Recep Tayyip

Erdoğan

Recep Tayyip Erdoğan[b] (born 26

February 1954) is a Turkish politician
serving as the 12th and current president
of Turkey since 2014. He previously
served as prime minister of Turkey from
2003 to 2014 and as mayor of Istanbul
from 1994 to 1998. He founded the
Justice and Development Party (AKP) in
2001, leading it until 2014, when he was
required to stand down upon his election
as president. He later returned to the AKP
leadership in 2017 following the
constitutional referendum that year.
Coming from an Islamist political
background and self-describing as a
conservative democrat, he has promoted
socially conservative and populist
policies during his administration.
 His Excellency
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan

Erdoğan in 2022

12th President of Turkey

Incumbent

Assumed office
28 August 2014

Prime Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu

(2014–2016)
Binali Yıldırım
(2016–2018)
Vice President Fuat Oktay
(since 2018)

Preceded by Abdullah Gül

25th Prime Minister of Turkey
In office
14 March 2003 – 28 August 2014

President Ahmet Necdet Sezer

Abdullah Gül

Preceded by Abdullah Gül

Succeeded by Ahmet Davutoğlu

Leader of the Justice and Development
Party
Incumbent

Assumed office
21 May 2017

Preceded by Binali Yıldırım

 In office
14 August 2001 – 27 August 2014

Preceded by Position established

Succeeded by Ahmet Davutoğlu

Member of the Grand National Assembly
In office
9 March 2003 – 28 August 2014

Constituency Siirt (2003 by-

election)
Istanbul (I) (2007,
2011)
Mayor of Istanbul
In office
27 March 1994 – 6 November 1998

Preceded by Nurettin Sözen

Succeeded by Ali Müfit Gürtuna

 Chairman of the Organization of Turkic
States
In office
12 November 2021 – 11 November 2022

Preceded by Ilham Aliyev

Succeeded by Shavkat Mirziyoyev

Personal details

Born 26 February 1954

Kasımpaşa, Istanbul,
Turkey

Political party Justice and

Development (2001–
2014; 2017–present)

Other political National Salvation

affiliations Party (before 1981)
Welfare Party (1983–
1998)
 Virtue Party (1998–
2001)

Spouse Emine Gülbaran (m. 1978)

Children Ahmet · Bilal · Esra ·

Sümeyye

Relatives Berat Albayrak ·

Selçuk Bayraktar
(sons-in-law)

Residence(s) Presidential Complex,

Ankara

Alma mater Marmara University[a]

Signature

Website Government website

(http://tccb.gov.tr)
Following the 1994 local elections,
Erdoğan was elected mayor of Istanbul
as the candidate of the Islamist Welfare
Party. He was later stripped of his
position, banned from political office, and
imprisoned for four months for inciting
religious hatred, due to his recitation of a
poem by Ziya Gökalp. Erdoğan
subsequently abandoned openly Islamist
politics, establishing the AKP in 2001,
which he went on to lead to a landslide
victory in 2002. With Erdoğan still
technically prohibited from holding office,
the AKP's co-founder, Abdullah Gül,
instead became prime minister, and later
annulled Erdoğan's political ban. After
winning a by-election in Siirt in 2003,
Erdoğan replaced Gül as prime minister,
with Gül instead becoming the AKP's
candidate for the presidency. Erdoğan
led the AKP to two more election
victories in 2007 and 2011.

Reforms made in the early years of

Erdoğan's tenure as prime minister
granted Turkey the start of EU
membership negotiations. Furthermore,
Turkey experienced an economic
recovery from the economic crisis of
2001 and saw investments in
infrastructure including roads, airports,
and a high-speed train network. He also
won two successful constitutional
referendums in 2007 and 2010. His
government remained controversial for
its close links with Fethullah Gülen and
his Gülen movement with whom the AKP
was accused of orchestrating purges
against secular bureaucrats and military
officers through the Balyoz and
Ergenekon trials.[7][8] In late 2012, his
government began peace negotiations
with the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK)
to end the Kurdish–Turkish conflict. The
ceasefire broke down in 2015, leading to
a renewed escalation in conflict.
Erdoğan's foreign policy, described as
neo-Ottoman and imperialist,[9][10] has led
to the Turkish involvement in the Syrian
Civil War, with its focus on preventing the
Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) from
gaining ground on the Syria–Turkey
border during the Syrian Civil War.

In the more recent years of Erdoğan's

rule, Turkey has experienced increasing
authoritarianism, democratic backsliding,
and corruption, as well as expansionism,
censorship, and banning of parties or
dissent. Starting with the anti-
government protests in 2013, his
government imposed growing censorship
on the press and social media,
temporarily restricting access to sites
such as YouTube, Twitter, and Wikipedia.
This, along with other factors, stalled
negotiations related to Turkey's EU
membership. A US$100 billion corruption
scandal in 2013 led to the arrests of
Erdoğan's close allies, and incriminated
Erdoğan. In 2014, Erdoğan became
president, a mostly ceremonial office at
the time, after the nation's first popular
presidential elections. Souring in
relations with Gülen reached a breaking
point after a failed military coup d'état
attempt in July 2016, which the
government claimed was organized by
followers of Gülen, resulting in purges,
declaration of Gülenists as a terrorist
organisation, and a state of emergency
that lasted until 2018.

Erdoğan supported the constitutional

referendum in 2017 which changed
Turkey's parliamentary system into a
presidential system. This new system of
government formally came into place
after the 2018 general election, where
Erdoğan became an executive president.
His party however lost the majority in the
parliament and is currently in a coalition
(People's Alliance) with the Nationalist
Movement Party (MHP). Erdoğan has
decreased the independence of the
Central Bank and pursued a highly
unorthodox monetary policy, significantly
contributing to an economic crisis
starting in 2018, which caused very high
inflation rates as well as a large
depreciation of the Turkish lira.
Early life and education

Erdoğan as a young child, 1963, Istanbul

Recep Tayyip Erdoğan was born on 26

February 1954 in a poor conservative
Muslim family.[11][12] According to
historian M. Hakan Yavuz, Erdoğan was
born in Güneysu, Rize and later his family
moved to Kasımpaşa, a poor
neighborhood of Istanbul.[13] Erdoğan's
family is originally from Adjara, a region
in Georgia.[14] Although Erdoğan was
reported to have said in 2003 that he was
of Georgian origin and that his origins
were in Batumi,[12][15] he later denied
this.[12] His parents were Ahmet Erdoğan
(1905–1988) and Tenzile Erdoğan (née
Mutlu; 1924–2011).[16]

Erdoğan spent his early childhood in Rize,

where his father was a captain[17] in the
Turkish Coast Guard.[18] His summer
holidays were mostly spent in Güneysu,
Rize, where his family originates.
Throughout his life he often returned to
this spiritual home, and in 2015 he
opened a vast mosque on a mountaintop
near this village.[19] The family returned
to Istanbul when Erdoğan was 13 years
old.[18]

Erdoğan while playing football for Camialtispor FC, 1973, Istanbul

As a teenager, Erdoğan's father provided

him with a weekly allowance of 2.5
Turkish lira, less than a dollar. With it,
Erdoğan bought postcards and resold
them on the street. He sold bottles of
water to drivers stuck in traffic. Erdoğan
also worked as a street vendor selling
simit (sesame bread rings), wearing a
white gown and selling the simit from a
red three-wheel cart with the rolls
stacked behind glass.[18] In his youth,
Erdoğan played semi-professional
football in Camialtispor FC, a local
club.[20][1][21][22] Fenerbahçe wanted him
to transfer to the club but his father
prevented it.[23] The stadium of the local
football club in the district where he grew
up, Kasımpaşa S.K. is named after
him.[24][25]

Erdoğan is a member of the Community

of İskenderpaşa, a Turkish Sufistic
community of Naqshbandi tariqah.[26][27]

Education

Erdoğan graduated from Kasımpaşa

Piyale primary school in 1965, and İmam
Hatip school, a religious vocational high
school, in 1973.[28] The same educational
path was followed by other co-founders
of the AK Party.[29] One quarter of the
curriculum of İmam Hatip schools
involves study of the Quran, the life of the
Islamic prophet Muhammad, and the
Arabic language. Erdoğan studied the
Quran at an İmam Hatip, where his
classmates began calling him hoca
(teacher).
Erdoğan attended a meeting of the
nationalist student group National
Turkish Student Union (Milli Türk Talebe
Birliği), who sought to raise a
conservative cohort of young people to
counter the rising movement of leftists in
Turkey. Within the group, Erdoğan was
distinguished by his oratorical skills,
developing a penchant for public
speaking and excelling in front of an
audience. He won first place in a poetry-
reading competition organized by the
Community of Turkish Technical Painters,
and began preparing for speeches
through reading and research. Erdoğan
would later comment on these
competitions as "enhancing our courage
to speak in front of the masses".[30]

Erdoğan wanted to pursue advanced

studies at Mekteb-i Mülkiye, but Mülkiye
accepted only students with regular high
school diplomas, and not İmam Hatip
graduates. Mülkiye was known for its
political science department, which
trained many statesmen and politicians
in Turkey. Erdoğan was then admitted to
Eyüp High School, a regular state school,
and eventually received his high school
diploma from Eyüp.

According to his official biography, he

subsequently studied Business
Administration at the Aksaray School of
Economics and Commercial Sciences
(Turkish: Aksaray İktisat ve Ticaret
Yüksekokulu), now known as Marmara
University's Faculty of Economics and
Administrative Sciences.[1] According to
the Heinrich Böll Foundation[31] and the
website of the presidency, he would have
graduated in 1981[32][33] but Marmara
University was established only in
1982.[34][33] Several sources dispute that
he graduated,[33][35][36][37] since a
graduation certificate has never been
presented.[28]
Early political career

Tayyip Erdoğan as Prime Minister at the Çanakkale, 2008

In 1976, Erdoğan engaged in politics by

joining the National Turkish Student
Union, an anti-communist action group. In
the same year, he became the head of
the Beyoğlu youth branch of the Islamist
National Salvation Party (MSP),[38] and
was later promoted to chair of the
Istanbul youth branch of the party.[28]

Holding this position until 1980, he

served as consultant and senior
executive in the private sector during the
era following the 1980 military coup
when political parties were closed down.

In 1983, Erdoğan followed most of

Necmettin Erbakan's followers into the
Islamist Welfare Party. He became the
party's Beyoğlu district chair in 1984, and
in 1985 he became the chair of the
Istanbul city branch. Erdoğan entered the
parliamentairy by-elections of 1986 as a
6th district candidate of Istanbul, but
gained no seat as his party ended as the
fifth largest party in the by-elections.
Three years later, Erdoğan ran for mayor
of Beyoğlu district. He finished second in
the election with 22.8% of the votes.[39]
Erdoğan was elected to parliament in
1991, but was barred from taking his seat
due to preferential voting.[40]

Mayor of Istanbul (1994–1998)

In the local elections of 1994, Erdoğan

ran as a candidate for Mayor of Istanbul.
He was a 40-year-old dark horse
candidate who had been mocked by the
mainstream media and treated as a
country bumpkin by his opponents.[41] He
won the election with 25.19% of the
popular vote, making it the first time a
mayor of Istanbul got elected from his
political party.

He was pragmatic in office, tackling

many chronic problems in Istanbul
including water shortage, pollution and
traffic chaos. The water shortage
problem was solved with the laying of
hundreds of kilometers of new pipelines.
The garbage problem was solved with
the establishment of state-of-the-art
recycling facilities. While Erdoğan was in
office, air pollution was reduced through
a plan developed to switch to natural
gas. He changed the public buses to
environmentally friendly ones. The city's
traffic and transportation jams were
reduced with more than fifty bridges,
viaducts, and highways built. He took
precautions to prevent corruption, using
measures to ensure that municipal funds
were used prudently. He paid back a
major portion of Istanbul Metropolitan
Municipality's two-billion-dollar debt and
invested four billion dollars in the city.[42]
He also opened up City Hall to the
people, gave out his e-mail address and
established municipal hot lines.[43]

Erdoğan initiated the first roundtable of

mayors during the Istanbul conference,
which led to a global, organized
movement of mayors. A seven-member
international jury from the United Nations
unanimously awarded Erdoğan the UN-
Habitat award.[44]

Imprisonment

In December 1997 in Siirt, Erdoğan

recited a poem from a work written by
Ziya Gökalp, a pan-Turkish activist of the
early 20th century.[45] His recitation
included verses translated as "The
mosques are our barracks, the domes
our helmets, the minarets our bayonets
and the faithful our soldiers...."[18] which
are not in the original version of the
poem. Under article 312/2 of the Turkish
penal code his recitation was regarded
by the judge as an incitement to violence
and religious or racial hatred.[46][47][45] In
his defense, Erdoğan said that the poem
was published in state-approved
books.[43] How this version of the poem
ended up in a book published by the
Turkish Standards Institution remained a
topic of discussion.[48]

Erdoğan was given a ten-month prison

sentence.[47] He was forced to give up his
mayoral position due to his conviction.
The conviction also stipulated a political
ban, which prevented him from
participating in elections.[49] He had
appealed for the sentence to be
converted to a monetary fine, but it was
reduced to 4 months instead (24 March
1999 to 27 July 1999).[50]

He was transferred to Pınarhisar prison in

Kırklareli. The day Erdoğan went to
prison, he dropped an album called This
Song Doesn't End Here.[51] The album
features a tracklist of seven poems and
became the best-selling album of Turkey
in 1999, selling over one million
copies.[52] In 2013, Erdoğan visited the
Pınarhisar prison again for the first time
in fourteen years. After the visit, he said
"For me, Pınarhisar is a symbol of rebirth,
where we prepared the establishment of
the Justice and Development Party".[53]
Justice and Development Party

Party leader Erdoğan's meeting with Romano Prodi (President of the European Commission) and Günter Verheugen
(European Commissioner for Neighbourhood and Enlargement) in Brussels, Belgium, 2002.

Erdoğan was member of political parties

that kept getting banned by the army or
judges. Within his Virtue Party, there was
a dispute about the appropriate
discourse of the party between
traditional politicians and pro-reform
politicians. The latter envisioned a party
that could operate within the limits of the
system, and thus not getting banned as
its predecessors like National Order
Party, National Salvation Party and
Welfare Party. They wanted to give the
group the character of an ordinary
conservative party with its members
being Muslim Democrats following the
example of the Europe's Christian
Democrats.[43]

When the Virtue Party was also banned in

2001, a definitive split took place: the
followers of Necmettin Erbakan founded
the Felicity Party (SP) and the reformers
founded the Justice and Development
Party (AKP) under the leadership of
Abdullah Gül and Erdoğan. The pro-
reform politicians realized that a strictly
Islamic party would never be accepted as
a governing party by the state apparatus
and they believed that an Islamic party
did not appeal to more than about 20
percent of the Turkish electorate. The AK
party emphatically placed itself as a
broad democratic conservative party with
new politicians from the political center
(like Ali Babacan and Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu),
while respecting Islamic norms and
values, but without an explicit religious
program. This turned out to be
successful as the new party won 34% of
the vote in the general elections of 2002.
Erdoğan became prime minister in March
2003 after the Gül government ended his
political ban.[54]
Premiership

Mariano Rajoy during his visit to Ankara, where the 5th Turkish–Spanish High Level Meeting was held, in 2014.

General elections

The elections of 2002 were the first

elections in which Erdoğan participated
as a party leader. All parties previously
elected to parliament failed to win
enough votes to re-enter the parliament.
The AKP won 34.3% of the national vote
and formed the new government. Turkish
stocks rose more than 7% on Monday
morning. Politicians of the previous
generation, such as Ecevit, Bahceli,
Yılmaz and Çiller, resigned. The second
largest party, the CHP, received 19.4% of
the votes. The AKP won a landslide
victory in the parliament, taking nearly
two-thirds of the seats. Erdoğan could
not become Prime Minister as he was
still banned from politics by the judiciary
for his speech in Siirt. Gül became the
Prime Minister instead. In December
2002, the Supreme Election Board
canceled the general election results
from Siirt due to voting irregularities and
scheduled a new election for 9 February
2003. By this time, party leader Erdoğan
was able to run for parliament due to a
legal change made possible by the
opposition Republican People's Party.
The AKP duly listed Erdoğan as a
candidate for the rescheduled election,
which he won, becoming Prime Minister
after Gül handed over the post.[55]

On 14 April 2007, an estimated 300,000

people marched in Ankara to protest
against the possible candidacy of
Erdoğan in the 2007 presidential election,
afraid that if elected as president, he
would alter the secular nature of the
Turkish state.[56] Erdoğan announced on
24 April 2007 that the party had
nominated Abdullah Gül as the AKP
candidate in the presidential
election.[57][58] The protests continued
over the next several weeks, with over
one million people reported to have
turned out at a 29 April rally in
Istanbul,[59] tens of thousands at
separate protests on 4 May in Manisa
and Çanakkale,[60] and one million in
İzmir on 13 May.[61]

The stage of the elections of 2007 was

set for a fight for legitimacy in the eyes
of voters between his government and
the CHP. Erdoğan used the event that
took place during the ill-fated
Presidential elections a few months
earlier as a part of the general election
campaign of his party. On 22 July 2007,
the AKP won an important victory over
the opposition, garnering 46.7% of the
popular vote. 22 July elections marked
only the second time in the Republic of
Turkey's history whereby an incumbent
governing party won an election by
increasing its share of popular
support.[62] On 14 March 2008, Turkey's
Chief Prosecutor asked the country's
Constitutional Court to ban Erdoğan's
governing party.[63] The party escaped a
ban on 30 July 2008, a year after winning
46.7% of the vote in national elections,
although judges did cut the party's public
funding by 50%.[64]
In the June 2011 elections, Erdoğan's
governing party won 327 seats (49.83%
of the popular vote) making Erdoğan the
only prime minister in Turkey's history to
win three consecutive general elections,
each time receiving more votes than the
previous election. The second party, the
Republican People's Party (CHP),
received 135 seats (25.94%), the
nationalist MHP received 53 seats
(13.01%), and the Independents received
35 seats (6.58%).[65]

A US$100 billion corruption scandal in

2013 led to the arrests of Erdoğan's
close allies, and incriminated
Erdoğan.[66][67][68]
Referendums

Erdoğan in a meeting with the main opposition leader Deniz Baykal of the Republican People's Party (CHP)

After the opposition parties deadlocked

the 2007 presidential election by
boycotting the parliament, the ruling AKP
proposed a constitutional reform
package. The reform package was first
vetoed by president Sezer. Then he
applied to the Turkish constitutional
court about the reform package, because
the president is unable to veto
amendments for the second time. The
Turkish constitutional court did not find
any problems in the packet and 68.95%
of the voters supported the constitutional
changes.[69] The reforms consisted of
electing the president by popular vote
instead of by parliament; reducing the
presidential term from seven years to
five; allowing the president to stand for
re-election for a second term; holding
general elections every four years instead
of five; and reducing from 367 to 184 the
quorum of lawmakers needed for
parliamentary decisions.

Reforming the Constitution was one of

the main pledges of the AKP during the
2007 election campaign. The main
opposition party CHP was not interested
in altering the Constitution on a big scale,
making it impossible to form a
Constitutional Commission (Anayasa
Uzlaşma Komisyonu).[70] The
amendments lacked the two-thirds
majority needed to become law instantly,
but secured 336 votes in the 550-seat
parliament – enough to put the proposals
to a referendum. The reform package
included a number of issues such as the
right of individuals to appeal to the
highest court, the creation of the
ombudsman's office; the possibility to
negotiate a nationwide labour contract;
gender equality; the ability of civilian
courts to convict members of the
military; the right of civil servants to go
on strike; a privacy law; and the structure
of the Constitutional Court. The
referendum was agreed by a majority of
58%.[71]

Domestic policy

Kurdish issue

In 2009, Prime Minister Erdoğan's

government announced a plan to help
end the quarter-century-long Turkey–
Kurdistan Workers' Party conflict that had
cost more than 40,000 lives. The
government's plan, supported by the
European Union, intended to allow the
Kurdish language to be used in all
broadcast media and political
campaigns, and restored Kurdish names
to cities and towns that had been given
Turkish ones.[72] Erdoğan said, "We took
a courageous step to resolve chronic
issues that constitute an obstacle along
Turkey's development, progression and
empowerment".[72] Erdoğan passed a
partial amnesty to reduce penalties
faced by many members of the Kurdish
guerrilla movement PKK who had
surrendered to the government.[73] On 23
November 2011, during a televised
meeting of his party in Ankara, he
apologised on behalf of the state for the
Dersim massacre, where many Alevis and
Zazas were killed.[74] In 2013 the
government of Erdoğan began a peace
process between the Kurdistan Workers'
Party (PKK) and the Turkish
Government,[75] mediated by
parliamentarians of the Peoples'
Democratic party (HDP).[76]

In 2015, following AKP electoral defeat,

the rise of a social democrat, pro-Kurdish
rights opposition party, and the minor
Ceylanpınar incident, he decided that the
peace process was over and supported
the lift of the parliamentary immunity of
the HDP parliamentarians.[77] Violent
confrontation resumed in 2015–2017,
mainly in the South East of Turkey,
resulting in higher death tolls and several
external operations on the part of the
Turkish military. Representatives and
elected HDP have been systematically
arrested, removed, and replaced in their
offices, this tendency being confirmed
after the 2016 Turkish coup attempt and
the following purges. 6,000 additional
deaths occurred in Turkey alone for
2015–2022. Yet, the intensity of the PKK-
Turkey conflict did decrease in recent
years.[78] In the past decade, Erdogan
and the AKP government used anti-PKK,
martial rhetoric and external operations
to raise Turkish nationalist votes before
elections.[79][80][81]
Armenian genocide

Prime Minister Erdoğan expressed

multiple times that Turkey would
acknowledge the mass killings of
Armenians during World War I as
genocide only after a thorough
investigation by a joint Turkish-Armenian
commission consisting of historians,
archaeologists, political scientists and
other experts.[82][83][84] In 2005, Erdoğan
and the main opposition party leader
Deniz Baykal wrote a letter to Armenian
President Robert Kocharyan, proposing
the creation of a joint Turkish-Armenian
commission.[85] Armenian Foreign
Minister Vartan Oskanian rejected the
offer because he asserted that the
proposal itself was "insincere and not
serious". He added: "This issue cannot be
considered at historical level with Turks,
who themselves politicized the
problem".[86][87]

In December 2008, Erdoğan criticised the

I Apologize campaign by Turkish
intellectuals to recognize the Armenian
genocide, saying, "I neither accept nor
support this campaign. We did not
commit a crime, therefore we do not
need to apologise ... It will not have any
benefit other than stirring up trouble,
disturbing our peace and undoing the
steps which have been taken".[88]
In 2011, Erdoğan called the 33-meter-tall (108 ft) Monument to Humanity, a statue dedicated to fostering Armenian and
Turkish relations, "freakishly ugly" (Turkish: ucube) and ordered it to be demolished. Erdoğan was subsequently fined
by a Turkish judge for insulting the work and the creator was compensated due to the "violation of the freedom of
expression".

In 2011, Erdoğan ordered the tearing-

down of the 33-meter-tall (108 ft)
Monument to Humanity, a Turkish–
Armenian friendship monument in Kars,
which was commissioned in 2006 and
represented a metaphor of the
rapprochement of the two countries after
many years of dispute over the events of
1915. Erdoğan justified the removal by
stating that the monument was
offensively close to the tomb of an 11th-
century Islamic scholar, and that its
shadow ruined the view of that site, while
Kars municipality officials said it was
illegally erected in a protected area.
However, the former mayor of Kars who
approved the original construction of the
monument said the municipality was
destroying not just a "monument to
humanity" but "humanity itself". The
demolition was not unopposed; among
its detractors were several Turkish
artists. Two of them, the painter Bedri
Baykam and his associate, Pyramid Art
Gallery general coordinator Tugba
Kurtulmus, were stabbed after a meeting
with other artists at the Istanbul Akatlar
cultural center.[89]
On 23 April 2014, Erdoğan's office issued
a statement in nine languages (including
two dialects of Armenian), offering
condolences for the mass killings of
Armenians and stating that the events of
1915 had inhumane consequences. The
statement described the mass killings as
the two nations' shared pain and said:
"Having experienced events which had
inhumane consequences – such as
relocation – during the First World War,
(it) should not prevent Turks and
Armenians from establishing
compassion and mutually humane
attitudes among one another".[90]
Pope Francis in April 2015, at a special
mass in St. Peter's Basilica marking the
centenary of the events, described
atrocities against Armenian civilians in
1915–1922 as "the first genocide of the
20th century". In protest, Erdoğan
recalled the Turkish ambassador from
the Vatican, and summoned the Vatican's
ambassador, to express
"disappointment" at what he called a
discriminatory message. He later stated
"we don’t carry a stain or a shadow like
genocide". US President Barack Obama
called for a "full, frank and just
acknowledgement of the facts", but again
stopped short of labelling it "genocide",
despite his campaign promise to do
so.[91][92][93]

Human rights

During Erdoğan's time as Prime Minister,

the far-reaching powers of the 1991 Anti-
Terror Law were reduced. In 2004, the
death penalty was abolished for all
circumstances.[94] The Democratic
initiative process was initiated, with the
goal to improve democratic standards in
general and the rights of ethnic and
religious minorities in particular. In 2012,
the Human Rights and Equality Institution
of Turkey and the Ombudsman Institution
were established. The UN Optional
Protocol to the Convention against
Torture was ratified. Children are no
longer prosecuted under terrorism
legislation.[95] The Jewish community
were allowed to celebrate Hanukkah
publicly for the first time in modern
Turkish history in 2015.[96] The Turkish
government approved a law in 2008 to
return properties confiscated in the past
by the state to non-Muslim
foundations.[97] It also paved the way for
the free allocation of worship places
such as synagogues and churches to
non-Muslim foundations.[98] However,
European officials noted a return to more
authoritarian ways after stalling of
Turkey's bid to join the European Union[99]
notably on freedom of
speech,[100][101][102] freedom of the
press[103][104][105] and Kurdish minority
rights.[106][107][108][109] Demands by
activists for the recognition of LGBT
rights were publicly rejected by
government members.[110][111]

Reporters Without Borders observed a

continuous decrease in Freedom of the
Press during Erdoğan's later terms, with a
rank of around 100 on the Press Freedom
Index during his first term and a rank of
153 out of a total of 179 countries in
2021.[112] Freedom House saw a slight
recovery in later years and awarded
Turkey a Press Freedom Score of 55/100
in 2012 after a low point of 48/100 in
2006.[113][114][115][116]

In 2011, Erdoğan's government made

legal reforms to return properties of
Christian and Jewish minorities which
were seized by the Turkish government in
the 1930s.[117] The total value of the
properties returned reached $2 billion
(USD).[118]

Under Erdoğan, the Turkish government

tightened the laws on the sale and
consumption of alcohol, banning all
advertising and increasing the tax on
alcoholic beverages.[119]
Economy

Public debt of the six major European countries between 2002 and 2009 as a percentage of GDP

GDP per capita PPP of Turkey compared to other emerging economies

In 2002, Erdoğan inherited a Turkish

economy that was beginning to recover
from a recession as a result of reforms
implemented by Kemal Derviş.[120]
Erdoğan supported Finance Minister Ali
Babacan in enforcing macro-economic
policies. Erdoğan tried to attract more
foreign investors to Turkey and lifted
many government regulations. The cash-
flow into the Turkish economy between
2002 and 2012 caused a growth of 64%
in real GDP and a 43% increase in GDP
per capita; considerably higher numbers
were commonly advertised but these did
not account for the inflation of the US
dollar between 2002 and 2012.[121] The
average annual growth in GDP per capita
was 3.6%. The growth in real GDP
between 2002 and 2012 was higher than
the values from developed countries, but
was close to average when developing
countries are also taken into account.
The ranking of the Turkish economy in
terms of GDP moved slightly from 17 to
16 during this decade. A major
consequence of the policies between
2002 and 2012 was the widening of the
current account deficit from
US$600 million to US$58 billion (2013
est.)[122]

Since 1961, Turkey has signed 19 IMF

loan accords. Erdoğan's government
satisfied the budgetary and market
requirements of the two during his
administration and received every loan
installment, the only time any Turkish
government has done so.[123] Erdoğan
inherited a debt of $23.5 billion to the
IMF, which was reduced to $0.9 billion in
2012. He decided not to sign a new deal.
Turkey's debt to the IMF was thus
declared to be completely paid and he
announced that the IMF could borrow
from Turkey.[124] In 2010, five-year credit
default swaps for Turkey's sovereign
debt were trading at a record low of
1.17%, below those of nine EU member
countries and Russia. In 2002, the Turkish
Central Bank had $26.5 billion in
reserves. This amount reached
$92.2 billion in 2011. During Erdoğan's
leadership, inflation fell from 32% to 9.0%
in 2004. Since then, Turkish inflation has
continued to fluctuate around 9% and is
still one of the highest inflation rates in
the world.[125] The Turkish public debt as
a percentage of annual GDP declined
from 74% in 2002 to 39% in 2009. In
2012, Turkey had a lower ratio of public
debt to GDP than 21 of 27 members of
the European Union and a lower budget
deficit to GDP ratio than 23 of them.[126]

In 2003, Erdoğan's government pushed

through the Labor Act, a comprehensive
reform of Turkey's labor laws. The law
greatly expanded the rights of
employees, establishing a 45-hour
workweek and limiting overtime work to
270 hours a year, provided legal
protection against discrimination due to
sex, religion, or political affiliation,
prohibited discrimination between
permanent and temporary workers,
entitled employees terminated without
"valid cause" to compensation, and
mandated written contracts for
employment arrangements lasting a year
or more.[127][128]

Education

Erdoğan increased the budget of the

Ministry of Education from 7.5 billion lira
in 2002 to 34 billion lira in 2011, the
highest share of the national budget
given to one ministry.[129] Before his
prime ministership the military received
the highest share of the national budget.
Compulsory education was increased
from eight years to twelve.[130] In 2003,
the Turkish government, together with
UNICEF, initiated a campaign called
"Come on girls, [let's go] to school!"
(Turkish: Haydi Kızlar Okula!). The goal of
this campaign was to close the gender
gap in primary school enrollment through
the provision of a quality basic education
for all girls, especially in southeast
Turkey.[131]

In 2005, the parliament granted amnesty

to students expelled from universities
before 2003. The amnesty applied to
students dismissed on academic or
disciplinary grounds.[132] In 2004,
textbooks became free of charge and
since 2008 every province in Turkey has
its own university.[133] During Erdoğan's
Premiership, the number of universities in
Turkey nearly doubled, from 98 in 2002 to
186 in October 2012.[134]

The Prime Minister kept his campaign

promises by starting the Fatih project in
which all state schools, from preschool
to high school level, received a total of
620,000 smart boards, while tablet
computers were distributed to 17 million
students and approximately one million
teachers and administrators.[135]
In June 2017 a draft proposal by the
ministry of education was approved by
Erdoğan, in which the curriculum for
schools excluded the teaching of the
theory of evolution of Charles Darwin by
2019. From then on the teaching will be
postponed and start at undergraduate
level.[136]

Infrastructure

The 1915 Çanakkale Bridge, the longest suspension bridge in the world, was officially opened by Erdoğan in
2022.[137][138]
Under Erdoğan's government, the number
of airports in Turkey increased from 26 to
50 in the period of 10 years.[139] Between
the founding of the Republic of Turkey in
1923 and 2002, there had been 6,000 km
of dual carriageway roads created.
Between 2002 and 2011, another
13,500 km of expressway were built. Due
to these measures, the number of motor
accidents fell by 50 percent.[140] For the
first time in Turkish history, high speed
railway lines were constructed, and the
country's high-speed train service began
in 2009.[141] In 8 years, 1,076 km of
railway were built and 5,449 km of
railway renewed. The construction of
Marmaray, an undersea rail tunnel under
the Bosphorus strait, started in 2004. It
was inaugurated on the 90th anniversary
of the Turkish Republic 29 October
2013.[142] The inauguration of the Yavuz
Sultan Selim Bridge, the third bridge over
the Bosphorus, was on 26 August
2016.[143]

Justice

The new Court of Cassation (Yargıtay) building in Ankara was opened in 2021.

In March 2006, the Supreme Board of

Judges and Prosecutors (HSYK) held a
press conference to publicly protest the
obstruction of the appointment of judges
to the high courts for over 10 months.
The HSYK said Erdoğan wanted to fill the
vacant posts with his own appointees.
Erdoğan was accused of creating a rift
with Turkey's highest court of appeal, the
Yargıtay, and high administrative court,
the Danıştay. Erdoğan stated that the
constitution gave the power to assign
these posts to his elected party.[144]

In May 2007, the head of Turkey's High

Court asked prosecutors to consider
whether Erdoğan should be charged over
critical comments regarding the election
of Abdullah Gül as president.[144]
Erdoğan said the ruling was "a disgrace
to the justice system", and criticized the
Constitutional Court which had
invalidated a presidential vote because a
boycott by other parties meant there was
no quorum. Prosecutors investigated his
earlier comments, including saying it had
fired a "bullet at democracy". Tülay
Tuğcu, head of the Constitutional Court,
condemned Erdoğan for "threats, insults
and hostility" towards the justice
system.[145]
Civil–military relations

Erdoğan during an official visit to Peru, with a member of the Turkish army behind him

The Turkish military has had a record of

intervening in politics, having removed
elected governments four times in the
past. During the Erdoğan government,
civil–military relationship moved towards
normalization in which the influence of
the military in politics was significantly
reduced.[146] The ruling Justice and
Development Party has often faced off
against the military, gaining political
power by challenging a pillar of the
country's laicistic establishment.

The most significant issue that caused

deep fissures between the army and the
government was the midnight e-
memorandum posted on the military's
website objecting to the selection of
Foreign Minister Abdullah Gül as the
ruling party's candidate for the
Presidency in 2007. The military argued
that the election of Gül, whose wife
wears an Islamic headscarf, could
undermine the laicistic order of the
country. Contrary to expectations, the
government responded harshly to former
Chief of General Staff Gen. Yaşar
Büyükanıt's e-memorandum, stating the
military had nothing to do with the
selection of the presidential
candidate.[147]

Health care

After assuming power in 2003, Erdoğan's

government embarked on a sweeping
reform program of the Turkish healthcare
system, called the Health Transformation
Program (HTP), to greatly increase the
quality of healthcare and protect all
citizens from financial risks. Its
introduction coincided with the period of
sustained economic growth, allowing the
Turkish government to put greater
investments into the healthcare system.
As part of the reforms, the "Green Card"
program, which provides health benefits
to the poor, was expanded in 2004.[148]
The reform program aimed at increasing
the ratio of private to state-run
healthcare, which, along with long queues
in state-run hospitals, resulted in the rise
of private medical care in Turkey, forcing
state-run hospitals to compete by
increasing quality.

In April 2006, Erdoğan unveiled a social

security reform package demanded by
the International Monetary Fund under a
loan deal. The move, which Erdoğan
called one of the most radical reforms
ever, was passed with fierce opposition.
Turkey's three social security bodies were
united under one roof, bringing equal
health services and retirement benefits
for members of all three bodies. The
previous system had been criticized for
reserving the best healthcare for civil
servants and relegating others to wait in
long queues. Under the second bill,
everyone under the age of 18 years was
entitled to free health services,
irrespective of whether they pay
premiums to any social security
organization. The bill also envisages a
gradual increase in the retirement age:
starting from 2036, the retirement age
will increase to 65 by 2048 for both
women and men.[149]

In January 2008, the Turkish Parliament

adopted a law to prohibit smoking in
most public places. Erdoğan is
outspokenly anti-smoking.[150]

Foreign policy

Countries visited by Recep Tayyip Erdoğan as prime minister

Turkish foreign policy during Erdoğan's
tenure as prime minister has been
associated with the name of Ahmet
Davutoğlu. Davutoğlu was the chief
foreign policy advisor of Prime Minister
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan before he was
appointed foreign minister in 2009. The
basis of Erdoğan's foreign policy is based
on the principle of "don't make enemies,
make friends"[151] and the pursuit of "zero
problems" with neighboring countries.[152]

Erdoğan is co-founder of United Nations

Alliance of Civilizations (AOC). The
initiative seeks to galvanize international
action against extremism through the
forging of international, intercultural and
inter-religious dialogue and cooperation.

European Union

Erdoğan with President in office of the EU Council and Dutch Prime Minister Balkenende and Turkish FM Gül in
Brussels, Belgium (2004).

When Erdoğan came to power, he

continued Turkey's long ambition of
joining the European Union. Turkey, under
Erdoğan, made many strides in its laws
that would qualify for EU
membership.[153] On 3 October 2005
negotiations began for Turkey's
accession to the European Union.[154][155]
Erdoğan was named "The European of
the Year 2004" by the newspaper
European Voice for the reforms in his
country in order to accomplish the
accession of Turkey to the European
Union. He said in a comment that
"Turkey's accession shows that Europe is
a continent where civilisations reconcile
and not clash."[156] On 3 October 2005,
the negotiations for Turkey's accession
to the EU formally started during
Erdoğan's tenure as Prime Minister.[154]

The European Commission generally

supports Erdoğan's reforms, but remains
critical of his policies. Negotiations
about a possible EU membership came
to a standstill in 2009 and 2010, when
Turkish ports were closed to Cypriot
ships. The Turkish government continues
its refusal to recognize EU member state
Cyprus.

Greece and Cyprus dispute

Erdoğan with Greek Prime Minister George Papandreou.

Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva in Brazil, 27 May 2010.

Relations between Greece and Turkey

were normalized during Erdoğan's tenure
as prime minister. In May 2004, Erdoğan
became the first Turkish Prime Minister
to visit Greece since 1988, and the first to
visit the Turkish minority of Thrace since
1952. In 2007, Erdoğan and Greek Prime
Minister Kostas Karamanlis inaugurated
the Greek-Turkish natural gas pipeline
giving Caspian gas its first direct Western
outlet.[157] Turkey and Greece signed an
agreement to create a Combined Joint
Operational Unit within the framework of
NATO to participate in Peace Support
Operations.[158] Erdoğan and his party
strongly supported the EU-backed
referendum to reunify Cyprus in 2004.[159]
Negotiations about a possible EU
membership came to a standstill in 2009
and 2010, when Turkish ports were
closed to Cypriot ships as a
consequence of the economic isolation
of the internationally unrecognized
Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and
the failure of the EU to end the isolation,
as it had promised in 2004.[160] The
Turkish government continues its refusal
to recognize the Republic of Cyprus.[161]
Armenia

Armenia is Turkey's only neighbor which

Erdoğan has not visited during his
premiership. The Turkish-Armenian
border has been closed since 1993
because of the Nagorno-Karabakh
conflict with Turkey's close ally
Azerbaijan.

Diplomatic efforts resulted in the signing

of protocols between Turkish and
Armenian Foreign Ministers in
Switzerland to improve relations between
the two countries. One of the points of
the agreement was the creation of a joint
commission on the issue. The Armenian
Constitutional Court decided that the
commission contradicts the Armenian
constitution. Turkey responded saying
that Armenian court's ruling on the
protocols is not acceptable, resulting in a
suspension of the rectification process
by the Turkish side.[162]

Erdoğan has said that Armenian

President Serzh Sargsyan should
apologize for calling on school children
to re-occupy eastern Turkey. When asked
by a student at a literature contest
ceremony if Armenians will be able to get
back their "western territories" along with
Mt. Ararat, Sarksyan said, "This is the
task of your generation".[163]
Russia

High-Level Russian-Turkish Cooperation Council with Prime Minister Erdoğan and President Putin

In December 2004, President Putin visited

Turkey, making it the first presidential
visit in the history of Turkish-Russian
relations besides that of the Chairman of
the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, Nikolai
Podgorny in 1972. In November 2005,
Putin attended the inauguration of a
jointly constructed Blue Stream natural
gas pipeline in Turkey. This sequence of
top-level visits has brought several
important bilateral issues to the
forefront. The two countries consider it
their strategic goal to achieve
"multidimensional co-operation",
especially in the fields of energy,
transport and the military. Specifically,
Russia aims to invest in Turkey's fuel and
energy industries, and it also expects to
participate in tenders for the
modernisation of Turkey's military.[164]
The relations during this time are
described by President Medvedev as
"Turkey is one of our most important
partners with respect to regional and
international issues. We can confidently
say that Russian-Turkish relations have
advanced to the level of a
multidimensional strategic
partnership".[165]

In May 2010, Turkey and Russia signed

17 agreements to enhance cooperation in
energy and other fields, including pacts
to build Turkey's first nuclear power plant
and further plans for an oil pipeline from
the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea.
The leaders of both countries also
signed an agreement on visa-free travel,
enabling tourists to get into the other
country for free and stay there for up to
30 days.
United States

Erdoğan and Barack Obama in White House, 7 December 2009.

When Barack Obama became President

of United States, he made his first
overseas bilateral meeting to Turkey in
April 2009.

At a joint news conference in Turkey,

Obama said: "I'm trying to make a
statement about the importance of
Turkey, not just to the United States but
to the world. I think that where there's the
most promise of building stronger U.S.-
Turkish relations is in the recognition that
Turkey and the United States can build a
model partnership in which a
predominantly Christian nation, a
predominantly Muslim nation – a
Western nation and a nation that
straddles two continents," he continued,
"that we can create a modern
international community that is
respectful, that is secure, that is
prosperous, that there are not tensions –
inevitable tensions between cultures –
which I think is extraordinarily
important."[166]
Iraq

Turkey under Erdoğan was named by the

Bush Administration as a part of the
"coalition of the willing" that was central
to the 2003 invasion of Iraq.[167] On 1
March 2003, a motion allowing Turkish
military to participate in the U.S-led
coalition's invasion of Iraq, along with the
permission for foreign troops to be
stationed in Turkey for this purpose, was
overruled by the Turkish Parliament.[168]

After the fall of Saddam Hussein, Iraq

and Turkey signed 48 trade agreements
on issues including security, energy, and
water. The Turkish government
attempted to mend relations with Iraqi
Kurdistan by opening a Turkish university
in Erbil, and a Turkish consulate in
Mosul.[169] Erdoğan's government
fostered economic and political relations
with Irbil, and Turkey began to consider
the Kurdistan Regional Government in
northern Iraq as an ally against Maliki's
government.[170]

Israel

Erdoğan walks out of the session at the World Economic Forum in 2009, vows never to return.
Erdoğan visited Israel on 1 May 2005, a
gesture unusual for a leader of a Muslim
majority country.[171] During his trip,
Erdoğan visited the Yad Vashem, Israel's
official memorial to the victims of the
Holocaust.[171] The President of Israel
Shimon Peres addressed the Turkish
parliament during a visit in 2007, the first
time an Israeli leader had addressed the
legislature of a predominantly Muslim
nation.[172]

Their relationship worsened at the 2009

World Economic Forum conference over
Israel's actions during the Gaza War.[173]
Erdoğan was interrupted by the
moderator while he was responding to
Peres. Erdoğan stated: "Mister Peres, you
are older than I am. Maybe you are
feeling guilty and that is why you are
raising your voice. When it comes to
killing you know it too well. I remember
how you killed the children on beaches..."
Upon the moderator's reminder that they
needed to adjourn for dinner, Erdoğan left
the panel, accusing the moderator of
giving Peres more time than all the other
panelists combined.[174]

Tensions increased further following the

Gaza flotilla raid in May 2010. Erdoğan
strongly condemned the raid, describing
it as "state terrorism", and demanded an
Israeli apology.[175] In February 2013,
Erdoğan called Zionism a "crime against
humanity", comparing it to Islamophobia,
antisemitism, and fascism.[176] He later
retracted the statement, saying he had
been misinterpreted. He said "everyone
should know" that his comments were
directed at "Israeli policies", especially as
regards to "Gaza and the
settlements."[177][178] Erdoğan's
statements were criticized by UN
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, among
others.[179][180] In August 2013, the
Hürriyet reported that Erdoğan had
claimed to have evidence of Israel's
responsibility for the removal of Morsi
from office in Egypt.[181] The Israeli and
Egyptian governments dismissed the
suggestion.[182]

In response to the 2014 Israel–Gaza

conflict, Erdoğan accused Israel of
conducting "state terrorism" and a
"genocide attempt" against the
Palestinians.[183] He also stated that "If
Israel continues with this attitude, it will
definitely be tried at international
courts."[184]

Syria
Angela Merkel, Emmanuel Macron, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and Vladimir Putin when giving a press conference as part
of Syria summit in Istanbul, Turkey.

During Erdoğan's term of office,

diplomatic relations between Turkey and
Syria significantly deteriorated. In 2004,
President Bashar al-Assad arrived in
Turkey for the first official visit by a
Syrian President in 57 years. In late 2004,
Erdoğan signed a free trade agreement
with Syria. Visa restrictions between the
two countries were lifted in 2009, which
caused an economic boom in the regions
near the Syrian border.[185] However, in
2011 the relationship between the two
countries was strained following the
outbreak of conflict in Syria. Recep
Tayyip Erdoğan said he was trying to
"cultivate a favorable relationship with
whatever government would take the
place of Assad".[186] However, he began
to support the opposition in Syria, after
demonstrations turned violent, creating a
serious Syrian refugee problem in
Turkey.[187] Erdoğan's policy of providing
military training for anti-Damascus
fighters has also created conflict with
Syria's ally and a neighbour of Turkey,
Iran.[188]

Saudi Arabia

In August 2006, King Abdullah bin

Abdulaziz as-Saud made a visit to Turkey.
This was the first visit by a Saudi
monarch to Turkey in the last four
decades. The monarch made a second
visit, on 9 November 2007. Turk-Saudi
trade volume has exceeded US$
3.2 billion in 2006, almost double the
figure achieved in 2003. In 2009, this
amount reached US$ 5.5 billion and the
goal for the year 2010 was US$
10 billion.[189]

Erdoğan condemned the Saudi-led

intervention in Bahrain and characterized
the Saudi movement as "a new Karbala."
He demanded withdrawal of Saudi forces
from Bahrain.[190]
Egypt

Erdoğan had made his first official visit to

Egypt on 12 September 2011,
accompanied by six ministers and 200
businessmen.[191] This visit was made
very soon after Turkey had ejected Israeli
ambassadors, cutting off all diplomatic
relations with Israel because Israel
refused to apologize for the Gaza flotilla
raid which killed eight Turkish and one
Turco-American.[191]

Erdoğan's visit to Egypt was met with

much enthusiasm by Egyptians. CNN
reported some Egyptians saying "We
consider him as the Islamic leader in the
Middle East", while others were
appreciative of his role in supporting
Gaza.[191] Erdoğan was later honored in
Tahrir Square by members of the
Egyptian Revolution Youth Union, and
members of the Turkish embassy were
presented with a coat of arms in
acknowledgment of the Prime Minister's
support of the Egyptian Revolution.[192]

Erdoğan stated in a 2011 interview that

he supported secularism for Egypt, which
generated an angry reaction among
Islamic movements, especially the
Freedom and Justice Party, which was
the political wing of the Muslim
Brotherhood.[192] However,
commentators suggest that by forming
an alliance with the military junta during
Egypt's transition to democracy, Erdoğan
may have tipped the balance in favor of
an authoritarian government.[192]

Erdoğan condemned the sit-in dispersals

conducted by Egyptian police on 14
August 2013 at the Rabaa al-Adawiya
and al-Nahda squares, where violent
clashes between police officers and pro-
Morsi Islamist protesters led to hundreds
of deaths, mostly protesters.[193] In July
2014, one year after the removal of
Mohamed Morsi from office, Erdoğan
described Egyptian President Abdel
Fattah el-Sisi as an "illegitimate
tyrant".[194]

Somalia

Erdoğan and Somalian President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud opening the new terminal of Aden Abdulle International
Airport in Mogadishu, Somalia

Erdoğan's administration maintains

strong ties with the Somali government.
During the drought of 2011, Erdoğan's
government contributed over $201 million
to humanitarian relief efforts in the
impacted parts of Somalia.[195] Following
a greatly improved security situation in
Mogadishu in mid-2011, the Turkish
government also re-opened its foreign
embassy with the intention of more
effectively assisting in the post-conflict
development process.[196] It was among
the first foreign governments to resume
formal diplomatic relations with Somalia
after the civil war.[197]

In May 2010, the Turkish and Somali

governments signed a military training
agreement, in keeping with the provisions
outlined in the Djibouti Peace
Process.[198] Turkish Airlines became the
first long-distance international
commercial airline in two decades to
resume flights to and from Mogadishu's
Aden Adde International Airport.[197]
Turkey also launched various
development and infrastructure projects
in Somalia including building several
hospitals and helping renovate the
National Assembly building.[197]

Protests

2013 Gezi Park protests against the

perceived authoritarianism of Erdoğan
and his policies, starting from a small sit-
in in Istanbul in defense of a city park.[199]
After the police's intense reaction with
tear gas, the protests grew each day.
Faced by the largest mass protest in a
decade, Erdoğan made this controversial
remark in a televised speech: "The police
were there yesterday, they are there
today, and they will be there tomorrow".
After weeks of clashes in the streets of
Istanbul, his government at first
apologized to the protestors[200] and
called for a plebiscite, but then ordered a
crackdown on the protesters.[199][201]

Presidency
Erdoğan took the oath of office on 28
August 2014 and became the 12th
president of Turkey.[202] He administered
the new Prime Minister Ahmet
Davutoğlu's oath on 29 August. When
asked about his lower-than-expected
51.79% share of the vote, he allegedly
responded, "there were even those who
did not like the Prophet. I, however, won
52%".[203] Assuming the role of President,
Erdoğan was criticized for openly stating
that he would not maintain the tradition
of presidential neutrality.[204] Erdoğan has
also stated his intention to pursue a
more active role as president, such as
utilising the President's rarely used
cabinet-calling powers.[205] The political
opposition has argued that Erdoğan will
continue to pursue his own political
agenda, controlling the government, while
his new Prime Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu
would be docile and submissive.[206]
Furthermore, the domination of loyal
Erdoğan supporters in Davutoğlu's
cabinet fuelled speculation that Erdoğan
intended to exercise substantial control
over the government.[207]

Presidential elections

Ballot paper for the 2018 presidential election

On 1 July 2014, Erdoğan was named the

AKP's presidential candidate in the
Turkish presidential election. His
candidacy was announced by the Deputy
President of the AKP, Mehmet Ali Şahin.
Erdoğan made a speech after the
announcement and used the 'Erdoğan
logo' for the first time. The logo was
criticised because it was very similar to
the logo that U.S. President Barack
Obama used in the 2008 presidential
election.[208]

Erdoğan was elected as the President of

Turkey in the first round of the election
with 51.79% of the vote, obviating the
need for a run-off by winning over 50%.
The joint candidate of the CHP, MHP and
13 other opposition parties, former
Organisation of Islamic Co-operation
general secretary Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu
won 38.44% of the vote. The pro-Kurdish
HDP candidate Selahattin Demirtaş won
9.76%.[209]

The 2018 Turkish presidential election

took place as part of the 2018 general
election, alongside parliamentary
elections on the same day. Following the
approval of constitutional changes in a
referendum held in 2017, the elected
President will be both the head of state
and head of government of Turkey, taking
over the latter role from the to-be-
abolished office of the Prime
Minister.[210]

Incumbent president Recep Tayyip

Erdoğan declared his candidacy for the
People's Alliance (Turkish: Cumhur
İttifakı) on 27 April 2018, being supported
by the MHP.[211] Erdoğan's main
opposition, the Republican People's Party,
nominated Muharrem İnce, a member of
the parliament known for his combative
opposition and spirited speeches against
Erdoğan.[212] Besides these candidates,
Meral Akşener, the founder and leader of
Good Party,[213] Temel Karamollaoğlu, the
leader of the Felicity Party and Doğu
Perinçek, the leader of the Patriotic Party,
have announced their candidacies and
collected the 100,000 signatures required
for nomination. The alliance which
Erdoğan was candidate for won 52.59%
of the popular vote.
For the presidential election 2023 his
candidacy is in dispute as he has
launched his campaign in June 2022,[214]
but the opposition contends a third
presidential term would violate the
constitution.[215]

Referendum

In April 2017, a constitutional referendum

was held, where the voters in Turkey (and
Turkish citizens abroad) approved a set
of 18 proposed amendments to the
Constitution of Turkey.[216] The
amendments included the replacement
of the existing parliamentary system with
a presidential system. The post of Prime
Minister would be abolished, and the
presidency would become an executive
post vested with broad executive powers.
The parliament seats would be increased
from 550 to 600 and the age of
candidacy to the parliament was lowered
from 25 to 18. The referendum also
called for changes to the Supreme Board
of Judges and Prosecutors.[217]

Local elections

In the 2019 local elections, the ruling

party AKP lost control of Istanbul and
Ankara for the first time in 25 years, as
well as 5 of Turkey's 6 largest cities. The
loss has been widely attributed to
Erdoğan's mismanagement of the Turkish
economic crisis, rising authoritarianism
as well as the alleged government
inaction on the Syrian refugee crisis.[218]
Soon after the elections, Supreme
Electoral Council of Turkey ordered a re-
election in Istanbul, cancelling Ekrem
İmamoğlu's mayoral certificate. The
decision led to a significant decrease of
Erdoğan's and AKP's popularity and his
party lost the elections again in June with
a greater margin.[219][220][221][222] The
result was seen as a huge blow to
Erdoğan, who had once said that if his
party 'lost Istanbul, we would lose Turkey.
The opposition's victory was
characterised as 'the beginning of the
end' for Erdoğan',[223][224][225] with
international commentators calling the
re-run a huge government miscalculation
that led to a potential İmamoğlu
candidacy in the next scheduled
presidential election.[223][225] It is
suspected that the scale of the
government's defeat could provoke a
cabinet reshuffle and early general
elections, currently scheduled for June
2023.[226][227]

The New Zealand and Australian

governments and opposition CHP party
have criticized Erdoğan after he
repeatedly showed video taken by the
Christchurch mosque shooter to his
supporters at campaign rallies for 31
March local elections and said
Australians and New Zealanders who
came to Turkey with anti-Muslim
sentiments "would be sent back in coffins
like their grandfathers" at
Gallipoli.[228][229]

Domestic policy

Presidential palace

Erdoğan has also received criticism for

the construction of a new official
residence called the Presidential
Complex, which takes up approximately
50 acres of Atatürk Forest Farm (AOÇ) in
Ankara.[230][231] Since the AOÇ is
protected land, several court orders were
issued to halt the construction of the new
palace, though building work went on
nonetheless.[232] The opposition
described the move as a clear disregard
for the rule of law.[233] The project was
subject to heavy criticism and allegations
were made; of corruption during the
construction process, wildlife destruction
and the complete obliteration of the zoo
in the AOÇ in order to make way for the
new compound.[234] The fact that the
palace is technically illegal has led to it
being branded as the 'Kaç-Ak Saray', the
word kaçak in Turkish meaning
'illegal'.[235]
Ak Saray was originally designed as a
new office for the Prime Minister.
However, upon assuming the presidency,
Erdoğan announced that the palace
would become the new Presidential
Palace, while the Çankaya Mansion will
be used by the Prime Minister instead.
The move was seen as a historic change
since the Çankaya Mansion had been
used as the iconic office of the
presidency ever since its inception. The
Presidential Complex has almost 1,000
rooms and cost $350 million
(€270 million), leading to huge criticism
at a time when mining accidents and
workers' rights had been dominating the
agenda.[236][237]
On 29 October 2014, Erdoğan was due to
hold a Republic Day reception in the new
palace to commemorate the 91st
anniversary of the Republic of Turkey and
to officially inaugurate the Presidential
Palace. However, after most invited
participants announced that they would
boycott the event and a mining accident
occurred in the district of Ermenek in
Karaman, the reception was
cancelled.[238]

The media
Turkish journalists protesting imprisonment of their colleagues on Human Rights Day, 10 December 2016

President Erdoğan and his government

continue to press for court action against
the remaining free press in Turkey. The
latest newspaper that has been seized is
Zaman, in March 2016.[239] After the
seizure Morton Abramowitz and Eric
Edelman, former U.S. ambassadors to
Turkey, condemned President Erdoğan's
actions in an opinion piece published by
The Washington Post: "Clearly, democracy
cannot flourish under Erdoğan now".[240]
"The overall pace of reforms in Turkey
has not only slowed down but in some
key areas, such as freedom of
expression and the independence of the
judiciary, there has been a regression,
which is particularly worrying", rapporteur
Kati Piri said in April 2016 after the
European Parliament passed its annual
progress report on Turkey.[241]

On 22 June 2016, President Recep Tayyip

Erdoğan said that he considered himself
successful in "destroying" Turkish civil
groups "working against the state",[242] a
conclusion that had been confirmed
some days earlier by Sedat Laçiner,
Professor of International Relations and
rector of the Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart
University: "Outlawing unarmed and
peaceful opposition, sentencing people
to unfair punishment under erroneous
terror accusations, will feed genuine
terrorism in Erdoğan’s Turkey. Guns and
violence will become the sole alternative
for legally expressing free thought".[243]

After the coup attempt, over 200

journalists were arrested and over 120
media outlets were closed. Cumhuriyet
journalists were detained in November
2016 after a long-standing crackdown on
the newspaper. Subsequently, Reporters
Without Borders called Erdoğan an
"enemy of press freedom" and said that
he "hides his aggressive dictatorship
under a veneer of democracy".[244]
In 2014, Turkey temporarily blocked
access to Twitter.[245] In April 2017,
Turkey blocked all access to Wikipedia
over a content dispute.[246] The Turkish
government lifted a two-and-a-half-year
ban on Wikipedia on 15 January 2020,
restoring access to the online
encyclopedia a month after Turkey's top
court ruled that blocking Wikipedia was
unconstitutional.

On 1 July 2020, in a statement made to

his party members, Erdoğan announced
that the government would introduce new
measures and regulations to control or
shut down social media platforms such
as YouTube, Twitter and Netflix. Through
these new measures, each company
would be required to appoint an official
representative in the country to respond
to legal concerns. The decision comes
after a number of Twitter users insulted
his daughter Esra after she welcomed
her fourth child.[247]

State of emergency and purges

On 20 July 2016, President Erdoğan

declared the state of emergency, citing
the coup d'état attempt as
justification.[248] It was first scheduled to
last three months. The Turkish parliament
approved this measure.[249] The state of
emergency was later continuously
extended until 2018[250][251] amidst the
ongoing 2016 Turkish purges including
comprehensive purges of independent
media and detention of tens of
thousands of Turkish citizens politically
opposed to Erdoğan.[252] More than
50,000 people have been arrested and
over 160,000 fired from their jobs by
March 2018.[253][250]

Turkish journalists Can Dündar and Erdem Gül were arrested for leaking classified information about Turkish support
to Islamist fighters in Syria

In August 2016, Erdoğan began rounding

up journalists who had been publishing,
or who were about to publish articles
questioning corruption within the Erdoğan
administration, and incarcerating
them.[254] The number of Turkish
journalists jailed by Turkey is higher than
any other country, including all of those
journalists currently jailed in North Korea,
Cuba, Russia, and China combined.[255] In
the wake of the coup attempt of July
2016 the Erdoğan administration began
rounding up tens of thousands of
individuals, both from within the
government, and from the public sector,
and incarcerating them on charges of
alleged "terrorism".[256][257][258] As a result
of these arrests, many in the international
community complained about the lack of
proper judicial process in the
incarceration of Erdoğan's
opposition.[259] 

In April 2017 Erdoğan successfully

sponsored legislation effectively making
it illegal for the Turkish legislative branch
to investigate his executive branch of
government.[260] Without the checks and
balances of freedom of speech, and the
freedom of the Turkish legislature to hold
him accountable for his actions, many
have likened Turkey's current form of
government to a dictatorship with only
nominal forms of democracy in
practice.[261][262] At the time of Erdoğan's
successful passing of the most recent
legislation silencing his opposition,
United States President Donald Trump
called Erdoğan to congratulate him for
his "recent referendum victory".[263]

On 29 April 2017 Erdoğan's

administration began an internal Internet
block of all of the Wikipedia online
encyclopedia site via Turkey's domestic
Internet filtering system. This blocking
action took place after the government
had first made a request for Wikipedia to
remove what it referred to as "offensive
content". In response, Wikipedia co-
founder Jimmy Wales replied via a post
on Twitter stating, "Access to information
is a fundamental human right. Turkish
people, I will always stand with you and
fight for this right."[264][265]

In January 2016, more than a thousand

academics signed a petition criticizing
Turkey's military crackdown on ethnic
Kurdish towns and neighborhoods in the
east of the country, such as Sur (a district
of Diyarbakır), Silvan, Nusaybin, Cizre and
Silopi, and asking an end to violence.[266]
Erdoğan accused those who signed the
petition of "terrorist propaganda", calling
them "the darkest of people". He called
for action by institutions and universities,
stating, "Everyone who benefits from this
state but is now an enemy of the state
must be punished without further
delay".[267] Within days, over 30 of the
signatories were arrested, many in dawn-
time raids on their homes. Although all
were quickly released, nearly half were
fired from their jobs, eliciting a
denunciation from Turkey's Science
Academy for such "wrong and disturbing"
treatment.[268] Erdoğan vowed that the
academics would pay the price for
"falling into a pit of treachery".[269]

On 8 July 2018, Erdoğan sacked 18,000

officials for alleged ties to US based
cleric Fethullah Gülen, shortly before
renewing his term as an executive
president. Of those removed, 9000 were
police officers with 5000 from the armed
forces with the addition of hundreds of
academics.[270]

Economic policy

Under his presidency, Erdoğan has

decreased the independence of the
Central Bank and pushed it to pursue a
highly unorthodox monetary policy,
decreasing interest rates even with high
inflation.[271] He has pushed the theory
that inflation is caused by interest rates,
an idea universally rejected by
economists.[271][272] This, along with
other factors such as excessive current
account deficit and foreign-currency
debt,[273] in combination with Erdoğan's
increasing authoritarianism, caused an
economic crisis starting from 2018,
leading to large depreciation of the
Turkish lira and very high
inflation.[274][275][276][277] Economist Paul
Krugman described the unfolding crisis
as "a classic currency-and-debt crisis, of
a kind we’ve seen many times", adding:
"At such a time, the quality of leadership
suddenly matters a great deal. You need
officials who understand what's
happening, can devise a response and
have enough credibility that markets give
them the benefit of the doubt. Some
emerging markets have those things, and
they are riding out the turmoil fairly well.
The Erdoğan regime has none of
that".[278]

Foreign policy

Europe

Foreign trips made by Recep Tayyip Erdoğan as President (since 2014)

In February 2016, Erdoğan threatened to

send the millions of refugees in Turkey to
EU member states,[279] saying: "We can
open the doors to Greece and Bulgaria
anytime and we can put the refugees on
buses ... So how will you deal with
refugees if you don't get a deal?"[280]

In an interview to the news magazine Der

Spiegel, German minister of defence
Ursula von der Leyen said on 11 March
2016 that the refugee crisis had made
good cooperation between EU and
Turkey an "existentially important" issue.
"Therefore it is right to advance now
negotiations on Turkey's EU
accession".[281]

Working dinner between the leaders of Turkey, Germany, France and Russia in Istanbul
In its resolution "The functioning of
democratic institutions in Turkey" from
22 June 2016, the Parliamentary
Assembly of the Council of Europe
warned that "recent developments in
Turkey pertaining to freedom of the
media and of expression, erosion of the
rule of law and the human rights
violations in relation to anti-terrorism
security operations in south-east Turkey
have ... raised serious questions about
the functioning of its democratic
institutions".[282][283]

In January 2017, Erdoğan said that the

withdrawal of Turkish troops from
Northern Cyprus is "out of the question"
and Turkey will be in Cyprus "forever".[284]

In September 2020, Erdoğan declared his

government's support for Azerbaijan
following clashes between Armenian and
Azeri forces over a disputed region of
Nagorno-Karabakh.[285] He dismissed
demands for a ceasefire.[286]

In May 2022, Erdoğan voiced his

opposition to Sweden and Finland joining
NATO, accusing the two countries of
tolerating groups which Turkey classifies
as terrorist organizations,[287] including
the Kurdish militant groups PKK and YPG
and the supporters of Fethullah
Gülen.[288] Following a protest in Sweden
where a Quran was burned, Erdogan re-
iterated that he would not support
Sweden's bid to join NATO.[289] President
of Finland Sauli Niinistö visited Erdogan
in Istanbul and Ankara in March 2023.
During the visit, Erdogan confirmed that
he supported Finnish NATO membership
and declared that the Turkish parliament
would confirm Finnish membership
before the Turkish Presidential elections
in May 2023.[290] On March 23, 2023, the
Turkish parliament's foreign relations
committee confirmed the Finnish NATO
membership application and sent the
process to the Turkish Parliament's
plenary session.[291] On April 1, 2023,
Erdogan confirmed and signed the
Turkish Grand National Assembly's
ratification of Finnish NATO
membership.[292] This decision sealed
Finland's entry to NATO.

Greece

There is a long-standing dispute between

Turkey and Greece in the Aegean Sea.
Erdoğan warned that Greece will pay a
"heavy price" if Turkey's gas exploration
vessel – in what Turkey said are disputed
waters – is attacked.[293] He deemed the
readmission of Greece into the military
alliance NATO a mistake, claiming they
were collaborating with terrorists.[294]
Diaspora

In March 2017, Turkish President Recep

Tayyip Erdoğan stated to the Turks in
Europe, "Make not three, but five children.
Because you are the future of Europe.
That will be the best response to the
injustices against you." This has been
interpreted as an imperialist call for
demographic warfare.[295]

According to The Economist, Erdoğan is

the first Turkish leader to take the Turkish
diaspora seriously, which has created
friction within these diaspora
communities and between the Turkish
government and several of its European
counterparts.[296]

The Balkans

Meeting between leaders of Turkey, Albania, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria and Serbia in Istanbul, 10 July 2017.

Erdoğan with Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev (middle) and Bosnian Presidency Chairman Bakir Izetbegović, 12 July
2018

In February 2018, President Erdoğan

expressed Turkish support of the
Republic of Macedonia's position during
negotiations over the Macedonia naming
dispute saying that Greece's position is
wrong.[297]

In March 2018, President Erdoğan

criticized the Kosovan Prime Minister
Ramush Haradinaj for dismissing his
Interior Minister and Intelligence Chief for
failing to inform him of an unauthorized
and illegal secret operation conducted by
the National Intelligence Organization of
Turkey on Kosovo's territory that led to
the arrest of six people allegedly
associated with the Gülen
movement.[298][299]
On 26 November 2019, an earthquake
struck the Durrës region of Albania.
President Erdoğan expressed his
condolences.[300] and citing close
Albanian-Turkish relations, he committed
Turkey to reconstructing 500 earthquake
destroyed homes and other civic
structures in Laç, Albania.[301][302][303] In
Istanbul, Erdoğan organised and
attended a donors conference (8
December) to assist Albania that
included Turkish businessmen, investors
and Albanian Prime Minister Edi
Rama.[304]
United Kingdom

In May 2018, British Prime Minister

Theresa May welcomed Erdoğan to the
United Kingdom for a three-day state
visit. Erdoğan declared that the United
Kingdom is "an ally and a strategic
partner, but also a real friend. The
cooperation we have is well beyond any
mechanism that we have established
with other partners."[305]

Israel
Erdoğan during a state visit of Israeli President Isaac Herzog to Turkey (2022)

Relations between Turkey and Israel

began to normalize after Israeli Prime
Minister Netanyahu officially apologized
for the death of the nine Turkish activists
during the Gaza flotilla raid.[306] However,
in response to the 2014 Israel–Gaza
conflict, Erdoğan accused Israel of being
"more barbaric than Hitler",[307] and
conducting "state terrorism" and a
"genocide attempt" against the
Palestinians.[308]

In December 2017, President Erdoğan

issued a warning to Donald Trump, after
the U.S. President acknowledged
Jerusalem as Israel's capital.[309]
Erdoğan stated, "Jerusalem is a red line
for Muslims", indicating that naming
Jerusalem as Israel's capital would
alienate Palestinians and other Muslims
from the city, undermining hopes at a
future capital of a Palestinian State.[310]
Erdoğan called Israel a "terrorist
state".[311] Naftali Bennett dismissed the
threats, claiming "Erdoğan does not miss
an opportunity to attack Israel".[310]

In April 2019, Erdoğan said the West

Bank belongs to Palestinians, after Israeli
Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said
he would annex Israeli settlements in the
occupied Palestinian territories if he is re-
elected.[312]

Erdoğan condemned the Israel–UAE

peace agreement, stating that Turkey
was considering suspending or cutting
off diplomatic relations with the United
Arab Emirates in retaliation.[313]

The relations shifted back to normality

since 2021, when the two countries
started improving relations.[314] In March
2022, Israeli president Isaac Herzog
visited Turkey, meeting Erdoğan.[315] The
two countries agreed to restore
diplomatic relations in August 2022.[316]
Syrian Civil War

Erdoğan meeting U.S. President Barack Obama during the 2014 Wales summit in Newport, Wales

Diplomatic relations between Turkey and

Syria significantly deteriorated due to the
Syrian civil war. Initially, while tens of
thousand of Syrian refugees already
crossed the border to Turkey, Turkish
officials tried to convince Syrian
President Bashar al-Assad to make
significant reforms to alleviate the
conflict and calm down the protests.[317]
The last of such meetings happened on
August 9, 2011, during a seven-hour
meeting between Assad and Turkey's
Ahmet Davutoğlu, giving the latter the title
of ‘the last European leader who visited
Assad’.[318]

Turkey got involved in a violent conflict

with Islamic State (IS) as part of the
spillover of the Syrian Civil War. IS
executed a series of attacks against
Turkish soldiers and civilians. In an ISIS-
video, where two Turkish soldiers were
burned alive, Turkish President Erdoğan
was verbally attacked by ISIS and
threatened with the destruction of
Turkey.[319] Turkey joined the international
military intervention against the Islamic
State in 2015. The Turkish Armed Forces'
Operation Euphrates Shield was aimed at
IS, and areas around Jarabulus and al-
Bab were conquered from IS.[320]

In January 2018, the Turkish military and

its allies Syrian National Army and Sham
Legion began Operation Olive Branch in
Afrin in Northern Syria, against the
Kurdish armed group YPG.[321][322] In
October 2019, the United States gave the
go-ahead to the 2019 Turkish offensive
into north-eastern Syria, despite recently
agreeing to a Northern Syria Buffer Zone.
U.S. troops in northern Syria were
withdrawn from the border to avoid
interference with the Turkish
operation.[323] After the U.S. pullout,
Turkey proceeded to attack the
Autonomous Administration of North and
East Syria.[324] Rejecting criticism of the
invasion, Erdoğan claimed that NATO and
European Union countries "sided with
terrorists, and all of them attacked
us".[325] Erdoğan then filed a criminal
complaint against French magazine Le
Point after it accused him of conducting
ethnic cleansing in the area.[326][327] With
Erdogan's control of the media fanning
local nationalism,[328] a poll by Metropoll
Research found that 79% of Turkish
respondents expressed support for the
operation.[329]
China

Erdoğan, Chinese President Xi Jinping and other leaders at the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation summit on 16
September 2022

Erdoğan meeting with Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe (2018)

Bilateral trade between Turkey and China

increased from $1 billion a year in 2002
to $27 billion annually in 2017.[330]
Erdoğan has stated that Turkey might
consider joining the Shanghai
Cooperation Organisation instead of the
European Union.[331]

In 2009, Erdoğan accused China of

"genocide" against the Uyghurs in
Xinjiang, but later changed his
rhetoric.[332][333]

Japan

Qatar blockade

In June 2017 during a speech, Erdoğan

called the isolation of Qatar as
"inhumane and against Islamic values"
and that "victimising Qatar through smear
campaigns serves no purpose".[334]
Myanmar

In September 2017, Erdoğan condemned

the persecution of Muslims in Myanmar
and accused Myanmar of "genocide"
against the Muslim minority.[335]

United States

Erdoğan in a meeting with US President Joe Biden, Turkish Foreign Minister Çavusoğlu and US Secretary of State
Blinken, October 2021

Over time, Turkey began to look for ways

to buy its own missile defense system
and also to use that procurement to build
up its own capacity to manufacture and
sell an air and missile defense system.
Turkey got serious about acquiring a
missile defense system early in the first
Obama administration when it opened a
competition between the Raytheon
Patriot PAC 2 system and systems from
Europe, Russia, and even China.[336]

Taking advantage of the new low in U.S.-

Turkish relations, Putin saw his chance to
use an S-400 sale to Turkey, so in July
2017, he offered the air defense system
to Turkey. In the months that followed,
the United States warned Turkey that a S-
400 purchase jeopardized Turkey's F-35
purchase. Integration of the Russian
system into the NATO air defense net
was also out of the question.
Administration officials, including Mark
Esper, warned that Turkey had to choose
between the S-400 and the F-35, that they
could not have both.

The S-400 deliveries to Turkey began on

12 July. On 16 July, Trump mentioned to
reporters that withholding the F-35 from
Turkey was unfair. Said the president, "So
what happens is we have a situation
where Turkey is very good with us, very
good, and we are now telling Turkey that
because you have really been forced to
buy another missile system, we’re not
going to sell you the F-35 fighter jets".[337]
The U.S. Congress made clear on a
bipartisan basis that it expected the
president to sanction Turkey for buying
Russian equipment.[338] Out of the F-35,
Turkey considered buying Russian fifth-
generation jet fighter Su-57.

On 1 August 2018, the U.S. Department of

Treasury sanctioned two senior Turkish
government ministers who were involved
in the detention of American pastor
Andrew Brunson.[339] Erdoğan said that
U.S. behavior would force Turkey to look
for new friends and allies.[340] The U.S.–
Turkey tensions appeared to be the most
serious diplomatic crisis between the
NATO allies in years.[341][342]
Trump's former national security adviser
John Bolton claimed that President
Donald Trump told Erdoğan he would
'take care' of the investigation against
Turkey's state-owned bank Halkbank,
accused of bank fraud charges and
laundering up to $20 billion on behalf of
Iranian entities.[343] Turkey criticized
Bolton's book, saying it included
misleading accounts of conversations
between Trump and Erdoğan.[344]

In August 2020, the former vice president

and presidential candidate Joe Biden
called for a new U.S. approach to the
"autocrat" President Erdoğan and support
for Turkish opposition parties.[345][346] In
September 2020, Biden demanded that
Erdoğan "stay out" of the Nagorno-
Karabakh war between Azerbaijan and
Armenia, in which Turkey supported the
Azeris.[347]

Venezuela

Relations with Venezuela were

strengthened with recent developments
and high level mutual visits. The first
official visit between the two countries at
presidential level was in October 2017
when Venezuelan President Nicolás
Maduro visited Turkey. In December
2018, Erdoğan visited Venezuela for the
first time and expressed his will to build
strong relations with Venezuela and
expressed hope that high-level visits "will
increasingly continue."[348]

Reuters reported that in 2018 23 tons of

mined gold were taken from Venezuela to
Istanbul.[349] In the first nine months of
2018, Venezuela's gold exports to Turkey
rose from zero in the previous year to
US$900 million.[350]

During the Venezuelan presidential crisis,

Erdoğan voiced solidarity with
Venezuela's President Nicolás Maduro
and criticized U.S. sanctions against
Venezuela, saying that "political problems
cannot be resolved by punishing an entire
nation."[351][352]

Following the 2019 Venezuelan uprising

attempt, Erdoğan condemned the actions
of lawmaker Juan Guaidó, tweeting
"Those who are in an effort to appoint a
postmodern colonial governor to
Venezuela, where the President was
appointed by elections and where the
people rule, should know that only
democratic elections can determine how
a country is governed".[353][354]
Ukraine and Russian invasion of Ukraine

Signing of the grain export deal between Turkey, Ukraine, Russia and the UN in Istanbul, 2022

In 2016, Erdoğan told his Ukrainian

counterpart Petro Poroshenko that
Turkey would not recognize the 2014
Russian annexation of Crimea; calling it
"Crimea's occupation".[355]

During the 2022 Russian invasion of

Ukraine, Erdoğan functioned as a
mediator and peace broker.[356][357] On
March 10, 2022, Turkey hosted a trilateral
meeting with Ukraine and Russia on the
margins of Antalya Diplomacy Forum,
making it the first high-level talks since
the invasion.[358] Following the peace
talks in Istanbul on March 29, 2022,
Russia decided to leave areas around
Kyiv and Chernihiv.[359] On 22 July 2022,
together with United Nations, Turkey
brokered a deal between Russia and
Ukraine about clearing the way for the
export of grain from Ukrainian ports,
following the 2022 food crises.[360] On 21
September 2022, a record-high of 215
Ukrainian soldiers, including fighters who
led the defence of the Azovstal
steelworks in Mariupol, had been
released in a prisoner exchange with
Russia after mediation by Turkish
President Erdoğan.[361] As part of the
agreement, the freed captives stay in
Turkey until the war is over.[362]

While Turkey has closed the Bosphorus

to Russian naval reinforcements,
enforced United Nations sanctions[363]
and supplied Ukraine with military
equipment such as Bayraktar TB2 drones
and BMC Kirpi vehicles, it didn't
participate in certain sanctions like
closing the Turkish airspace for Russian
civilians and continued the dialogue with
Russian President Vladimir Putin.[364]
Erdoğan reiterated his stance on Crimea
in 2022 saying that international law
requires that Russia must return Crimea
to Ukraine.[365]

Events

Coup d'état attempt

On 15 July 2016, a coup d'état was

attempted by the military, with aims to
remove Erdoğan from government. By the
next day, Erdoğan's government managed
to reassert effective control in the
country.[366] Reportedly, no government
official was arrested or harmed, which,
among other factors, raised the
suspicion of a false flag event staged by
the government itself.[367][368]
The Turkish parliament was bombed by jets during the failed coup of 2016

Erdoğan, as well as other government

officials, has blamed an exiled cleric, and
a former ally of Erdoğan, Fethullah Gülen,
for staging the coup attempt.[369]
Süleyman Soylu, Minister of Labor in
Erdoğan's government, accused the US of
planning a coup to oust Erdoğan.[370]

Erdoğan, as well as other high-ranking

Turkish government officials, has issued
repeated demands to the US to extradite
Gülen.[371][372]

Following the coup attempt, there has

been a significant deterioration in Turkey-
US relations. European and other world
leaders have expressed their concerns
over the situation in Turkey, with many of
them warning Erdoğan not to use the
coup attempt as an excuse to crack
down on his opponents.[373]

The rise of ISIS and the collapse of the

Kurdish peace process had led to a sharp
rise in terror incidents in Turkey until
2016. Erdoğan was accused by his critics
of having a 'soft corner' for ISIS.[374]
However, after the attempted coup,
Erdoğan ordered the Turkish military into
Syria to combat ISIS and Kurdish militant
groups.[375] Erdoğan's critics have
decried purges in the education system
and judiciary as undermining the rule of
law[376] however Erdoğan supporters
argue this is a necessary measure as
Gulen-linked schools cheated on
entrance exams, requiring a purge in the
education system and of the Gulen
followers who then entered the
judiciary.[377][378]

Erdoğan's plan is "to reconstitute Turkey

as a presidential system. The plan would
create a centralized system that would
enable him to better tackle Turkey's
internal and external threats. One of the
main hurdles allegedly standing in his
way is Fethullah Gulen's movement ..."[379]
In the aftermath of the 2016 Turkish coup
d'état attempt, a groundswell of national
unity and consensus emerged for
cracking down on the coup plotters with
a National Unity rally held in Turkey that
included Islamists, secularists, liberals
and nationalists.[380][381] Erdoğan has
used this consensus to remove Gulen's
followers from the bureaucracy, curtail
their role in NGOs, Turkey's Ministry of
Religious Affairs and the Turkish military,
with 149 Generals discharged.[382] In a
foreign policy shift Erdoğan ordered the
Turkish Armed Forces into battle in Syria
and has liberated towns from IS
control.[383] As relations with Europe
soured over in the aftermath of the
attempted coup, Erdoğan developed
alternative relationships with
Russia,[384][385] Saudi Arabia[386] and a
"strategic partnership" with
Pakistan,[387][388] with plans to cultivate
relations through free trade agreements
and deepening military relations for
mutual co-operation with Turkey's
regional allies.[389][390][391]
2023 earthquake

On 6 February 2023, a catastrophic

earthquake occurred during his
administration in southeastern Turkey
and northwestern Syria,[392] killing more
than 50,000 people.[393]

Ideology and public image

Early during his premiership, Erdoğan was
praised as a role model for emerging
Middle Eastern nations due to several
reform packages initiated by his
government which expanded religious
freedoms and minority rights as part of
accession negotiations with the
European Union.[394] However, his
government underwent several crises
including the Sledgehammer coup and
the Ergenekon trials, corruption scandals,
accusations of media intimidation, as
well as the pursuit of an increasingly
polarizing political agenda; the
opposition accused the government of
inciting political hatred throughout the
country.[395] He has also been described
as having "long championed Islamist
causes".[396]

Ziya Gökalp

In 2019, Erdoğan once again publicly

recited Ziya Gökalp's Soldier's Prayer
poem, similar to how he had done in
1997. According to Hans-Lukas Kieser,
these recitations betray Erdoğan's desire
to create Gökalp's pre-1923 ideal, that is,
"a modern, leader-led Islamic-Turkish
state extending beyond the boundaries of
the Treaty of Lausanne".[397]

Ottomanism

Erdoğan meeting Palestinian president Abbas in Erdoğan's Presidential Palace

As President, Erdoğan has overseen a
revival of Ottoman tradition,[398][399][110]
greeting Palestinian president Mahmoud
Abbas with an Ottoman-style ceremony
in the new presidential palace, with
guards dressed in costumes representing
founders of 16 Great Turkish Empires in
history.[400] While serving as the Prime
Minister of Turkey, Erdoğan's AKP made
references to the Ottoman era during
election campaigns, such as calling their
supporters 'grandsons of Ottomans'
(Osmanlı torunu).[401] This proved
controversial, since it was perceived to
be an open attack against the republican
nature of modern Turkey founded by
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. In 2015, Erdoğan
made a statement in which he endorsed
the old Ottoman term külliye to refer to
university campuses rather than the
standard Turkish word kampüs.[402] Many
critics have thus accused Erdoğan of
wanting to become an Ottoman sultan
and abandon the secular and democratic
credentials of the
Republic.[403][404][405][406] One of the most
cited scholars alive, Noam Chomsky, said
that "Erdogan in Turkey is basically trying
to create something like the Ottoman
Caliphate, with him as caliph, supreme
leader, throwing his weight around all
over the place, and destroying the
remnants of democracy in Turkey at the
same time".[407]
When pressed on this issue in January
2015, Erdoğan denied these claims and
said that he would aim to be more like
Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom
rather than like an Ottoman sultan.[408]

In July 2020, after the Council of State

annulled the Cabinet's 1934 decision to
establish the Hagia Sophia as museum
and revoking the monument's status,
Erdoğan ordered its reclassification as a
mosque.[409][410] The 1934 decree was
ruled to be unlawful under both Ottoman
and Turkish law as Hagia Sophia's waqf,
endowed by Sultan Mehmed II, had
designated the site a mosque;
proponents of the decision argued the
Hagia Sophia was the personal property
of the sultan.[411] This redesignation is
controversial, invoking condemnation
from the Turkish opposition, UNESCO, the
World Council of Churches, the Holy See,
and many other international
leaders.[412][413][414] In August 2020, he
also signed the order that transferred the
administration of the Chora Church to the
Directorate of Religious Affairs to open it
for worship as a mosque.[415] Initially
converted to a mosque by the Ottomans,
the building had then been designated as
a museum by the government since
1934.[416][398]
In August 2020, Erdoğan gave a speech
saying that "in our civilization, conquest is
not occupation or looting. It is
establishing the dominance of the justice
that Allah commanded in the region. First
of all, our nation removed the oppression
from the areas that it conquered. It
established justice. This is why our
civilization is one of conquest. Turkey will
take what is its right in the Mediterranean
Sea, in the Aegean Sea, and in the Black
Sea."[417][398] In October 2020, he made a
statement before the Grand National
Assembly that "Jerusalem is ours",
referring to the period of Ottoman rule
over the city and the rebuilding of its Old
City by Suleiman the Magnificent.[418]
Authoritarianism

Erdoğan has served as the de facto

leader of Turkey since 2002.[c][419][420][421]
In the more recent years of Erdoğan's
rule, Turkey has experienced increasing
authoritarianism, democratic backsliding,
and corruption,[422][423][424] as well as
expansionism, censorship, and banning
of parties or dissent.[425][426][427][428][429]
In response to criticism, Erdoğan made a
speech in May 2014 denouncing
allegations of dictatorship, saying that
the leader of the opposition, Kemal
Kılıçdaroğlu, who was there at the
speech, would not be able to "roam the
streets" freely if he were a dictator.[430]
Kılıçdaroğlu responded that political
tensions would cease to exist if Erdoğan
stopped making his polarising speeches
for three days.[431] One observer said it
was a measure of the state of Turkish
democracy that Prime Minister Ahmet
Davutoğlu could openly threaten, on 20
December 2015, that, if his party did not
win the election, Turkish Kurds would
endure a repeat of the era of the "white
Toros", the Turkish name for the Renault
12, "a car associated with the
gendarmarie’s fearsome intelligence
agents, who carried out thousands of
extrajudicial executions of Kurdish
nationalists during the 1990s".[432]
In April 2014, the President of the
Constitutional Court, Haşim Kılıç,
accused Erdoğan of damaging the
credibility of the judiciary, labelling
Erdoğan's attempts to increase political
control over the courts as 'desperate'.[433]
During the chaotic 2007 presidential
election, the military issued an E-
memorandum warning the government to
keep within the boundaries of secularism
when choosing a candidate. Regardless,
Erdoğan's close relations with Fethullah
Gülen and his Cemaat Movement
allowed his government to maintain a
degree of influence within the judiciary
through Gülen's supporters in high judicial
and bureaucratic offices.[434][435] Shortly
after, an alleged coup plot codenamed
Sledgehammer became public and
resulted in the imprisonment of 300
military officers including İbrahim Fırtına,
Çetin Doğan and Engin Alan. Several
opposition politicians, journalists and
military officers also went on trial for
allegedly being part of an ultra-
nationalist organisation called
Ergenekon.

Erdoğan's supporters outside the White House in Washington, D.C., 16 May 2017
Both cases were marred by irregularities
and were condemned as a joint attempt
by Erdoğan and Gülen to curb opposition
to the AKP.[436] The original
Sledgehammer document containing the
coup plans, allegedly written in 2003, was
found to have been written using
Microsoft Word 2007.[437] Despite both
domestic and international calls for
these irregularities to be addressed in
order to guarantee a fair trial, Erdoğan
instead praised his government for
bringing the coup plots to light.[438] When
Gülen publicly withdrew support and
openly attacked Erdoğan in late 2013,
several imprisoned military officers and
journalists were released, with the
government admitting that the judicial
proceedings were unfair.[439]

When Gülen withdrew support from the

AKP government in late 2013, a
government corruption scandal broke
out, leading to the arrest of several family
members of cabinet ministers. Erdoğan
accused Gülen of co-ordinating a
"parallel state" within the judiciary in an
attempt to topple him from power. He
then removed or reassigned several
judicial officials in an attempt to remove
Gülen's supporters from office. Erdoğan's
'purge' was widely questioned and
criticised by the European Union.[440] In
early 2014, a new law was passed by
parliament giving the government greater
control over the judiciary, which sparked
public protest throughout the country.
International organisations perceived the
law to be a danger to the separation of
powers.[441]

Several judicial officials removed from

their posts said that they had been
removed due to their secularist
credentials. The political opposition
accused Erdoğan of not only attempting
to remove Gülen supporters, but
supporters of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's
principles as well, in order to pave the
way for increased politicisation of the
judiciary. Several family members of
Erdoğan's ministers who had been
arrested as a result of the 2013
corruption scandal were released, and a
judicial order to question Erdoğan's son
Bilal Erdoğan was annulled.[442]
Controversy erupted when it emerged
that many of the newly appointed judicial
officials were actually AKP
supporters.[443] İslam Çiçek, a judge who
ejected the cases of five ministers'
relatives accused of corruption, was
accused of being an AKP supporter and
an official investigation was launched
into his political affiliations.[444] On 1
September 2014, the courts dissolved
the cases of 96 suspects, which included
Bilal Erdoğan.[445]
Suppression of dissent

An NTV news van covered in anti-AKP protest graffiti in response to their initial lack of coverage of the Gezi Park
protests in 2013

Erdoğan has been criticised for his

politicisation of the media, especially
after the 2013 protests. The opposition
Republican People's Party (CHP) alleged
that over 1,863 journalists lost their jobs
due to their anti-government views in 12
years of AKP rule.[446] Opposition
politicians have also alleged that
intimidation in the media is due to the
government's attempt to restructure the
ownership of private media corporations.
Journalists from the Cihan News Agency
and the Gülenist Zaman newspaper were
repeatedly barred from attending
government press conferences or asking
questions.[447] Several opposition
journalists such as Soner Yalçın were
controversially arrested as part of the
Ergenekon trials and Sledgehammer
coup investigation.[448] Veli Ağbaba, a
CHP politician, has called the AKP the
'biggest media boss in Turkey.'[446]

In 2015, 74 US senators sent a letter to

US Secretary of State, John Kerry, to
state their concern over what they saw
as deviations from the basic principles of
democracy in Turkey and oppressions of
Erdoğan over media.[449]

Notable cases of media censorship

occurred during the 2013 anti-
government protests, when the
mainstream media did not broadcast any
news regarding the demonstrations for
three days after they began. The lack of
media coverage was symbolised by CNN
International covering the protests while
CNN Türk broadcast a documentary
about penguins at the same time.[450] The
Radio and Television Supreme Council
(RTÜK) controversially issued a fine to
pro-opposition news channels including
Halk TV and Ulusal Kanal for their
coverage of the protests, accusing them
of broadcasting footage that could be
morally, physically and mentally
destabilising to children.[451] Erdoğan
was criticised for not responding to the
accusations of media intimidation, and
caused international outrage after telling
a female journalist (Amberin Zaman of
The Economist) to know her place and
calling her a 'shameless militant' during
his 2014 presidential election
campaign.[452] While the 2014
presidential election was not subject to
substantial electoral fraud, Erdoğan was
again criticised for receiving
disproportionate media attention in
comparison to his rivals. The British
newspaper The Times commented that
between 2 and 4 July, the state-owned
media channel TRT gave 204 minutes of
coverage to Erdoğan's campaign and less
than a total of 3 minutes to both his
rivals.[453]

Opposition politicians Selahattin Demirtaş and Figen Yüksekdağ had been arrested on terrorism charges

Erdoğan also tightened controls over the

Internet, signing into law a bill which
allows the government to block websites
without prior court order on 12
September 2014.[454] His government
blocked Twitter and YouTube in late
March 2014 following the release of a
recording of a conversation between him
and his son Bilal, where Erdoğan
allegedly warned his family to 'nullify' all
cash reserves at their home amid the
2013 corruption scandal.[455] Erdoğan
has undertaken a media campaign that
attempts to portray the presidential
family as frugal and simple-living; their
palace electricity-bill is estimated at
$500,000 per month.[456]

In November 2016, the Turkish

government[252] blocked access to social
media in all of Turkey[457] as well as
sought to completely block Internet
access for the citizens in the southeast
of the country.[458] Since the 2016 coup
attempt, authorities arrested or
imprisoned more than 90,000 Turkish
citizens.[459]

Insulting the President lawsuits

In February 2015, a 13-year-old was

charged by a prosecutor after allegedly
insulting Erdoğan on Facebook.[460][461] In
2016, a waiter was arrested for insulting
Erdoğan by allegedly saying "If Erdoğan
comes here, I will not even serve tea to
him.".[462] Between 2016[463] and 2023
there were trials for insulting the
president for having compared Erdogan
to Gollum, a fictional character of J. R. R.
Tolkien's Lord of the Rings.[464] In May
2016, former Miss Turkey model Merve
Büyüksaraç was sentenced to more than
a year in prison for allegedly insulting the
president.[465][466][467] Between 2014 and
2019, 128,872 investigations were
launched for insulting the president and
prosecutors opened 27,717 criminal
cases.[468]

Mehmet Aksoy lawsuit

In 2009, Turkish sculptor Mehmet Aksoy

created the Statue of Humanity in Kars to
promote reconciliation between Turkey
and Armenia. When visiting the city in
2011, Erdoğan deemed the statue a
"freak", and months later it was
demolished.[469] Aksoy sued Erdoğan for
"moral indemnities", although his lawyer
said that his statement was a critique
rather than an insult. In March 2015, a
judge ordered Erdoğan to pay 10,000
liras.[470]

Erdoğanism

The term Erdoğanism first emerged

shortly after Erdoğan's 2011 general
election victory, where it was
predominantly described as the AKP's
liberal economic and conservative
democratic ideals fused with Erdoğan's
demagoguery and cult of personality.[471]

Views on minorities

LGBT

In 2002, Erdoğan said that "homosexuals

must be legally protected within the
framework of their rights and freedoms.
From time to time, we do not find the
treatment they get on some television
screens humane", he said.[472][473][474]
However, in 2017 Erdoğan has said that
empowering LGBT people in Turkey was
"against the values of our nation".[475]
In 2020, amid the COVID-19 pandemic,
Turkey's top Muslim scholar and
President of Religious Affairs, Ali Erbaş,
said in a Friday Ramadan announcement
that country condemns homosexuality
because it "brings illness," insinuating that
same sex relations are responsible for
the COVID-19 pandemic.[476] Recep
Tayyip Erdoğan backed Erbaş, saying that
what Erbaş "said was totally right."[477]
Starting from 2023, Erdoğan began
openly speaking against LGBT people,
openly saying that his Coalition "are
against the LGBT", and accusing the
Turkish opposition of being LGBT.[478]
In 2023, Erdogan blamed LGBTQ+ people
for "undermining family values" in Turkey
and calling his political opponents "gays"
in a derogatory manner. Third-party
sources have criticized this; seeing it as a
bid to distract the public from the ruling
party’s failings — particularly on the
country's economy; according to these
sources, by targeting Turkey's minority
groups, he rallies his base amid the
country's ongoing economic troubles to
raise the prospects of winning the 2023
general elections in his country, which are
seen as critical for his nearly 20-year
rule.[479][480][481]
Jews

While Erdoğan has declared several

times being against
antisemitism,[482][483][484][485][486] he has
been accused of invoking antisemitic
stereotypes in public
statements.[487][488][489][490] According to
Erdoğan, he had been inspired by novelist
and Islamist ideologue Necip Fazıl
Kısakürek,[491][492] a publisher (among
others) of antisemitic literature.[493][494]
Personal life

Erdoğan (center) with his spouse Emine (center-right), granddaughter Canan Aybüke (center-left), and son-in-law Selçuk
Bayraktar (left) at Teknofest festival in Azerbaijan (2022)

Erdoğan married Emine Erdoğan (née

Gülbaran; b. 1955, Siirt) on 4 July
1978.[495] They have two sons, Ahmet
Burak (b. 1979) and Necmettin Bilal (b.
1981), and two daughters, Esra (b. 1983)
and Sümeyye (b. 1985).[495] His father,
Ahmet Erdoğan, died in 1988 and his
mother, Tenzile Erdoğan, died in 2011 at
the age of 87.[496]

Erdoğan has a brother, Mustafa (b. 1958),

and a sister, Vesile (b. 1965).[17] From his
father's first marriage to Havuli Erdoğan
(d. 1980), he had two half-brothers:
Mehmet (1926–1988) and Hasan (1929–
2006).[497]
Electoral history

Main
Year Office Type Party
opponent

Member
Hüsnü
1984 of National RP
Doğan
Parliament
Mayor of Hüseyin
1989 Local RP
Beyoğlu Aslan
Member
Bahattin
1991 of National RP
Yücel
Parliament
Mayor of
1994 Local RP İlhan Kesici
Istanbul
2002 Member National AK Deniz
of Party Baykal
 Parliament
Party AK Deniz
2004 Local
leader Party Baykal
Member
AK Deniz
2007 of National
Party Baykal
Parliament
Party AK Deniz
2009 Local
leader Party Baykal
Member
AK Kemal
2011 of National
Party Kılıçdaroğlu
Parliament
Party AK Kemal
2014 Local
leader Party Kılıçdaroğlu
Ekmeleddin
2014 National Ind.
İhsanoğlu
President
AK Muharrem
2018 National
Party İnce
 Party AK Kemal
2019 Local
leader Party Kılıçdaroğlu

Honours and accolades

Foreign honours

U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry, with U.S. Vice President Joseph Biden, delivers remarks in honor of Erdoğan, 16 May
2013

Erdoğan receiving the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise from Volodymyr Zelensky, 2020
Erdoğan joined by his Kosovo counterpart Hashim Thaçi, 3 November 2010

Russia: Medal "In Commemoration

of the 1000th Anniversary of Kazan" (1
June 2006)[498]
Pakistan: Nishan-e-Pakistan, the
highest civilian award in Pakistan (26
October 2009)[499]
Georgia: Order of Golden Fleece,
awarded for his contribution to
development of bilateral relations (17
May 2010)[500]
 Kosovo: Golden Medal in the Order
of Independence (4 November
2010)[501]
Kyrgyzstan: Danaker Order in
Bishkek (2 February 2011)[502]
Kazakhstan: Order of the Golden
Eagle (11 October 2012)[503]
Niger: Order of the Federal Republic
(9 January 2013)[504]
Azerbaijan: Heydar Aliyev Order (3
September 2014)[505]
Afghanistan: Amir Amanullah Khan
Award (18 October 2014)[506]
Somalia: Order of the Somali Star,
awarded for his contributions to
Somalia (25 January 2015).[507]
 Albania: National Flag Decoration
(13 May 2015)[508]
Belgium: Grand Cordon in the Order
of Leopold (5 October 2015)[509]
Ivory Coast: Grand Cordon in the
National Order of the Ivory Coast (29
February 2016)[510]
Guinea: Grand Cross in the National
Order of Merit (3 March 2016)[511]
Madagascar: National Order of
Madagascar (25 January 2017)[512]
Bahrain: Order of Sheikh Isa bin
Salman Al Khalifa (12 February
2017)[513]
Kuwait: Order of Mubarak the Great
(21 March 2017)[514]
 Sudan: Collar of Honour of Sudan
(24 December 2017)[515]
Tunisia: Grand Cordon in the Order
of the Republic (27 December
2017)[516]
Senegal: National Order of the Lion
(1 March 2018)[517]
Mali: Grand Cordon in the National
Order of Mali (2 March 2018)[518]
Gagauzia: Order of Gagauz-Yeri in
Comrat (17 October 2018)[519]
Moldova: Order of the Republic (18
October 2018)[520]
Paraguay: Order of State (2
December 2018)[521]
 Venezuela: Order of the Liberator,
Grand Cordon (3 December
2018)[522][523]
Ukraine: Order of Prince Yaroslav the
Wise (16 October 2020)[524]
Turkmenistan: Order for Contribution
to the Development of Cooperation (27
November 2021)[525]
Malaysia: Order of the Crown of the
Realm (16 August 2022)[526]
Kazakhstan: 1st class in Order of
Friendship (12 October 2022)[527]
Supranational

Organization of Turkic States:

Supreme Order of Turkic World (11
 November 2022)[528]

Other awards

29 January 2004: Profile of Courage

Award from the American Jewish
Congress, for promoting peace
between cultures.[529] Returned at the
request of the A.J.C. in July 2014.[530]
13 June 2004: Golden Plate award
from the Academy of Achievement
during the conference in Chicago.[531]
3 October 2004: German Quadriga
prize for improving relationships
between different cultures.[532]
2 September 2005: Mediterranean
Award for Institutions (Italian: Premio
Mediterraneo Istituzioni). This was
awarded by the Fondazione
Mediterraneo.[533]
8 August 2006: Caspian Energy
Integration Award from the Caspian
Integration Business Club.[534]
1 November 2006: Outstanding Service
award from the Turkish humanitarian
organization Red Crescent.[535]
2 February 2007: Dialogue Between
Cultures Award from the President of
Tatarstan Mintimer Shaimiev.[536]
15 April 2007: Crystal Hermes Award
from the German Chancellor Angela
Merkel at the opening of the Hannover
Industrial Fair.[537]
11 July 2007: highest award of the UN
Food and Agriculture Organization, the
Agricola Medal, in recognition of his
contribution to agricultural and social
development in Turkey.[538]
11 May 2009: Avicenna award from the
Avicenna Foundation in Frankfurt,
Germany.[539]
9 June 2009: guest of honor at the 20th
Crans Montana Forum in Brussels and
received the Prix de la Fondation, for
democracy and freedom.[540]
25 June 2009: Key to the City of Tirana
on the occasion of his state visit to
Albania.[541]
29 December 2009: Award for
Contribution to World Peace from the
Turgut Özal Thought and Move
Association.[542]
12 January 2010: King Faisal
International Prize for "service to Islam"
from the King Faisal Foundation.[543]
23 February 2010: Nodo Culture Award
from the mayor of Seville for his
efforts to launch the Alliance of
Civilizations initiative.[544]
1 March 2010: United Nations–
HABITAT award in memorial of Rafik
Hariri. A seven-member international
jury unanimously found Erdoğan
deserving of the award because of his
"excellent achievement and
commendable conduct in the area of
leadership, statesmanship and good
governance. Erdoğan also initiated the
first roundtable of mayors during the
Istanbul conference, which led to a
global, organized movement of
mayors."[44]
27 May 2010: medal of honor from the
Brazilian Federation of Industry for the
State of São Paulo (FIESP) for his
contributions to industry[545]
31 May 2010: World Health
Organization 2010 World No Tobacco
Award for "his dedicated leadership on
tobacco control in Turkey."[546]
29 June 2010: 2010 World Family
Award from the World Family
Organization which operates under the
umbrella of the United Nations.[547]
4 November 2010: Golden Medal of
Independence, an award conferred
upon Kosovo citizens and foreigners
that have contributed to the
independence of Kosovo.[548]
25 November 2010: "Leader of the
Year" award presented by the Union of
Arab Banks in Lebanon.[549]
11 January 2011: "Outstanding
Personality in the Islamic World Award"
of the Sheikh Fahad al-Ahmad
International Award for Charity in
Kuwait.[550]
25 October 2011: Palestinian
International Award for Excellence and
Creativity (PIA) 2011 for his support to
the Palestinian people and cause.[551]
21 January 2012: 'Gold Statue 2012
Special Award' by the Polish Business
Center Club (BCC). Erdoğan was
awarded for his systematic effort to
clear barriers on the way to economic
growth, striving to build democracy
and free market relations.[552]
Bibliography

Books

Erdoğan, Recep Tayyip (17 November

2012). Küresel barış vizyonu (https://www.a
mazon.com/gp/product/B01HC9RFE0/ref=
dbs_a_def_rwt_bibl_vppi_i2) . Medeniyetler
İttifakı Enstitüsü. ISBN 978-6055952389.
Erdoğan, Recep Tayyip (27 October 2021). A
Fairer World is Possible: A Proposed Model
for a United Nations Reform (https://www.a
mazon.com/Fairer-World-Possible-Propose
d-Nations-ebook/dp/B09KM5C7Z2) .
Turkuvaz Kitap.
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Erdogan, Recep Tayyip (10 October 2011).

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——————— (26 September 2018). "How to
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See also
Biography
portal
Turkey
portal
Politics
portal

List of international presidential trips

made by Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
 Leadership approval polling for the
2023 Turkish general election
The 500 Most Influential Muslims
A Fairer World Is Possible

Notes
a. [1] Various claims are made about his
degree. See (diploma controversy)
b. UK: /ˈɛərdəwæn/ AIR-də-wan,[2]
US: /-wɑːn/ -⁠wahn;[3] Turkish: [ɾeˈdʒep taj
ˈjip ˈæɾdo(ɰ)an] ( listen); The "ğ" in
Erdoğan is sometimes represented as the
voiced velar approximant [ɰ],[4] as a
voiced labial–velar approximant [w], or
treated as a silent letter.[5] Sometimes
referred by his initials RTE.[6]
 c. Erdoğan won the elections in 2002, but
was obstructed to become prime minister
until the by-election in 2003. In the
meanwhile, Abdullah Gül served as
chairholder.

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Further reading
Akyol, Çiğdem (2015). Generation Erdoğan
(1. ed.). Kremayr & Scheriau. ISBN 978-3-
218-00969-0.
Akdoğan, Yalçın (2018). Political leadership
and Erdoğan. Cambridge Scholars
Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5275-0627-5.

Cagaptay, Soner. The new sultan:

Erdogan and the crisis of modern
Turkey (2nd ed. Bloomsbury Publishing,
2020). online review (https://muse.jhu.
edu/article/693096/summary)
Cagaptay, Soner. "Making Turkey Great
Again." Fletcher Forum of World Affairs
43 (2019): 169–78. online (https://ww
w.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Do
cuments/opeds/Cagaptay20190206-Fl
etcherForum.pdf)
Kirişci, Kemal, and Amanda Sloat. "The
rise and fall of liberal democracy in
Turkey: Implications for the West"
Foreign Policy at Brookings (2019)
online (https://www.brookings.edu/wp-
content/uploads/2019/02/FP_201902
26_turkey_kirisci_sloat.pdf)
Tziarras, Zenonas. "Erdoganist
authoritarianism and the 'new' Turkey."
Southeast European and Black Sea
Studies 18.4 (2018): 593–598. online (h
ttp://www.academia.edu/download/58
131132/Erdoganist_authoritarianism_a
nd_the_new_Turkey.pdf)
Yavuz, M. Hakan. "A framework for
understanding the Intra-Islamist
conflict between the AK party and the
Gülen movement." Politics, Religion &
Ideology 19.1 (2018): 11–32. online (ht
tp://www.academia.edu/download/56
556625/A_Framework_for_Understand
ing_the_Intra_Islamist_Conflict_Betwe
en_the_AK_Party_and_the_G_len_Mov
ement.pdf)
Yesil, Bilge. Media in New Turkey: The
Origins of an Authoritarian Neoliberal
State (University of Illinois Press, 2016)
online review (https://ijoc.org/index.ph
p/ijoc/article/viewFile/8371/2230)
 Bechev, Dimitar (2022). Turkey Under
Erdogan. Yale University Press.
ISBN 978-0-300-26501-9.

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Appearances (https://www.c-span.org/
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people/e/recep_tayyip_erdogan/index.
html) collected news and
commentary at The New York Times
Welcome to demokrasi: how Erdoğan
got more popular than ever (https://ww
w.theguardian.com/world/2016/aug/3
0/welcome-to-demokrasi-how-erdogan
-got-more-popular-than-ever) by The
Guardian
 Political offices

Preceded by Mayor of Succeeded by

Nurettin Istanbul Ali Müfit
Sözen 1994–1998 Gürtuna

Prime
Succeeded by
Minister of
Ahmet
Preceded by Turkey
Davutoğlu
Abdullah 2003–2014
Gül President of
Turkey Incumbent
2014–present

Party political offices

New office Leader of the Succeeded by

Justice and Ahmet
Development Davutoğlu
 Party
2001–2014

Leader of the
Preceded by Justice and
Binali Development Incumbent
Yıldırım Party
2017–present

Diplomatic posts

Chairperson
Preceded by
of the Group Succeeded by
Tony
of 20 Xi Jinping
Abbott
2015

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