Note:

The principal purpose of this part of the course is to

familiarize students with the fundamentals of geophysical
techniques (principles, field methodologies, data processing
and analyses) that frequently applied for:
 Landslides and related phenomena investigations;
 Geotechnical investigations where key inputs are
generated to be incorporated in risk mitigation measures
during the designs of civil engineering structures (roads,
bridges, dam reservoirs, multistory buildings, etc) so that
they stand consequences of geohazard events;
In order to demonstrate these applications exercises will be
given subsequently.
Course content
Part 1. INTRODUCTION
Basics of Applied Geophysics
Part 2. ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
METHODS
2.1 Resistivity method for landslide investigations
2.2 Basic Principles
2.3 Potential field due to point & dipole sources in
homogeneous & isotropic media
2.4 Apparent resistivity (a) and its physical essence
2.5 Electrical properties of earth materials
2.6 Electrode configurations
2.7 Electrical Resistivity Survey Techniques
2.7.1 Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES)
2.7.2 Electrical Resistivity Profiling (EP)

2.8 Case studies & exercises

1. INTRODUCTION

Geo-hazards
a) Land mass wasting, including landslides (LS)
b) Ground fissuring
c) Earthquakes
d) Volcanic Eruption (upwelling of the melted shallow mantle plume in Afar can easily cause
lava flow, like at Erta-Ale volcanic crater and associated ground deformations).
Landslides: comprises almost all varieties of land mass movements down a slope under
gravitational effect. It includes such phenomena as rock falls, topples and debris f1ows (mudflows or
mudslides).

Impacts of LS on:
1. Environment – accelerates landmass
wasting (removal of soil & leads to
environmental degradation);
2. Infrastructures  Damages roads,
bridges, settlements and other built
civil engineering structures;
increasingly affect smooth life style
and transport flows;
Sample cases of landslide occurrences & impacts on infrastructures and natural environment

N.Shewa

Ambo-Gedo road

Arbaminch-Gidole

N.Shewa

Konso, Weito R.
Chole, Arsi Abay Gorge
LS in SW Ethiopia Collapse of soil mass from slope cut
(white dotted circle) and continuous
embankment collapse has demolished a
football field in the nearby elementary
school.

Sliding block

Bed Rock

Retaining wall of ~150m long was

constructed to stop mass movement and
protect the road, but didn’t help
Rock fall
LS in Central Ethiopia & impact on infrastructures

Main road in Abay Gorge

Rock-fall
debris
cones

St Gebriel Church
was demolished by
LS and the new
church building
started at the
same place has
faced the same
problem right from
the beginning of
Rockfall construction

LS block
Fitche-Lemi newly constructed road
LS scarps are shown either as open (tension) cracks or vertically displacement
of blocks or subsidence (Arbaminch-Gidole road)
Horizontal & vertical
mass slide

The direction of the cracks on the right

side of the LS block is almost E-W
crossing the road alignment orthogonally.
 LS Risk assessment
Every year in Ethiopia LS occurs in many places and affects settlements with moderate-high
population.

Consequence
When Level of LS Risk is High

Resettle people to SAFE locations

But what is the boundary between

SAFE & UNSAFE?

About 60% of Ethiopian

population lives in the
highlands (altitude >1750 m). LOW
Probability of occurrence
HIGH
/Extent of damage Hazard

 What are the social, economical & environmental consequences of resettlement?

 What STRATEGY should follow Risk managers to minimize unforeseen consequences ?
In addressing these challenges the risk managers’ approach is:

Transferring from (LS) RISK RESPONSE to (LS) RISK MITIGATION

Understanding the LS problem
Features that might be noticed prior to major landsliding:
 Springs, seeps /saturated ground in areas that have not typically
been wet;
 New cracks / unusual bulges (swells) in the ground, street
pavements, sidewalks;
 Soil moving away from foundations;
 Tilting, cracking and/or moving of concrete floors and foundations;
 Broken water lines and other underground utilities;
 Leaning/tilting telephone poles, trees, retaining walls, or fences;
 Offset fence lines;
 Sunken or down-dropped road beds;
 Rapid increase / Sudden decrease in creek water levels, possibly
accompanied by increased turbidity (falling of water flow);
 Sticking doors and windows, and visible open spaces indicating
jambs and frames out of plumb.

 Increases costs of maintenance; Adversely affect the safety and

 Temporary disruption of traffic flows; sustainable Infrastructures / natural
 Loss of fertile lands environment.
Information gathered from LS affected
sites:
 Compositions of underlying earth materials;
 Moisture/fluid contents and depth to ground
water table;
 Degrees of soil compaction;
 Degree of rocks’ weathering;
 Extents of sliding masses/blocks;
 Probable locations & morphologies (geometries)
of slip planes (rupture surfaces);
 Subsurface discontinuities (faults, fractures);
Reliable Subsurface Drilling, pitting, trenching
information are techniques provide detail info
required for LS about LS characteristics
assessment; But these methods are:

(but what are such

Costly Provide Difficult to
source of information?) apply in
only point
information rugged terrain

Therefore

Application of Geophysical
methods, which are by far
cheaper, faster, and delivers
additional 2D or even 3D
information about the
subsurface, become essential
Geophysical Survey Procedures

Selection of the primary geophysical

method depends on probable target’s
nature & other information available
from previous studies

Result
Compilation
(Reporting)

Data
Interpretation &
Analyses
GPS

Data
Processing
General Geophysical Survey Procedure
 Electrical resistivity (ER)
Principle:
In ER objects are studied from the view
whether they are Active or Passive conductors
of electricity.
Increasing AB means increasing depth of
investigation. For small AB the current is
confined in the top layer; When AB increases
current reaches the second layer and so on.

This resistivity method makes use of different resistivity values, specifically characteristic to individual
earth materials. Once the resistivity distribution is established, the information can be related to
characteristic resistivity values of the individual materials, which eventually allow to interpret the
possible structures of the subsurface
Due to the presence of water in unconsolidated displaced materials (in LS zones), the electrical
conductivity of becomes generally greater than the undisturbed and non-sliding zones.

Often rupture surfaces coincide with the lower limit of the permeable zone with concentrated water
flow. If the circulating water is highly mineralized or if there is clay in the subsurface, then the
conductivity of the sliding materials becomes greater.
Electromagnetic surveying
A receiver is deployed that compares the magnetic field produced by the current-
flow in the earth to that generated at the source.

Electromagnetic (EM) - This is an active method that employs measurements of a time-varying magnetic
field generated by induction through current flow within the earth, i.e., it measures the ground
conductivity through the use of transmitter and receiver coils.

In this technique, a time-varying magnetic field is generated at the surface of the earth that produces a
time-varying electrical current in the earth through induction.

The main advantages of EM measurements over DC electric measurements are the higher acquisition
speed and the considerable reduction of lateral effects of metallic pipes in the ground. This is due to the
small size of the arrays used in EM measurements.
Seismic refraction
The landslide base coincides with variation in the elastic wave velocities. This
base is a seismic reflector that coincide with the slip plane (rupture surface)
2. Introduction to Geophysics
Geophysics is the science of measurement of variations of
physical properties of the earth materials.
These measurements are directed to the detection of physical
property CONTRASTS that enable to differentiate the subsurface
formations based on their composition, degrees of fluid/water
contents, weathering, fracturing, mineralization, etc.

Geophysics deals with all aspects of physics of the

earth.
Sub-surface physical properties:
Resistivity
Seismic wave velocity and density
Density
Magnetic susceptibility / magnetization
Conductance / inductance / permittivity
Why geophysics is an important tool for subsurface investigation?
 It helps to map the near subsurface geology under extensive soil cover
(overburden).
 It allows to acquire information about the dimensions (lateral and vertical
extents) of geological objects of interest.
 It enables to conduct remote sampling when making direct measurement over
certain areas/ objects is unsafe. Over hazardous target remote sampling is
the only way of acquiring information by minimizing risks or probable
contaminations rounding.

Classification of Geophysical Methods: they can be classified

based on:

a) Nature of problems to be solved;

b) Types of measurement platforms;

c) Origins of physical fields measured at different platforms;

d) Types of the measured physical fields;

A. Nature of problems to be solved
i. Structural (solid state) geophysics
Common objectives:
 Study the structure (nature) of the earth's interior;
 Solve regional tectonic problems, including those
related to mapping of anticlinal / synclinal
structures having associations with mineral
resources (i.e., coal, oil, gas) & groundwater
dynamics;
ii. Mining Geophysics
Common Objectives:

 Mapping of lithologies and structures having genetic

and / or spatial association with mineralization;
 Determining the nature and morphology of the
principal types of deposits;
 Directly exploring such mineral deposits, like iron
and uranium.
iii. Hydro-Engineering Geophysics
In civil engineering & groundwater investigations DC Resistivity, EM
and seismic refraction have found broad applications. The common
objectives include the following:
 Assess/explore areas with groundwater potential;
 Study the qualitative characteristics of water-bearing formations

and conduct quantitative evaluations;

 Estimate depth to impermeable beds and map/determine their

morphological;

 Study the groundwater dynamics (velocity and flow direction);

 Determine extents and morhologies of slip planes (failure surfaces);
 Delineate fresh and saline water interfaces and evaluate degrees
of mineralization/salinity.

 Collect information related to subsurface water contaminations.

 Delineate tectonic structures (like faults, fracture zones and fissures)
that serve as conduits for the groundwater to flow into or out of aquifers;
B. Type of platform:
 Space-borne Geophysics: Air-borne / helicopter-borne
 Ground Geophysics (including car-borne)
 Borehole Geophysics
 Ship-borne (marine) Geophysics

C. Origin of physical fields measured at different

platforms:
Active fields: Fields generated artificially by man-made
sources (like dynamites, AC/DC Electric sources,
vibrators, gamma-ray sources,...);

Passive fields:- Fields originated naturally deep in the

earth's interior due to mechanical, thermal,
gravitational, electrical, magnetic or other natural
phenomena.
D. Nature of the physical fields: on this basis
the following methods are classified:
i. Electrical / Electro-magnetic
ii. Seismic / Seismology
iii. Magnetics
iv. Gravity
v. Radioactive methods
Each of these methods have their own distinct
physical and mathematical principles, as well as
data acquisition, processing and interpretation
approaches/techniques
Limitations of Geophysical Methods
Limitations - factors that minimize or make
completely ineffective the application of
geophysical methods.

Common limitations:
Insufficient / low physical properties
contrasts:

Application of geophysical methods can not

deliver any substantial information.
 Low signal to noise ratio:
Geophysical Signal =Useful Signal + Noise
Useful signal:– a direct response from the
object of interest (subsurface formations)
Noise:– unwanted signal (disturbance)
produced due to various controlled/
uncontrolled sources;
Removing (smoothing) the unwanted component of the
measured signal (represented by Noise) and enhancing
(sharpening) the useful signal is one of the main
objectives of geophysical data processing.
Examples of Noise types:

 Geological noise:– Artificial and natural

fields originated deep in the earth’s crust
are superimposed to fields produced by
relatively shallow sources;
 Instrumental noise:- low sensitivity of the
instrument or operator’s error;
 Topographic noise:- deviation of the surface
from horizontal level;
 Lack of unique solution (ambiguity) to geophysical
problems
This comes from the nature of the inverse problem of geophysics
and the methodologies employed. Few, if any, of the geophysical
problems have unique solution.
As a consequence in geophysical study practices we encounter two
problems:
a. Forward modeling (Direct problem)
b. Inverse modeling (Indirect problem)

a. Forward modeling: this is simply the computation of

theoretical anomalies (like gravity, magnetic, electrical, or
others field distributions) provided that the physical
properties (resistivity-, density-, chargeability-, mag.
Susceptibility-, velocity-v, magnetization-I…) as well as
depth, length, dip angle of the anomaly source body or its
equivalent model are known.
b) Inverse modeling: This is the process of construction of the possible
geological models corresponding to the observed geophysical
anomalies. This process is known as data interpretation.

Forward
Modeling

Physical properties of
the earth
(, , v, , , I, .., strike
length, width, depth, dip
angle, etc. )
Schematic relationship
b/n forward & Inverse Geophysical anomalies
modelling (resistivity, gravity, mag. field,
velocity… , anomalies)
Inverse modeling

from Observed Geophysical anomalies to Probable Geological Models

But here the main challenge is that numerous models can be proposed that fit to a
single geophysical anomaly, and this is known as non-uniqueness of solution of the
Inverse Problem.
Hence, Geophysical investigations are dealing with finding solutions to the INVERSE
PROBLRMS.