ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY anomic suicide Suicide motivated by loss and confusion caused by a behavior rating scales Structured assessment
caused by a behavior rating scales Structured assessment instruments used
abnormal behavior A psychological dysfunction within an individual
that is associated with distress or impairment in
functioning and a response that is not typical or
culturally expected.
acetylcholine Neurotransmitter, pervasive throughout the nervous
system, that contributes to movement, attention,
arousal, and memory. A deficiency of acetylcholine is
found in people with Alzheimer’s disease.
actigraph Small electronic device that is worn on the wrist like a watch
and records body movements. This device can be used
to record sleep–wake cycles.
acute onset Sudden beginning of a disease or disorder (contrast with
insidious onset).
acute pain Pain that typically follows an injury and disappears once the
injury heals or is effectively treated.
acute stress disorder Severe reaction immediately following a
terrifying event, often including amnesia about the
event, emotional numbing, and derealization. If
symptoms persist beyond one month, victims are
diagnosed with posttraumatic stress disorder.
addiction Informal term for substance dependence.
adoption studies In genetics research, the study of first-degree
relatives reared in different families and environments.
If they share common characteristics, such as a
disorder, this finding suggests that those
characteristics have a genetic component.
advanced sleep phase type Type of circadian rhythm sleep–wake
disorder, new to DSM-5, involving a persistent pattern
of early sleep onset and awakening times.
affect Conscious, subjective aspect of an emotion that accompanies an
action at a given time.
age of onset Person’s age when developing or exhibiting symptoms of
a disease or condition.
agnosia Inability to recognize and name objects; may be a symptom of
major neurocognitive disorder or other brain disorders.
agonist Chemical substance that effectively increases the activity of a
neurotransmitter by imitating its effects.
agonist substitution Replacement of a drug on which a person is
dependent with one that has a similar chemical
makeup, an agonist. Used as a treatment for
substance dependence.
agoraphobia Anxiety disorder characterized by anxiety about being in
places or situations from which escape might be
difficult in the event of panic symptoms or other
unpleasant physical symptoms (e.g., incontinence).
agreeableness One of the dimensions of the fivefactor model of
personality and individual differences, involving being
warm, kind, and trusting as opposed to hostile, selfish,
and mistrustful.
AIDS-related complex (ARC) Group of minor health problems such as
weight loss, fever, and night sweats that appears after
HIV infection but before development of full-blown
AIDS.
akinesia Extrapyramidal symptom involving slow motor activity, an
expressionless face, and emotionless speech.
alcohol By-product of the fermentation of yeasts, sugar, and water; the
most commonly used and abused depressant
substance.
alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) Enzyme that helps humans
metabolize alcohol. Different levels of its subtypes may
account for different susceptibilities to disorders such
as fetal alcohol syndrome.
alcohol-related disorders Cognitive, biological, behavioral, and social
problems associated with alcohol use and abuse.
alogia Deficiency in the amount or content of speech, a disturbance
often seen in people with schizophrenia.
alpha adrenergic receptors Group of nervous system receptors
stimulated by the neurotransmitter norepinephrine.
alpha waves Regular pattern of brain-wave voltage changes typical of
calm relaxation.
alters Shorthand term for alter egos, the different personalities or
identities in dissociative identity disorder.
altruistic suicide Formalized suicide approved of and even expected
by some cultures.
Alzheimer’s disease “Strange disease of the cerebral cortex” that
causes an “atypical form of senile dementia,”
discovered in 1906 by German psychiatrist Alois
Alzheimer.
amnestic disorder Deterioration in the ability to transfer information
from short- to long-term memory, in the absence of
other symptoms of major neurocognitive disorder, as a
result of head trauma or drug abuse.
amniocentesis Prenatal medical procedure that allows the detection of
abnormalities (for example, Down syndrome) in the
developing fetus. It involves removal and analysis of
amniotic fluid from the mother.
amok One of several running disorders seen in non-Western cultures
as in “running amok” in which individuals enter a
trancelike state and may commit violent acts. Later,
they will have amnesia about the episode.
amphetamine Stimulant medication used to treat hypersomnia by
keeping the person awake during the day, and to treat
narcolepsy, including sudden onset episodes, by
suppressing rapid eye movement sleep.
amphetamine use disorders Psychological, biological, behavioral, and
social problems associated with amphetamine use and
abuse.
amygdala Part of the brain’s limbic system that regulates emotions and
the ability to learn and control impulses; figures
prominently in some psychopathology.
amyloid plaque Clusters of dead neurons found during autopsy in the
brains of people with Alzheimer’s disease. Also known
as neuritic or senile plaque.
amyloid precursor protein Large protein, controlled by a gene on
chromosome 21, that breaks down to contribute to the
amyloid plaque characteristic of people with
Alzheimer’s disease.
amyloid protein Solid, waxy substance forming the core of the amyloid
plaque characteristic of people with Alzheimer’s
disease.
analgesic rebound headache Headache, more severe than the
original one, that occurs after the medication used to
treat headache pain has “worn off.”
analog model Approach to research that employs subjects who are
similar to clinical clients, allowing replication of a
clinical problem under controlled conditions.
anandamide Neurochemical that seems to be a naturally occurring
version of the active chemical in marijuana.
angina pectoris Chest pain caused by partial blockage of the arteries
that supply blood to the heart.
anhedonia Inability to experience pleasure, associated with some
mood and schizophrenic disorders.
animal phobia Unreasonable, enduring fear of animals or insects that
usually develops early in life.
major life disruption.
anorexia nervosa Eating disorder characterized by recurrent food
refusal, leading to dangerously low body weight.
Antabuse See disulfiram.
antagonist In neuroscience, a chemical substance that decreases or
blocks the effects of a neurotransmitter.
antagonist drugs Medications that block or counteract the effects of
psychoactive drugs.
antibodies Highly specific molecules called immunoglobulins produced
by B cells to combine with and neutralize antigens.
antigens Foreign materials that enter the body, including bacteria and
parasites
antisocial personality disorder Cluster B (dramatic, emotional, or
erratic) personality disorder involving a pervasive
pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of
others.
anxiety Mood state characterized by marked negative affect and bodily
symptoms of tension in which a person apprehensively
anticipates future danger or misfortune. Anxiety may
involve feelings, behaviors, and physiological
responses.
Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule-IV (ADIS-IV) Specialized,
structured interview protocol to assess anxiety and
related disorders.
Anxiety and Related Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-5
(ADIS-5) Specialized semi-structured clinical interview
for assessing DSM-5 anxiety and related disorders.
apathy See avolition.
aphasia Impairment or loss of language skills resulting from brain
damage caused by stroke, Alzheimer’s disease, or
other illness or trauma.
apnea See sleep apnea.
apolipoprotein E (apo E) Protein involved in the transport of
cholesterol. High concentration of one subtype,
controlled by a gene on chromosome 19, is associated
with Alzheimer’s disease.
arrhythmia Irregular heartbeat.
Asperger’s disorder Pervasive developmental disorder characterized
by impairments in social relationships and restricted or
unusual behaviors, but without the language delays
seen in autism spectrum disorder.
assertiveness training Instruction in which individuals learn to cope
with stress by rehearsing ways to protect their time and
personal rights in appropriate ways to avoid being
exploited and feeling used. For example, caregivers of
people with Alzheimer’s disease learn assertiveness to
prevent them from resorting to abuse in frustration.
assessment gender bias Possibility that gender differences in the
reported prevalence or diagnosis of certain diagnostic
categories may be the result of prejudice in the
assessment measures or the ways they are used.
association studies Research strategies for comparing genetic
markers in groups of people with and without a
particular disorder.
associative splitting Separation among basic functions of human
personality (for example, cognition, emotion, and
perception) seen by some as the defining characteristic
of schizophrenia.
asylum Safe refuge; specifically, an institution to house mentally
disordered people.
atherosclerosis Process by which a fatty substance or plaque builds
up inside arteries to form obstructions.
attachment disorders Developmentally inappropriate behaviors in
which a child is unable or unwilling to form normal
attachment relationships with caregiving adults.
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Developmental
disorder featuring maladaptive levels of inattention,
excessive activity, and impulsiveness.
attenuated psychosis syndrome Disorder involving the onset of
psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations and
delusions, which puts a person at high risk for
schizophrenia; designated for further study by DSM-5.
auditory hallucinations Psychotic disturbance in perception in which
a person hears sounds or voices although these are
not real or actually present. The voices are often
critical, accusatory, or demanding.
augmentative communication strategies Pictures or computer aids
to assist people with communication deficits so that
they can communicate.
autism spectrum disorder (autism) Neurodevelopmental disorder
characterized by significant impairment in social
interactions and communication and restricted patterns
of behavior, interest, and activity.
autoimmune disease Condition in which the body’s immune system
attacks healthy tissue rather than antigens.
autonomic nervous system Part of the peripheral nervous system that
regulates cardiovascular (heart and blood vessel),
endocrine (hormone), and digestive functions. Includes
the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
systems.
autonomic restrictors Term for people with generalized anxiety
disorder because they show lower heart rate, blood
pressure, skin conductance, and respiration rate
activity than do people with other anxiety disorders.
avoidant personality disorder Cluster C (anxious or fearful)
personality disorder featuring a pervasive pattern of
social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and
hypersensitivity to criticism.
avolition Apathy, or the inability to initiate or persist in important
activities.
axes Dimensions previously used to collect information for DSM-IV-TR
diagnosis protocols—for example, life stressors and
medical conditions. DSM-5 diagnoses also take into
account such information, but the axial system is no
longer in use.
axon Nerve cell branches that transmit outgoing electrochemical
impulses to other neurons.
B cells Special type of white blood cells produced in bone marrow. They
release into the humoral branch of the immune system
molecules that circulate in the blood to seek, identify,
and neutralize antigens.
barbiturates Sedative (and addictive) drugs including Amytal, Seconal,
and Nembutal that are used as sleep aids.
bariatric surgery Surgical approach to extreme obesity, usually
accomplished by stapling the stomach to create a small
stomach pouch or bypassing the stomach through
gastric bypass surgery.
basal ganglia Brain area at the base of the forebrain that seems to
control motor behavior and to be involved in obsessive-
compulsive disorder.
baseline Measured rate of a behavior before introduction of an
intervention that allows comparison and assessment of
the effects of the intervention.
before and during treatment to evaluate the frequency
and severity of specific behaviors.
behavior therapy Array of therapy methods based on the principles of
behavioral and cognitive science, as well as principles
of learning as applied to clinical problems. It considers
specific behaviors rather than inferred conflicts as
legitimate targets for change.
behavioral assessment Measuring, observing, and systematically
evaluating (rather than inferring) the client’s thoughts,
feelings, and behavior in the actual problem situation
or context.
behavioral inhibition system (BIS) Brain circuit in the limbic system
that responds to threat signals by inhibiting activity and
causing anxiety.
behavioral medicine Interdisciplinary approach applying behavioral
science to the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of
medical problems.
behavioral model Explanation of human behavior, including
dysfunction, based on principles of learning and
adaptation derived from experimental psychology.
behavioral rehearsal Behavior therapy technique in which the client
practices coping with troublesome or anxiety-arousing
situations in a safe and supervised situation.
behaviorism Explanation of human behavior, including dysfunction,
based on principles of learning and adaptation derived
from experimental psychology.
Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test Neuropsychological test for
children in which they copy a variety of lines and
shapes.
benzodiazepines Antianxiety drugs including Valium, Xanax,
Dalmane, and Halcion also used to treat insomnia.
Effective against anxiety (and, at high potency, panic
disorder), they show some side effects, such as some
cognitive and motor impairment, and may result in
substance dependence. Relapse rates are extremely
high when the drug is discontinued.
beta adrenergic receptors Group of nervous system receptors
stimulated by the neurotransmitter norepinephrine to
increase blood pressure and heart rate. Drugs called
beta-blockers act at this level to control high blood
pressure.
binge Relatively brief episode of uncontrolled, excessive consumption,
usually of food or alcohol.
binge-eating disorder (BED) Pattern of eating involving distress-
inducing binges not followed by purging behaviors;
being considered as a new DSM diagnostic category.
biofeedback Use of physiological monitoring equipment to make
individuals aware of their own bodily functions, such as
blood pressure or brain waves, that they cannot
normally access, with the purpose of controlling these
functions.
biological model Explanation of psychological dysfunction that
primarily emphasizes brain disorder or illness as the
cause.
bipolar I disorder Alternation of major depressive episodes with full
manic episodes.
bipolar II disorder Alternation of major depressive episodes with
hypomanic episodes (not full manic episodes).
bisexuality Attraction to both same- and oppositesex sexual partners.
black box Concept of the inner workings of the organism, such as
thoughts and feelings that cannot be observed directly.
blind sight Phenomenon in which a person is able to perform visual
functions while having no awareness or memory of
these abilities. Also called unconscious vision.
blood–injection–injury phobia Unreasonable fear and avoidance of
exposure to blood, injury, or the possibility of an
injection. Victims experience fainting and a drop in
blood pressure.
body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) Disorder featuring a disruptive
preoccupation with some imagined defect in
appearance (“imagined ugliness”). Now classified
among obsessive-compulsive and related disorders;
previously grouped with DSM-IV somatoform
disorders.
borderline personality disorder Cluster B (dramatic, emotional, or
erratic) personality disorder involving a pervasive
pattern of instability of interpersonal relationships,
selfimage, affects, and control over impulses.
bradykinesia Slowed body movements, as occur in Parkinson’s
disease.
brain circuits Neurotransmitter currents or neural pathways in the
brain.
brain stem Ancient lower part of the brain responsible for many life-
sustaining automatic functions, such as breathing and
coordinated movement.
breathalyzer test Measure of alcohol intoxication that uses a breath
sample because some consumed alcohol is vaporized
in the lungs and exhaled.
breathing-related sleep disorders Sleep disruption leading to
excessive sleepiness or insomnia, caused by a
breathing problem such as interrupted (sleep apnea) or
labored (hypoventilation) breathing.
Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale Behavior rating scale used to assess
the severity of patient problem areas, such as guilt
feelings and preoccupation with health.
brief psychotic disorder Psychotic disturbance involving delusions,
hallucinations, or disorganized speech or behavior but
lasting less than 1 month; often occurs in reaction to a
stressor.
Briquet’s syndrome Obsolete term for somatic symptom disorder
(previously known as somatization disorder).
bulimia nervosa Eating disorder involving recurrent episodes of
uncontrolled excessive (binge) eating followed by
compensatory actions to remove the food (for example,
deliberate vomiting, laxative abuse, and excessive
exercise).
caffeine use disorders Cognitive, biological, behavioral, and social
problems associated with the use and abuse of
caffeine.
cancer Category of often-fatal medical conditions involving abnormal
cell growth and malignancy.
cannabinoids Family of chemicals in marijuana believed to be
responsible for its mood- and behavior-altering ability.
cannabis See marijuana.
cardiovascular disease Afflictions in the mechanisms, including the
heart, blood vessels, and their controllers, responsible
for transporting blood to the body’s tissues and organs.
Psychological factors may play important roles in such
diseases and their treatments.
cardiovascular system Heart, blood vessels, and their controlling
mechanisms, all of which transport blood and nutrients
to the tissues of the body.
case study method Research procedure in which a single person or
small group is studied in detail. The method does not
 allow conclusions about cause-and-effect
relationships, and findings can be generalized only with
great
caution (contrast with single-case experimental design).
castration anxiety In psychoanalysis, the fear in young boys that they
will be mutilated genitally because of their lust for their
mothers.
catalepsy Motor movement disturbance seen in people with some
psychoses and mood disorders in which body postures
are waxy and can be “sculpted” to remain fixed for long
periods.
cataplexy Sudden loss of muscle tone that accompanies narcolepsy.
catatonia Disorder of movement involving immobility or excited
agitation. Sometimes accompanies psychotic
disorders or mood disorders.
catatonic immobility Disturbance of motor behavior in which the
person remains motionless, sometimes in an awkward
posture, for extended periods.
catharsis Rapid or sudden release of emotional tension thought to be
an important factor in psychoanalytic therapy.
caudate nucleus Brain structure; part of the basal ganglia that controls
motor behavior and is implicated in obsessive-
compulsive disorder.
cellular branch Branch of the immune system using specialized cells
to protect the body cells against viral and parasite
infections.
central nervous system Brain and spinal cord.
central sleep apnea Brief periods of cessation in respiratory activity
during sleep that may be associated with central
nervous system disorders. Most clients awaken often
as a result but do not report sleepiness and may be
unaware of any problem.
cerebellum Part of the hindbrain in the brain stem that controls motor
coordination and may be involved in autism spectrum
disorder.
cerebral cortex Largest part of the forebrain, divided into two
hemispheres; responsible for human functions such as
perceiving, reasoning, planning, creating, and
remembering.
chemical imbalance Relative excess or deficit in brain chemicals, such
as neurotransmitters, that may be implicated in some
psychological disorders.
childhood disintegrative disorder Pervasive developmental disorder
involving severe regression in language, adaptive
behavior, and motor skills after a 2- to 4-year period of
normal development.
choking phobia Fear and avoidance of swallowing pills, foods, and
fluids, which may lead to significant weight loss. Also
known as hypersensitive gag reflex or globus
hystericus.
chorea Motor problems characterized by involuntary limb movements
chorionic villus sampling (CVS) A genetic test conducted during early
pregnancy that samples cells found in the placenta
(chorionic villi) and assesses possible genetic or
chromosomal problems in the fetus.
chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) Incapacitating exhaustion following
only minimal exertion, accompanied by fever,
headaches, muscle and joint pain, depression, and
anxiety.
chronic pain Enduring pain that does not decrease over time; may
occur in muscles, joints, and the lower back, and may
be caused by enlarged blood vessels or degenerating
or cancerous tissue. Other significant factors are social
and psychological.
chronic stage Final of E. Morton Jellinek’s four stages identified in the
progression of alcoholism, where the individual’s
primary daily activities revolve around obtaining and
drinking alcohol.
chronological age Person’s age in calendar years.
circadian rhythm sleep disorders Sleep disturbances resulting in
sleepiness or insomnia, caused by the body’s inability
to synchronize its sleep patterns with the current
pattern of day and night.
civil commitment laws Legal proceedings that determine a person is
mentally disordered and may be hospitalized, even
involuntarily.
classical categorical approach Classification method founded on the
assumption of clearcut differences among disorders,
each with a different known cause.
classical conditioning Fundamental learning process first described
by Ivan Pavlov. An event that automatically elicits a
response is paired with another stimulus event that
does not (a neutral stimulus). After repeated pairings,
the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus
that by itself can elicit the desired response
classification Assignment of objects or people to categories on the
basis of shared characteristics.
clinical assessment Systematic evaluation and measurement of
psychological, biological, and social factors in a person
presenting with a possible psychological disorder.
clinical description Details of the combination of behaviors, thoughts,
and feelings of an individual that make up a particular
disorder.
clinical efficacy axis One of a proposed set of guidelines for
evaluating clinical interventions on the evidence of their
effectiveness (compare with clinical utility axis).
clinical psychologist Person who has earned a Ph.D. or related
degree (for example, Psy.D.) in psychology and is
trained to conduct research into the causes and
treatment of severe psychological disorders, as well as
to diagnose, assess, and treat them.
clinical significance Degree to which research findings have useful
and meaningful applications to real problems.
clinical utility axis One of a proposed set of guidelines for evaluating
clinical interventions by whether they can be applied
effectively and cost effectively in real clinical settings
(compare with clinical efficacy axis).
clonidine Medical treatment for hypertension that is often used to
reduce the negative symptoms of withdrawal from
opiates.
clozapine A medication for schizophrenia (trade name Clozaril), a weak
dopamine antagonist that seems effective in some
previously untreatable cases and with fewer serious
side effects.
cocaine Derivative of coca leaves used medically as a local anesthetic
and narcotic; often a substance of abuse.
cocaine use disorders Cognitive, biological, behavioral, and social
problems associated with the use and abuse of
cocaine.
codeine Opiate; a mild, medical narcotic derived from morphine.
cognitive relaxation Use of meditation or imagery to
combat anxiety that may result from sleeplessness.
cognitive restructuring Cognitive therapy procedure used to change
negative or unrealistic thoughts or attributions.
cognitive science Field of study that examines how humans and other
animals acquire, process, store, and retrieve
information.
cognitive therapy Treatment approach that involves identifying and
altering negative thinking styles related to
psychological disorders such as depression and
anxiety and replacing them with more positive beliefs
and attitudes and, ultimately, more adaptive behavior
and coping styles.
cognitive-behavioral treatment (CBT) Group of treatment procedures
aimed at identifying and modifying faulty thought
processes, attitudes and attributions, and problem
behaviors; often used synonymously with cognitive
therapy.
cohort Participants in each age group of a study with a cross-sectional
design.
cohort effect Observation that people of different age groups differ in
their values and experiences. collective unconscious
Accumulated wisdom of a culture collected and
remembered across generations, a psychodynamic
concept introduced by Carl Jung.
communication disorders Problems in transmitting or conveying
information, including stuttering, selective mutism, and
expressive language disorder.
community intervention Approach to treating and preventing
disorders by directing action at the organizational,
agency, and community levels rather than at
individuals.
comorbidity Presence of two or more disorders in an individual at the
same time. comparative treatment research Outcome
research that contrasts two or more treatment methods
to determine which is most effective.
competence Ability of legal defendants to participate in their own
defense and understand the charges and the roles of
the trial participants.
complicated grief Grief characterized by debilitating feelings of loss
and emotions so painful that a person has trouble
resuming a normal life; designated for further study as
a disorder by DSM-5.
Comprehensive System Standardized system of administering and
scoring the Rorschach inkblot test that seeks to
improve its reliability and validity.
compulsions Repetitive, ritualistic, time- consuming behaviors or
mental acts a person feels driven to perform to
suppress obsessions.
computerized axial tomography (CAT) scan (CT scan) Noninvasive
imaging procedure useful in identifying abnormalities in
the structure or shape of the brain.
concurrent (descriptive) validity Condition of testing in which the
results from one test correspond to the results of other
measures of the same phenomenon.
conditioned response (CR) Learned reaction, similar to the
unconditioned response, elicited by a conditioned
stimulus following classical conditioning.
conditioned stimulus (CS) Environmental event that acquires the
ability to elicit a learned response as a result of
classical conditioning associated with an
unconditioned stimulus.
conditioning Process by which behaviors can be learned or modified
through interaction with the environment. See classical
conditioning and operant conditioning.
confound Any factor occurring in a study that makes the results
uninterpretable because its effects cannot be
separated from those of the variables being studied.
confounding variable Variable in a research study that was not part of
the intended design and that may contribute to
changes in the dependent variable.
conscientiousness One of the dimensions of the five-factor model of
personality and individual differences involving being
organized, thorough, and reliable as opposed to
careless, negligent, and unreliable.
construct validity Degree to which signs and symptoms used to
categorize a disorder relate to one another while
differing from those for other disorders.
content validity Degree to which the characteristics of a disorder are
a true sample of the phenomenon in question.
contingency management Encouragement of reinforcers to promote
and maintain desired behaviors and removal of those
reinforcers that maintain undesired behaviors.
control group Group of individuals in a study who are similar to the
experimental subjects in every way but are not
exposed to the treatment received by the experimental
group. Their presence allows for a comparison of the
differential effects of the treatment.
controlled drinking An extremely controversial treatment approach to
alcohol dependence, in which severe abusers are
taught to drink in moderation.
conversion disorder (functional neurological symptom disorder)
Physical malfunctioning, such as blindness or
paralysis, suggesting neurological impairment but with
no organic pathology to account for it.
conversion hysteria Obsolete term for conversion disorder derived
from the Freudian notion that physical symptoms
represented a conversion of unconscious conflicts into
a more acceptable form.
coping styles See defense mechanisms. copy number variants Genes
that are deleted as a result of mutations; these
deletions may play a role in the development of ADHD
and other disorders. coronary heart disease (CHD)
Blockage of the arteries supplying blood to the heart
muscle; a major cause of death in Western culture, with
social and psychological factors involved.
correlation Degree to which two variables are associated. In a positive
correlation, the two variables increase or decrease
together. In a negative correlation, one variable
decreases as the other increases.
correlation coefficient Computed statistic reflecting the strength and
direction of any association between two variables. It
can range from 21.00 through 0.00 (indicating no
association) to 11.00, with the absolute value indicating
the strength and the sign reflecting the direction.
correlational study Research procedure in which variables are
measured and compared to detect any association but
are not manipulated. Conclusions about cause-and-
effect relationships are not permissible.
corticosteroids Hormones, including cortisol, released by the adrenal
gland in response to stressors to activate and, later, to
turn off the body’s stress response. Also called stress
hormones.
corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) Neuromodulator hormone secreted
into the blood by the hypothalamus. It stimulates the
pituitary gland as part of a reaction chain called the
stress response. It may be implicated in mood
disorders, as well as physical problems. cortisol Stress
hormone (corticosteroid) secreted by the cortex of the
adrenal glands as part of the stress response.
counseling psychologist Person who has earned a
Ph.D. or related degree in psychology and is trained to
study and treat adjustment and vocational issues in
relatively healthy people.
countertransference Psychoanalytic concept involving personal issues
the therapist brings to professional relationships with
clients.
course Pattern of development and change of a disorder over time.
course modifiers Patterns of development in a disorder
that help predict its future course. These include
recurrence, time sequences, and seasonal pattern.
covert sensitization Cognitive-behavioral intervention to reduce
unwanted behaviors by having clients imagine the
extremely aversive consequences of the behaviors and
establish negative rather than positive associations
with them.
crack Cocaine in a highly potent, solid, rocklike form. crack babies
Infants who were exposed to cocaine prenatally
because of their mothers’ use. Their characteristic
irritability and high-pitched crying may be caused by
abuse or neglect, in addition to the cocaine itself.
Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease Extremely rare type of prion disease that
may result from a number of sources, including the
consumption of beef from cattle with “mad cow
disease.”
criminal commitment Legal procedure by which a person found not
guilty of a crime by reason of insanity must be confined
in a psychiatric hospital.
criterion gender bias Possibility that gender differences in the reported
prevalence or diagnosis of certain diagnostic
categories may be the result of prejudice in the defining
criteria for the disorder.
criterion validity Extent to which categorization accurately predicts the
future course of a disorder, whether treated or
untreated. See also predictive validity.
cross-generational effect Limit on the generalizability of longitudinal
research because the group under study may differ
from others in culture and experience.
cross-sectional design Methodology to examine a characteristic by
comparing individuals of different ages (contrast with
longitudinal design).
cross-tolerance Condition in which a person may replace addiction to
one drug with addiction to another when the two drugs
have similar chemical makeup and act on the same
neurotransmitter receptors.
crucial stage Third of four of E. Morton Jellinek’s stages identified in the
progression of alcoholism, involving a loss of control of
drinking and occasional binges of heavy drinking.
cultural–familial intellectual disability Mild intellectual disability that may
be caused largely by environmental influences.
cyclothymic disorder Chronic (at least 2 years) mood disorder
characterized by alternating mood elevation and
depression levels that are not as severe as manic or
major depressive episodes.
dangerousness Tendency to violence that, contrary to popular opinion,
is not more likely among mental patients.
deep sleep Sleep stage characterized by slow brain-wave (delta wave)
patterns. A person in deep sleep is difficult to rouse and
slow to become alert.
defense mechanisms Common patterns of behavior, often adaptive
coping styles when they occur in moderation, observed
in response to particular situations. In psychoanalysis,
these are thought to be unconscious processes
originating in the ego.
deinstitutionalization Systematic removal of people with severe mental
illness or intellectual disability from institutions like
psychiatric hospitals.
delayed ejaculation Disorder in which a man achieves orgasm only with
great difficulty.
delayed sleep phase type of circadian rhythm sleep disorder Persistent
pattern of late sleep onset and awakening time.
delirium Rapid-onset reduced clarity of consciousness and cognition,
with confusion, disorientation, and deficits in memory
and language.
delta waves Relatively slow and irregular pattern of brain waves typical
of the deepest, most relaxed stage of sleep. This is the
time when sleeping panic attacks may occur. Delta
activity during wakefulness may indicate brain
dysfunction. Also known as slow wave sleep.
delusion Psychotic symptom involving disorder of thought content and
presence of strong beliefs that are misrepresentations
of reality.
delusion of grandeur Psychotic symptom involving people’s unfounded
belief that they are more famous or important than is
true.
delusion of persecution People’s unfounded belief that others seek to
harm them.
delusional disorder Psychotic disorder featuring a persistent belief
contrary to reality (delusion) but no other symptoms of
schizophrenia.
démence précoce French-language form of dementia praecox.
dementia Obsolete term for major neurocognitive
disorder.
dementia of the Alzheimer’s type Obsolete term for major
neurocognitive disorder due to Alzheimer’s disease.
dementia praecox Latin term meaning “premature loss of mind,” an
early label for what is now called schizophrenia,
emphasizing the disorder’s frequent appearance
during adolescence. Called démence précoce in
France.
dendrite Nerve cell branches that receive incoming electrochemical
information for transmission along the neuron.
dependent personality disorder Cluster C (anxious or fearful)
personality disorder characterized by a person’s
pervasive and excessive need to be taken care of, a
condition that leads to submissive and clinging
behavior and fears of separation.
dependent variable In an experimental study, the phenomenon that is
measured and expected to be influenced (compare
with independent variable).
depersonalization Altering of perception that causes people to
temporarily lose a sense of their own reality; most
prevalent in people with the dissociative disorders.
There is often a feeling of being outside observers of
their own behavior.
depersonalization/derealization disorder Dissociative disorder in which
feelings of depersonalization are so severe they
dominate the client’s life and prevent normal
functioning.
depressants Psychoactive substances that result in behavioral
sedation, including alcohol and the sedative, hypnotic,
and anxiolytic drugs.
depressive cognitive triad Thinking errors in depressed people
negatively focused in three areas: themselves, their
 immediate world, and their future. depressive episode
with atypical features Depressive episode
characterized by some ability to experience interest
and pleasure, as well as two or more of the following:
overeating or weight gain, oversleeping, heavy feeling
in limbs, sensitivity to rejection.
depressive stupor (catatonic depressive episode) Rare but severe
depressive episode experienced by someone with a
mood disorder, featuring, usually, substantial reduction
in spontaneous motor movement or, occasionally,
agitation or odd mannerisms.
derailment See loose associations. derealization Situation in which the
individual loses a sense of the reality of the external
world.
desire phase First stage of sexual activity, when sexual urges, thoughts,
or fantasies occur, either in reaction to or even in the
absence of a stimulating cue.
deterministic In genetics, genes that lead to nearly a 100% chance of
developing the associated disorder. These are rare in
the population. developmental psychology Study of
changes in behavior that occur over time.
developmental psychopathology Study of changes in abnormal
behavior that occur over time. deviation IQ Intelligence
test score that estimates how much a child’s school
performance will deviate from the average
performance of others of the same age.
dexamethasone suppression test (DST) Proposed biological test for
depression. The test failed to discriminate depression
from other disorders.
diagnosis Process of determining whether a presenting problem meets
the established criteria for a specific psychological
disorder. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fifth
Edition, (DSM-5) Current version of the official
classification system for psychological disorders,
published by the American Psychiatric Association.
dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT) Promising treatment for borderline
personality disorder that involves exposing the client to
stressors in a controlled situation, as well as helping
the client regulate emotions and cope with stressors
that might trigger suicidal behavior.
diastolic blood pressure Blood pressure level when the heart is at rest
or between heartbeats.
diathesis–stress model Hypothesis that both an inherited tendency (a
vulnerability) and specific stressful conditions are
required to produce a disorder.
dimensional approach Method of categorizing characteristics on a
continuum rather than on a binary, either-or, or all-or-
none basis.
dimethyltryptamine (DMT) Natural hallucinogen from the bark of trees
that grow in Central and South America.
diminished capacity Evidence of an abnormal mental condition in
people that causes criminal charges against them
requiring intent or knowledge to be reduced to lesser
offenses requiring only reckless or criminal neglect.
directionality Possibility that when two variables, A and B, are correlated
variable A causes variable B or variable B causes
variable A.
discrimination training Arrangement of experiences in which the person
or animal learns to respond under certain conditions
and not to respond under other conditions.
disease conviction Core feature of hypochondriasis; people’s firm belief
that they currently have a disease, based on the
misinterpretation of their own symptoms and
sensations.
disease model of dependence View that drug dependence is caused by
a physiological disorder. This implies the user is a
blameless victim of an illness.
disinhibited social engagement disorder Condition in which a child
shows no inhibitions whatsoever in approaching adults.
disorder of arousal Category of sleep disorder during NREM sleep that
includes sleepwalking and sleep terrors.
disorder of written expression Condition in which writing performance is
significantly below the standard for that age level.
disorganized speech Style of talking often seen in people with
schizophrenia, involving incoherence and a lack of
typical logic patterns.
displacement Defense mechanism in which a person directs a problem
impulse toward a safe substitute.
disruptive mood dysregulation disorder Condition in which a child has
chronic negative moods such as anger and irritability
without any accompanying mania.
dissociation Detachment or loss of integration between identity or reality
and consciousness.
dissociative amnesia Dissociative disorder featuring the inability to
recall personal information, usually of a stressful or
traumatic nature.
dissociative disorder Disorder in which individuals feel detached from
themselves or their surroundings and reality,
experience, and identity may disintegrate.
dissociative fugue Type of dissociative amnesia featuring sudden,
unexpected travel away from home, along with an
inability to recall the past, sometimes with assumption
of a new identity.
dissociative identity disorder (DID) Formerly known as multiple
personality disorder; a disorder in which as many as
100 personalities or fragments of personalities coexist
within one body and mind.
dissociative trance Altered state of consciousness in which people
firmly believe they are possessed by spirits; considered
a disorder only where there is distress and dysfunction.
disulfiram Chemical used as an aversion treatment for heavy drinking
because it causes a buildup in the body of an alcohol
by-product, making the person vomit after drinking.
Clients must continue taking it for the chemical to
remain effective. Also known as Antabuse.
dominant gene One gene of any pair of genes that determines a
particular trait.
dopamine Neurotransmitter whose generalized function is to activate
other neurotransmitters and to aid in exploratory and
pleasure seeking behaviors (thus balancing serotonin).
A relative excess of dopamine is implicated in
schizophrenia (although contradictory evidence
suggests the connection is not simple), and its deficit is
involved in Parkinson’s disease.
dopaminergic system Parts of the nervous system activated by the
neurotransmitter dopamine; involved in many
functions, including the experience of reward.
dorsal horns of the spinal cord Sections of the spinal cord responsible
for transmitting sensory input to the brain. They
function as a “gate” that allows transmission of pain
sensations if the stimulation is sufficiently intense.
double bind communication According to an obsolete, unsupported
theory, the practice of transmitting conflicting
messages that was thought to cause schizophrenia.
double depression Severe mood disorder typified by major depressive
episodes superimposed over a background of
persistent dysthymic mood. Also called “Persistent
depressive disorder with intermittent major depressive
episodes.”
double-blind control Procedure in outcome studies that prevents bias
by ensuring that neither the subjects nor the providers
of the experimental treatment know who is receiving
treatment and who is receiving placebo.
Down syndrome Type of intellectual disability caused by a
chromosomal aberration (chromosome 21) and
involving characteristic physical appearance.
Sometimes known as trisomy 21.
dream analysis Psychoanalytic therapy method in which dream
contents are examined as symbolic of id impulses and
intrapsychic conflicts. duty to warn Mental health
professional’s responsibility to break confidentiality and
notify the potential victim whom a client has specifically
threatened.
dysfunctional attitudes Cognitive errors seen in depressed individuals,
who may automatically assume the worst, draw
negative conclusions arbitrarily, and treat minor
problems as major ones. dyslexia Learning disability
involving problems in reading.
dysmorphophobia Literally, “fear of ugliness,” an obsolete term for body
dysmorphic disorder.
dysphoric manic episode See mixed manic episode.
dyssomnias Problems in getting to sleep or in obtaining sufficient quality
sleep.
dysthymia See Persistent depressive disorder. early onset
neurocognitive disorder A relatively rare form of
neurocognitive disorder where symptoms of memory
loss and other cognitive impairments occur relatively
early in life, when one is in their 40s or 50s.
echolalia Repetition or echoing of the speech of others, a normal
intermediate step in the development of speech skills.
Originally thought to be a unique symptom of autism
spectrum disorder, it is now seen as evidence of
developmental delay involved in that disorder.
echoplanar magnetic resonance imaging Experimental version of
magnetic resonance imaging that can make rapid
multiple sequential images of the brain as it functions.
echopraxia The involuntary imitation of the movement of another
person.
educable intellectual disability Obsolete term referring to level of
intellectual disability comparable to the DSM-5 “mild”
designation that assumes the individual can learn basic
academic skills.
effect size Statistical measure that shows the amount of difference
among the members of a group in a clinical study.
ego In psychoanalysis, the psychical entity responsible for finding
realistic and practical ways to satisfy id drives.
ego psychology Derived from psychoanalysis, this theory emphasizes
the role of the ego in development and attributes
psychological disorders to failure of the ego to manage
impulses and internal conflicts. Also known as self-
psychology.
egoistic suicide Suicide that occurs in the context of diminished social
supports, as in the case of some elderly people who
have lost friends and family contacts.
Electra complex In psychoanalysis, a young girl’s intrapsychic desire to
replace her mother, possess her father, and acquire a
penis. The resolution of this complex results in
development of the superego.
electrocardiogram Measure of electrical activity generated by heart
muscle exertion used to detect and evaluate heart
diseases.
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) Biological treatment for severe,
chronic depression involving the application of
electrical impulses through the brain to produce
seizures. The reasons for its effectiveness are
unknown.
electroencephalogram (EEG) Measure of electrical activity patterns in
the brain, taken through electrodes placed on the
scalp.
electromyogram (EMG) Measure of muscle movement.
electrooculogram (EOG) Measure of eye muscle movement particularly
relevant to detecting dream stages during sleep.
emotion Pattern of action elicited by an external event and a feeling
state, accompanied by a characteristic physiological
response.
emotion contagion Situation in which an emotional reaction spreads
from one individual to others nearby.
emotional stability One of the dimensions of the five-factor model of
personality and individual differences, involving being
eventempered as opposed to nervous, moody, and
temperamental.
empathy Condition of sharing and understanding the emotions of
another person.
endocrine system Network of glands that affect bodily functions by
releasing hormones into the bloodstream. Some
endocrine activity is implicated in psychological
disorders.
endogenous opioids Substances occurring naturally throughout the
body that function like neurotransmitters to shut down
pain sensation even in the presence of marked tissue
damage. These may contribute to psychological
problems such as eating disorders. Also known as
endorphins or enkephalins.
endophenotypes Genetic mechanisms that contribute to the underlying
problems causing the symptoms and difficulties
experienced by people with psychological disorders.
endorphins See endogenous opioids. enkephalins See endogenous
opioids.
epidemiology Psychopathology research method examining the
prevalence, distribution, and consequences of
disorders in populations.
epigenetics The study of factors other than inherited DNA sequence,
such as new learning or stress, that alter the
phenotypic expression of genes.
episodic course Pattern of a disorder alternating between recovery and
recurrence.
equifinality Developmental psychopathology principle that a behavior or
disorder may have several causes.
erectile disorder Recurring inability in some men to attain or maintain
adequate penile erection until completion of sexual
activity.
erotomanic type Type of delusional disorder featuring belief that another
person, usually of higher status, is in love with the
individual.
erotophobia Learned negative reaction to or attitude about sexual
activity, perhaps developed as a result of a negative or
even traumatic event, such as rape.
essential hypertension High blood pressure with no verifiable physical
cause, which makes up the overwhelming majority of
high blood pressure cases.
etiology Cause or source of a disorder.
event-related potential (ERP) Brain’s electrical reaction to a
psychologically meaningful environment event, as
measured by the electroencephalogram. Also known
as evoked potential. excoriation (skin picking disorder)
Recurrent, difficult-to-control picking of one’s skin
leading to significant impairment or distress.
exhibitionism Sexual gratification attained by exposing genitals to
unsuspecting strangers.
exorcism Religious ritual that attributes disordered behavior to
possession by demons and seeks to treat the individual
by driving the demons from the body.
expectancy effect People’s response to a substance on the basis of
their beliefs about it, even if it contains no active
ingredient. This phenomenon demonstrates that
cognitive, as well as physiological, factors are involved
in drug reaction and dependence.
experiment Research method that can establish causation by
manipulating the variables in question and controlling
for alternative explanations of any observed effects.
expert witness Person who because of special training and experience
is allowed to offer opinion testimony in legal trials.
explicit memory Good recollection of actual events
(contrast with implicit memory).
expressed emotion (EE) Hostility, criticism, and overinvolvement
demonstrated by some families toward a family
member with a psychological disorder. This can often
contribute to the person’s relapse.
expressive language Communication with words.
expressive language disorder An individual’s problems in spoken
communication, as measured by significantly low
scores on standardized tests of expressive language
relative to nonverbal intelligence test scores.
Symptoms may include a markedly limited vocabulary
or errors in verb tense.
extensive support intellectual disability Intellectual disability level
characterized by the long-term and regular care
required for individuals with this degree of disability.
external validity Extent to which research findings generalize, or apply,
to people and settings not involved in the study.
extinction Learning process in which a response maintained by
reinforcement in operant conditioning or pairing in
classical conditioning decreases when that
reinforcement or pairing is removed; also the
procedure of removing that reinforcement or pairing.
extrapyramidal symptoms Serious side effects of neuroleptic
medications resembling the motor difficulties of
Parkinson’s disease. They include akinesia and tardive
dyskinesia. Also called parkinsonian symptoms.
extroversion One of the dimensions of the fivefactor model of
personality and individual differences, involving being
talkative, assertive, and active as opposed to silent,
passive, and reserved.
eye-tracking See smooth-pursuit eye movement. face validity Condition
of testing in which test items appear plausible for their
intended purposes, even if they are not truly valid
discriminators. facial agnosia Type of agnosia
characterized by a person’s inability to recognize even
familiar faces.
factitious disorder Nonexistent physical or psychological disorder
deliberately faked for no apparent gain except possibly
sympathy and attention.
failure to thrive Stunted physical growth and maturation in children,
often associated with psychosocial factors such as lack
of love and nurturing.
false negative Assessment error in which no pathology is noted (that is,
test results are negative) when one is actually present.
false positive Assessment error in which pathology is reported (that is,
test results are positive) when none is actually present.
familial aggregation The extent to which a disorder is found among a
patient’s relatives.
family studies Genetic studies that examine patterns of traits and
behaviors among relatives.
fatalistic suicide Suicide in the context of a person’s hopelessness and
loss of the feeling of control over personal destiny.
fear Emotion of an immediate alarm reaction to present danger or life-
threatening emergencies.
fearlessness hypothesis One of the major theories of the etiology of
antisocial personality disorder, stating that
psychopaths are less prone to fear and thus less
inhibited from dangerous or illicit activities.
female orgasmic disorder Recurring delay or absence of orgasm in
some women following a normal sexual excitement
phase, relative to their prior experience and current
stimulation. Also known as inhibited orgasm (female).
female sexual interest/arousal disorder Recurrent inability in some
women to attain or maintain adequate lubrication and
sexual excitement swelling responses until completion
of sexual activity.
fermentation Decomposition process by which yeasts, water, and sugar
form alcohol.
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) Pattern of problems including learning
difficulties, behavior deficits, and characteristic
physical flaws, resulting from heavy drinking by the
victim’s mother when she was pregnant with the victim.
fetishistic disorder Long-term, recurring, intense sexually arousing
urges, fantasies, or behavior that involve the use of
nonliving, unusual objects and that cause distress or
impairment in life functioning.
fight/flight system (FFS) Brain circuit in animals that when stimulated
causes an immediate alarm and escape response
resembling human panic.
fixation In psychoanalysis, stopping or concentrating at a psychosexual
stage because of a lack of appropriate gratification at
that stage.
flashback Sudden, intense reexperiencing of a previous, usually
traumatic, event.
flat affect Apparently emotionless demeanor (including toneless speech
and vacant gaze) when a reaction would be expected.
flight or fight response Biological reaction to alarming stressors that
musters the body’s resources (for example, blood flow
and respiration) to resist or flee a threat.
fluoxetine Selective-serotonin reuptake inhibitor (trade name Prozac)
that acts on the serotonergic system as a treatment for
depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and
bulimia nervosa.
flurazepam Long-acting medication for insomnia (trade name Dalmane)
that may cause daytime sleepiness.
forebrain Top section of the brain that includes the limbic system, basal
ganglia, caudate nucleus, and cerebral cortex. Also
called telencephalon.
formal observation Structured recording of behaviors that are
measurable and well defined.
fragile X syndrome Pattern of abnormality caused by a defect in the X
chromosome resulting in intellectual disability, learning
problems, and unusual physical characteristics.
free association Psychoanalytic therapy technique intended to explore
threatening material repressed into the unconscious.
The patient is instructed to say whatever comes to
mind without censoring.
frenzy witchcraft Running frenzy disorder among the Navajo tribe that
seems equivalent to dissociative fugue.
frontal lobe Forward section of each cerebral hemisphere, most
responsible for thinking, reasoning, memory, the
experience of reward, and social behavior and thus
most likely to be involved in a range of
psychopathology.
frontotemporal neurocognitive disorder Condition that damages the
frontal or temporal regions of the brain; behavior or
language is negatively affected.
frotteuristic disorder Paraphilic disorder in which the person gains
sexual gratification by rubbing against unwilling victims
in crowds from which they cannot escape. functional
communication training Teaching of speech or
nonspeech communication skills to replace undesired
behavior. The new skills are useful to the person and
will be maintained because of the effects they have on
others.
functional genomics The study of how genes function to create changes
in the organism.
GABA–benzodiazepine system Chemical benzodiazepines (minor
tranquilizers) that facilitate the effects of the
neurotransmitter gammaaminobutyric acid in reducing
anxiety. Such a system suggests the existence of
natural benzodiazepines in the nervous system that
have not yet been discovered.
gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) Neurotransmitter that reduces
activity across the synapse and thus inhibits a range of
behaviors and emotions, especially generalized
anxiety. gate control theory of pain View that
psychological factors can enhance or diminish the
sensation and perception of pain by influencing the
transmission of pain impulses through the section of
the spinal cord that acts as a “gate.”
gender dysphoria Psychological dissatisfaction with biological gender,
a disturbance in the sense of identity as a male or
female. The primary goal is not sexual arousal but
rather to live the life of the opposite gender.
gender nonconformity A phenomenon in which pre-pubescent children
do not identify with their biological sex, but instead
identify strongly with the gender of the opposite sex
and display varying degrees of behavior more
characteristic of the opposite sex.
gene–environment correlation model Hypothesis that people with a
genetic predisposition for a disorder may also have a
genetic tendency to create environmental risk factors
that promote the disorder.
general adaptation syndrome (GAS) Sequence of reactions to
sustained stress described by Hans Selye. These
stages are alarm, resistance, and exhaustion, which
may lead to death.
generalizability Extent to which research results apply to a range of
individuals not included in the study.
generalized amnesia Loss of memory of all personal information,
including identity.
generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) Anxiety disorder characterized by
intense, uncontrollable, unfocused, chronic, and
continuous worry that is distressing and unproductive,
accompanied by physical symptoms of tenseness,
irritability, and restlessness.
genes Long deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules, the basic physical
units of heredity that appear as locations on
chromosomes. A single gene is a subunit of DNA that
determines inherited traits in living things.
genetic linkage analysis Study that seeks to match the inheritance
pattern of a disorder to that of a genetic marker. This
helps researchers establish the location of the gene
responsible for the disorder.
genetic marker Inherited characteristic for which the chromosomal
location of the responsible gene is known.
genital herpes Incurable sexually transmitted viral disease with
alternating periods of dormancy and activity. The active
periods involve pain, liquid discharge, itching, and
ulcerative lesions, and their recurrence may be
influenced by stress.
genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder Sexual dysfunction in which a
woman experiences pain or difficulty with penetration
during intercourse; may include vaginismus.
genome All of the hereditary information of an organism that is encoded
in DNA.
genotype Specific genetic makeup of an individual. globus hystericus
Sensation of a lump in the throat causing the person
difficulty in swallowing, eating, and talking. A
conversion symptom or part of choking phobia.
glutamate Amino acid neurotransmitter that excites many different
neurons, leading to action.
glutamate system Excitatory neurotransmitter system that may be the
avenue by which alcohol affects cognitive abilities.
good premorbid Outdated classification for schizophrenia, referring to
the quality of social functioning of the individual just
before the emergence of the disorder.
graduated extinction Monitoring of a desired behavior, such as sleeping
or compliance by children, with decreasing frequency
to encourage independence.
grandiose type Type of delusional disorder featuring beliefs of inflated
worth, power, knowledge, identity, or a special
relationship to a deity or famous person.
hallucinations Psychotic symptoms of perceptual disturbance in which
things are seen, heard, or otherwise sensed although
they are not actually present.
hallucinogen Any psychoactive substance such as LSD or marijuana
that can produce delusions, hallucinations, paranoia,
and altered sensory perception.
hallucinogen-related disorders Cognitive, biological, behavioral, and
social problems associated with the use and abuse of
hallucinogenic substances.
Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery Relatively precise
instrument that helps identify and locate organic
damage by testing various skills, including rhythm, grip,
and tactile performance.
head trauma Injury to the head and, therefore, to the brain, typically
caused by accidents; can lead to cognitive
impairments, including memory loss.
health psychology Subfield of behavioral medicine that studies
psychological factors important in health promotion
and maintenance.
hebephrenia Silly and immature emotionality, a characteristic of some
types of schizophrenia.
helper T cells T-type lymphocyte that enhances the immune system
response by signaling B cells to produce antibodies
and other T cells to destroy antigens.
hermaphrodites See intersex individuals.
heterosexual behavior Sexual activity with members of the opposite
gender. hierarchy of needs Ranking of human
necessities from basic food to self-actualization,
proposed by Abraham Maslow.
high blood pressure See hypertension. hindbrain Lowest part of the
brain stem; regulates many automatic bodily functions,
such as breathing and digestion, and includes the
medulla, pons, and cerebellum.
hippocampus Part of the brain’s limbic system that regulates emotions
and the ability to learn and control impulses; figures
prominently in some psychopathology.
histrionic personality disorder Cluster B (dramatic, emotional, or erratic)
personality disorder involving a pervasive pattern of
excessive emotionality and attention seeking.
homosexual behavior Sexual activity with members of the same gender.
hormone Chemical messenger produced by the
endocrine glands.
human genome project Ongoing scientific attempt to develop a
comprehensive map of all human genes.
human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-l) Disease that causes
AIDS. humoral branch One of two main branches of the
immune system; operates in the blood and other bodily
fluids to develop antibodies and neutralize antigens.
humoral theory Ancient belief that psychological disorders were caused
by imbalances in bodily humors or fluids.
humors Bodily fluids (blood, black and yellow bile, and phlegm) that
early theorists believed controlled normal and
abnormal functioning.
Huntington’s disease Genetic disorder marked by involuntary limb
movements and progressing to major neurocognitive
disorder.
hypersensitive gag reflex See choking phobia. hypersomnia Abnormally
excessive sleep. A person with this condition will fall
asleep several times a day.
hypersomnolence disorder Sleep dysfunction involving an excessive
amount of sleep that disrupts normal routines.
hypertension Major risk factor for stroke and heart and kidney disease
that is intimately related to psychological factors. Also
known as high blood pressure.
hypnagogic hallucinations Characteristic of narcolepsy involving
frightening and vivid experiences during sleep that are
visual, tactile, aural, and mobile.
hypoactive sexual desire disorder Apparent lack of interest in sexual
activity or fantasy that would not be expected
considering the person’s age and life situation.
hypochondriasis See illness anxiety disorder.
hypofrontality Relative deficiency in activity in the frontal lobes of the
brains of people with schizophrenia; associated with
the negative symptoms of the disorder.
hypomanic episode Less severe and less disruptive version of a manic
episode that is one of the criteria for several mood
disorders.
hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical (HPA) axis Brain–endocrine
system connection implicated in some psychological
disorders.
hypothalamus Part of the brain that lies beneath the thalamus and is
broadly involved in the regulation of behavior and
emotion.
hypothesis Educated guess or statement to be tested by research.
hypoventilation Reduced or labored breathing for example, during
sleep.
id In psychoanalysis, the unconscious psychical entity present at birth
representing basic sexual and aggressive drives.
ideas of reference Person’s delusion that the actions, thoughts,
laughter, and meaningless activities of others are
directed toward or refer to that person.
idiographic strategy Close and detailed investigation of an individual
emphasizing what makes that person unique (compare
with nomothetic strategy).
illness anxiety disorder Somatic symptom disorder (previously known
as somatoform disorder) involving severe anxiety over
belief in having a disease process without any evident
physical cause.
illness phobia Extreme fear of the possibility of contracting a disease
(as opposed to the belief in already having it),
combined with irrational behaviors to avoid contracting
it.
imaginal exposure Presentation or systematic exposure of emotions or
fearful or traumatic experiences in the imagination.
imipramine One of the tricyclic antidepressant drugs affecting the
serotonergic and noradrenergic neurotransmitter
systems. It blocks panic attacks but not more
generalized anxiety and causes side effects such as
dry mouth, dizziness, and, occasionally, sexual
dysfunction; effective in some mood and anxiety
disorders, as well as other disorders. immune system
Body’s means of identifying and eliminating any foreign
materials (for example, bacteria, parasites, and even
transplanted organs) that enter.
implicit memory Condition of memory in which a person cannot recall
past events despite acting in response to them
(contrast with explicit memory).
impulse-control disorders Disorders in which a person acts on an
irresistible, but potentially harmful, impulse.
inappropriate affect Emotional displays that are improper for the
situation. incest Deviant sexual attraction (pedophilia)
directed toward a family member; often the attraction
of a father toward a daughter who is maturing
physically.
incidence Number of new cases of a disorder appearing during a
specific period (compare with prevalence).
independent variable Phenomenon manipulated by the experimenter in
a study and expected to influence the dependent
variable.
inferiority complex Feeling of being inferior to others while striving for
superiority.
informal observation Attention paid to behavior but without defining or
recording it in any systematic fashion.
information transmission Warnings about the feared object repeated so
often that the person develops a phobia solely on the
basis of hearing them.
informed consent Ethical requirement whereby research subjects agree
to participate in a study only after they receive full
disclosure about the nature of the study and their own
role in it.
insanity Legal rather than psychological or medical concept involving
both a psychological disorder and an inability to know
or appreciate the wrongfulness of criminal acts.
insanity defense Legal plea that a defendant should not
be held responsible for a crime because that person
was mentally ill at the time of the offense.
insidious onset Development of a disorder that occurs gradually over
an extended period (contrast with acute onset).
insight In psychoanalysis, recognition of the causes of emotional
distress.
insomnia disorder Condition in which insufficient sleep interferes with
normal functioning.
insulin shock therapy Dangerous biological treatment involving the
administration of large doses of insulin to induce
seizures.
integrated grief Grief that evolves from acute grief into a condition in
which the individual accepts the finality of a death and
adjusts to the loss.
intellectual disability (ID) A diagnosis received when one achieves a
significantly below average score on a test of
intelligence and by limitations in the ability to function
in areas of daily life.
intelligence quotient (IQ) Score on an intelligence test estimating a
person’s deviation from average test performance.
intermittent explosive disorder Episodes during which a person acts on
aggressive impulses that result in serious assaults or
destruction of property.
intermittent support intellectual disability Intellectual disability level
characterized by the need for only episodic special
care, for example, during crises and difficult life
changes.
internal validity Extent to which the results of a study can be attributed
to the independent variable after confounding
alternative explanations have been ruled out.
interoceptive avoidance Avoidance of situations or activities, such as
exercise, that produce internal physical arousal similar
to the beginnings of a panic attack.
interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) Brief treatment approach that
emphasizes resolution of interpersonal problems and
stressors, such as role disputes, in marital conflict or
forming relationships in marriage or a new job. It has
demonstrated effectiveness for such problems as
depression.
interrater reliability Degree to which two or more observers make the
same ratings or measurements.
intersex individuals People born with ambiguous genitalia and hormonal
abnormalities. They are assigned a gender at birth and
then often provided hormones and surgery to complete
the correspondence. Also known as hermaphrodites.
intrapsychic conflicts In psychoanalysis, the struggles among the id,
ego, and superego.
introjection In object relations theory, the process of incorporating
memories and values of individuals who are important
and close to the person. introspection Early,
nonscientific approach to the study of psychology
involving systematic attempts to report thoughts and
feelings that specific stimuli evoked.
introversion Tendency to be shy and withdrawn. inverse agonist
Chemical substance that produces effects opposite
those of a particular neurotransmitter.
ischemia Narrowing of arteries caused by plaque buildup within the
arteries.
isolated sleep paralysis A period of time upon going to sleep or upon
awakening in which a person cannot perform voluntary
movements.
jealous type Type of delusional disorder featuring delusions that the
individual’s sexual partner is unfaithful.
jet lag type of circadian rhythm sleep disorder Disorder in which
sleepiness and alertness patterns conflict with local
time and occur after recent or repeated travel across
time zones.
joint attention Attention shared by two persons toward an object after
one person has indicated interest in the object to the
other person; this social interaction is limited or absent
in people with autism spectrum disorder.
kleptomania Recurrent failure to resist urges to steal things not needed
for personal use or their monetary value.
koro In Singapore, a condition of mass hysteria or group delusion in
which people believe their genitals are retracting into
their bodies.
la belle indifférence Lack of distress shown by some individuals
presenting conversion, somatic symptom disorder, or
amnestic disorders.
labeling Applying a name to a phenomenon or a pattern of behavior.
The label may acquire negative connotations or be
applied erroneously to the person rather than that
person’s behaviors.
large fibers Nerve fibers in the dorsal horns of the spinal cord that
regulate the pattern and intensity of pain sensations.
They close the gate, decreasing the transmission of
painful stimuli.
lateral ventricles Naturally occurring cavities in the brain filled with
cerebrospinal fluid. Some individuals with
schizophrenia have enlarged ventricles, probably
resulting from insufficient development or atrophy of
surrounding tissue.
law of effect Edward L. Thorndike’s principle that behaviors are
strengthened or weakened by the environmental
events that follow them.
learned helplessness Martin Seligman’s theory that people become
anxious and depressed when they make an attribution
that they have no control over the stress in their lives
(whether or not they do in reality).
learning disorders Reading, mathematics, or written expression
performance substantially below levels expected
relative to the person’s age, IQ score, and education.
Lesch-Nyhan syndrome X-linked disorder characterized by intellectual
disability, signs of cerebral palsy, and self-injurious
behavior.
leukocytes White blood cells of varying types that play specialized roles
in the immune system to fight viral and parasitic
infections.
level Degree of behavior change with different interventions (for
example, high or low).
libido In psychoanalysis, the energy within the id that drives people
toward life and fulfillment.
life-span developmental psychopathology Study of psychological
disorders over the entire age range.
limbic system Part of the forebrain involved in emotion, the ability to
learn and to control impulses, and the regulation of sex,
hunger, thirst, and aggression drives. This system
figures prominently in much of psychopathology.
limited support intellectual disability Intellectual
disability level characterized by the special care
needed on a consistent although timelimited basis, for
example, during employment training.
lithium carbonate Common salt used in substantial doses to treat
bipolar disorder. Clients often discontinue its use
because they enjoy the manic periods, and relapse
 rates are high. The mechanism for its effects is
unknown.
lobotomy Neurosurgery procedure intended to eliminate undesirable
behaviors by severing the connections between the
thalamus or hypothalamus and the frontal lobes of the
brain.
localized or selective amnesia Memory loss limited to specific times and
events, particularly traumatic events.
locus coeruleus Area in the hindbrain that is part of a noradrenergic
(norepinephrine-sensitive) circuit. It is involved in
emergency and alarm reactions and may be related to
panic states. longitudinal course Time patterns among
mood disorders (for example, prior dysthymia or
cyclothymia rapid cycling and seasonal pattern) that
may suggest their course, treatment, and prognosis.
longitudinal design Systematic study of changes in the
same individual or group examined over time (contrast
with cross-sectional design).
loose associations Deficits in logical continuity of speech, with abrupt
movement between ideas. A characteristic of
schizophrenia also called derailment.
LSD (d-lysergic acid diethylamide) Most common hallucinogenic drug;
a synthetic version of the grain fungus ergot.
Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery Relatively precise
instrument that helps identify and locate organic
damage by testing various skills.
lysergic acid amide Naturally occurring hallucinogen found in the seeds
of the morning glory plant.
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Procedure using radio signals
generated in a strong magnetic field and passed
through body tissue to produce detailed, even layered,
images of its structure.
maintenance of sameness Necessity among people with autism
spectrum disorder that their familiar environments
remain unchanged. They become upset when changes
are introduced.
maintenance treatment Combination of continued psychosocial
treatment, medication, or both designed to prevent
relapse following therapy.
major depressive disorder, single or recurrent episode Mood disorder
involving one (single episode) or more (separated by at
least 2 months without depression, recurrent) major
depressive episodes.
major depressive episode Most common and severe experience of
depression, including feelings of worthlessness,
disturbances in bodily activities such as sleep, loss of
interest, and inability to experience pleasure, persisting
at least 2 weeks.
major neurocognitive disorder Gradual deterioration of brain functioning
that affects memory, judgment, language, and other
advanced cognitive processes.
male erectile disorder See erectile disorder. male hypoactive sexual
desire disorder Dysfunction in which a man feels
distress from having little or no sexual interest.
malingering Deliberate faking of a physical or psychological disorder
motivated by gain.
mania Period of abnormally excessive elation or euphoria, associated
with some mood disorders.
manic episode Period of abnormally elevated or irritable mood that may
include inflated self-esteem, decreased need for sleep,
pressured speech, flight of ideas, agitation, or
selfdestructive behavior.
marijuana (Cannabis sativa) Dried flowers and leaves of the hemp
plant; a hallucinogen that is the most widely used illegal
substance.
marital therapy Interventions for the relationship problems of couples,
whether married or not.
mass hysteria Phenomenon in which people in groups share the same
fear, delusion, abnormal behavior, or even physical
symptoms as a result of psychological processes and
suggestion.
mathematics disorder Mathematics performance significantly below the
standard for that age level.
medroxyprogesterone Medication that helps stimulate respiration and
is used in treatment of obstructive sleep apnea.
medulla Part of the hindbrain, which regulates such automatic bodily
functions as breathing and digestion.
melatonin Hormone produced by the pineal gland that is activated by
darkness to control the body’s biological clock and to
induce sleep. It is implicated in seasonal affective
disorder and may be used in treatments for circadian
rhythm sleep disorder.
memory B cells Specialized lymphocytes created after antigens are
neutralized to help the immune system fight off new
invasions by those antigens more rapidly. These
account for the effectiveness of inoculations.
mental age Score a person achieves on an intelligence test
representing the highest ageequivalent items passed.
mental disorder See psychological disorder.
mental hygiene movement Mid-19th-century effort to improve care of
the mentally disordered by informing the public of their
mistreatment.
mental illness Term formerly used to mean psychological disorder but
less preferred because it implies that the causes of the
disorder can be found in a medical disease process.
mental status exam Relatively brief preliminary test of a client’s
judgment, orientation to time and place, and emotional
and mental state; typically conducted during an initial
interview.
mescaline Naturally occurring hallucinogen found in the peyote cactus
plant.
methadone Opiate agonist used as a treatment for heroin addiction. It
initially provides the analgesic and sedative effects of
heroin. After extended use, these effects diminish and
tolerance develops. An effective treatment for some
when combined with counseling.
methylphenidate Stimulant medicine (trade name Ritalin) used to treat
hypersomnia (by keeping the person awake during the
day); narcolepsy, including that with sudden onset (by
suppressing rapid eye movement sleep); and attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorder. microsleeps Short,
seconds-long periods of sleep that occur in people who
have been deprived of sleep.
midbrain Section of the brain that coordinates movement with sensory
input and contributes to the processes of arousal and
tension.
migraine headache Debilitating, throbbing, or pulsing head pain with
rapid onset, usually occurring on one side of the head.
mild intellectual disability Level of intellectual disability defined by IQ
scores between 55 and 70.
mild neurocognitive disorder Modest impairment in cognitive abilities
that can be overcome with accommodations such as
extensive lists or elaborate schedules.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) Empirically
derived standardized personality test that provides
scales for assessing such abnormal functioning as
depression and paranoia. One of the most widely used
and heavily researched assessment instruments.
mixed features Condition in which the individual experiences both
elation and depression or anxiety at the same time.
Also known as dysphoric manic episode or mixed
manic episode.
mixed sleep apnea Combination of obstructive and central sleep apnea,
such as brief interruptions in breathing during sleep
caused by a blocked air passage and by cessation in
respiratory activity.
modeling (also known as observational learning) Learning through
observation and imitation of the behavior of other
individuals and consequences of that behavior.
moderate intellectual disability Level of intellectual disability defined by
IQ scores between 40 and 55.
monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors Medications that treat depression
and severe social anxiety by blocking an enzyme that
breaks down the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and
serotonin. mood Enduring period of emotionality.
mood congruent Consistent with the person’s emotional level.
Hallucinations and delusions may be congruent or
incongruent with a depressed person’s mood (contrast
with mood incongruent).
mood disorders Group of disorders involving severe and enduring
disturbances in emotionality ranging from elation to
severe depression.
mood incongruent Not consistent with the person’s emotional level.
Psychotic symptoms associated with mood disorders
may not be congruent with the person’s mood (contrast
with mood congruent).
mood-stabilizing drug A medication used in the treatment of mood
disorders, particularly bipolar disorder, that is effective
in preventing and treating pathological shifts in mood.
moral therapy Psychosocial approach in the 19th century that involved
treating patients as normally as possible in normal
environments.
moral weakness model of chemical dependence View that substance
abusers should be blamed because their behavior
results from lack of self-control, character, or moral
fiber.
morphine Opiate medication used as an analgesic (pain reliever) and
narcotic that is sometimes a substance of abuse.
multiaxial system Categorization system, such as in DSM-IV-TR,
employing several dimensions or axes, each used for
differentiating among the categories. DSM-5 no longer
uses a multiaxial categorization system.
multidimensional integrative approach Approach to the study of
psychopathology that holds psychological disorders as
always being the products of multiple interacting causal
factors.
multiple baseline Single-case experimental design in which measures
are taken on two or more behaviors or on a single
behavior in two or more situations. A particular
intervention is introduced for each at different times. If
behavior change is coincident with each introduction,
this is strong evidence the intervention caused the
change.
multiple infarctions More than one area or incident of death to tissue
(for example, in the brain or heart) because of blockage
of blood flow.
myocardial infarction Death of heart tissue when its blood supply artery
is blocked by plaque or a blood clot.
myocardium Heart muscle. naltrexone Most widely used opiate
antagonist drug. It produces immediate withdrawal
and, thus, a great deal of discomfort. It may also
contribute to the treatment of alcohol abuse but is not
as successful for either substance as was originally
hoped.
narcissistic personality disorder Cluster B (dramatic, emotional, or
erratic) personality disorder involving a pervasive
pattern of grandiosity in fantasy or behavior, need for
admiration, and lack of empathy.
narcolepsy Sleep disorder involving sudden and irresistible sleep
attacks.
natural environment phobia Fear of situations or events in nature,
especially heights, storms, and water
naturalistic teaching strategies Instructional techniques that are used
with children having neurodevelopmental disorders
and that move away from traditional desk instruction
toward more natural social interactions.
negative affect Emotional symptoms that are part of the definition of
both anxiety and depression but are not specific to
either of these. Also, substance abuse may be
maintained because the substance causes an escape
from unpleasant circumstances, responsibilities, or,
especially, feelings. negative correlation Association
between two variables in which one increases as the
other decreases.
negative schema Automatic, enduring, and stable negative cognitive
bias or belief system about some aspect of life.
negative symptoms Less outgoing symptoms, such as flat affect and
poverty of speech, displayed by some people with
schizophrenia.
nervous breakdown Lay term for a severe psychological upset that has
no meaning in scientific or professional
psychopathology.
neurasthenia Disorder common in the United States in the mid-1800s;
the label is no longer used here (although it is still
prevalent in China). Its symptoms include a lack of
energy, a variety of aches and pains, and sometimes
fever. This disorder is similar to present-day chronic
fatigue syndrome.
neuritic plaque See amyloid plaque.
neurocognitive disorder due to Alzheimer’s disease Condition resulting
from a disease that develops most often in people 50
and older, characterized by multiple cognitive defects
that develop gradually and steadily.
neurocognitive disorder due to HIV infection Less common type of
neurocognitive disorder that affects people who have
HIV; may lead to impaired thinking in advanced stages.
neurocognitive disorder due to Huntington’s disease Neurological
disorder that follows a subcortical pattern and is
notable for causing involuntary limb movements.
neurocognitive disorder due to Lewy body disease Neurological
impairment that affects people with Lewy body
disease, in which protein deposits damage brain cells
and gradually cause motor impairments and loss of
alertness.
neurocognitive disorder due to Parkinson’s disease Disorder
characterized by progressive decline in motor
movements; results from damage to dopamine
pathways.
neurocognitive disorder due to prion disease Rare progressive
neurodegenerative disorder caused by prions, proteins
that can reproduce themselves and cause damage to
brain cells.
neurocognitive disorder due to traumatic brain injury Condition resulting
from jarring of the brain caused by a blow to the head
or other impact; symptoms persist for at least a week
after the initial trauma.
neurodevelopmental disorders Neurologically based disorders that are
revealed in a clinically significant way during a child’s
developing years.
neurofibrillary tangles Brain damage in the form of large numbers of
strandlike filaments found during autopsy in people
with Alzheimer’s disease.
neurohormones Hormones that affect the brain and are increasingly the
focus of study in psychopathology.
neuroimaging Sophisticated computer-aided procedures that allow
nonintrusive examination of nervous system structure
and function.
neuroleptics Major antipsychotic medications, dopamine antagonists,
that diminish delusions, hallucinations, and aggressive
behavior in psychotic patients but may also cause
serious side effects.
neuromodulators Hormones secreted into the blood to transmit brain
messages throughout the body. Also known as
neuropeptides.
neuron Individual nerve cell; responsible for transmitting information.
neuropeptides See neuromodulators.
neuropsychological testing Assessment of brain and nervous system
functioning by testing an individual’s performance on
behavioral tasks.
neuroscience Study of the nervous system and its role in behavior,
thoughts, and emotions.
neurosis Obsolete psychodynamic term for psychological disorder
thought to result from unconscious conflicts and the
anxiety they cause. Plural is neuroses.
neurotransmitters Chemicals that cross the synaptic cleft between
nerve cells to transmit impulses from one neuron to the
next. Their relative excess or deficiency is involved in
several psychological disorders.
nicotine Toxic and addictive substance found in tobacco leaves.
nicotine gum Chewing gum that delivers nicotine to smokers without the
carcinogens in cigarette smoke. This substitute may
help people stop smoking, especially when combined
with counseling.
nicotine patch Patch placed on the skin that delivers nicotine to smokers
without the carcinogens in cigarette smoke. Somewhat
more successful than nicotine gum because it requires
less effort by the wearer and delivers the drug more
consistently; should be coupled with counseling to stop
smoking and avoid relapse.
nicotine use disorders See tobacco-related disorders.
night eating syndrome Consuming a third or more of daily food intake
after the evening meal and getting out of bed at least
once during the night to have a high-calorie snack. In
the morning, however, individuals with night eating
syndrome are not hungry and do not usually eat
breakfast. These individuals do not binge during their
night eating and seldom purge.
nightmares Frightening and anxiety-provoking dreams occurring during
rapid eye movement sleep. The individual recalls the
bad dreams and recovers alertness and orientation
quickly.
nocturnal enuresis Urination while sleeping.
nocturnal penile tumescence (NPT) Erection of the penis during sleep,
usually rapid eye movement sleep. If this normal
reaction occurs in a man with erectile problems in the
waking state, his problems may be assumed to have
psychological origins.
nomenclature In a naming system or nosology, the actual labels or
names that are applied. In psychopathology, these
include mood disorders and eating disorders.
nomothetic strategy Identification and examination of large groups of
people with the same disorder to note similarities and
develop general laws (compare with idiographic
strategy).
nondemand pleasuring Procedure to reestablish sexual arousal
involving fondling and caressing while intercourse is
forbidden. This method avoids the anxiety provoked by
the need to perform sexually.
nondisjunction In Down syndrome, the failure of two of the 21st
chromosomes to divide to create one cell with one copy
that dies and one cell with three copies that continue to
divide.
nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep Periods in the sleep cycle,
divided into four substages, when the body may be
active while the brain is relatively less active and
dreaming does not occur.
norepinephrine (also noradrenaline) Neurotransmitter active in the
central and peripheral nervous systems, controlling
heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration, among
other functions. Because of its role in the body’s alarm
reaction, it may also contribute generally and indirectly
to panic attacks and other disorders.
nosology Classification and naming system for medical and
psychological phenomena.
nucleus accumbens Complex of neurons that is part of the brain’s
“pleasure pathway” responsible for the experience of
reward.
obesity Excess of body fat resulting in a body mass index (BMI, a ratio
of weight to height) of 30 or more.
object relations Modern development in psychodynamic theory
involving the study of how children incorporate the
memories and values of people who are close and
important to them.
obsessions Recurrent intrusive thoughts or impulses the client seeks to
suppress or neutralize while recognizing they are not
imposed by outside forces.
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) Disorder involving unwanted,
persistent, intrusive thoughts and impulses, as well as
repetitive actions intended to suppress them.
obsessive-compulsive personality disorder Cluster C (anxious or
fearful) personality disorder featuring a pervasive
pattern of preoccupation with orderliness,
perfectionism, and mental and interpersonal control at
the expense of flexibility, openness, and efficiency.
obstructive sleep apnea Snoring and brief interruptions in breathing
during sleep caused by blockage of the airway.
occipital lobe Section of each cerebral hemisphere that integrates and
makes sense of visual inputs. Oedipus complex In
psychoanalysis, the intrapsychic struggle within a
young boy between his lust for his mother and his fear
of castration because of it. The resolution of this
complex results in development of the superego.
operant conditioning Fundamental behavioral learning process in which
responses are modified by their consequences
(reinforcers, punishers, extinction, and so on).
 operational definition Delineation of a concept on the
basis of the operation used to measure it.
opiates Addictive psychoactive substances such as heroin, opium, and
morphine that cause temporary euphoria and
analgesia (pain reduction).
opioid use disorders Cognitive, biological, behavioral, and social
problems associated with the use and abuse of opiates
and their synthetic variants.
opioid-releasing neurons Nerve cells that release endogenous opioids
and play a role in the brain’s pleasure pathway
controlling the experience of reward.
opioids Family of substances including opiates and endorphins, as well
as synthetic variants such as methadone, that have a
narcotic effect.
opium Naturally occurring compound from the poppy plant that is a
strong narcotic, having pain-relieving and sleep- and
euphoriainducing effects. Its derivatives include
morphine and heroin.
opponent-process theory Explanation of drug tolerance and
dependence suggesting that when a person
experiences positive feelings these will be followed
shortly by negative feelings, and vice versa. Eventually,
the motivation for drug taking shifts from a desire for
the euphoric high to a need to relieve the increasingly
unpleasant feelings that follow drug use. A vicious
cycle develops: the drug that makes a person feel
terrible is the one thing that can eliminate the pain.
orgasm phase Stage of sexual activity involving ejaculation in men and
vaginal wall contractions in women. Women are able to
experience orgasm again immediately. Men are unable
to form an erection for a time interval called a refractory
period.
orgasmic reconditioning Learning procedure to help clients strengthen
appropriate patterns of sexual arousal by pairing
appropriate stimuli with the pleasurable sensations of
masturbation.
oriented times three Patients are aware of, or oriented to, their identity,
location, and time (person, place, and time).
other-specified somatic symptom disorder Somatic symptom disorder
(previously known as somatization disorder) with fewer
than eight symptoms but still causing distress and
impaired functioning.
outcome research Studies examining the effectiveness and results,
positive or negative, of treatment procedures.
pain behaviors Observable manifestations of the private experience of
pain. These may include wincing or other facial
expressions, verbal complaints of distress, and
avoidance of activities that increase pain sensations.
panic Sudden, overwhelming fright or terror.
panic attack Abrupt experience of intense fear or discomfort
accompanied by a number of physical symptoms, such
as dizziness or heart palpitations.
panic control treatment (PCT) Cognitivebehavioral treatment for panic
attacks, involving gradual exposure to feared somatic
sensations and modification of perceptions and
attitudes about them.
panic disorder Recurrent unexpected panic attacks accompanied by
concern about future attacks and/or a lifestyle change
to avoid future attacks.
papaverine Vasodilating medication used to treat male erectile disorder
by dilating blood vessels, increasing blood flow to the
penis to form an erection. The medication must be
injected, and the procedure can be painful. It is so
intrusive that it is often declined or discontinued by
patients.
paradoxical intention Instructing clients to do the opposite of the desired
behavior. Telling an impotent man not to have sex or
an insomniac not to sleep reduces anxiety to perform.
paranoia People’s irrational beliefs that they are especially important
(delusions of grandeur) or that other people are
seeking to do them harm.
paranoid personality disorder Cluster A (odd or eccentric) personality
disorder involving pervasive distrust and
suspiciousness of others such that their motives are
interpreted as malevolent.
paraphilic disorders Sexual disorders and deviations in which sexual
arousal occurs almost exclusively in the context of
inappropriate objects or individuals.
parasomnias Abnormal behaviors such as nightmares or sleepwalking
that occur during sleep.
parasympathetic nervous system Part of the autonomic nervous system
that regulates bodily systems (for example, digestion)
while activity level is low and that balances sympathetic
nervous system activity.
parens patriae Latin term (parent of his country) used to describe when
the government takes on the role of guardian for a
minor or person incapacitated.
parietal lobe Section of each cerebral hemisphere responsible for
recognizing touch sensations.
Parkinson’s disease Degenerative brain disorder principally affecting
motor performance (for example, tremors and stooped
posture) associated with reduction in dopamine. Major
neurocognitive disorder may be a result as well.
parkinsonian symptoms See extrapyramidal symptoms. passive-
aggressive personality disorder Personality disorder
characterized by defiance and uncooperativeness,
which was studied for inclusion in the DSM but
ultimately excluded for lack of sufficient research.
pathological gambling Persistent and recurrent maladaptive gambling
behavior. pathological or impacted grief reaction
Extreme reaction to the death of a loved one that
involves psychotic features, suicidal ideation, or severe
loss of weight or energy or that persists more than 2
months.
patient uniformity myth Tendency to consider all members of a category
as more similar than they are, ignoring their individual
differences.
pedophilia Paraphilia involving strong sexual attraction toward children.
penile prosthesis Surgical treatment for male erectile
disorder involving the insertion of a prosthesis that may
be a semirigid silicone rod or an inflatable tube.
penile strain gauge Psychophysiological monitoring device that
measures male sexual arousal by changes in penis
circumference.
performance scales In the Wechsler group of intelligence tests,
subtests that assess psychomotor and nonverbal
reasoning skills and the ability to learn new
relationships.
peripheral nervous system Neural networks outside the brain and spinal
cord, including the somatic nervous system, which
controls muscle movement, and the autonomic
nervous system, which regulates cardiovascular,
endocrine, digestion, and regulation functions.
permissive hypothesis Theory that neurotransmitter systems contribute
to mood irregularities when low serotonin levels permit
them to range widely and become unregulated.
persecutory type A form of delusion that involves believing oneself (or
someone close) is being malevolently treated in some
way.
persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia) Mood disorder involving
persistently depressed mood, with low self-esteem,
withdrawal, pessimism, or despair, present for at least
2 years, with no absence of symptoms for more than 2
months.
person-centered therapy Therapy method in which the client, rather
than the counselor, primarily directs the course of
discussion, seeking self-discovery and self-
responsibility.
personality disorders Enduring maladaptive patterns for relating to the
environment and self, exhibited in a range of contexts
that cause significant functional impairment or
subjective distress.
personality inventories Self-report questionnaires that assess personal
traits by asking respondents to identify descriptions
that apply to them.
personality trait Enduring tendency to behave in particular predisposed
ways across situations.
pervasive developmental disorders Wideranging, significant, and long-
lasting dysfunctions that appear before the age of 18.
pervasive support intellectual disability Intellectual disability level
characterized by the constant, intensive care needed
by the individual in all environments.
phantom limb pain Perception of pain in a limb that is absent because
of amputation. This phenomenon suggests pain is not
entirely a physical experience.
phencyclidine (PCP) Dangerous synthetic hallucinogen, also called
angel dust, that may cause agitated or violent behavior,
disorientation, convulsions, coma, and even death.
phenotype Observable characteristics or behaviors of an individual.
phenylketonuria (PKU) Recessive disorder involving the inability to
break down a food chemical whose buildup causes
intellectual disability, seizures, and behavior problems.
PKU can be detected by infant screening and
prevented by a specialized diet. phii pob Thailand’s
version of dissociative trance states.
phobia Psychological disorder characterized by marked and persistent
fear of an object or situation.
phobic avoidance Extreme shunning of feared objects or situations
displayed by people with phobias.
phototherapy Treatment of seasonal affective disorder with large doses
of exposure to bright light.
Pick’s disease Rare condition that results in early onset neurocognitive
disorder.
pivloktoq Running frenzy disorder among native peoples of the Arctic
that seems equivalent to dissociative fugue.
placebo A nonactive treatment that is successful due to suggestion.
placebo control group In an outcome experiment, a control group that
does not receive the experimental manipulation but is
given a similar procedure with an identical expectation
of change, allowing the researcher to assess any
placebo effect.
placebo effect Behavior change resulting from the person’s expectation
of change rather than from the experimental
manipulation itself. plasticity Phenomenon by which
damage to neurons sometimes can be compensated
for by the action of other neurons.
pleasure principle Tendency to seek pleasure and minimize discomfort.
polysomnographic (PSG) evaluation Assessment of sleep disorders in
which a client sleeping in the lab is monitored for heart,
muscle, respiration, brain wave, and other functions.
polysubstance use Use of multiple mind- and behavior-altering
substances, such as drugs.
pons Part of the hindbrain that controls such automatic bodily functions
as breathing and digestion.
positive correlation Association between two variables in which one
increases as the other increases.
positive symptoms More overt symptoms, such as delusions and
hallucinations, displayed by some people with
schizophrenia.
positron emission tomography (PET) scan Imaging procedure in which
a radioactive tracer that binds to blood glucose is
detected as the glucose is metabolized during brain
activity. This allows nonintrusive localization and
observation of brain activity.
postpartum onset Disorder that first appears in mothers during the time
immediately following childbirth.
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Enduring, distressing emotional
disorder that follows exposure to severe helplessness
or a fearinducing threat. The victim reexperiences the
trauma, avoids stimuli associated with it, and develops
a numbing of responsiveness and an increased
vigilance and arousal.
prealcoholic stage First of E. Morton Jellinek’s four stages identified in
the progression of alcoholism, involving occasional
drinking with few serious consequences.
predictive validity Degree to which an assessment instrument
accurately predicts a person’s future behavior. See
also criterion validity.
premature ejaculation Recurring ejaculation before the person wishes
it, with minimal sexual stimulation.
prepared learning An ability that has been adaptive for evolution,
allowing certain associations to be learned more
readily than others.
presenting problem Original complaint reported by the client to the
therapist. The actual treated problem may sometimes
be a modification derived from the presenting problem.
prevalence Number of people displaying a disorder in the total
population at any given time (compare with incidence).
primary gain Freudian notion that anxiety reduction is the principal
reinforcement obtained for the display of psychological
symptoms.
primary insomnia Difficulty in initiating, maintaining, or gaining from
sleep; not related to other medical or psychological
problems.
primary process In psychodynamic theory, the id’s characteristic mode
of thinking, which is emotional, irrational, and
preoccupied with sex, aggression, and envy.
prion disease Disorder caused by proteins that multiply in the brain and
damage brain cells; may lead to major neurocognitive
disorder.
proband In genetics research, the individual displaying the trait or
characteristic being studied.
prodromal stage Second of E. Morton Jellinek’s four stages identified in
the progression of alcoholism, featuring heavy drinking
but with few outward signs of a problem.
profound mental intellectual disability Level of intellectual disability
defined by IQ scores below 20 and extremely limited
communication and self-help skills.
prognosis Predicted future development of a disorder over time.
progressive muscle relaxation Set of exercises to teach people to
become aware of and actively counteract muscle
tension to induce relaxation or drowsiness.
projective tests Psychoanalytically based measures that present
ambiguous stimuli to clients on the assumption that
their responses will reveal their unconscious conflicts.
Such tests are inferential and lack high reliability and
validity.
prosody Vocal characteristics such as tone and stress; people with
autism spectrum disorder often have trouble
recognizing and interpreting these vocal cues.
prototypical approach System for categorizing disorders using both
essential, defining characteristics and a range of
variation on other characteristics.
psilocybin Naturally occurring hallucinogen found in certain species of
mushrooms. psychiatric nurse Person with nursing
training who specializes in care and treatment of
psychiatric patients, usually in a hospital setting.
psychiatric social worker Person who has earned a master of social
work (M.S.W.) degree or, occasionally, a doctor of
social work (D.S.W.) degree and is trained to work with
social agencies to help psychologically disordered
clients and their families.
psychiatrist Person who has earned an M.D. degree and then has
specialized in psychiatry during residency training.
Such a person is trained to investigate primarily the
biological nature and causes of psychiatric disorders
and to diagnose and treat them.
psychoactive substances Substances, such as drugs, that alter mood
or behavior.
psychoanalysis Psychoanalytic assessment and therapy, which
emphasizes exploration of, and insight into,
unconscious processes and conflicts, pioneered by
Sigmund Freud.
psychoanalyst Therapist who practices psychoanalysis after earning
either an M.D. or a Ph.D. degree and receiving
additional specialized postdoctoral training.
psychoanalytic model Complex and comprehensive theory originally
advanced by Sigmund Freud that seeks to account for
the development and structure of personality, as well
as the origin of abnormal behavior, based primarily on
inferred inner entities and forces.
psychodynamic psychotherapy Contemporary version of
psychoanalysis that still emphasizes unconscious
processes and conflicts but is briefer and more focused
on specific problems.
psychological autopsy Postmortem psychological profile of a suicide
victim constructed from interviews with people who
knew the person before death.
psychological disorder Psychological dysfunction associated with
distress or impairment in functioning that is not a typical
or culturally expected response.
psychological factors affecting medical condition Somatic condition in
which a psychological characteristic impacts a
diagnosed medical condition, such as asthma being
exacerbated by anxiety.
psychological model Explanation of human behavior and its dysfunction
that emphasizes the influence of the social
environment and early experience.
psychomotor intellectual disability Deficits in motor activity and
coordination development.
psychoncology Study of psychological factors involved in the course
and treatment of cancer.
psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) Study of psychological influences on
the neurological responding involved in the body’s
immune response.
psychopathology Scientific study of psychological disorders.
psychopathy Non-DSM-5 category similar to antisocial
personality disorder but with less emphasis on overt
behavior. Indicators include superficial charm, lack of
remorse, and other personality characteristics.
psychopharmacogenetics The study of how genetic makeup can affect
individual reactions to drugs.
psychophysiological assessment Measurement of changes in the
nervous system reflecting psychological or emotional
events such as anxiety, stress, and sexual arousal.
psychophysiological disorders Outdated term, similar to psychosomatic
medicine, for the study of psychological and social
factors influencing physical disorders. The term is
misleading because it falsely implies that other
psychological problems, such as mood disorders, do
not have significant biological components.
psychosexual stages of development In psychoanalysis, the sequence
of phases a person passes through during
development. Each stage is named for the location on
the body where id gratification is maximal at that time.
psychosis Group of severe psychological disorders, including
schizophrenia, featuring delusions and hallucinations.
psychosocial treatment Treatment practices that focus on social and
cultural factors (such as family experience), as well as
psychological influences. These approaches include
cognitive, behavioral, and interpersonal methods.
psychosomatic medicine See behavioral medicine.
psychosurgery Biological treatment involving neurosurgery, such as
lobotomy, for a psychological disorder. For example, a
specific surgical lesion to the cingulate bundle may be
an effective last-resort treatment for obsessive
compulsive disorder.
psychotic behavior Severe psychological disorder category
characterized by hallucinations and loss of contact with
reality.
psychotic disorder associated with another medical condition Condition
that is characterized by hallucinations or delusions and
that is the direct result of another physiological
disorder, such as stroke or brain tumor.
psychotic symptoms Delusions and hallucinations that may appear
during depressive or manic episodes.
PTSD with delayed expression Posttraumatic stress disorder with onset
more than 6 months after the traumatic event.
purging techniques In the eating disorder bulimia nervosa, the self-
induced vomiting or laxative abuse used to
compensate for excessive food ingestion.
pyromania An impulse-control disorder that involves having an
irresistible urge to set fires.
quantitative genetics Method of genetics research that examines
patterns of genetic control over a range of genes, each
of which may contribute only a small effect.
randomization Method for placing individuals into research groups that
assures each an equal chance of being assigned to
any group, thus eliminating any systematic differences
across groups.
rapid cycling Temporal course of a bipolar disorder when transitions
between mania and depression are quick, occurring
four or more times in 1 year.
rapid eye movement (REM) sleep Periodic intervals of sleep during
which the eyes move rapidly from side to side, and
dreams occur, but the body is inactive.
rauwolfia serpentina More commonly known as reserpine, an early
medication derived from the snakeroot plant that helps
control the agitation and aggressiveness of some
psychotic patients.
Raynaud’s disease Cardiovascular disease involving blockage of blood
circulation to the extremities, with resultant pain and
cold sensations in the hands and feet.
reactive attachment disorder Attachment disorder in which a child with
disturbed behavior neither seeks out a caregiver nor
responds to offers of help from one; fearfulness and
sadness are often evident.
reactivity Changes in one person’s behavior as a result of observing the
behavior in another. reading disorder Reading
performance significantly below the standard for that
age level.
reality principle In psychodynamic theory, the logical reasoning style of
the ego that ensures actions are practical and realistic.
rebound insomnia In a person with insomnia, the worsened sleep
problems that can occur when medications are used to
treat insomnia and then withdrawn.
receptive language Communicated material that is understood.
receptors Locations on nerve cell dendrites that
receive chemical impulses for transmission through the
neuron.
recessive gene Gene that must be paired with another recessive gene
to determine a trait. reciprocal gene–environment
model See gene– environment correlation model.
reexperiencing Careful and systematic visualizing and reliving of
traumatic life events to diminish their power and
emotional effects as a means of treating dissociative
identity disorder or posttraumatic stress disorder.
regulated-breathing method Intervention for stuttering in which the
person is instructed to stop and take a deep breath
whenever a stuttering episode begins.
reinforcement In operant conditioning, consequences for behavior that
strengthen it or increase its frequency. Positive
reinforcement involves the contingent delivery of a
desired consequence. Negative reinforcement is the
contingent escape from an aversive consequence.
Unwanted behaviors may result from their
reinforcement or the failure to reinforce desired
behaviors.
relapse Reappearance of or return to problem behaviors after treatment
or recovery.
relapse prevention Extending therapeutic progress by teaching the
client how to cope with future troubling situations.
relaxation response Active components of meditation methods,
including repetitive thoughts of a sound to reduce
distracting thoughts and closing the mind to other
intruding thoughts, that decrease the flow of stress
hormones and neurotransmitters and cause a feeling
of calm.
reliability Degree to which a measurement is consistent, for example,
over time or among different raters.
repeated measurement When responses are measured on more than
two occasions (not just before and after intervention) to
assess trends. replication Confirming the results of a
study by repeating it, often by a separate, independent
researcher.
repressed memories Concept involving recollections of traumatic
events actively eliminated from memory. Controversy
surrounds whether recall that seems to occur years
later is real or accurate.
repression In psychoanalytic theory, a process that forces unwanted
material from the conscious to the unconscious.
research design Plan of experimentation used to test a hypothesis.
reserpine See rauwolfia serpentina.
reticular activating system (RAS) Section of the midbrain responsible
for tension and arousal processes, including sleep and
wakefulness.
retrograde ejaculation Condition in which ejaculatory fluids travel
backward into the bladder, usually as a result of certain
drugs or a medical condition. This is not considered a
DSM-5 sexual disorder.
retrospective information Literally “the view back”; data collected by
examining records or recollections of the past. It is
limited by the accuracy, validity, and thoroughness of
the sources.
retrospective study Research that uses retrospective information and
shares its limitations.
Rett disorder Progressive neurodevelopmental disorder featuring
constant hand- wringing, intellectual disability, and
impaired motor skills.
reuptake Action by which a neurotransmitter is quickly drawn back into
the discharging neuron after being released into a
synaptic cleft.
reversal design See withdrawal design. rheumatoid arthritis Painful,
degenerative disease in which the immune system
essentially attacks itself, resulting in stiffness, swelling,
and even destruction of the joints. Cognitive behavioral
treatments can help relieve pain and stiffness.
Rhythm Test Subtest of the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological
Battery that asks respondents to compare rhythmic
beats to assess sound recognition, attention, and
concentration.
Rorschach inkblot test Projective test that uses irregular patterns of ink
as its ambiguous stimuli.
sadistic personality disorder Pervasive pattern of deriving pleasure by
inflicting pain on others; studied for inclusion in the
DSM but not included in DSM-5.
Saint Vitus’s Dance Instance of mass hysteria in which groups of people
experienced a simultaneous compulsion to dance and
shout in the streets. Also known as tarantism.
sakit gila Disorder reported in Malaysia, similar to schizophrenia but
different in important ways that may illuminate details
of both disorders.
scheduled awakening For children who wake frequently at night,
awakening them about an hour before their usual times
and from a deeper sleep than usual to help them learn
to fall asleep on their own.
schedules of reinforcement In operant conditioning, the pattern of
consequences following a behavior based on the
number of responses emitted or the time intervals
between them.
schizoaffective disorder Psychotic disorder featuring symptoms of both
schizophrenia and major mood disorder.
schizoid personality disorder Cluster A (odd or eccentric) personality
disorder featuring a pervasive pattern of detachment
from social relationships and a restricted range of
expression of emotions.
schizophrenia Devastating psychotic disorder that may involve
characteristic disturbances in thinking (delusions),
perception (hallucinations), speech, emotions, and
behavior.
schizophreniform disorder Psychotic disorder involving the symptoms
of schizophrenia but lasting less than 6 months.
schizophrenogenic mother According to an obsolete, unsupported
theory, a cold, dominating, and rejecting parent who
was thought to cause schizophrenia in her offspring.
schizotypal personality disorder Cluster A (odd or eccentric) personality
disorder involving a pervasive pattern of interpersonal
deficits featuring acute discomfort with, and reduced
capacity for, close relationships, as well as cognitive or
perceptual distortions and eccentricities of behavior.
scientist-practitioners Mental health professionals who are expected to
apply scientific methods to their work. They must keep
current in the latest research on diagnosis and
treatment, they must evaluate their own methods for
effectiveness, and they may generate their own
research to discover new knowledge of disorders and
their treatment.
script theory Theory of sexual functioning that suggests people’s sexual
behavior and attitudes are guided by scripts reflecting
social and cultural expectations. Negative scripts may
increase vulnerability to the development of sexual
dysfunction.
seasonal affective disorder (SAD) Mood disorder involving a cycling of
episodes corresponding to the seasons of the year,
typically with depression occurring during the winter.
seasonal pattern Temporal course of bipolar or recurrent major
depressive disorders in which episodes occur during
particular seasons of the year.
secondary gain Additional reinforcers beyond primary gain that a
person may obtain by the display of symptoms. These
may include attention, sympathy, and avoidance of
unwanted responsibilities.
selective mutism Developmental disorder characterized by the
individual’s consistent failure to speak in specific social
situations despite speaking in other situations.
selective-serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) Class of medications for
depression (including Prozac) that act on the
serotonergic system by inhibiting the reuptake of the
neurotransmitter serotonin.
self-actualizing Process emphasized in humanistic psychology in which
people strive to achieve their highest potential against
difficult life experiences.
self-efficacy Perception of having the ability to cope with stress or
challenges.
self-injurious Dangerous actions, including head-banging and hitting
and biting oneself, seen in many children with autism
spectrum disorder.
self-medication Process by which some individuals may abuse
substances in attempting to use them to relieve other
problems such as anxiety, pain, or sleeplessness.
self-monitoring Action by which clients observe and record their own
behaviors as either an assessment of a problem and
its change or a treatment procedure that makes them
more aware of their responses. Also called self-
observation.
self-psychology See ego psychology.
semistructured interviews Interviews that employ preplanned,
standardized questions to elicit information in a
consistent way.
sensate focus Sex therapy in which couples concentrate on pleasurable
sensations from caressing and fondling. Intercourse is
forbidden to prevent focus on sexual performance and
the anxiety it may provoke.
sensorium Person’s general awareness of the surroundings, including
time and place.
sentence-completion method Projective test in which the person is
asked to finish a series of incomplete sentences.
separation anxiety disorder Excessive, enduring fear in some
individuals that harm will come to them or their loved
ones when they are apart.
septum Part of the limbic system that regulates emotions and the ability
to learn and control impulses, as well as such drives as
sex, hunger, thirst, and aggression.
sequential design Combination of the cross sectional and longitudinal
designs involving repeated study of different cohorts
over time.
serotonin Neurotransmitter involved in processing of information and
coordination of movement, as well as inhibition and
restraint. It also assists in the regulation of eating,
sexual, and aggressive behaviors, all of which may be
involved in different psychological disorders. Its
interaction with dopamine is implicated in
schizophrenia.
serotonin reuptake blockers See selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.
severe intellectual disability Level of intellectual disability defined by IQ
scores between 20 and 40 and with somewhat limited
communication, self-help, social, and vocational skills.
sex ratio Percentage of men and women with a disorder.
sex reassignment surgery Surgical procedures to alter a person’s
physical anatomy to conform to that person’s
psychological gender identity.
sexual aversion disorder See female sexual interest/arousal disorder;
male hypoactive sexual desire disorder.
sexual dysfunction Sexual disorder in which the client finds it difficult to
function adequately while having sex.
sexual masochism Paraphilia in which sexual arousal is associated with
experiencing pain or humiliation.
sexual pain disorders (dyspareunia) See genito-pelvic pain/penetration
disorder; vaginismus.
sexual sadism Paraphilia in which sexual arousal is associated with
inflicting pain or humiliation.
shaping In operant conditioning, the development of a new response by
reinforcing successively more similar versions of that
response. Both desirable and undesirable behaviors
may be learned in this manner.
shared psychotic disorder (folie à deux) Psychotic disturbance in which
individuals develop a delusion similar to that of a
person with whom they share a close relationship.
shift work type Circadian rhythm sleep disorder characterized by
insomnia during sleep time and sleepiness during
wake time because of late-shift work or frequent work
shift changes.
silver nitrate Chemical that can be used in gum or lozenges to make
subsequent smoking aversive by producing a bad taste
in the mouth. Research indicates this treatment
approach is not particularly effective.
single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) Neuroimaging
procedure similar to a positron emission tomography
scan, although less accurate, less complex, and less
costly.
single-case experimental design Research tactic in which an
independent variable is manipulated for a single
individual, allowing cause-and-effect conclusions but
with limited generalizability (contrast with case study
method).
sinoaortic baroreflex arc Body mechanism to compensate for sudden
blood pressure increases by decreasing pressure. This
reaction causes some people to faint and may lead
them to develop phobias.
situational phobia Anxiety involving enclosed places (for example,
claustrophobia) or public transportation (for example,
fear of flying).
situationally bound, or cued, panic attack Panic attack for which the
triggering circumstances are known to the client.
situationally predisposed panic attack Circumstance that increases the
likelihood a panic attack may be triggered.
sleep apnea Disorder involving brief periods when breathing ceases
during sleep.
sleep attacks Unexpected episodes of falling asleep during the day.
sleep efficiency (SE) Percentage of time actually spent sleeping of the
total time spent in bed.
sleep hygiene Psychological treatment for insomnia that teaches clients
to recognize and eliminate environmental obstacles to
sleep. These include the use of nicotine, caffeine,
certain medications, and alcohol, as well as ill-timed
exercise.
sleep paralysis Brief and frightening period at the beginning or end of
sleep when the individual cannot move or speak;
sometimes mistaken for nocturnal panic attack.
sleep restriction Treatment for insomnia that involves limiting time in
bed to the actual amount spent sleeping so that the bed
is associated with sleep and no other competing
activities.
sleep stress Environmental events, such as ingesting excess caffeine,
that can affect sleep negatively.
sleep terrors Episodes of apparent awakening from sleep,
accompanied by signs of panic, followed by
disorientation and amnesia for the incident. These
occur during nonrapid eye movement sleep and so do
not involve frightening dreams.
sleepwalking Parasomnia that involves leaving the bed during nonrapid
eye movement sleep. See also somnambulism.
slow wave sleep See delta waves. small fibers Nerve fibers in the dorsal
horns of the spinal cord that regulate the pattern and
intensity of pain sensations. They open the gate,
increasing the transmission of painful stimuli.
smooth-pursuit eye movement Ability to follow moving targets visually.
Deficits in this skill can be caused by a single gene
whose location is known. This problem is associated
with schizophrenia and, thus, may serve as a genetic
marker for this disorder. Also called eye-tracking. social
anxiety disorder (also called social phobia) Extreme,
enduring, irrational fear and avoidance of social or
performance situations.
sociopathic personality disturbances Obsolete term roughly
corresponding to the current category antisocial
personality disorder. It included alcohol and drug abuse
because these were considered merely symptoms of
other problems.
somatic delusions False and unfounded beliefs about the body, for
example, that parts are rotting or turning to stone.
somatic nervous system Part of the peripheral nervous system that
controls muscle movement.
somatic symptom disorder with predominant pain Somatic symptom
disorder (previously known as somatoform disorder)
featuring true pain but for which psychological factors
play an important role in onset, severity, or
maintenance.
somatic symptom disorder (previously known as somatization disorder)
Disorder involving extreme and long-lasting focus on
multiple physical symptoms for which no medical
cause is evident.
somatic treatments Biological interventions that include medication,
electroconvulsive therapy, and psychosurgery.
somatic symptom disorders (previously known as somatoform
disorders) Pathological concern of individuals with the
appearance or functioning of their bodies, usually in the
absence of any identifiable medical condition.
somnambulism Repeated sleepwalking that occurs during nonrapid eye
movement sleep and so is not the acting out of a
dream. The person is difficult to waken and does not
recall the experience.
specific learning disorder Neurodevelopmental disorder characterized
by academic performance that is substantially below
what would be expected given the person’s age,
intelligence quotient (IQ) score, and education.
specific phobia Unreasonable fear of a specific object or situation that
markedly interferes with daily life functioning.
specifiers Patterns of symptoms or behavior that accompany certain
mental disorders and may help predict their course and
prognosis (e.g., “with panic attacks” indicating the
presence of cued panic attacks in other disorders).
standardization Process of establishing specific norms and
requirements for a measurement technique to ensure
it is used consistently across measurement occasions.
This includes instructions for administering the
measure, evaluating its findings, and comparing these
to data for large numbers of people.
Stanford-Binet test Early standardized intelligence test designed to
identify children who will experience academic
difficulties by assessing their attention, perception,
reasoning, and comprehension.
statistical significance Probability that obtaining the observed research
findings merely by chance is small.
statistics Branch of mathematics concerned with gathering, analyzing,
and interpreting data from research.
stimulants Psychoactive substances that elevate mood, activity, and
alertness, including amphetamines, caffeine, cocaine,
and nicotine.
stimulus control Deliberate arrangement of the environment so that it
encourages desired behaviors and discourages
problem behaviors. For example, insomnia may be
combated by limiting time in, and associations with, the
bed.
Strength of Grip Test Subtest of the HalsteadReitan Neuropsychological
Battery that compares the grip strength of the client’s
right and left hands.
stress Body’s physiological response to a stressor, which is any event
or change that requires adaptation.
stress hormones Group of hormones, including corticosteroids,
involved in the body’s physiological stress response.
stress physiology Study of the body’s response to stressful events.
stroke/cerebral vascular accident (CVA) Temporary
blockage of blood vessels supplying the brain, or a
rupture of vessels in the brain, resulting in temporary
or permanent loss of brain functioning.
stuttering Disturbance in the fluency and time patterning of speech (for
example, sound and syllable repetitions or
prolongations).
subcortical neurocognitive disorder Disease resulting from HIV that
affects the inner areas of the brain below the cortex. It
differs from major neurocognitive disorder of the
Alzheimer’s type in that it involves impaired recall but
normal recognition, more severe depression and
anxiety, slowed motions, and impaired coordination but
no aphasia.
sublimation Psychodynamic defense mechanism in which the person
redirects energy from conflict and anxiety into more
constructive outlets, such as work.
substance abuse Pattern of psychoactive substance use leading to
significant distress or impairment in social and
occupational roles and in hazardous situations.
substance dependence Maladaptive pattern of substance use
characterized by the need for increased amounts to
achieve the desired effect, negative physical effects
when the substance is withdrawn, unsuccessful efforts
to control its use, and substantial effort expended to
seek it or recover from its effects. Also known as
addiction.
substance intoxication Physiological reactions, such as impaired
judgment and motor ability, as well as mood changes,
resulting from the ingestion of psychoactive
substances.
substance-induced psychotic disorder Psychosis caused by the
ingestion of medications, psychoactive drugs, or
toxins.
substance-related and addictive disorders Range of problems
associated with the use and abuse of drugs such as
alcohol, cocaine, heroin, and other substances people
use to alter the way they think, feel, and behave. These
are extremely costly in human and financial terms.
substance/medication-based neurocognitive disorder Brain damage
caused by prolonged use of drugs, often in
combination with a poor diet.
sufficient condition Circumstance that, by itself, is enough to cause or
allow a particular phenomenon to occur.
suicidal attempts Efforts made to kill oneself.
suicidal ideation Serious thoughts about committing suicide.
suicidal plans The formulation of a specific method of killing oneself.
superego In psychoanalysis, the psychical entity representing the
internalized moral principles of parents and society.
supernatural model Explanation of human behavior and its dysfunction
that posits important roles for spirits, demons, grace,
sin, and so on.
susceptibility In genetics, genes that only slightly increase the risk of
developing the disorder, but in contrast to the
deterministic genes, these are more common in the
general population.
sympathetic nervous system Part of the autonomic nervous system that
prepares the body for activity or to respond to stressors
by increasing heart rate and blood flow to muscles, for
instance.
symptom substitution Psychodynamic assertion that if overt problem
behavior (the symptom) is treated without eliminating
the underlying conflict thought to be causing it, that
conflict will reemerge in the form of new, perhaps
worse, symptoms.
synaptic cleft Space between nerve cells where chemical transmitters
act to move impulses from one neuron to the next.
systematic desensitization Behavioral therapy technique to diminish
excessive fears, involving gradual exposure to the
feared stimulus paired with a positive coping
experience, usually relaxation.
systemic perspective View that the many contributing causes of
abnormal behavior form a system involving biology,
behavior, cognition, emotion, culture, and society. Each
component of the system affects all the others.
systolic blood pressure Blood pressure generated when the heart is at
work pumping blood.
T cells Lymphocytes produced in bone marrow, developed in the
thymus gland, and operating in the cellular branch of
the immune system. Some attack antigens directly;
others help regulate the system. tacrine hydrochloride
Medication for patients with Alzheimer’s disease that
prevents the breakdown of acetylcholine, keeping it
available for use by the brain. Improvements are small,
and the drug is expensive and causes serious side
effects.
Tactile Performance Test Subtest of the HalsteadReitan
Neuropsychological Battery that asks the respondent
to insert wooden shapes into a hidden form board,
allowing the examiner to assess the subject’s learning
and memory skills.
taijin kyofusho Japanese variant of social phobia. In many cases,
individuals avoid social interaction because they
believe they have terrible body or breath odor.
tangentiality Characteristic of the loose cognitive and
verbal associations seen in schizophrenia in which the
person fails to answer questions and quickly moves the
conversation to unrelated topics.
tarantism See Saint Vitus’s Dance. tardive dyskinesia Extrapyramidal
symptom and sometimes irreversible side effect of
long-term neuroleptic medication, involving involuntary
motor movements, especially in the face and tongue.
task analysis Method for evaluating a skill to be learned, breaking it
down into its component parts.
taxonomy System of naming and classification (for example, of
specimens) in science.
telencephalon See forebrain.
telephone scatologia Paraphilia in which the person gains sexual
gratification by making obscene phone calls, usually
while masturbating.
temporal lobe Section of each cerebral hemisphere associated primarily
with sight and sound recognition and with long-term
memory storage.
temporal patterning Course modifier for mood disorders describing their
time sequences, including recurrence, recovery, and
alternation.
tension headaches Bilateral head pain characterized by a dull ache,
usually starting at the front or back of the head.
tension reduction Negative reinforcement motivation account for
substance abuse, suggesting it is maintained because
it allows people to escape anxiety.
test–retest reliability Degree to which results of two administrations of a
test to the same person are similar.
testability Ability of a hypothesis, for example, to be subjected to
scientific scrutiny and to be accepted or rejected, a
necessary condition for the hypothesis to be useful.
tetrahydrocannabinols (THC) Most common active chemicals in
marijuana responsible for its ability to alter mood and
behavior.
thalamus Small region deep inside the brain broadly associated with vaginismus Recurring involuntary muscle spasms in the outer third of
regulation of behavior and emotion. the vagina that interfere with sexual intercourse.
thanatos Freudian concept of a human drive toward death and validity Degree to which a technique measures what it purports to
destruction. measure.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Projective test in which the variability Degree of change in a phenomenon over time. vascular
respondent is asked to tell stories about a series of Pertaining to the vessels that transport blood and other
ambiguous drawings. tic disorder Disruption in early fluids in the body.
development involving involuntary motor movements vascular neurocognitive disorder Progressive brain disorder involving
or vocalizations. tics Sudden, rapid, and recurrent loss of cognitive functioning, caused by blockage of
involuntary motor movements or vocalizations. blood flow to the brain, that appears concurrently with
time-limited course Condition in which a disorder improves on its own other neurological signs and symptoms.
in a relatively brief period. vasovagal syncope Fainting because of low blood pressure in the head
time-management training Instruction that teaches patients to deal with and brain.
stress by establishing priorities among activities and ventral tegmental area Midbrain region that includes part of the
demands and paying less attention to the less “pleasure pathway” responsible for the experience of
important ones. reward.
tobacco-related disorders Cognitive, biological, behavioral, and social verbal scales Sections of the Wechsler series of intelligence tests that
problems associated with the use and abuse of assess vocabulary, memory, reasoning skills, and
nicotine. information facts.
token economy Social learning behavior modification system in which vinvusa Nigerian variant of dissociative trance states. visuospatial skills
individuals earn items they can exchange for desired Ability to see, recognize, orient within, and negotiate
rewards by displaying appropriate behaviors. between objects in space.
tolerance Need for increased amounts of a substance to achieve the voyeuristic disorder Paraphilic disorder in which sexual arousal is
desired effect, and a diminished effect with continued derived from observing unsuspecting individuals
use of the same amount. undressing or naked.
total sleep time Actual combined time a person spends sleeping each vulnerability Susceptibility or tendency to develop a disorder. waxy
day. flexibility Characteristic of catatonia in which the
Tourette’s disorder Developmental disorder featuring multiple person remains in bodily postures positioned by
dysfunctional motor and vocal tics. another person.
trainable intellectual disability Obsolete term referring to level of Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Revised (WAIS-R) Intelligence test
intellectual disability comparable to the DSM-5 for adults, assessing a range of verbal and
“moderate” designation that suggests the individual performance abilities.
can learn rudimentary vocational but not academic Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children 3rd Edition (WISC-III)
skills. Intelligence test for children, assessing a range of
transcendental meditation Technique for focusing attention by softly verbal and performance abilities.
repeating a single syllable (mantra); often Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence Revised
accompanied by slow and regular breathing. (WPPSI-R) Intelligence test for young children that
transference Psychoanalytic concept suggesting that clients may seek measures a range of performance, verbal, and
to relate to the therapist as they do to important preverbal abilities.
authority figures, particularly their parents. Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome Organic brain syndrome resulting from
transinstitutionalization Movement of people with severe mental illness prolonged heavy alcohol use, involving confusion,
from large psychiatric hospitals to smaller group unintelligible speech, and loss of motor coordination. It
residences. may be caused by a deficiency of thiamine, a vitamin
transsexualism Obsolete term for gender dysphoria. metabolized poorly by heavy drinkers.
transvestic disorder Paraphilia in which individuals, usually males, are withdrawal Severely negative physiological reaction to removal of a
sexually aroused or receive gratification by wearing psychoactive substance, which can be alleviated by
clothing of the opposite sex. the same or a similar substance.
traumatic brain injury (TBI) Brain damage caused by a blow to the head withdrawal delirium (delirium tremens/DTs) Frightening hallucinations
or other trauma that injures the brain and results in and body tremors that result when a heavy drinker
diminished neurocognitive capacity. withdraws from alcohol.
treatment outcome research Studies of the effectiveness of clinical withdrawal design Removing a treatment to note whether it has been
interventions, including the comparison of competing effective. In single-case experimental designs, a
treatments. behavior is measured (baseline), an independent
trend Direction of change of a behavior or behaviors (for example, variable is introduced (intervention), and then the
increasing or decreasing). intervention is withdrawn. Because the behavior
triazolam Short-acting benzodiazepine medication (trade name continues to be measured throughout (repeated
Halcion) used to treat insomnia. Possible negative side measurement), any effects of the intervention can be
effects include drowsiness, dependence, short-term noted. Also called reversal design.
memory loss, or rebound. X chromosome One of the two sex chromosomes that determine
trichotillomania People’s urge to pull out their own hair from anywhere gender; females have two and males have one,
on the body, including the scalp, eyebrows, and arm. contributed by the mother. X chromosome
tricyclic antidepressants Most common treatment for depression, a abnormalities are implicated in some physical and
group of medications including imipramine and cognitive problems.
amitriptyline that block the reuptake of x-linked gene A gene on the X chromosome.
neurotransmitters, principally serotonin and Y chromosome One of the two sex chromosomes that determine
norepinephrine, at the synapse. The drugs are effective gender; its presence, contributed by the father,
for some anxiety disorders and mood disorders. They determines the offspring will be male.
are also used to treat obstructive sleep apnea because Yerkes–Dodson curve Inverted U-shaped graphical relationship
they help maintain respiratory muscle tone to assist between arousal and performance. Optimal
breathing during rapid eye movement sleep. Positive performance occurs at intermediate levels of arousal.
effects are delayed, and negative side effects may Psychopaths may engage in stimulus- seeking
include dizziness and even death, so close monitoring behavior to increase their low arousal to more useful
is required. Relapse rates range from 20% to 50% levels.
when the drug is stopped.
tuberous sclerosis Rare dominant gene disorder characterized by
bumps on the skin and sometimes intellectual disability
and seizures.
twin studies In genetics research, the comparison of twins with
unrelated or less closely related individuals. If twins,
particularly monozygotic twins who share identical
genotypes, share common characteristics such as a
disorder, even if they were reared in different
environments, this is strong evidence of genetic
involvement in those characteristics.
type A behavior pattern Cluster of behaviors including excessive
competitiveness, timepressured impatience,
accelerated speech, and anger, originally thought to
promote high risk for heart disease.
type B behavior pattern Cluster of behaviors including a relaxed
attitude, indifference to time pressure, and less forceful
ambition; originally thought to promote low risk for
heart disease.
unconditional positive regard Acceptance by the counselor of the
client’s feelings and actions without judgment or
condemnation.
unconditioned response (UCR) In classical conditioning, the natural or
unlearned reaction to the unconditioned stimulus.
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Environmental event that would elicit a
response in almost anyone and requires no learning. In
classical conditioning, it is paired with a neutral
stimulus that, after training, may become a conditioned
stimulus.
unconscious Part of the psychic makeup that is outside the awareness
of the person.
unconscious vision See blind sight.
underarousal hypothesis Theory of the etiology of antisocial personality
disorder suggesting psychopaths engage in dangerous
or illicit behavior to stimulate the underaroused
cerebral cortex in their brains.
unexpected, or uncued, panic attack Panic attack that has no identified
triggering circumstance.
unipolar mood disorder Mood disorder characterized by depression or
mania but not both. Most cases involve unipolar
depression.
unshared environments Term indicating that even identical twins living
in the same home may have different prenatal and
family experiences.
vacuum device therapy Mechanical treatment for male erectile disorder
that employs a vacuum cylinder to draw blood into the
penis, where it is held by a ring placed at the base of
the penis.
vaginal photoplethysmograph Light-sensitive psychophysiological
monitoring device that measures female sexual
arousal reflected by blood flow to the vagina.