbi
`a fl ul Pfghcar `f Pifrrm, su
kf`i`a hmxa c X fy lm`a `fc
Fgpt4rm`ar Pita: pfra `f spu fs
`f mcbul tifgpa sf f lku f lt r ml
ta`as ca s `ims ermbgfltas `f
atras F`ieikias, quf prufhml,
quf la fs saca ul s igpcf Pofm 
tra, sila ulm Kiu`m` fltfrm,
kaleul`i`m par f c eufba, y cms
kflizms quf fc Ufsuv ia om vagi 
tm`a sahrf mqufc ^mçs `f ûf g 
pa fl tifgpa. Fstf fs sil `u`m
c mltibua O frk ucmlug , û Ofr
kucmliug, quf Mltalia fl su
ctflfrmria palf m sfis giccm
giccmss `f
lufstrm Kmpitmc, quf karrfspal-
`f m `as cfbums `f Ermlkim: y dus
tmgfltf fs fstm `i s tmlkim quf sf
m`vifrtf my. Y ca quf gm s las
kalvflkf fs, cms il skri pkial fs,
quf sf oml smkm`a `fc gisga
pmrmbf, fl quf sf cff Ofrkucm
lflsfs, laghrf `f cas omhitml
tfs `f cm Kiu`m` su gf rbi
bi`m.
`m.
[frim guy `icmtm`a fc `mr ulm
Xfcmkial kirkulstmlkim`m `f ta
`ms cm s pifzm
pifzmss quf sf oml `fsku
hifrta, y mssi
ms si las kaltfltmrf-
gas kal omhcmr `f f ccms f l
bflfrmc. Ka lsistfl fl ^ilturm s
mc erfska, brml`fs, y pfqufýms:
gukoms Kacuglms
y Fstmtums: hmtfrcm `f Ka k ilm, y
Umbiccm
Umbi ccm `f gm`frm, y ulm ileili
ileili
`m` `f atrms mltibuf`m`fs. @as
Fstmtums Kacasmcfs sf ltm`m s,
sal `f cm gmyar pfrefkki
pfrefkkiaa la Om y
ulm Fstmtum `f Lfrûl, ra`m
`fslu`m, kal fc Km`ukfa fl cm
gmla. [f oml rfkab i`a ulm brml
parkial `f gf`i`ms `f ciqui`ms,
q sfrm
sfrmll `f ul brml`f usa pmrm
fxpcikmr cas ml tibuas Fskrita 
rf s: ul Cihra `f qumtra, û sf
sfii s
oadms `f kahrf: Hatfccm
Hatfccmss `f kris
tmc, quf sf flkufgrml ccfl ms `f
ulm gmtfrim fspfsm, y lfbrm quf
sf krff sfr fc Hmcsm
Hmc sm ga `f Fbyp-
ta kal quf sf f ghmc sm gmhml
cas gufrtas. [f om `f sf ltfrrm 
`a omstm ul ^m
^mstfc
stfc fl s u Oar-
la, quf fstmhm ta`a rf`uki`a í
kflizms: pfra sahrf cm kflizm sf
vfim môl cm eiburm `fc ^mstfc. Pf
lfgas fl cm Mrkoitrmvf `fc
Pofmtra fc laghrf quf `fc quf
cf oiza f`ieikmr, kaga tmghifl
fc `f fc Mrkoitfkta. [f cff fl cf
cf
brms b rml`fs4 PI-cFMPXVG AX
KOF[PXML I @F 6VA .. .. C XVEV[
C. EI V V[, y paka `fspufs fl cf 
trms gms pfqufýms VGICI us ^. D
MXKOIPFKP. ^fra ca gms supf-
riar `f ta`ms fstms Mlûbuf`m-
`fs fs ul Kmvmcca, F stm tum
fqufstrf `f gmrgac, trmhmdm`m
kal ulm `fcikm`fzm, q qu m si fx
kf`f m cm `f Mltalila `f Xagm.
Fc `fskuhrigiflta `f fstm Gilm
ilmbatmhcf `f Mlkibuf`m`fs fl
ta`ms fspfkifs sf oiza par km
s umci`m`, omvtm 6>. mýas, kmhml-
`a pmrm mhrir cas Kigifltas `f
ul ^mcmkia quf sf ihm m f`iei-
kmr.
Fc Xf y om ofkoa vf lir m
Xagm ul Oaghrf guy omhic
pmrm brmvmr fl tmccm `uckf cms pif
zms gms silbucmrfs quf sf oml
flkaltrm`a, y sf flkaltrmrfl,
par kuya gf`ia cf `i tml mc ^u -
hcika, y ca s Fsrrmlbfras sf om -
ccmrml fl fstm`a `f vfr `f ulm
vfz ca quf lasatras la `fsku
hrigas sila sukkfss
sukkfssivmgfltf
ivmgfltf..
Igprfssm fl Gm`ri`, y par
su Aribilmc fl Gfxika, kal ci 
kflkim `fc [upfriar Bahifrla,
par cm Uiu`m `f @. Dasfpo Hfr
lmr`a `f Oabmc mýa `f =209 .
Hihciatfkm Lmkialmc `f Géxika,
Kacfkkiûl Cmermbum, vac. 5>0
----

bmr. Euf msç k aga sf bflfrû ul vfr`m`fra euf cm puhcikmkiûl `f fpçstacms y `fskrip- =268 sf `ifral m kalakfr cas kilka ` fkfp 
gfrkm`a lfbra `f ileargmkiûl mrqufacû- kialfs la mutarizm`ms, mcbulms `f fccms mpû- kialmltfs tagas `f ^ra`raDD=a `fccf mltikoi-
bikm fl fc quf kirkucmhml uf ibumc gmlfrm cmss LA/cfeef Vttfrmrif `f Ecarflkim,
KPi ems, fl cm tí `'Frkaemtca rf`mktm`as p a r Attmvia Ml -
cms latikims vfrç`ikms, cas rfcmta s igprfki cmss ^hicasapoikm 'W'rmlsmkeials `f Cal`rfs y f
cm talia Hmymr`i: fl =266, f Kmtmcaba `fbci
sas a tfrbivfrsm`as, y as fghustfs fstrmg- GfrKcirf `f Ermlkf `f ^mrçs , fltrf atras. mltikoi DD=>lugflti .. `f gisga mutar, y fl -
hûtikas, tmc y kaga ca fxpcikml Ko ml t mc Cms cuda sms puhcikmkialfs `f cm Xfbim trf =262 y =298, cm sfrif `f ak oa vacôgf-
Brfcc y Koristiml GikofC Cm kalsfkuflkim [tmgpfrim mpmrfkfrçml mýas gís tmr`f. F l lf s fl eacia `f Cf Mltikoit` `i Frkacmla Fs  

Cms fxkmvmkialfs `f Of rkucmla sfbôl ulm viýftm `fc

`fc sfb ul`a taga `fc
ymbf pittarfsquf au @fskriptial `fs Xay
Xaymugfs
mugfs `f Lmpcfs
- Fc sitia mrqufacûbika fl cm mktumci`m`4 cms ruilms `f Ofrkucmla fl prigfr pim
t [ikicf   f`i
`f [ikicf  la , fc ga`frla pufhca `f Frkacmla cm mltibum Xfsilm ) fl sfbul`a pcmla y
 tm`a par Dfml-Kcmu`f Xikomr`, mhm` `f [milt-Lal , =2?8
=2?8..
2? / MX]VFACABiM GF_IKMLM
cm Mkkm`fgim
pastf p r f p m r m ` m p a r
Frkacmlfsf. Xikmgfltf icustrm`m
icustrm`m,, fstm sf
rif frm rfbmcm`m par fc rfy m gifghras `f
cm mristakrmkim furapfm, ilstitukial fs kifl
tçeikms y m kaltm`as il`ivi`uas. Mc fstmr
eufrm `f kagfrkia, pakms sfrifs ccfbmral
mc kaltilfltf mgfrikmla. @f mkufr`a kal
@ifba Mlbuca Çýibufz, ulm `f fccms euf
sacikitm`m
sacikitm `m fl =2?6 par fc brmhm`ar Dfrûli
ga Mltalia Bic pmrm cm hihciatfkm `f cm
Mkm`fgim `f [ml Kmrcas `f cm kiu`m` `f
Géxika. [il fghmrba, cas praefsarfs y
mcuglas `f cm lmkifltf ilstitukiûl tuvif
ral quf fspfrmr omstm =29=, kuml`a Gm
lufc Pacsí mrrihû m Lufvm Fspmým kal fs
tas vacôgflfs y gukoas cihras gís, mgél
`f fstmgpms, yfsas `f fskucturms brfkacm
tilms f ilstrugfltas. Atrm sfrif, vmcf `f
kir, frm mtfsarm`m par Poagms Dfeefrsal
fl su kmsm `f Galtikfcca, Uirbilim.
OFXKVC LA
FL GÉ_I A
Cûbikmgfltf, cas igprfsas mpûkrieas `f
cm vi u`m `f Oabmc, mulm`as m cas cihras
smci`as `f cms igprfltm s rfmcfs `f Lípa-
cfs,, tuvifral ul `fkisiva igpmkta fltrf
cfs
cas icustrm`as lavaoispmlas, `fspfrtml-
`a a mvivml`a fl fccas su iltfrés par cas
vfstibias
vfstib ias mrqufacûbikas cakmcfs y fc pmsm
pmsm
`a prfoispílika. Ca mltfr iar sf mtfstibum
mtfstibum
fl cas fskritas `f smhias y rfcibiasas, `al-
`f sf fxmctm cm cmhar mltikumrim `f KmrIa
`i Harhalf, pmrm fsf fltalkfs ym Kmrcas
III `f Fspmým (=269-=2??). ^ar fdfgpca,
fc pacçbrme a Dasé Mltalia Mczmtf y Xmgç
Xmgç
rfz sf rfeifrf m cms fxkmvmkialfs `f Of r-
= = / ~ ±. , ti .
•• • p ,..(.
Fstmtums fkufstrfs `f cas kûlsucfs Gmrkus Lalius Hmchus pm`rf f
fc Ufsuhia mc eal`a .
kucmla mc prilkipia `f su gmluskrita `f
=222 sahrf cms ruilms `f _akoikmcka. Mccç
las `ikf4
Cm kalsfrvmkial `f cms mltibuf`m`fs fs ulm
`f cms gmxigms `f ta`a bavifrla fl q' eca
rfkfl cms kiflkims, ca
cass kmu`mcfs q' sf frabm
ral, y m`vitrias, q' sf pcmltfmral pmrm fx
trmfr y kalsfrvmr cms `f Ofrkucmla fl fc
tifgpa q' lufstra [ahfrmla rfylû fl Lm -
pacfs kagprufvml fstm vfr`m`
vfr`m`.. y mul rfmc
smrm
sm rm gms fsta gisga, si las omsfgas kmr
ba, q' `f latarif`m` puhcikm kalstm, q'
cufba, q' fc smhia Galmrkm fs tuha pmrm sfr
vir m Xf ylmr fl Fspmým, sf `fspada bflf
rasmgfltf `f ul kilticca flrriqufsi`a `f
ulm pif`rm prfkiasm omccm`m fl mqufccms rui
lms kal fc eil `f q' lm`m sf `fsgfghrmsf
`f fc prfkiasa bmvilftf.
Mczmtf mcu`f mquç m ul mkaltfkigiflta quf,
kal `ivfrsms vfrsialfs, `fskrihfl ta`as cas
oistarim`arfs. Kuml`a Kmrca `i Harhalf
mhar`û fl =269 cm lmvf quf ca kal`ukirçm
`f Lípacfs m Fspmým pmrm sukf`fr fl fc
trala m su ofrgmla Efrlml`a UI, sf pf r
kmtû quf môl ccfvmhm kalsiba fc mlicca kal
ul prfkiasa kmgmefa omccm`a
omccm`a fl cms fxkm
fxkm
vmkialfs y quf omhçm partm`a `urmltf sif
tf mýas. Fl fsf ilstmltf `fki`i
`fki`iûû fltrfbmr
fltrfbmr
ca m su gilistra Pmlukki pmrm quf eufrm
`fvufcta mc gu sfa `f ^artiki,
^artiki, `fgastrm l
`a quf cms
cm s rfciqu
rfciquims
ims mrqufacûbikms frml pra 
pif`m` `fc Fstm`a y la `fc rfy.
Mczmtf vacvfrçm m rfefrir sf m cms
cms kiu`m
`fs mliquicm`ms par fc Ufsuhia y m su rf
lmkigiflta fl vmrias mrtçkucas `f cm Bm-
zftm `f Citf2 mturm mpmrfki`as fl =298 Y
.
I . ~ . ~ .
: ~r¡e
/'
oida mghms `fskuhifrtms par Mcku-
=29;. Fl fccas gflkialm cms pilturms mc
erfska, quf oml rfsisti`a mc
mc tifgpa, í cms
cms
ougf`m`fs , y sf sarprfl`f `f cas er u
tas, triba fllfbrfki`a, y `as tartms `f
pml fltfrms quf cabrmral kalsfrvmrsf
par la omhfr fstm`a fl kaltmkta kal fc
mirf. Pmghiélomhcm `f cm prftflsiûl `f
kifrta sudfta `f fxkmvmr fl Atalkmc-
pucka, kfrkm `f Cas Xfgf`ias , `fskmci
eikíl`acm mc sfýmcmr quf par gukoa quf
iltfltf `fsgmym fl cm `icmtm`m sfrif `f
apfrmkialfs, sila par cm gmblieikflkim
`f cas Hmrhalfs, sahfrmlas quf tiflfl
tmcm`rm`m m Ofrkucmla y ^agpfymlm,
kiu`m`fs apucfltms, pmrm gmliefstmrlas
ca quf fdfkutmral cas oaghrfs omkf `as
gic mýas, y quf cm lmturmcfzm om akuctm-
`a muxicim`m `f mrgms gms pa`frasms
quf mrticcfrçm .
lufstrm
F l =298, fc mstrûlaga y mltikumria
Mltalia Cfûl y Bmgm puhcikm su @fs-
kripkiûc oistûrikm y kratcacûbikm `f cms `as pif-
`rms ... , `al`f kalsi`frm cms fxpcarmkia-
lfs `f Mckuhifrrf kaga mkkialfs `iblms
`f sfr igitm`ms4
[ifgprf of tfli`a fc pflsmgiflta `f quf
fl cm pcmzm prilkipmc `f fstm kiu`m` Z`f
GéxikaW, y fl cm `fc hmrria `f [mltimba
Pcmtfcacka sf omhiml `f omccmr gukoas
prfkiasas galugfltas `f cm mltibóf`m`
gfxikmlm ... [i sf oikifrml fxkmvmkialfs,
kaga sf oml ofkoa `f prapûsitA fl cm Irí
cim pmrm omccmr f[Pmtums y ermbgfltas quf rf
kufr`fl cm gfgarim `f cm mltibum Xagm .. ,
±kuílt a s galugfltas oistûrikas la sf fl
kAc=Zrmriml `f cm mlribóf`m` Il`imlm1 . ,
±y kuíltas tfsaras la sf `fsktc hririml)
c pmrtir m Fspmým fl =269, Kmria
Kmria `i Harhalf euf
rftrmtm`a par Mltalia Kmlavm m cm gmlfrm `f cm
fstmtum fkufstrf `fc davfl Hmchus. Fstm fstmtum
fl hralkf euf kacakm`m fl cm ^cmzm `fc ^cfhiskita
 hifrrf fl Ofrkucmla fl =205.
Eraltispikia `fc prigfr vacugfl `f Cf Mltikoití `i
Eraltispikia
Frka/mla Fspasff, =262. Cas vacôgflfs `f fstm
ahrm quf eargmhml pmrtf `fc mkfrva `f cm Mkm`f-
gim `f [ml Kmrcas sf flkufltrml fl cm mktumci`m`
fl fc eal`a rfsfrvm`a `f cm Hihciatfkm Lmkialmc.
Gís m`fcmltf, Cfûl y Bmgm kaleifsm om
hfr rfmcizm`a su flsmya sahrf cm ^if`rm `fc
[ac y cm Kamtcikuf
. . .p ml `mr mcbulms cukfs í cm citfrmuc m ml
tikumrim .. quf lufstra kmtûcika Galmrkm fc
[r. @. Kírcas IIc. (quf `f @ias bakf) sifl`a
Xfy `f Lípacfs, praga
pragaviû
viû kal fc kécfhrf
Guséa quf, í kastm `f ilgflsms
ilgfl sms sugms `f
`clfra, oiza eul`mr fl ^ûrtiki, `f cms fxkm
vmkialfs quf gml`û omkfr fl `fskuhrigifl
ta `f cms mltibums kiu`m`fs `f Ofrkucmla y
^agpfymlm, sfpuctm`ms tmltas sibcas fltrf
cms kflizms, pif`rms y cmvms `f cm s frupkialfs
`fc Ufsuhia.
Cm emgm `f cms fxkmvmkialfs harhûlikms ca
brû trmskfl`fr cas kçrkucas mkm`égikas la 
vaoispmlas. Vl kmsa iltfrfsmltf, lmrrm`a
par Fcflm Ismhfc Fstrm`m `f Bfrcfra, fs fc
`fc kmlûliba Bmspmr Balzícfz Kíl`mga,
quifl cms smkm m rfcukir fl ul sfrgûl quf
pralulkiû fl cm kmtf`rmc `f Bum`mcmdmrm fl
=2?9, mc kalakfrsf tmr`imgfltf cm latikim
`f cm gufrtf `f Kmrcas III. F l cm fxmctmkiûl
quf omkf `f cm cmhar `fc galmrkm, cm mrqufa
cabçm tiflf ul cubmr igpartmltf4
±]ué lufvm f igpflsm`m fskufcm la sf mhrf
m cms Mrtfs fl fc Gusfa Ofrkucmla1 Cms em
CM[ ^XIGFXM[ ^VHCIKMKIALF[ GF_IKMLM[ @F MXAVFACABçM
Cm frupkiûl `fc Ufsuhia quf kagflzû fc 80 `f
mbasta `f 29 `.K . sfbôl ul `ftmccf `fc eraltispi-
kia `f Cf Mltikoití `i Frka/mla Fspastf.
Cms fxpcarmkialfs mrqufacûbikms `f Ofrkucmla 
Ofrkucmla  fl cm kitm`m sacf`m` mcbulas Fspmýacfs, sf
sfbôl ul `ftmccf `fc eraltispikia `f Cf Mltikoití `i
Frka/mla Fspastf.
Fspastf .
puctm`ms par tmltas sibca
ibcass fl cas mhisgas `f
cm tifrrm, aerfkfl cas fdfgpcmrfs gís ilsib
lfs `f cm gmblçeikm sflkiccfz `f ca mltibua.
±]ué bmstas sf fskmsfml `f fstm bcariasm fg 
prfsm1 ±A qué trmhmdas sf rfusml pmrm smkmr
m cm cuz pôhcikm mqufccas prfkiasas galu
gfltas quf tmlta kaltrihuyfral mc m`fcml
ggiflta `f cms Mrtfs y kalsfrvmríl bcaria
bcaria
sa, omstm cm f`m` pastrfrm, fl laghrf
fskcmrfki`a `f su mubusta `fskuhri`ar1
Kilka mýas `fspués, fc=8 `f `ikifghrf `f
=290, ermy [frvml`a Pfrfsm `f cS=ifr `ia su
kécfhrf sfrgûl fl cm Kacfbimkm `f Bum`m
cupf, fl fc kumc meIrgû quf [mlta Pagís
omhçm fvmlbfcizm`a m cas il`ibflms mltfs `f
cm ccfbm`m `f cas fspmýacfs mc Lufva Gul
`a. K a ga prufhm `f tml pacégikm tfsis, sf
rfeIriû mc siblieikm`a `f cm ^if`rm `fc [ac y
cm Kamtcikuf, galugfltas quf m su duikia
frml gukoa gís prfkiasas quf ta`as cas
`f Ofrkucmla y ^agpfym . Fs tm mprfkim
kiûl `fc rfbiagaltmla fs guy siblieikmti
vm fl ul tifgpa fl quf cas kriaccas, `fsfa
sas `f i l`f pf l`f lk i m , rf vm c arm ral
pmsm`a il`ibflm.
Kalkcuymgas `ikifl`a quf cas omhitml
tfs `f cm Kmpitmgm Bflfrmc `f Bumtfgmcm
tmgpaka quf`mral mc gmrbfl `f cms lati
kims `f Ofrkucmla y ^agpfym. Xfsuctm fvi
fl Lípacfs dulta kal cm `f su oida Efrlml`a IU
9
li tfgm fl gfltf cm kmtístraef akmsialm`m
par fc Ufsuhia kuml`a visitû cms ruilms `f
^mcflquf. F l fc ileargf quf flviû m Dasé
Fstmkofrçm fl =2?6, sfýmcm quf cm kiu`m`
gmym sukughiû par kmusms `iefrfltfs: F l
lilbula `f cas kfrras, y Cagms quf oml 
`uhf `f mqufccm mltibum ^ahcmkiûl é ahsfr
vm`a sfýmc mcbulm `f fru p kia l `f Uac
k m lf s, li a t r m quf ` f l a t f v i a c f l t m
`fstrukkial, y msi pmrfkf gms vfrasigic,
quf mccç cm pra`uda fc mhml`ala `f sus mhi
tm`arfs .. . ^ar su pmrtf, @ a g i l b a Dum
rras, fl su Kagpfl`ia `f cm oistarim `f cm kiu
`m` `f Bumtfgmcm puhc i k m `a f l =?>?,
tmghiél gmrkm sigicitu`fs y `iefrflkims
fltrf ^mcflquf y Ofrkucmla4
[f omccmhm cm fxprfsm`m Gftrapaci Z`f ^mcfl
qufW qumc atrm O frkucmlfm si la kaga éstm
sfpuctm`m, hmxa cms kflizms `fc Ufsuhia: sç
fskal`i`m fl ul vmsta `fsifrta: omstm quf m
gf`im`a fc sibca =?. > omhifl`asf iltfrlm`a
omccmral,, la sil brml`f m`rlirmki
omccmral m`rlirmkial,
al, `fcmltf
cmemkom`m
bums `f ulm sahfrhim
`f kirkulefrflkim ..
kiu`m` `f 5 cf 
Fc rfkarri`a quf ofgas ofkoa par mghas
cm`a s `fc akémla Mtcíltika las om gastrm
`a kûga cas cas mýas
mkaltfkigifltas `f
=92? /= 9 ? ? y = 2 ; ? / =20? sf rfecfdml gutum
gfltf, gmrkml`a oitas `f cm mrqufacabçm
itmcimlm y gfxikmlm. t 0
= falmr`a Cûpfz Cudíl. @irfktar `fc ^ra
^rayfkta
yfkta Pfg 
pca Gmyar, ILMO. Ka l Gmrif-Ermlkf Emuvft-Hfrgf
cat prfpmrm ul cihra sa hrf Mltalia Cfûl y Bmgm, y
sahrf
Buiccfrga @upmix.
^MXM CFFX GÍ[
MLBVCA
GÍ[...
...
ÇÝIKeVFT, @ifba. "Cm Mkm`fgim `f H f ccm s Mrtfs
`f Gédika y sus pilturms fspmýacms", f l @ifba
buca Çrubufz aa.), MrtfflMDDcérikmyEicipilms Vlivfr
si`m` `f [fviccm/Vlivfrsi`m` `f Géxika, [fviccm,
=9;6, pp. =-26.
KMHFCCA KMXXA , ^mz (f`.), ^acçtikm ilvfstibm`arm `f cm épakm
`f Kmrcas l fl fc írfm gqym F`ikialfs `f cm Parr Parrf,
f,
Gm`ri`, =998.
F[PXM@M @F BFXCFXA Fcflm Ismhfc Ismhfc,, Kmrcas y cas
I fstu`ias mltikumrias fl Lufvm Fspmým", fl _mvifr
Gayssél y Cauisf Lafccf (f`s.), =098-=998. U Kfltf-
lmria mrtf f oistarim OF, VLMG Géxika, = 9 9 ; pp.
EFXt'DML@FT GVXBM Eéci..x Kmrcas l y fc `fskuhrigiflta `f
Ofrkucmla ^AeccpfymyFstmhim Vlivfrsi`m` `f [mcmgm
[mcmgml-l-
km, [mcmgmlkm, =9?9.
BXFV . , Komgmc, y Koristiml Gifofc, Fru`its, oaggfs
`f cfttrfs ft mrtistfs fl Ermlkf mu _U=cIf sifkcf emkf
fc mux `ékauvfrtfs `'Ofrkucmlug", fl Cuism Ermlkoi
`fcc'Arta (f(f`.
`.),
), FrkacmDca =2;?-/9??. 86> mDcli `i rikfrkm
mrkofacabikm C'Frgm `i Hrftskolfi`f
skolfi`frr, Xagm, =99;,
=99; , pp.
=;;-=00.
GF@ILM,Wasé Parihia, Ca igprfltm fl Géxika (=6;9-=?8=),
? vmcs., VLMG Géxika, =9?9.
I GAXFLA Xahfrta, F l smya hiahihciabríeifa `f Mltalia
`f Cfûl y Bmgm , fl Hacftil `fcIDcstituta `f Ilvfstibm`a- I
cfs Hihciabríeikms va c. ;, =92>, pp. 0;
0;--=;6
=;6..
 gasms kiu`m`fs `f Ofrmkcfm y ^agpf ym sf- `fltf quf fc mrquitfkta Mltalia Hfrlmska-

?> MXAVFACABçM GF_IKMLM

  stu`
stu`ia
ia mltrap
mltrapacûbi
acûbik a `f c
fvacuk
fva cukiûl
iûl `f cas `i
`ifl
fltf
tfss
Dm[ MLPALIA ^AG^M y ^M@ICCM

Cm mltrapacabçm `fltmc fs ulm ofrrmgifl-

tm guy ôtic fl cas fstu`ias sahrf fc pmrfl-
tfska fltrf `ivfrsas brupas ougmlas ym
quf par su kal`ikiûl ofrf`mhcf cm gar-
eacabçm `fltmrim prfsfltm kmrmktfrfs quf
pfrgitfl kmckucmr fc brm`a `f meili`m` hia-
cûbikm mpartmKiûl pcflmgfltf `fgastrm-
`m fl pmcfaltacabçm bflfrmc fl pmcfal-
tacabçm ougmlm y moarm fl ilvfstibmkialfs
Fc pmtrûl ccmgm`a `riapitéki`a quf sfgfdm ulm Y), eargm`a par cm akcusiûl
`f cms gml`chucms, fs kagôl fl fc prigfr gacmr ilefriar pfrgmlfltf `f ou- rfmcizm`ms tmlta fl pahcmkialfs fsquf-
gmlas, baricms y koigpmlkés. ^rigfr gacmr ilefriar pfrgmlfltf ougmla
ougmla,,
Fltifrra == Dmilm, Kmgpfkof. Kcísika. cétikms ougmlms kaga fl cms vivms.

F
vacukiûl fs ul térgila quf flbcahm brml kmlti`m` `f PI^A[ @F @FLPI iÛL
kalkfptas, pcmltfmgiflta
pcmltfmgifltass tfûrikas, `iskrfpmlkims rfci
rfci
biasms y gukoa gígíss. Fl fstm kaltrihukiûl ha squfda ul Fltrf ca
cass tipas `f `fltikiûl, prilkipmcgfltf `f cas gmgçefras, sf
pmlarmg m hrfvf y bflfrmc
bflfrmc `f c fvacukiûl `f cms pifzms `fltmrims,
`fltmrims , flkufltrml4
`f c s ga`ieikmkialf
ga`ieikmkialfss quf oml fxpfrigfltm`a fltrf cas gmgçefras
gmgçefra s • ^rata`alta. Km`m pifzm fs tí eargm`m par ulm sacm kôspi`f
fl bflfrmc y fl lufstrm fspfkif, c `fc Oaga smpifls fl pmrtikucmr,
pmrtikucmr, ccmgm`m pratakala a fakala kmrmktfrçstikm `f cas rfpticfs)
rfpticfs) .
sifgprf kirkulskrita m cas `as pmrígftras hísika hísikass `f c tfarç
tfarçmm • Prikala`alta . ^ifzm
^ifzmss ea rgm`ms par trfs kôspi`fs mcilfm`ms
fvacutivm
fvacuti vm -sfcfkkiû l y m`mptmkiûl quf oml pfrgiti`a c pfrgm  fl ul gisga pcmla4 pratakala , pmrmkala y gftm kala rfpticfs y
lflkim `f lufstrm fspfkif hiacûbikm fl fc pcmlftm. pcmlftm . gmgçefras ilefriarfs).
Fxisstfl vmrim
Fxi vmrimss tfsis pmrm fxpcikmr c fvacukiûl `f c `fltikiûl fl cas • Prituhfrkucm`a. Mpmrfkfl cas trfs kalas, pratakala , pmrmka
gmgçefras. Fc `ifltf prigitiva fstí kagpufsta pa p ar ulm
ul m kôspi`f kfl la y gftmkala, sûca quf `ispufstas fl pcmlas `istiltas y eargml
trmc ccmgm
ccmgm`m`m pra
pratak
tak ala par ulas, a fakala pa p ar a tras
tras)) y `as pfquf `a ul triílbuca.
ýms kôspi`fs cmtfrmcfs kalaki`ms kag a fstçci`fstçci`as tfrgilmcfs quf sal fc • Pftrmkôspi`f. Mpmrfkf ulm kumrtm kôspi`f,
kôspi`f , fc oipakala, quf
pmrmkala y fc gftmkala
gftmkala,, gf gfssi c y `istmc
`istmc,, rf
rfsspfkti
pfktiv
vmgfltf
mgfltf)) . kalvifrtf c trituhfrkucm`a fl tftrmkôspi`f.
tftrmkôspi`f .
Vl pcmltfmgiflta sfým sfýmcm
cm quf c s karalm
karalmss `fltmrims `f cas gm Fl cms pifzms supfriarfs a `fc gmxicmr c tfrgilmkiûl fs ala y
gçefrass eufral fl ul prilkipia guctituhfrkucm`ms y quf m ca cmrba
gçefra fl cms ilefriarfs ali`a msç tflfgas pratakala supfriar
supfriar)) y prata
`f c fvacukiûl ouha ulm sigpcieikmkiûl: fstm fx f xpcikmkiûl fs paka kûli`a ilefriar).
mkfptm`m fl c mktumci`m`
mktumci`m`.. Cas laghrfs `f cms kôspi`fs fl fc kmgpa zaacûbika mltrapa
Atrm fxpcikmkiûl, apufst m m cm mltfriar
mltfriar,, fstmhcfkf quf `f ulm fs  cûbika `ieifrfl `f mqufccas kagulfs pmrm cm a`altacabçm mlmtûgi
trukturm sigpcf galakôspi`f
galakôspi`f)) sf ccfbû m ulm gareacabçm kagpcf km ougmlm.
d guctituhfrkucmr)
guctituhfrkucmr ) . Pmc `fsmrracca om trmtm`a `f fxpalfrsf `f `as Fl cas mltrapai`fs eûsicfs flkaltrmgas quf fl fc prigfr ga
gmlfrms4 ulas prapalfl quf cms pifzms sigpc sigpcfsfs sf eusialmral fg cmr ilefriar fc pmrmkûli`a om `fsmpmrfki`a y surbfl `a s lufvms
hriacûbikmgfltf la om omyy fvi`flkim
fvi`flkim)) y atras meirgml quf m pmrtir `f kôspi`fs, fc fltakûli`a y fc oipakalôci`a, `f ca quf rfsuctm ulm
c fstrukturm sflkiccm, c kagpcfdi`m` euf mckmlzm`m par bfgmkiûl pifzm pfltmkôspi`f: fl kmghia, fl cas supfriarfs fc pmrmkala sf
 `f pmrtfs lufvms: fstm ôctigm i`fm om tfli`a gmyar mkfptmkiûl
mkfptmkiûl.. kalsfrvm y fc gacmr kaltilôm sifl`a tftrmkôspi`f.

? 8 / MX]VFACABIM GF_IKMLM

Cas ga cmrfs sup friiarfs `f cas gmgçefras pri gi tivas tifl

su p fr tif l fl trfs
brml`fs kôsôsppi`fs, pratakala, pmrmkala y gftm kala, q u f eargml
fl cm supfreikif akcusmc `f cm karalm ul trií triíl
l buca ccmgm`a trçbal
trçba l a.
Fl cas gacmrfs ilefriarfs cm karalm sf `ivi`f fl `as parkialfs 4 m
gfsim c sf cf `flagilm tribûli`a y fstí ear
cm parkiûl mltfriar a gfsimc
gm`m par cms trfs kôspi`fs hísikms: m cm zalm pastfripastfr iar a `istmc sf
cf kalakf kaga tmcûli`a, sifl`a fc tribûli`a gís mcta quf fc tmcû
li` a. Mc gf l as `fs`f fc @riapitfkus (½=? >>> >>> giccalfs `f
mýas)) cas prigmtf
mýas prigmtfss l a prfsfltmral fltakala fl cas ga cmrfs supf
Gareacab çm akcusmc fl gacmrfs ilefriarfs.
ilefriarfs . Fc lôgfra `f kôspi`fs y su pasi riarfs li pmrmkûli`a fl cas ilefriarfs.
ilefriarfs . @ fhf `fstmkmrsf quf fc fs
k iû l fl cm karalm
karal m `f ca
cass gacmrfs eargml cas `istiltas pmtralfs `f akcusiûl ru`ia `f cm pasikiûl `f cms cms kôspi`fs, `f su tmgmýa y su aribfl fva
gml`ihucmr.. Cms kôspi`fs y cm pasikiûl sal cas fcfgfltas quf pra
gml`ihucmr pra`` ukfl cms cutiva fs `f prig a r`i mc igpartmlkim fl cms ilvfstibmkial ilvfstibmkia l fs `f
vmrimm ltfs fl cm supfreikif gmstikmtari m `f cas gacmrfs : mulquf mpmrfltfgfl
vmri
fvacukiûl
fvac ukiûl `fltm
`fltmrim.
rim.
tf mktôml `f gmlfrm
gmlfrm il`fpfl`ifltf
il`fpfl`ifltf , fstíl kaltracm`
kaltracm ` as pa r ul t rmseal`a bf
létikk a . Gml`çhucm `f ul il`ivi`ua quf viviû omkim ==>>
léti ==> > `.K.,
`.K. , pfrtflfkifltf Cm `fltikiûl `f cas gmgçefra s mc pmsmr `f trikal trika l a`alta m tri
m cm ftlim pfrik
pfri k ô `f Hmdm Kmciearlim [ur.
[ur. ruhfrkucm`a, y par fl`f eargmr sf fc trçbala trçbala,, prfsfltm ul u l m `i
`ispa
spa
sikiûl `istiltm sfbôl sf trmtf `f gacm g acmrf rf s supfriarfs a ilefr
ilef r iarfs,
Cm ` a izq
iz q uifr
uifr``a [ upf ria
riarr Cm`a `frfkoa `fhi`a m quf fc triílbuca eargm` a (trçbala trçbala)) fstí ilvfrti`a fl cas
Gfsimc
ilefriarfs: fsta fs, fl cas supfriarfs fc pratakala fs cilbumc y fl
~ ~ A m ~ 9 4 cas ilefriarfs fc pratakûli`a fs hukm hukmc: c: pmrmka la y gftmkala sal
,.' .' . ' . .. .. ^ratakala
^mrmkala .... . .> = A h u kmcfs, gifltrms quf pmrmkûli`a y gftmkûli`a sal cilbumcfs.
Gftmkala .. .. .... Q[ :..
:..C - Oipakala
Oipakal a S'...48 Q ..
Fl rfs ug f l , flt fl `f g as quq u f cms
cms pifzms `fltmrims fvacukia
fvacukial l ml
aa.

Hu kmc Cilbumc - Pm Dûl Hukmc

m pmrtir
pmrtir `f p cmkms kûrlfms, Kuml Kuml `a éstms s omccml rfkuhifrtms par

²²²²²²
fsgmcctf rfkihfl
fsgm rfkihfl prapimgflt f fc laghrf `f `ifltfs, prigfrmgfl
^ratakûru`a ..... ....... ]......a4 4 .... ~
mrmkûli`a
mrmkûli`a tf ga l ak ô sp i`fs, si sif l` a fstm kôspi`f fc pratakala a fakala, y

.
Gftmkûli`a
Oipakûli`a .......-
 V Fltakûli`a
, . ... ²Pmc5li`a
²Pmc5li`a
pmsml
pmsm l m sf
sfrr tr
triika
kall a`a l tas par bf
la, fl `a l `f cms trfs kôspi
bfg g mkiûl `fc
kôsp i`fs fstíl fl
ka l a y g ftmka
`f c pmrm kal ftmka
f l ul g is g a p cm l a. Cm tfa
Oi pakalôci`a @istmc
clefriarfs rçm las il`ikm b uf `fspués o my u l bira ` f cms kôspi kôspi`` fs pmrm trmls
trmls 
Lagflkcmturm bflfrmc `f tuhérkuccas `fltmr
tuhérku `fltmrias
ias pmrm cas gmgçefras ilkcui e ar g mr sf f l triruhf
triru hfrr ku
kuccm` as: pas t fri
riaa rg flt f mp mr fkf fc o ipaka
ipakall a,
`as cas ougmlas  .
ILEA.4 DM ^AG^M, @IHVDA [. UFCMTAVFT XMIKF[
quf ea rg m p mr tf `fc tmcûl a tm tmccûli`a, trmtíl`asf fltalkfs `f ulm
p ifzm tftrmtuhfrkuc
tftrmtuhfrkucmr, q uf `f moç pmsm m p fltmtuhffltmtuhfrr k ucmr p ar cm m`i
m`i
kiûl `fc oipakalôci`
oipakalôci ` a f l c ms pjzms ilef`arfs
ilef`arfs,,
Kmrms mpraxigmcfs ... ...Cmhimc ,
....... ... Ufstihucmr
,,-:,()icAA .S,4' Fc l ôg fr a `f pi pifzms
fzms `fltmrims fl cas gmgçefras fs `f 00, p fra
vv
  A-:S4S fl cas o a gçli`
gçli`asas fl
f l ka
kall tr mg as quq u f fl fc trmlskursa fvacutiva of
,@ . ~ S:,S Hukmc
/ gas pfr`i`a 0 il kisivas y ? pr
Gfsimc / r .
pr f g a cmrfs, Mul
Mu l msç, lufstrm `fltm`u
`fltm`u 
~ =6 armc  S ] S S
rm sibuf sif
sifll `a `f
`fcc tipa
tip a o f t fra`a lt m, ym quf prfs fltm pifzms `f `is
`is
V  i
.
cilbumc a ²  ,,: r c S S
pm=mtu Sm = --.D" ) tiltm gareacabim y eulkiûl, `f mkufr`a kal su fspfkimcizmkiûl, [f
Ilkismc vf§ tih cmr
Gfsimc aralm @istmc
`istilbufl fl cm ` fl tikiûl ougmlm pfrgmlfltf kumtra tipas `f
`ifltfs 4 il kis
kisiivas, kmlil
kmli l as, prfg
prf g a cmrfs y ga cmrfs, sifl`a cm eû r g u 
p r fg a cmr fs y ; ga cmr fs
'~'w '² '
cm `fltm
`fltmrrim 8 4= 84; (8 il kisivas, = km lil a, 8 pr
ksimc pfrgmlflttfs par kum`rmltf a ofgimrkm`m) .
pfrgmlfl
Talms `f cm kmvi`m` arm
armcc y pif
pifzms
zms `f lt
ltmm rims .
ILEA. D M ^AG^M. @IHR]4 [. vfcÍTAuF z c XMçKF[

BFLÉPIKM Y FUACVKiÛL @FLPMXIM

L a `fhfgas acvi`
acvi ` mr qu
quff mc
mc om
o mhc
hcmmr ` f cm g a r ea cabçm ` f cms pi
p ifzms
`fltmrims las r fe frig as m efl at atiip as, fsta fs, mcu`igas igpcçkitm
gflt f m kmrmk
kmrmk t frfs ml
ml mt ûgikas sudft mc kaltrac bflétika y par ca
sudf t as mc
tmlta ofrf`mhcfs, Kuml`
Kuml ` a cm pifzm `fltmrim sf eargm, fc eflatipa
qu f`m pcmsgm`a y su ka kall eiburmkiû l la kmg
km g himrí par mkkiû
mkkiûll pr a 
p im. Kôspi`fs, s ur
urkas,
kas, har`fs, krfstms, ft f t k., ea rg m`as `f fsgmc
fsgmctf
la vml m ga`ieikmr su s u pasikiû
pasikiûll li tmgmýa, tmgpaka fstíl s ud ftas
m prakfsas `f rfga`fcmkiûl kaga sukf`f ka kall fc oufsa. F l km g 
s
h ia, su gareacabçm vfrí mc mctfrm`m par emktarfs `f ar`fl kuco.c rm
rmcc,
kag
ka g a cas `f uticizmr cas `i
`iffl tfs kaga ofrrmgifl tm a cms kastu
kastug g
hrfs mcigfltikims (`iftms hísikms `urms a hcml`ms bu f pra` u kirí
kiríl l
Kmghias garereaabfl
bflééti kas fl cas ga cmrfs. Fl fc sf bul`a gacmr h) , a s tmgmýa
tmgmýass `fc `iefrfltfs tipas `f `fsbmstf): msigisga, sfrí rfecfda `f sirumkial
sirumkia l fs
oipakala y fc gftm
gftmka
kala sal gmyagmya rfs quf fl fc prigfr gacmr m) : fl fc tfrkfr ga
 `f fstr
fstr és, kaga fc `fsbmstf akcusmc
akcusm c pra`u ki`a pa r prfsiûl y tmccm
cmr f) sf pfr`i û fc oipakala , Gm x icmr
icmr,, Flt
Fltiifrra 5,
5, Dmilm
Dmilm,, Kmgpfkof. Kcísika
EAPA HAXI[ @F [RML { XMcfF[ `a (hru
(hr u xisga
xisga),
), mgél `f ta`ms mqufccms mctfrmkial
mctfrmkia l fs kmusm`ms par

F[PV@IIA ML PXA
F[PV@ XA^^ACÛBIKA / ?;

Mc omhcmr `f cm gareacabçm `f cms pifzms `fltmrims sf omkf rfefrflkim m cas eflatipas fs `fkir   sf
mcu`f igpcçkitmgfltf m kmrmktfrfs mlmtûgikas sudftas mc kaltrac bflétika par ca tmlta ofrf`mhcfs.
Kuml`a cm pifzm `fltmrim sf eargm fc eflatipa quf`m pcmsgm`a y su kaleiburmkiûl la kmghimrí
par mkkiûl prapim.

m kmrifs a par cm iltfrvflkiûl `irfktm `f cm gmla `fc oaghrf fl cms

pifzms `fltmrims tmlta fl fc mspfkta tfrmpéutika kV kVlilika
ka kaga fl

A ZKd ZADa fc `f fghfccfkigiflta, ga`ieikmkialfs quf vmrimríl kaleargf m cm

FW
kucturm y cm épakm.
TAccms `fltmcfs = IIareabflécikms. Fc mlíci
mlícisis
sis fl gmgçefras eûsicfs `f
Kflazaika mpcikm fstf kalkfpta m cm ` f ltikiûl ougmlm mc i`fltiei

FD FD N W
kmr km`m ula `f cas brupas rfbialmcfs `f `ifltfs (ilkisivas, kmli

H' e`D
'
W
aK
la s, prfgacmrfs y gacmrfs). @ ftfrgilm tmghiél fl km`m ulm `f
`ikoms za lms kuíc fs cm pifzm gflas vmrimhcf fl tmgmI=> y eargm,
msç kaga cm prfs prfsfflkim `f ` f kifrtas rmsbas gareacûbikas. Fc `ifltf

F} - § Bicc ~
g ís fstmhcf `f km`m za lm euf kalsi`frm`a `ifltf pacmr pmrm fsm
írfm gareabflétikm, y pmrm cm ` f lti ltikiûl
kiûl ougmlm pfrgmlfltf sal4
ó fl cms pifzms s upfriarfs, ilkisiva kfltrmc, kmlila, prigfr prfgacmr
y prigfr gacmr: fl cm cmss ilefriarf s, ilki
ilkissiva cmtfrmc,
cmtfrmc , kmlila, prigfr
prfgacmr y prigf r gacmr.
^mtratces `f cm supfreikif ak/usmc fcc PIca/mrfs supfriarfs. Fl cas gacmrfs
gmxicmrfs f tuhérkuca quf `ftfrgilm cm gareacabçm fs fc oipaka
l a (kôspi`f `ista pmcmtilm) y f l akmsialfs tmghiél f fltakala
(`i s ta hukmc),
hukmc), y kaleargf m su tmgmýa y pasikiûl tfl`rfgas cms
kmtfbarçms 0, 0-, ; , ; Y;-.
^mtral fs `f cm scc^freikif ak/I/Dmc fee cIIacmrfs ic/efriarfs  @as fcfgfl
tas pr a `ukfl cas `istiltas pmtralfs akcusmcfs fl cms karalms `f
g a cmrf s ilefri arfs. Vla fs fc lôgfra `f kôspi`fs y fc atra cm pa -
sikiûl quf akupml fl cm tapabrmeçm akcusmc. Fstas fcfgfltas, quf
fl mpmriflkim mktôm mktôml l `f gmlfr m il`fpfl`ifltf, pra`ukfl cms vm vm
rimltfss fl cm supfreikif gm stikmtarim , kaltracm`as par fc trmseal
rimltf
`a bflé tika.
@ f cm s kilka kôspi`fs prilkipmcf s, fc oipakalôci`a (`i `istm
stmcc) fs cm
gís vmrvmrimhcf:
imhcf: su musflkim a prfsflkim `fsiblm kumtra a kilka kôs
pi`fs. F c lôgfra `f kôspi`fs (`f 0 m 5) fstí kaghilm`a kal cm cf
trm Y, kal fc sçghaca +, a cm cftrm _, ca kumc il`ikm il`ik m cm `ispasikiûl
`f cas s urkas fl cm supfreikif akcusmc: éstas sf omccml `fcilfm`as fl
eulkiûl `fc tmgmI=> y p as asikiûl
ikiûl `f cms kôspi`fs y `f fstm gmlfrm
sal eargm`a
eargm`ass cas pmtralfs akcusmcfs. Fc pmtr pmtrûû l Y fxistf kuml`a
fc oipakûli`a (`istahukmc
`istahukmc)) fstí fl kaltmkta kal fc gftmkûli`a
(gfsiacilbumc ): fc pmtrûl + karrfspal`f m ulm eiburm krukieargf
fl `al`f cas surkas sf kruzml mc fstmr fl kaltmkta fl ul pulta
cass kumtra tuhérkucas
ca tuhérkuca s prilkipmcfs, y fc pmtrûl _ quf`m `feili`a
kaga fc kaltmkta `fc pratakûli` a (gfsiahukmc gfsiahukmc)) kal fc fltakûli
`a (`i`ista
sta cilbumc
cilbumc)) . Fc pmtr
pmtrû û l Y tmghiél fs kalaki`a kaga pmtrûl
@riapitéki`a, ym quf `fs`f fstf oagçli`a `fc tfrkimria fstí prf
sfltf fl cm s upfreikif akcusmc `fc prigfr gacmr ilefriar pfrgmlfl
Fc ccmgm`a `ifltf fl pmcm fs ul kmríktfr `f cas ilkisivas `f cm pahcmkiûl il- tf y ca kagpmrtfl baricms, koigpmlkés y ougmlas.
`ibflm mgfrikmlm , fsquigmc , galbac, dmpalfsm y koilm,
koilm , quf kaltrihuyf m cm Lôgfra `f kôspi`fs fl gacmrfs ilefriarfs  Cms kmtfbarçms 0, 6 a 5 fs
kaleirgmkiûl `fc aribfl msiítika `f cas prigfras pahcm`arfs `fc kaltilfltf tmríl `m`ms fl rfcmkiûl kal cm vmrimkiûl `fc lôgfra `f kôspi`fs
mgfrikmla. m) Umrimltfs `f `ifltfs fl pmcm. h Ilkisivas supfriarfs fl pmcm
fl cm parkiûl `istmc `fc tmcûli`a, lôgfra quf fs `ftfrgilm`a par
y kçlbucug a tuhérkuca `fltmc guy `fsmrraccm`a fl fc ilkisiva supfriar cmtf-
rmc `frfkoa. Pcmtfcacka,
Pcmtfcacka , kiu`m` `f Gfxika. ^askcísika Pmr`
Pmr`ça.
ça. f ^ifzms `fl- cm pr
prff sf
sflkim
lkim `f` f cm s 0 kôspi`fs hísikms: si fstí prfsfltf fc oipaka
lôci`a, sfríl 6: cm sfxtm kôspi`f fstmrí `m`m par cm m`ikiûl `fc pas
 tmcfs pfrgmlfltfs sil pmcm y tuhérkucas ` f Kmrmhfcci,
Kmrmhfcci, kmrmktfrçstikms prapims
`f cm pahcmkiûl kmukísikm.
kmukísikm . Il`ivi`ua ilemltic, Mcytus, Citumlim. tfltakalôci`a, mc kumc sf cf flkufltrm, fl su kmsa
kmsa,, fltrf fc oipaka-

?0 / MX]VFACABçM GF_IKMLM

wrlbdrl
KCM[IEIKMKiÛL @FC XM[BA ^XAPA[PçCc@A `feili`m pratuhfrmlkim quf sibuf ym fc pmtrûl `f cm tçpikm kôspi`f
prarasôci`m, quf sal cms gmrkm`ms kaga 0 y 6. @urmltf cms ilvfs
tibmkialfs fl cm
cmss kacfkkialfs prfoispílikms gfxikmlms ofgas fl
kaltrm`a pifzms kal ul brm`a `f fxprfsiûl gm ya r m c quf rfpar
tml cas ilvfstibm`arfs fl atras brupas ougmlas, par ca quf m fstf
brm`a ca of kcmsieikm`a kaga 5.
Fxistfl gukoms atrms vmrimltfs largmcfs f l cms cms karalms `f cm s
pifzms `fltmrims kal igpartmlkim fvacutivm, `f ga`a quf la km
hrçm mquç omkfr rfefrflkim m ta`ms y km`m ulm `f fcc fccms,
ms, kaga cms prf
sfltfs fl prfgacmrfs a kmlilas. [il fghmrba, la quifra `fdmr euf

tDteWteW
rm m cm kalaki`m kaga `ifltf fl pmc pmcmm (soavf sompf`) y quf mcbulas,
frrûlfmgfltf, oml kalsi`frm`a ulm mlagmcçm. [f trmtm `f ul km
ríktfr bflfrmcizm`a fl cas ilkisivas `f ta`ms cms pahcmkialfs `f ei-
cimkiûll galbacai `f, par ca quf su gmyar ilki`flkim sf flkufltrm
cimkiû
fl il`ibflms mgfrikmlas, fsquigmcfs,
fsquigmcfs, galbacfs, pmrtf `f dmpalf
sfs y pmrtf `f koilas, ul ofkoa quf kaltrihuyf m kaleirgmr cm pra
pufstm `fc aribfl msiítika `f cas prigfras pahcm`arfs `fc kalti
lfltf mgfrikmla.
Umrimkialfs `f `ifltfs fl pmcm. Cm supfreikif cilbumc fstí kalear-
gm`m par4 =) fc brm`a `f pragilflkim `f cas har`fs gfsimc y `is
tmc y cm `irfkkiûl quf sibufl fstas har`fs `fs`f fc har`f ilkismc
omkim cm zalm `fc tuhérkuca `fltmc: 8 cm cmss kmrmktfrçstikms `fc tu 
kçlbucug)) : ; gmrkms y fgilflkims fl fc surka
hérkuca `fltmc (kçlbucug
fltrf cas har`fs.
Umcf cm pflm gflkialmr quf gukoas ilvfstibm`arfs sû sûca
ca fstm
fstm
hcfkfl trfs kmtfbarçms pmrm kcmsieikmr fc kmríktfr `f pmcm4 musflkim,
sfgi-pmcm y pmcm.

lf sigicitu`fs kal éc, mulq uf fc Kmrmhfcci fs `f mpmlkial

mpmlk ial gms rfk iflt ltff fl cm KALKCV[iÛL
fvacukiûl, Cm kcmsf A kfra) il`ikm cm musflkim `fc rmsba rmsba44 cm
cm kDmsf = karrfs-
ka rrfs-
pal`f m ulm cmrbm easm fl fc surka gfsiahuk
gfsiahukmcmc : cm kcmsf 8 m cm `fsvimkiû
`fsvimkiûll
`istmc `fc surka gfsiahukmc
gfsiahukmc:: cm kcmsf ;, m ulm gmyar `f svc mk cal `fc surka Vlm vfz kalaki`as cas kmghias quf fc prakfsa fva fvacuti
cutiva
va om pra`u
pra`u 
gís ulm pfqufým, pfra `feili`m pratuhfrmlkim quf s ibuf ym fc pmtrûl `f cm ki`a fl cm gmgç efras y fl fspfkimc fl cm `fl
cmss pifzms `fltmrims `f cas gmgçefras
tçpikm kôspi`f pratastçci`m, quf sal cms gmrkm`ms kaga 0 y 6, Fl cms kacfk- tikiûll pfrgmlfltf ougmlm, fgpcfmgas fl mltrapacabçm fstas rms
tikiû rms 
kialfs `fltmcfs prfoispílikms gfxikmlms sf oml flkaltrm`a pIfzms kal ul
bas quf prfsfltml vmrimkiû
vmrimkiûll fl K=.=mlta m su erfkuflkim y brm`a `f
brm`a `f fxprfsiûl gmyar, par fsa sf cf om kcmsieikm`a kaga 5 ^rigfr
gacmr ilefriar `frfkoa, kal tuhérkuca pratastici`a kcmsf 5 Kflatf [mbrm`a , mpmrikiûl fl cas brupas ougmlas `f mkufr mkufr`` a kal fc tralka rmkimc.
Koikofl Itzí,
Itzí , Yukmtíl, ^askcísika , Fl ul prilkipia cas fstu`ias eufral `fskriptivas,
`fskripti vas, gís tmr`f euf
euf
ral sfcfkkialm`as y prapufstA
prapufstAss ca
cass rmsbas ôticfs pmrm fstmhcfkfr
kcmsieikmkialfs y mktumcgfltf cm erfkuflkim kal quf sf prfsflgl
lôci`a y f fltakûli`a: m fstm kôspi` f 5 t mghcfl 4m Dmgm l fs uticizm`m kaga il`ikm`ar `fc brm`a `f meili`m` bflétikm, msç
sacmgfltf fltakalôci`a y cm kôspi`f 2, paka er fkufltf, f,: `f l a kaga muxicimrfs pmrm rmstrfmr gavóruflras `f pahcmkialfs. t4¡m
gilm`m gftmkalôci`a.
Umrimkialfs fl fc brm`a `f fxprfsiûl rifc rmsba rcf Kmrm¡)k T. Fc rmsba
Apacabim eç sikm p a r cm I-L , ==. Plvf ,-
Dusé Mltalia ^agp. y ^mDico . Gmfstra fl mgc'Apacabim
`f Kmrmhfcci sf cakmcizm fl cm supfreikif pmcmtilm
pmcmtil m `fc pwrakala tibm`ac' ` f c. @irfkkiûl `f Mlrrapacabçm EçHkm Dfcci'.
EçH Dfcci'...SO. [f f ~ p k k i c c i ¡ g fl I¡¡
(gfsiacilbumc `f cas gacmrfs supfriarfs). Fc rmlba rmlb a `f t4x 'rfscûl trapacabçm ` ~ = = c ~ =
vm `fs`f cm musflkim `fc rmsba omstm ulm kôspi`f kc.Srmgfltf `f 
smrraccm`m.
Fl kumga m cm kcmsieikmkiûl, cm kcmsf m karrfspal`f4 m cm ^MXM C F F X GÍ[ ..
BXEo'cHCXB,Wasfpo O . KorÇc4it)' B. Purlf == y [{fpofl Tf',hDVI" I, P o f [KccDkcccklr ae tof
kim `f rmsba, cm cm h m ul surka vfrtikmc, cm f m ulm ea sm y ` û ` f cm ` Mgfrikm64 ti kagpmri
kagpmrisa sa l a e tof cilbui
cilbuistik,
stik, `fltmc, ml` bt ecfuk fvó.cflkf", fl fDcPrflc
om stm cm o, mc ilkrfgflta fl tmgmýa `f cm kôspi`f `f Kmrmhfcci ara
omstm Mccchrapacaby, 82 (6), =9? =9?5, 5, ='='.0
='='.022-092.
22-092.
PC XLFX Ic, KorisrrB., O@f O@fltmcltmc mltorapacabDKçcccccchkç c@AIc4i ae mbtikuDturf I¡, . alb to toffDagal
pimgfltf `ikom, pfapcr ae ffgrmc Dmpml", fl Mgfrikmc c DAccrg¡/ aI ^cmô ^cmôgc gc MIIIIDrapacab)', 6=, = pp.
Umtimkialfs fl fc { rm`a `f fxprfsiûcI `fc rmsba pratastici`û. =4.= rmsba (,=9 -;
-;5;.
5;.
Pc"XLE'X l , KoustD B' I "¡  4'x pr f'4¡4: =>l
=>l66 kault4 çS t='cktoa` ear kmjucltilb ga re reaa cabikmc `tgw.c
prara s ôci`a, kaga fc Kmrmhfcci, fs `frivm`a `fc ` l bucug - umit erl)uflkifs h ) V 3t.cc=b4.c.`du"'t40hckSUkcboulbkafeeikcflt6wito "tccc'c`ttr` rlljk` )krufs",

sigicitu`fs kal éc éc,, mulquf fc Kmrmhfcci fs `f mpmrikiûl g m ~ rfkifl fl Mcgl'((ceD > ,.,==== >= ^I }'sig/ Mc=co,.ap%by
Mc=co,.ap%by,, 5? , 8, =9H 6, pp. 85=²852.
^()SI^..S Y ^ ,S@ICCS, D asé Mguga, M'I/rApA abccc `fltmr cIpciwôû
^()SI^ ^ A h c c c K c I D c D t spr`DôptÇcIcrmsD
tf fl cm fS-acukiûl, Cm kcmsf A(kf
A (kfra)
ra) il`ikm cm musflkim `fc r m , , ~ a . c m
ti

Kacfkkiûl Kifgçeikm. lôg. =96, ILMO, =I=éxika. =99> =99>..

la fxprfsiûl: cm kcmsf = karrfspal`f m ulm cmrbm easm fl fc surka ²'E.stu`ia `f cm lcctrapacabil `fltmc f l Géx ika",, fl Da sf
éxika" eilm GllsiDcl )' _mS
sfeilm _mS'' ifr Ci 
zm rrubm (kaa
(kaalcs.
lcs.)) , ,M.cccr{)p%bçm
M.cccr{)p%bçm csig, rcisa^¡¡'/{D pcugc Kacfkkiûl @iv u cbtck btckiiûP=, ='S= S==,
 gfsiahukmc: cm kcmsf 8, m cm `fsvimkiûl `istmc `fc surka f ~ c a h u k m c Géxika, 8>>;, pp. =99 -8 => .
cm kcmsf ;, m ulm gmyar `fsvimkiûl `fc surka gís ulm pfquf4
pfquf4ým ým p f ra

F[PV@IA MLPXA^ACÛBIKA / ?6

@ a   ugflta

û`ikf `f [mltimba
Pcmkatfpfk
_MUIFX LABVFT

KALPFLI@A EFKOM @F FCMHAXMKiÛL

Cmss `a s cígilms `fc kû`ikf sf ilkcu
Cm ilkcuyfral
yfral fl cm prigfrm pmrrf `f ul citibia par cm =656. Dulta kal cm piktabrmeçm prakf`fltf `f _iquipicka-Pfgamym, puhcikm`m fl
pasfsiûl `f ul tfrrfla `f hufl tmgmýa, sfghrm`a `f gmbufyfs, y ul kaldul =999 par Fc Kacfbia Gfxiquflsf, fc Kû`ikf `f Pcmkatfpfk fs ulm prufhm `f cm fxis
ta ` f kalstrukkialfs. Vl mspfkta guy iltfrf
iltfrfssmgf `f fstf kû`ikf fs quf cas pra tflkim `f piktabrmeçms kacalimcfs tfgprmlms fl cm rfbiûl akki`fltmc `fc mkrumc fs
tmbalistms eufral il`ibflms `f `as `i stiltms fgims4 par ul cm`a Mcalsa Balzí g`a `f Géxika, msulta quf sf omhim kufstialm`a.
tfz,, `f ari bf l lmoum, ) pAI fc atra ^mhca Afécatc , ul gmtcmtzilkm. Mgh a s
tfz

prfs f ltmral sus mrbugklras par fskrita, m`fclís `f

prfsf ` f fstms pilturms quf rfecf-
rfecf - CVBMX @F AXIBFL
dml, `f gm l krm fxkfpkialmc, cm s m`mptmkialfs m cms lufvms cfy
cf yfs vibfltfs ` f ari  [mltimba Pcmkatfpfk, pahcmkiûl quf mktumcgfltf eargm pmrtf `fc gulikipia `f
bfl kOstfccmla, msç kaga tmghi
tmghiéé l ul hufl lôgfra `f igíbflfs msakim`ms m cms Pa cufm , fstm`a `f Géxika. Fl mcbulms akmsialfs sf cf om kaleul`i`a fal fc kû
i`fmss `f cfbitigi`m` pacçtikm `frivm`ms `f cm kasgavisiûl g fsam gfrifmlm. Cm sf
i`fm `ikf a gmpm prakf`f ltf `f [ml ^f`ra Pcmkatfpfk, Pcmxkmcm .
bul`m pmrtf ` ` pcfita sf flkufltrm fl fc Mrkoiva Bflfrmc `f cm Lmkiûl, fl cm
kiu`m` `f Géxika, rmga Pifrrm s, vac. 8=, fxpf`ifltf ;, =656 .

pi ktab rmeims fl cm Lufvm Fspmccm fltrf =2;5 y =2 0 ;, CVBMX @AL@F F[PÍ @F^A[IPM@A
• Kmrmktfrçstikms eisikms mulquf la mpmr fkf fl s u kmtícaba `fc G/csfa il`imla Cas Eal`as Gfxikmlas `f cm Hihciatfkm Lmkialmc `f
@a s oadm
oadmss ` f pmpfc furapfa, kal gf`i`ms mpraxi li fl cms ci s tms `f ca s `akugfltas quf cf eufral kal E r mlkim (pmrçs), fl cm [fkkiûl `f Gmluskritas Arifl
gm`m s `f 00 par ;8 kg. Eargml pmrtf `f ul cfbm
cfbm eiskm`a s. Cms piktabrmeç mpmrfkifral gís tmr`f fl tmcfs, lôg. ;8.
da `f =6 eadms fskritms fl fspmýac. cm kacfkkiûl `f Dfml Gmrif Mc fx
fxis
is Muhil, quifl cm vfl
tciû m Fubélf Baupic. Eilmcg f ltf , gAc=sifur Baupic ^MXM CFFX GÍ[
• E a r g m s y kacarfs cm ` a l û m cm Hihci at f km Lmkialmc `f Ermlkim ( Pig `f Hahml, Fubélf, @ AKIIIIIKltspAccrsfrvirm I oistail`/c Gfxi-
Gfxi-
Pfpfkopml , fl Mrqufacabçm Gfxikmlm, lôg. ?5) . quf. Kmtmcabc/f gisalcDé `f cm kaccfktiacc `f G. F. KAc/pic
Cms pilturm
pilturmss , kapims `f aribilmcfs moarm pfr`i`as,
pfr`i`as,
eufral pra`ukta `f ` as Iokt/icasfstmh cfki`a
cfki`ass fl fc vm- (m/ckifl/cf kaccfktial W.G.M.Mcchicc), Frlfst Cfraux
^XILKI^MCF[ F[PV@IA[ ^mrçs,, va c. =, =?9=, pp . 0>5 - 0>2 Y ZMtcmsW
F`itfur, ^mrçs
ccf ` f Pacukm. [f la t m ul gçliga `f `ie f rf lkim
lkimss fl
Cm prigfrm latikim sa hr f fc kû`ikf praviflf `f cm ahrm cígilm ;8.
fc fstica, quf kaghilm fcfgflta
fcfgfltass trm`ikialmcfs kal
@ AK/cIIDKc/ts pAccr sfrvir mc oistairf `cc Gfxiqccf =?9 =) `f Hratof rstal , Bar`al , ^mi/ctf` Haajs er>/cc G fxika. Ka`i-
mcbulms la vf
vf`m`f
`m`fss bríeikms pravflifltfs `fc gul`a
Fubélf Hahml , quifl puhcikm ulm rfpra`ukkiûl pmr kfs icc VJ Kaccfktiac/[ mcc` tof IUarc` Pofy X fp rfsflc,
oisspmla. Cas kacarfs la mhul`ml4 lfbra, rada, mgm
oi
kimc `f cm s cígilm s dulta kal fxtrmktas `fc t fxta fl fs Hritiso Gusfug ^r f ss, Cal`rfs, =996 .
ticca,, kmeé y bris. Fl cm pilturm
ticca pilturm   `f ^mhca Akécatc, fc
pmýac. Uçktar Gmlufc Kmsticca Em rr frms =928) mlmci
mlmcizm
zm Gmlufc,, Fs/gktccg fka ccûgikm
Kmsticca Emrrfrms, Uçktar Gmlufc
gmtcmtzilkm,
gmtcmtzilkm, sf latm ulm gm ya
yarr ileargmkiû
ileargmkiû l ) kui
su kaltfli`a y rfmcizm ulm karrfcmkiûl tfgparmc. Bar `f m sakif`m`ccIfxikm, [fbtÇcI cms =IK=/tfs `AKc/g fcc/mcfs IcO,
`m`a fl fc rfbistra.
rfbistra. ^ar fdfgpca, fl fc sibla `f mýa `al Hartofr s tal =996) rfcmkialm cms sfk kial
kialfs
fs kmcfl VL.SG Géxika, =928.
tékpmtc, pf`frlmc , sf mbrfbmral
mbrfbmra l `a s kacarfs (hcmlka `írikmss qu f ra`fml cm ileargmkiûl fl mghms cígilms
`írikm Kû`ikf `f [mltimba Pcmkatfp fk (GcIcIi kipia `f PaI/ckm, Fstm`a
) lfbr
lfbra),
a), m`fgís `f ul ada fstfcmr y `as vacutms: kal cm s i` fms fl tarla m ulm kifrtm pratfkkiûl ritumc `f '`éxika), f`ikiûl emk
emkss igicmr
igicmr,, fs tu`i as `f Ftofcim
fc sibla tafocci, k al fda , fs ulm kmhfzm `fkmpitm`m y `fc tfrritaria fl kalecikta. Fl 8>>0, Ftofcim Xui
Xuizz Gf Xuiz Gf`rmla y _mvifr Labufz, Fc Ka cfbia Gfxi
`as va cutms fl cm pmrtf ilefri
ilefriaa r. `rml a y _mvifr Labufz `ml m kalakfr fc prigfr fstu quflsf / clstituta G fx iq u f l sf ` f K ucturm , Ti 
`ia
`i a kagpcfta t mlt a `f cas `a s cfbmda
cfbmdass `fc citibia
citibi a kaga lmkmltfp fk-
fk-PP a cukm
cukm,, 8>>0.
` f cm s piktabrmeçm s. Cm f `ikiûl sf mkagpmým `f rfpra 
HXFUF OI[PAXIM @FC KA@IKF `u kkialfs emksigicmrfs.
_mvifr Labufz. ^raefs ar - il vfstibm ` ar ` f Fc Kacf 
cm
Fs pa s ihc f qu f s ` as pilturms y fc cfbm da `aku b ia Gfxiquflsf, `f`ikm` a mc fstu`ia)' puhcikmkiûl
gfltmc ouhi f rml pfrgmlfki`a fl fc pufhca p a r ul APXA[ LAGHXF[
`f kû`ikfs kacalimcfs `fc kfltra `f Géxika, msç
tiff gpa. Gís tmr`f p u ` a eargmr pmrtf `f cm emgasm
ti ^iékf `f /=== prakés `f ^mhca Akfcatc ft `f sfs dics kalcrfMcal za k a ga m tfgms sahrf fc aribfl ` f c bum`mcupmlisga
kacfkkiûl `fc kmhmccfra gicmlés Carflza Haturili y KAcczm/fs q/ci `étiflt ildccstfgflt `fs gmisals ft `fs tfrrmiccs y cm ika
ik a labr m eçm prfoi sp í lik m y kacalimc tfgprmlm
H f lm`ukki , qui fl r fk a cfktû ulm brml `i vf rs i`m` `f pcmcctés `'mbmvfs mppmr/fccmcct /II_ prfgifrfs (8 = gmrs =656
(8= =656)) . `f trm`ikiûl lmoum.
 ?5 / MX]VFACABçM GF_IKMLM

~ ~ ~

~
B
tzaltci
~
^mhca k é c a t c   § a ' i m I - - - - - - - - - - - ,
... arakagôl

? kmcci, ? kmsm (=656)

... gmbufy
8 > > > p f s a s ` f a r a k a g ô l Q ~   r c ~ ~

r:
0>>> gmbufyfs 7  :  i= = 44D
( <

~
kfrra `f aribfl `fc ~
cilmdf gmtcmtzilkm ~ ,Ym
kmcci   kmsm , fc tfkpml I . , ~ .±
~
¡:4:

tAk/ctci, kalfda '. r ~

I
...... vacutm

I `f
fl-
tékpm tc   pf`frlmc ~ tif ~ I - . Q.
.- ...... ada fstfcmr
= íkmtc, = kmým
kmým  

f c

upi/ ^ILPVXM @F ^MHCA AKFCVPCF y [V[ OIDA[ 

OIDA[   = íkmtc, = kmlm (=6=9), fl fc cm`a ilefriar izquifr`a, kal fc mrriha
D V_
`f ca s ka lquistm`arfs fspmlacfs, y tfrgilm fl ? kmcci, ? kmsm (=656).
cmsW
Vla `f cas mspfktas gís iltfrfsmltfs `f cms `as cígilms `f cm pik Fc cilm
cilmdf
df `f prilkipmcfs `f Pcmkatfpfk tiflf su aribfl fl ul kf kf
a`ia tabrmeçm `f [mltimba Pcmkatfpfk fs quf praviflfl `f ulm pahcmkiûl rr a, mquç piltm`a kaga ulm pratuhfrmlkim kal trfs írhacfs. Mcim`a
~ f l e
`f aribfl gmtcmtzilkm fl fc vmcvmccf
cf `f Pacukm, `f kifrtm igpartml kim `frfko a sf mbrfbû ulm km/di, kmsm , quf rfprfsfltm ul tfkpml, ul ci
ka ga rfkacfktarm `fc trihuta pmrm cm Prip
Pripccf Mcimlzm mltfs `f cm kal lmdf lahcf a sflarimc. Fc kfrra puf`f sfr fc quf sf flkufltrm ilgf
' Dikm

IcO,
quistm oispmlm. M`fgís, kag a ileargmkiûl fxkfpkfxkfpkialmc,
ialmc, fl
fl fc cfbm `imtmgfltff mc akki`f
`imtmgflt akki`fltf
ltf `f cm mktumc pahcmkiûl, y quf `ia mcadmgifl
da quf mkagpmlm m cms piktabrmeçms sf rfbistrmral mcbulas `mtas sa ta mc `ias pmtrala pratfktar `fc pufhca. ^a`rçm sfr fc gisga
cm`a hrf cas piltarfs il`çbflms quf pmrtikipmral fl su fcmharmkiûl. Pcmkatfpfk,, kuym trm`ukkiûl gís kfrkmlm sfrçm cubmr `fc kfrra `fc
Pcmkatfpfk
.fci m @fhi`a
@fhi` a m quf fl fc pcfita pmrtikipmral ul gmtcmtzilkm y ul lmoum, tcíkatc", ulm mr m `urm
`urm,, `fcbm`m y vfr`f kalaki`m kaga dmrm, dmriccm a
x -
fl cms pilturms sf rfbistrmral `iefrfltfs mrbugfltas oistûrika
oistûrika-cf
-cf vfr`mskm. @f fstf cubmr y fstm bflfmcabim praviflfl ^mhca Akécatc
T i-
bmcfs pmrm prahmr cm cfbitigi`m` `f pasfsiûl `fc tfrrfla fl citibia. y sus oidas, quiflfs iltfltml, `f fstm gmlfrm, prahmr su `fskfl`fl
M `iefrflkim `f cm cígilm quf prfsfltû fc lmoum Mcalsa Balzí kim lahcf y sus `frfkoas m fstm prapif`m` pmtrigalimc.
cf z, fl éstm sf latm m prigfrm vistm ulm gmyar kmlti`m` y fcmharm [f pcmsgmral atras `mtas iltfrfsmltfs, par fdfgpca, fc lôgfra `f
)cf
iûl kiûl `f cas fcfgfltas ikalabríeikas. Cm ileargmkiûl bflfmcûbikm gmbufyfs
gmbufy fs pcmltm` a s (0>>>, il`ikm`as par ul lugfrmc `f eargm triml
triml
msç y kmtmstrmc fstí kmsi kagpcftmgfltf ra`fm`m par bcieas `f cas mýas buimr ccmgm`a tzaltci, kmhfzm a kmhfcca, quf siblieikm 0>>, sahrf km`m
ga
kal kmrbm`arfs (íkmtc, kmým : tékpmtc, pf`frlmc : kmcci, kmsm : ako- gmbufy)) y cas 8 >>> p fsas `f ara kagôl (tzaltcis quf mkagpmlml m
gmbufy
m lm
  /i, kalfda ), sil cas =; lugfrmcfs. Cm kralacabçm sf ilikim fl `ahcfs kçrkucas y krukfs), vmca
vmcarr quf sf cf `ia mc tfrrfla fl `isputm.
 @AKVGFLPA / ?2

XF[FÝM[
FCKVFX^A M pmrtir `fc fst u` i a `fc pufhc a oumv f
@F CMLVHF. `f [ml G mt fa `fc Gmr, Amxmkm, sf mlm .VI
VI . '... XFYF[ Y XFILA[ @F
DFXMX]
DFXMX ]uçM y ci zm fc cc m gm`a sis t f gm ` f kmrbas ,
~ u 4 4 4 CM GI_PFKM,
GI_PFKM , 8 PAGA[
MCEAL[A KM[A, EKF ,
[IGHACI[GA il stitu k i û l il`ç bf l m eargm`m par `as
G t x c k a . ; XFIG^ • 8>>0.
XIPVMC FL CM dfrmrquçms siguctílfms quf apfrml P. =  805 ^^ .: ==4 050 ^^.
KA[GAUI[IÛL fl `i sti ltas í gh it a.s4 fl f c bahifrla Fstf cihra fs c m gmblm ahrm
@F VL ^VFHCA trm`i kialmc y l ca s fs p mkias ` f rfpra `f Mcealsa Kmsa, m quifl cf
`ukk i ûl sighûcikm rfcmkialm`as ka l c m
.  tagû mcrf`f`ar `f 0> mýas
OVMUF
[MÔC GICCÍL, mk t ivi` m` kf rfg a li mc. Fltr
Fltrff c as oumv fs eilmcizmrcm. ^mrm `fgastrmr
quf cas gixtfkas tflçml il
KACFKKiÛL `f [ml Gmtfa `fc G m r, fsf sistfgm ` f tfrés par su oistarim, y quf
FPLABXMEIM @F km rbas fs fl ul g a` f ca , qu f r fb ucm sahrf ta`a cm fskrihçml,
CA[ ^VFHCA[ IL@çBFLM[ @F GF_IKA, [FXIF c ms mktivi`m`fs pra`uktivms, cm arbmli Kmsa ilvfstibû cas kû`ikfs
zm k iûl tfrritarimc y c ms gmyar`agçms
`f cas gixtfkas.
F[PV@IA[ GALABXÍEIKA[. ILMO, GF_IKA
Fc taga I ilkcuyf cm oista
8>>2 825 `f`ikm`ms m cas smltas.
^^ rim `f cm Gixtfkm y kalstm `f
=8 kmpçtucas (`fs`f fc ^rû-
caba fl fc kifc
kif c a   omstm Fc krfpôskuca `f cas
`iasfs ). [f ilkcuyf ulm mgpcim iltra`ukkiûl
KIV@M@ Cas rfsuctm`a s `f gís `f 8> mýas `f fl cm quf fxp c ikm kû kûga
ga sf cffl cas kû`ikfs
F_KMUM@M. gixtfkas, su fskriturm, cas fcfgfltas `f cfkturm
fx p ca r mk ialfs mrqufacûbikms f l c m k iu 
y cas sçghacas quf mpmrfkfl fl fccas, msç kaga
UFILPF `m` `f Gé x i kasf fxpa lfl fl =8 km pç  85 cígilms kal `i efrfltfs rfprfsfltmkialfs `f
MÝA[ @F tucas, quf r fsf ý ml f c prakfsa `f trmls bcieas `f `istiltas kû`ikfs y kilka
k ilka mlf
mlfxas.
xas.
MX]VFACABçM eargmkiûl `fc fspmkia bfab r íe i ka ` f c m Fc taga ka kaltltiflf
iflf fc @ikkialmria hiabríei-
@F [ CU GFLPA k i u`m` `f Gé xika y sus írfms vf k i l ms. ka `f as sfýarfs gixtfkas
gixtfkas   kal ta`as cas `mtas
quf sf oml pa`i`a flkaltrmr sahrf fccas fl
FL CM KIV@M@ Mulquf f l akms ia l fs o mk f r mrqufa
cas kû`ikfs: km`m e ikom kaltiflf fc kû`ikf, cm
@F GÉ_
GÉ_IIKA c abçm `f sm Ivm g f lt a f l cm k i u`m` `f píbilm,, flt
píbilm fltrrf atras.
y [V Í X FM G é x i k a fs prahcfgítika y cm h ar iasa ,

GFPXA^AcIP L c as rfsuctm`as, quf m oa r m sf prfsfltml , ÝMYIV _IL@FJV LVV

c ab r m r íl quf fc cfkt a r rfecfxial f mkfrkm L@MM UIKA LV  V.
CVI[ MCHFXPA CÛ^FT
PVPVM
PVPVM JM ML _I
RMXIA (KAAX@.), KACFKKiÛL KIF4LPIEIKM. LÔG. `f kûga sagas y kû ga l as arbmlizm
JVFL@M [ JVLI [M
6=> ILMO. GiAxckA 8>>2.8;5 ^^. gas mk tumcg fltf. [ML@MM ILI ÝMYIV ÝVV
@MCOCA
@MCOCA[
[ OMHIPMLPF
OMHI PMLPF [
@FC CVBMX @F CM[
LVHF[. VLM GçLIGM
CM[ XFBIALF[ mrtik uc m ` ms `f il t frkmgh i a kagfrk imc y ^XF[FLPMKiÛL
@F GÉ_IKA
GÉ_IKA.. @F KXFFLKIM[ GI_PFKM[
k uctur m c. ]uf c as cçgitfs   `f fsf fspmkia
XMÔC B. MCMUFT KOMvFT, KIF[M[/IL[PIPVPA
HXFUIMXIA sa l rf ka l aki`as par prap i as y fxtrmýas
fx trmýas,, AM_M]VFI'iA @F CM[ KVCPVXM[, GF_IKA = 992, 885 ^^.
BFABXÍEIKA y quf puf`f sfr mhsarhi`a par fspmk ia s Cm ahrm, fskritm fl kmstfccmla gixtfka, `m m
gixtfka,
F OI[PÛXIKA vfkilas, `fsvmlfkfrsf a `fsmpmrfkfr m ca kalakfr m cm kucturm gixtfkm quf ta`mvçm vivf
HFXLMX@A c m rba `f su oistarim. fltrf lasatras
lasatras.. Fc c ihra fstí `ivi`i`a fl kumtra
sfkkialfs4 fc aribfl `f cas gixtfkas
gixtfkas:: cmeargmfl
BMXKIM GMXPiLFT, ^mrm o mkfr môl gís mgflm cm c fk tu r m,
quf sf rfcmkialml fc oaghrf y cas sfrfs sahrf
KACFKKIAL PXMGM[. fc ci h ra v i flf icustrm`a ka l gm p ms q u f, lmturmcfs: quéfs fc lmoumcisga, ms krfflkims
FC KACFBIA @F l a fstí par `fgís `fkirca, sa l hmstmltf `f cas gixtfkas sahrf cm emulm.
GF_IKA. GiAxcka. c fb
fbihc
ihc fs -, rfkum`ras ka l ileargmkiûl ` f
8>>? ;68 ^^ gabríeikm y `mtas `f km ríktfr bfabr bfab ríe i ka -  Q  -, GILFXçM Y KAGVLI@M@
IL@çBFLM44 FC GILFXMC
IL@çBFLM GILFXM C
 

[f puf`f `fkir quf fstf cihra fs ul gm  f oistûri ka quf aerfkfl, mc gisga tifg
@F LMPIUI@M@,
LMPIUI@M@ , I_PCÍL
I_PCÍL,,
lumc mkf rkm `f kû g a cc fvm r m cas cfkta rfs pa, ulm cfk t ur m m vu f ca `f pídmra a ulm AM_MKM =9>>-=90>)
par cas `ieçkicfs km g ilas `f c as `mtas il v itm ki û l pmrm c ffr ka gp c fta fc f c kmpçtuc a [MCUM@AX [ IBÓFLTM AXATKA
AXATKA,,
oi stûrikas y bfabríeikas `f ul p mçs y ka rrfsp
rrfspaa l` i f lt f. KIF[M[. GFxIKA, = 9 9 5 , =62 ^^.

quf l a gufrml `f mhurr ig i flta fl f c

mhurrig
iltflta. Fc cfktar sf fltfrm `f ca c mharia
sa f ilkcu sa rifsbasa quf fs omk fr ul m
rfbialmc i zmkiû l   `f kum cqui f r tipa. ^fra
sil `u`m mprfl`frí quf ul m rfb fbii û l fs
mquf c fspmkia f l quf ak ur r f l rfcmkialfs
Fstm ah rm gfrfkf ulm `ieusiûl gmsi vm, Cm gilm `f Lmtivi`m` kmg
hiû fc fstica `f vi`m `f cas
y la s pmrfkf quf sib sibuu f c m fskuf cm `f c ms
B uç ms `f Ui mdf ra rass `fc si b ca _I_, f l cms zmpatfkas,
fl ahrfras pufs cas kalvirtiû
msmcmrim`as y sil
quf m`fgís `f `mtas príktikas y ôticfs, `ikmc zm`as. Fc mutarfstu`im camltfriar ulta kal
sf hril`mhm ulm gi r m`m gu y kfrkmlm m cm cm situmkiûl `f cm il`ustrim gilfrm `f Lmtivi`m`,
rfmci`m` `fc fltarla m c quf sf v im d mh m. msç kaga cm rfcmkiûl fgprfsm-trm
fgprfsm-trmhmdm`arf
hmdm`arfs.
s.
 ?? / MX]VFACABçM GF_IKMLM

XF[FÝ [
F_^CAXMKIALF[
FL GALPF LFBXA,
LFBXA ,
^MCFL]VF c fdfgpcmr kaltiflf eatabrmeçms f AM_MKM =9;2-;?,
=9;2-;? ,
=902-=96?. icustrmkialfs,, rfcmkialm`ms kal cas `fs
icustrmkialfs =9;?-;9 Y =9;9-0>)
DAXBF X MKA[PM y DMUIFX
MCHFXPA XVT kuhrigifltas y rfstmurmkialfs rfmcizm`as XAGFXA, ILMO, G?3IKA,
COVICCcFX fl fc sitia. = 9 9 8 , = ? ? ^^.
XAHFXPA BMXKIM Galtf Lfbra rfsurbiû brm
GACC KAG^ .) , kims m cms ilkursialfs mr
HIHCIAPFKM ILMO, qufacûbikms rfmc i zm`ms par
Darbf X.
X. Mkastm. FcFc cihra fstí `ivi`i`a fl trfs
ILMO, GÉ_Ika,
GÉ_Ika , kmpçtucas quf mhar`ml cm mrquitfkturm, cm mc m cem 
8>>2 , 6?0 ^^ . rfrçm y =>6 tipas eçsikas.
Mchfrta Xuz Coui
II fr euf fc pri gfr OI[PAXIM Y
mrqufûcaba `fc FPLABXMEçM FLPXF
CA[ KOALPMCF[
ILMO fl rfmcizmr fstu`ias sahrf cm zalm
@FA _ K
gmym. Fstf cihra mhar`m cas `ifz mýas MLAXF[ A[FBVFXM (KAKX@.).
fl quf Mchfrta Xuz fxpcarû f ilvfstibû KACFKKiÛL FPLABXMEIM @F CA[
fc sitia `f ^mcflquf y m cm kucturm gmym. ^VFHCA[ IL@IBFLM[ @F G?3IKA,
[FXIF F [PV@IA[ GALABXMEIKA[,
Bm r` m GacI rfôlf fl fc tfxta cas rfpar
ILMO, G?3IKA, 8>>5. ;00 ^^.
tfs `f c ms fxpcarmkialfs mrqufacûbikms Fc cihra gufstrm ul pmlarmgm sahrf c m k uc tu
rfmcizm`ms par Xuz Couiccifr fl ^mcflquf rm koaltmc, cm kum c vivf kaleciktas ku c turm cfs,
`fs`f =909 omstm =96>, ms msçç kaga fc kaga cm pér`i`m `f su c flbum. Fl cas =8 tfxtas
ileargf quf fskr
fskrii hf m F`umr`a Labufrm, quf kaleargml c m ahrm sf mhar`m c m gmlfrm
fl quf cm ku c turm koaltmc sf om m`mptm`a m cm
`irfktar `f Galugfltas ^rfoispílikas,
^rfoispílikas , fvacukiûl `f cm kivi c izmkiûl gfxikmlm.
sahrf cm ilspfkkiûl `f c m zalm `f ^mcfl
quf fl =902. [AKIF@M@ Y
^MPXIGALIA
MX]VFACÛBIKA
FL FC UMCCF @F
AM_MKM.. GFGAXIM
AM_MKM
CA[ @F CM [FBVL@M
GF[ XF@AL@M
ILKFL[MXIA[ @F GALPF MC
M CHÍL
FEIBIF @F L FCCY G. XAHCF[ BMXKIM (FA.),
^MCFL]VF. KALMKVCPLILMO, GÉ_IKA, 8 > > 8 , 0;0 ^^.

@FI@M@F[ Fc tfgm `f cm [fbul`m Gfsm

Gfsm Xf`al` m `f Galtf
Mchíl - hmsf`ffstf cihra- euf [akif`m` y pmtri
Y XIPVMCF[
galia mrqufacûbika
mrqufacûbikafl
fl fc vmccf`fAmxmkm , quf
GMYM[ sfrfmcizûfl dulia`f8>>>. Cas kumtra suhtf gms

GMXPOM KVFUM[
BMXKIM , [FXIF
quf sf mhar`ml`f
cm pratfkkiûl sal4 @ivfrsi`m`
c pmtrigalia fstrmtébikm fl
mrqufa c ûbika ,

PF[PIGALIA[ y @igflsialfs `fc pmtrigalia mrqufacûbika fl

Amxmkm , Kucturm y tfrritaria fl fc pmtrigal ia
GMPFXIMCF[ MX]VFACABIKA[ ^MXM FC F[PV@IA
mrqufaccûbika `f Amxmkm y Fc pmtrigalia mr
mrqufa
@F CM KVCPVXM GMYM, LÔG. =, VLMG-IIEVILMOI qufacûbika mltf cm ga`frli`m` .
KALKVCPM, GÉ_IKA. 8>>2 , ;6> ^^ .
[f fstu`
fstu`iiml fl fstf cihra cm eulkiûl yfc F[PXVKPVXM[
sibl ie ikm`a `f cas kfrkm `f =>> ilkflsm ^ACçPIKM[ FL FC
AM_MKMMLPIBVA.
rias feib
feibii f flkaltrm`as `urmltf cms fxpca
GFGAXIM @F CM
rmk ialfs mrqufacûbikms fl fc Brupa `f PFXKFXM GF[M
c ms Krukfs `f ^mcflquf, Koimpms. Gmrtom XF@AL@M @F
Kufvms sfým cm quf cas ilkflsmrias rfprf GALPF CHÍL

sf ltmhm
tmhmll m cm ` ivili`m` y quf fl fccas LFCCY G. XAHCF
XAHCF[
[ BMXKIM (F@IP. ),
KALMKVCPMcILMO, G?3IKA, 8>>0,065 ^^.
sf fefktumhm c m qufgm `f rfsilms vfbf
Fc tfgm `f cm Pfrkfrm Gfsm Xf`al`m `f Galtf

p rcilkipm
tm fs y `fc `fc
smlbrf ougmlm
ritumc. kaga ga`a,
@fc gisga aerfl`m M c híl euf Fstrukturms pacçtikms fl fc Amxmkm
Mltibua, `ivi`i`a fl cas sibuifltfs suhtfgms4
trmtm `f fstmh
fstmhccfkfr ulm rfcmkiûl fltrf cms Galtf Mchíl y su igpmkta pacçtika , Fc ^as

`fi`m`fs vflfrm`ms fl fc Brupa `f cms kcísika y m épakm Kacal mcPfgprmlm y Épakm

Kaltfgparílfm
Kruukfs B I, B i c Y B III) Y cas ilkflsmrias.
Kr EAPA4 G M ^MKOFKA XMIKF[

9>   MX]VFACABçM GF_IKMLM

 

] VI L P A AL V X[A @ F VFL PA O I [P Û XI A

irm`ms
CFALMX@A @ LI FC OFXL L@FT ^VFBA
[FV@ÛLIGA4 FACA
KMPFBAXIM4 ^XFVLIUFX[IPMXIM
F[KVFCM PAG s MCUM F@I[AL

A trm vfz fsm girm`m vi`riasm y oô 

gf`m quf gf mgflmzm

sagftf. Atrm vfz cm vaz `uczalm pi`iél

y gf
fstf suspira sf gf mltadm moarm ilkcusa

gís `fsbmrrm`ar quf cm bufrrm y cm gufr

gisgm , gís `urm`fra y pracalbm`a.

tf gisgm,
môl gís praeul`as f iltfrgilmhcfs sil

fc trmdçl `f cas kagfrkimltfs kcml`fsti 

las y cms kagprm`arms fxmctm`ms. Fl cms

`agf quf gf quf`f, quf la vmym. Atrm Gís rfmc. L a rfbrfsé cm girm`m par fc kmccfs sf sflôm ul `fda `f gfcmlkacim y

vfz siflta gi hakm m pulta `f mkkf`fr, kalakigiflta `f gi tarpf y emcci`m va  `fsfspfrmlzm, sf pa`çm takmr cm igpm 

ym c tifgpa cm kaltraca y fxprfsa ca kal- cultm`,, sé quf `f omhfrca ofkoa, cm ou 

cultm` kiflkim `f cms
cms gudfr fs rfkié
rfkiél
l m hml`alm

trmria. Ofgas si`a ccmgm`as cas dûvflfs hifrm mhrmzm`a y gf pu`f omhfr quf`m
quf`m `m s. Cms vakfs `f cas liýas fstmhml rf-

eufrtfs y fs hifl smhi`a quf fl akmsialfs `a moç ulm ftfrli`m` y atrm pmrm la kcui`ms fl sus dûvflfs bmrbmltms, y sus

msç, pakas rfbrfsml fl tgm pIfzm m su vfrcm suerir. gmlitms, ilofrfltfs mc fxtfriar, tfghcm-

cfkoa. ^akas vivfl pmrm vfr m sus gudf [mcç `f lufstrm pfqufým y tihim omhi
omhi  hml par dubmr y rftarkfrsf fltrf cm lm
rfs y m sus oidas, si eufrm fc kmsa. Lm`m tmkiûl,, `fd ml`a mtrís ulm vi`m y ul mgar
tmkiûl turmcfzm y su igmbilmkiûl.

fs sfbura môl. Cms ôlikms ilstrukkialfs fl cas pftmtfs, fl cms prfl`m s tfl`i`ms, Mc ccfbmr m cm pcmzm kfltrmc, ul mirf `f

eufral quf las `fhçmgas flkaltrmr fl fl cms fsflkims gisgms `f su kmhfcca lf - sacfgli`m` `ibla `fc fltifrra `fc sfýar

cm pcmzm kfltrmc, la ccfvmr gís `f ca quf bra y cisa, prfbultíl`agf si mcbulm vfz tcmtamc i akupmhm ta`a fc fspmkia.. Cm sf
fspmkia
partíhmgas y fstmr `ispufstas.
`ispufstas . vacvfrçm m flrf`mr gi rAstra f l éc @fdé quf`m` `fc mghifltf sf oiza gís fvi

[acté par eil su garflm gmla oôgf tmghiél cm gilôskucm smcm `f fstmr y sus `fltf kuml`a fc sicflkia euf rata par ul

`m y erçm, tfghcarasm, f iltflté `mrgf cm pmrf`fs hcmlkms `f m`ahf kal kmc, m`ar sali`a fx trmýa quf sigpcfgfltf la pm

vufctm pmrm sigpcf gfltf sm

smcir
cir,, pfra fsm lm`ms kal eiburiccms `f hmrra lfbra rfkçm pfrtflfkfr mquç. [ibuiél`aca il
il

girm`m viskasm y smcm`m gf mgmrrmhm cas y rada. Kruké fc ughrmc `f cm gfgarim, gf`imtmgfltf, ulm acm `f gurguccas sf

adas y cms pifrlms, gf mtmhm kal fc rfgar `al`f fc prfsfltf sf vacvçm turhia y fc mczû mgflmzm`arm fltrf cm bfltf y `f cm

kcigiflta, gf mgar`mzmhm kal cms pmcm pmsm`a cfdmla

cfdmla,, `fdíl`agf kal ul eutu kumc sûca cabré kmpt mr cms
cms pmcmhrms rfy ,

hrms la `ikoms y cas rfprakofs sil fka. ra quf km`m vfz sf vfçm gís kfrkmla hmrka y fxtrmýas . Fc sali`a kalti

Mc `mr fc prigfr pmsa omkim cm

cm fltrm  y cmtfltf, fspfrml`a smcir, mbri`uckf f luû, pfrgmlfkifl`a sifgprf cfdmla,

`m, ul suspira kartû cm sôhitm tflsiûl ilkifrta. sumvf y kalstm ltf, mkfrkíl`asf. La sa

fltrf cms kumtra pmrf`fs quf las mpri M sigpcf vis tm, cm kiu`m` tfrum ul pra- lmhm kaga mcba quf ouhiérmgas fsku
fsku
sialmhml y sil fghmrba las gmltflçml hcfgm4 cas gfrkm`as fstmhml vmkças y kom`a dmgís. L a salmhm kaga mcba ig

uli`as.. Omhçm aç`a fl vmrims akmsialfs

uli`as trmlquicas, sicflkiasas kaga cas írha partmltf, gukoa gflas kaga mcba quf
 cm rfsalmlki m `f cas britas hécikas, pfra cfs: sus iltfrgilmhcfs pmsiccas sf vfçml rfkar`mrçmgas sifgprf.

90   X]V FACABç GF_IK L

C m bfltf f gp f z û m kf`fr. [f earg û , kof, m sus hr m z a s oôgf`as S tihias, y ca quifra vfr lulkm gís, li siquifrm quif

pa k a m p aka, ulm fspfkif `f pmsicc

pmsiccaa fl fstmrr cfdas `f mquç.
fstm ra vfr m gi mcrf`f`ar pmrm la `mrgf

gf`i a ` f cm guctitu` y par moç, môl

mô l cf Xfmcgfltf la quifra rfkar`
rfkar` mr fsm la kufltm `f ca quf om pmsm`a.

dml ms, sf `i s til b uçml `a s mctms - g g ' mc

mc  kof, fs f pfria`a rfshmc asa f l gi gfga 
rf shmcasa [il fghmrba, ccfvíl`asf ta`a la sf

tm   ei b u rms. G ifltr ms gís sf r f`uk çm rim, qu

quff sf kufcm `f vfz fl kum l`a y gf ccfvmral lm`m, pufs ta`a fstm mquç, kal

cm `istmlkim, sf omkçm gís y gís f v i`fl omkf

om rf vivirc a y ' -a cv
kf rfkar`mrca, rfvivirc cvfr
fr m sfl
sfl  lasatras, fltrf lasatras. F l lufstras

tf quf fl fefkta frml `fgmsim` a mctm tirca. ^a`rçm sfr ilkcusa

ilkcu sa quf fsms lakofs prapias gufrtas sf fskal`fl cas gm

pmrm sfr ougmlms. Frml flarg fs mlI lulkm pmsmral

pmsmral,, lu l km sukf`if
sukf`ifrr a l y fs yarfs y gís vmciasas tfsaras `f lufs

gmcfs `f pcmtm hriccmltf uli`a s m sfl tíl moç par mcbôl rfcmta
rfc mta quf omym
omy m fsku
fsku  trm bfltf, cas gís igprfsialmltfs y sa

`as oaghrf s emltmsgmcfs y bi bmltf Q,. kom`a, v çvi`a y rfmc. Xfkufr`a,

Xfkufr`a, sil fg hrf ta`a, cas gís `urm`fras. ±^ar qué

F s ta s oaghrfs `f kmhfzm sa c fm ` m hmrba, kaga si eufr m moarm, ca s adas ccfvmrlas1 ± ^ar qué ccfvmrsf m ulm pml

ra s tr as pfcu`as fstmhml kuhifrtas, kal mgmricca

mgmr iccass y efrakfs `f
` f cas `mxkm
`mxkmcc tfkms, ccf `iccm`f smcvmdfs sfgi`fslu`as1 L a omy

fxkfpkiûl `f sus rastras, `f gf tmc hrI las `f f ghruda y `f flada kaltfli`a,

ka ltfli`a, ulm rmzûl fvi`fltf, pfra fl rfmci`m`

ccmltf y gu y cu s tr a s a, pmrfkç m l sf r  fkoas `f gfras rfecf

rfecfdas
das,, tfdi`as kal pf-
pf - fc ôlika tfsara mquç fskal`i`a sil fs

pifltfs kal f s kmgm s gftícikm

gftícikmss. Y 3 : u ~ kal`frsf fs fsa, cm bfltf quf rfspirm

adas,, s us a da
adas dass f rml kcmras y erç as, kal `a `f cm bufrrm, `f cm sm
smll b r f ` f cas bri oay fc erça `fc `fs`él y cm gmcikim `fc

ul ka c ar k aga fc `f cas rça s, p fra sil 6. Xf kufr`a sus ha k ms mh

mhiifrtms fl ul pflsmgiflta rmkialmc , cm gisgm

f sf g av igiflta, s il cm v itmci` m` y 4 4 = ~ f r g i l m h c f brita, ml siasms par rfkihir bfltf quf `fdmral mquç, fskal`i`m sil

euc ba r `f cms mbum s. fc ~ mrrfhmtm`a.. P mc ' -fz l a cm quif

mrrfhmtm`a quif  fskal`frsf.

girm` m vi`riasm quf omhçm `fdm`

`fdm`aa mtrí :4m rfkar`mr
rfkar vfzz ca q uf l a quifra rf
`mr a tmc vf rf  Fs fc gmcvm`a sicflkia fc quf gf ccm

o mkçm p a ka. kar`mr fs fsf vmpara sa ga gflta fl fc gm fl cm Di s rmlkim, fc C¡Vf qufgm gi s

Q.l l z mra l y ta`mv çm la smcç mg a ' `f

smcçmg kmyû y ul
• f ra`a sf kmy ulmm s ôhitm sf
sfll smkiûl fltrmýms kal fc omghrf, fc quf gf `ks

l ufstra fst upar kuml`a ul brita kagm f gvm`iû

gvm` iû.. F crfkufr`
crfkufr`aa ` f kûga ca s hrf
hrf bmrrm kal cm sacf`m`, a puf`f [fr ul

b iasa S `f lmrurmcfzm pfcibrasm la

l a s bac vfs ~ m h c A s sf ilkcilmral sa hr f lufstrms kmgilmltf pfr`i`a fltrf cas `fspadas

p fû. Karrifl `a , m kifrtm `istmlki m vf . . 4 . - ~ c [ y [f ca ccfvmral ta`a

ta` a tf g h ca r a sas `f cms kmsms `frrihm`ms mc mgmlfkfr.

l çml cas tcmxkm ctfkms y kal fcca s, cm k f ~ V c ` ` a s hfsml`a em tmcgfltf lufs

luf s ^asihcfgfltf sfm sûca cm pfquflfz `f
o ab u frms hécik
héci k ms `f sus karmzalf s pé  rra dubmr, l uf
ufss trm kms
km sm. gi karmzûl, kal cas `éhicfs y vmkças

trfas S fc pmvar `f l u fs trm b fltf. Cm

C m irm Pmc S fT s fm dustikim sû ca p ar cm dus û  cmti`as quf cabrm fgitir môl, kuml`a,

sf p a`çm sfltir fltrf cas a tras dûvfl fs m Kcc. sûca pa r cm brmkim `f cm du sti ki m du s ilkcusa, ul paka harrasa puf`a `ivi
`ivi

g i mcrf`f` a r , cm kûcfrm y cms ml sim

imss ` f r dus tikim y la pS.=f` a , la
l a quifra smr ul pmr `f cukfs kmsi mc mckmlkf `f

v fl bm l zm huccçml kf r k m tml kfrkm qu f Sfr, la quif ra vacvfr m fs

f sku ko mr fsf
fs f pf - gi gmla `fgmsim`a `éhic pmrm trmtmr

ca s ba cp
cpff t fas eufrtfs `f sus karmzalfs  4 = . Z qg i `a quf smciû `f cm bmrbmltm ` f `f tagmrca s, ulm sf`asm girm`m ila 

sf uli f ral fl ula saca y ms

msç,
ç, mc ul ç sa cas hcmlkas mc v fr ca qu f l as oiki
oikiff r a l, kfltf y tifrlm, ul pmr `f pírpm`as hri 

la, gmrkomr al sil ga'-f

ga'-frr sf y saýmra l sa hr f ul m ` fci
sag`a `f ulm pcugm sa ccmltfs mcftfml`a fl gf`ia `f cm il 

sil la
l a kof k al ul luf'-a `ç
`çmm `f rf`fl  kmmm oadm `f pmpfc, `f ca s p msas ` f s us gflsi`m`, y `f ul gagflta m atra gf
kiû
ki û l. M gi mcr f`f` ar pu`f vfr gukom
guko m galstruas pfcu`a s mc gmrk
gmrk o mr sf, p f r a `a y kufltm `f quf ym la fstay moç y `f

girm`ms tris
tri s tf s ccarasms, msu
ms u s tm`ms, il 4sf gm r kom
komral1
ral1 Y tmc vf z l a quifra sm quf fstf lufva cubmr fl rfmci`m` la fs