6 Women and the Tradition of Marriage zy cecording to the division of labourers which the Varna system Xan about (Ambedkar said that the caste system in Inia brought about not just a division of labour, but @ division gf labourers), those to whom it falls to perform the lowest and filthieg tasks came to be known as ati-Shudras or untouchables. This fifi class or vara, like the adivasis (or indigenous peoples living jungles or remote areas) were forced to live at a distance the upper classes. The adivasis lived in hill regions or deep in jungle, many miles away from urban civilisation. Even today live like this. And so their ancient traditions and culture down through generations, have largely remained as they were. Like the adivasis, the untouchables who lived outside periphery of the village had preserved their culture through tradi In both these ancient cultures there was equality between men women. Boys and girls who had come of age would marry tht mutual agreement. Women, like men, had the right to div Also, there was no ban on remarriage or marriage of widows, no practice of sati. Relations between men and women were antagonistic. It is said that one root cause underlying this reality wasboth these groups of people had no land rights of their fact that le had to work as labourers on land Rather, these people eee own: j by the upper classes. They had to leave their homes to ae ey living, the women as well as the men. Because the e + classes owned land, the concept of inheritance rights aed naturally on property rights, and the concept of chastity of women came from the idea of keeping inheritance rights for one’s own descendants. To safeguard the chastity of women, it became essential for girls to be married before they reached puberty. Following this, women were shackled into kind of slavery with the ban on remarriage and marriage of widows, sati and so on. Their shackles were made stronger by the authority of the Dharmashastras. Since the untouchables and the adivasis owned no land, the question of property, inheritance rights and the shackles binding women did not arise among them. Inthe 100 years after the fall of Peshwa rule, the -untouchable settlements outside the village periphery moved closer to the habitations of the upper classes. With the beginnings of education, aprocess of social evolution was initiated which made significan changes in the lives of the untouchables. Before this, there was aconsiderable difference between the life styles of untouchables and caste Hindus. The criteria’ that were applied in the 1911 Census to identify the untouchables throw light on the distinctions between the untouchables and caste Hindus. 1. Those who deny the domination of the Brahmins 2. Those who do not accept mantras from the Brahmins or any Hindu guru. 3. Those who do not believe in the Vedas 4. Those who do not worship Hindu gods. 5. Those with whom the Brahmins do not accept employment. 6. Those whom a Brahmin priest (purohit) does not visit. 7. Those who are not allowed entry in the sanctum sanetorum of a temple. 8 Those who cause caste pollution. 9% Those who bury their dead.10. Those who eat the meat of cows and do not hold th re to be holy. Some of these criteria also apply to adivasi ¢ communities. The distinctive character of the untouch, based on the above criteria gradually wore away through co with the caste Hindus. The habitations of the untouch; although outside the village periphery, were, unlik the adivasis, near the village boundary. Because o| because of the tasks that the untouchables were ass according to the traditional caste division of labour in village (gaongaada), they continuously came in Contact wi the upper castes and began to imitate their ways, They say even caste came into existence because of such Imitation, the formation of castes, according to Ambedkar, the Brahm bound themselves first of all and created a caste for themsel the rest of society imitated them and so other castes came ji being.’ It is possible that the concept of female chastity in tying of the marriage bond, and the practice of child marti came to the untouchables from the upper castes throt imitation of this kind. Poverty was also a cause underlying child Manpower was needed to look after the household together work outside the home, and for this reason, early marriage, childbearing and many children was the policy. To free o of the responsibility of one’s daughter was also a consid Later, when the untouchable leadership enlightened people the dangers in early marriage, untouchable activists began to resolutions imposing bans on child marriages in public meet and to implement these bans. Women too began to oppose marriage.’ A meeting of untouchables was held at Ambarnath, in Kalyan tehsil of Thane district on 9h August 1927. In { meeting it was resolved that the age for marriage should be - years for boys and 16 for girls and that parents should not a | their children’s marriages below this age. On 28th March 19 a resolution was passed at the conference of untouchable w in Malkapur that the Sharda Bill (banning child marriage) Stes © those this, 104 We Also Made Hiswee ew wave of liberal thinking from England, soia wi pean to Focus their attention on harmful traditions in Issues like child marriage, marriage of widows and of women were in fat related to the reform op the inthis regard, within caste Hindu society, not only the men the women held traditional reactionary views, Thee sn ipt to root out these reactionary traditions rst stand. : Pane in October 1873 the leadin, ule lost his wife. Ranade’s age at the ti diately afer this he married an eleven-year-old girl ® see that Ranade took a similarly defeatist stand with to widow remarriage. When his sister became a widow. a Jyotiba Phule advised him to take this opportunity to her marriage in order to set an example before society, de took a defeatist stand on this, saying that it would great sorrow to his father and that the Brahmins would him.’ this was the attitude of the social reformers of Phule’s time, ing example will illustrate that of the orthodox Hindus years later. The questionnaire that was placed for discussion the grand conference of Brahmins at Kashi (Benares) in 1928 authoritative answers given by the religious gurus make of the orthodoxy very clear. These answers were written crit, and later translated into Marathi and Published as a bearing the signatures of Messrs Sangacharya Reddy, Dandgaonkar, Rangnath Shaharkar, Vishwas Balwant Me, Vishnu Narayan Mavaal, Vidyadhar Krushnaji Shaharkar nbak Narhar Shrigodekar. These individuals had gone Abi a representatives of the Vidvatsabha and the Shukla Maadhyandin Maharashtriya Brahmansabha, an Om of the orthodox in a particular sub-caste of Brahmins ions and answers are as follows tion I: What are the limits of age at marriage for men and teformer Justice | and the Tradition of Marriage 105women as sanctioned by the ‘Shastras? ‘Question 3: Should the marriage of a woman taking pig she reaches puberty be considered main,” inferior or Proserte the dharma? » ‘Answers to Q | and 3: The main period for marrg women is from the time of conception to the age oe years. The ninth and tenth years are medium. The Period afiy. the onset of puberty is an inferior time, and marriage afte has undergone the rites of puberty is to be criticised in very war Question 2: In the present situation, and following the S| ] what restrictions on the age of marriage would it be appropriatey enact in the law? | ‘Answer : Even in the present situation, it would be inappropria to enact a law proscribing marriages between eight years and th onset of puberty. 5 Question 4: What is the content of the dictum for girls of the Kunbi caste after they have reached puberty? ‘Answer ; The purport of the dicta regarding Kunbi girls may be understood as being about fitness to carry out religious dutes (The statement that appears in the Kesari of 20th November 192%, that it cannot be atoned for even through penance, is without foundation.) Question 5: Is it permissible or not for Brahmins and other castes to have marriage bonds with other sub-castes? ‘Answer : Marriages between different sub-castes are t0 be deplored. Question 6: Who were the knowers of the dharma? What kind of changes can they make in the dharma? Of a proscriptive o°# prescriptive nature? 4 ‘Answer : The knowers of the dharma were Manu and tha who followed him. Even they did not have the right to change dharma independently. Question 7; Are the marriage of widows and sacrific of martiage bond (divorce) appropriate, inappropriate or to OF seed? __ © Translator's note * oF usual a” We Also Made Hist!. Widow remarnage and divorce are completely Aer ong the three upper Varnas: Brahmins, Kshatriyas Vn ligious gurus themselves have given their injunctions ‘ween uch a lack of humanity, how can we expect wee women With Sl ae ot and improvement of women’s situation to take wit this religion? ‘The Hindu Dharmashastras began to reach the untouchable ou? ulation and to take root in the name of tradition. Until ot 2 ently after the fall of the Peshwas, the untouchable poole ‘would have their marriages, etc., performed by purohits ae priests from their own community. These priests were called ‘ 4, In some regions, persons from the nomadic Jangam : the marriages of untouchables. A gosavibuwa Jahaar Mahaatmya (the sd perform kdas wrote a Purana entitled M: tand. purohits narrate and keertans, and carry out poojas and funeral rites as performing marriages. ‘What is more, even women marriage rituals, poojas and bhajans. Women were 4 from carrying out priestly duties. hable family of the Mahaar Arjun Chimaji Pawar in the ‘of Phansaawale in Ratnagiri tehsil, Ratnagir district, tion of performing marriages of untouchables has been [on for many generations. In this family, around 1860, the sjun Pawar’s grandfather Haribuwa, named Phatiakka, gown as Baye, used (0 carry out religious rites for her own Mahaars as her husband Khavalekar was in the British would perform marriages and also give sermons to of her community on occasion. She was a woman the untouchable community.” roe . is a contract between two persons, but in Hinduism en given the status of a sacred rite. Marriage is a bond be tied with the taking of solemn oaths by the and the Tradition of Marriage 107hat their future life together may be smooth, eed for the presence of a witness, but other the rest of the marriage ceremony only has significance eelebration and a festive occasion for guests. This festivity been given undue importance as 4 religious rite and the ree farvies out this religious rite has been given an even tatus, The families of the bride important, or dominant, st 4 ae) vie milked clean by this purohit’s demands for da {ihe fees paid to a Brahmin priest for performing his reig duties) and the costs of the marriage rituals: they often go i debt. It was with all this in mind that Mahatma Jyotiba in 1873 initiated a simple but revolutionary new form of -srriage ceremony. Phule prepared a set of vows for them ceremonty whrereby the bride and groom pledged to live faithfully. The couple would speak the vows in verse form in presence of witnesses. and all those present would bestow blessings on the couple in one voice. There was no other Between 25th December 1873 and 7th May 1874 Phule out two marriages according to this new ceremonial f This became a vital part of the Satyashodhak movement. It worth noting that a similar ceremony based on taking of v became the norm in Buddhist society after the conversion untouchables to Buddhism. The marriage rituals of the untouchables were diffe from those of the three other castes. The gifting of the dai (Kanyadaan) and the seven circlings of the sacred fire, es in caste Hindu marriages, did not form a part of the m: ceremony among untouchables. Thus the idea that the should be gifted like an object and that the groom would ownership rights oyer her, was not prevalent among However, practices like the smearing of turmeric paste on body, tying the sacred thread, going to Kashi (Benares) && compulsory duty, and the making of a great drama by the gr family of taking offence about gifts and traditional ceremom! had alf become customary among the untouchables. With these elaborate ceremonials, the marriage function would £0 couple, so there is a nM on We Also Made Histoffo et five days. This meant that a lot of time and money “a recognised the importance of this simple form he Satyashi movement, He and ae ‘would take the opportunity of advising people to this form whenever they made speeches in various places. . jage according to this improved pattern was performed the assembly of the untouchable community held in vari in Berar province, with Babasaheb presiding. on 25th 0 Lae that the untouchables were an integral part of .m and that they had the same religious rites as the others, Bubasaheb had the initiation ceremony (for boys) performed within theunlouchable community by Hindu purohits. He also made the 1 of carrying out weddings of untouchables according to Yadic rites, with the same objective. "The wedding of Keshav Govind Adarekar and Miss Vithabai Tidekar was performed according to Vedic rituals in the Damodar Hall fa Parel, Mumbai on 29th June 1929 at 5.30 pm. in the presente of Babasahcb and Ramabai Ambedkar.* The purohit at this wedding was Acharya Sundarrao Vaidya. ~ Keshavrao Adarekar was the treasurer and a respected member and organiser of the Mahaar Seva Sangh. His father Adarekarbaba ‘vas also a supporter of reforms and held liberal views. His bride ii was educated and well versed in household duties. Her wer held traditional views, but her father was a liberal. The t like her father, was a supporter of modern ideas. was the first wedding of untouchables performed to Hindu rites before the fire god, in the presence of caste witnesses in a full assembly of untouchables. Usually in an ble wedding the god Agni would not be present, and there [be no seven rounds of the sacred fire this wedding, customs practised from ancient times like the ion of turmeric paste to the body, hiding betel nuts about of the bride and groom, breaking the paan with the karvine, the worship of the grinding-stone, the tying ments at the front and back of the head of the groom's : | | and the Tradition of Marriage 109father and the farce of sending him to Kashi, were all dig ae songs sung while bathing the — and groom, the that were always sung at weddings : “the stars with the Laxmi with Vishnu, Saavitrt with Satyavaan, Damayanti Nala...”, the comic songs sung by the bridesmaids, were not here either. Leading women activists were present = this wedding publicly express their sympathy and support." Photographs also taken. Ramabai Ambedkar, Laxmibai Ambedkar and women were present. Among the men present at this wedding were C.K.Bole, Babasaheb Ambedkar, Shivtarkar, Dr. Solanki, Naik, Gaikwad, Pradhan, Chitre and others. ‘Another similar wedding took place in Ahmednagar dis This was the first such wedding of untouchables in that performed according to the Vedic rites." Some social reformers also came forward to try and change the marriage customs. They founded societies with the object of giving support and encouragement to weddings of this new: type. Some women were also among them.'* When people gathered on the occasion of a wedding, ‘was usual to tell them stories and give them advice, ete. At the wedding of Rambhau Harinath Bagul and Phulabai Savate at Maha (the princely state), it was resolved to support the conversion of untouchables.'* On this occasion, about seven hundred persons from the princely states of Mahu, Indore, Dhaar, Devas, Ujjain etc., were present. Social reformers began to work for the removal of harmfil customs, traditions and practices that had spread among the untouchables through emulation of the upper castes. The practice of taking decisions collectively, which was customaty throughout all federal states, was also prevalent through the 53 different sub- castes among the Mahaars. In Vidarbha, there were twelve and a half sub-castes such as Laadvan, Baarke, Baavne etc., and bel Mabaar, paan Mahaar etc., in the Konkan elsewhere there were sub-castes such as the Somwanshi. SM Mate in his book, The Problem of the Untouchables has give = We Also Made History~ names of $3 sub-castes of the Mahaars,"” toe pes sub-castes Would resolve disputes and quarrels amon wes through their own caste Panchayats, or patriarchal cqste bodies. Similarly, they would also allow new rules related | jgsocial reforms to be made, which would be binding on all god would be conveyed to members of the communi through pamphlets. 5 The reforms implemented with regard to women by the sub- saste panchayats in Vidarbha between about 1920 and 192s are remarkable, and read as follows:!* (1) In engagement and marriage ceremoni nd blouse lengths distributed to guests shoul Rs, 50. (2) At the wedding. the parents of 1 ess the parents of the bride for gifts of jewellery is gifted should not be of a value Dowry should not be given with the bride. ( ies the value of saris Id not be more than he groom should not Jewellery. Whatever greater than Rs.60. (3) 4) Ifa married woman goes with another man, the first husband should Not be fined t | ' + i 1 t | (6) The restrictions imposed because of the belief that women | _satking as nurses, compounders, doctors etc., bring pollution on the caste should be removed. (6) Common dining and marriage bonds between sub-castes should be allowed. f #Witin-the untouchable community, women had the right | todivorce and remarriage. Husbands and wives were granted divorce by the caste panchayats. Questions arising in this context would be resolved by attempts to finda golden mean acceptable wall. Untouchable leaders were also vigilant that the ease of | dbtaining divorce should not be abused. Their approach was that “Ifa woman has a husband and, without reason, mischievously, ‘ves him up, or if a husband leaves his wife. all attempts should be made to bring the couple together.” The grand conference of Brahmins at Kashi (Benares) idden inter-caste marriages. Thus mixed marriages t x fonsidered a social crime among the three upper castes i 3 within the (fourth) Shudra varna and the (ouicaste) | community, this was considered to be one of the Palit Women and the Tradition of Marriage iprime objectives of reform within Hindu society and Of the movement. Dr. Ambedkar repeatedly declared his Support go mixed marriages. Z Ambedkar was of the opinion thal, “The mixture of hogy the only medicine for creating a fraternal feeling among gj castes, and the feeling of segregation created by the caste » will not be destroyed unless a sense of blood relations among. castes is generated on a wide scale.” Some progressive minded persons among the caste jj also supported mixed marriages, and on the occasion of marriages + they would organise common meals for people ops castes and call for an end to caste discrimination. At Bham| Pune, (now Shivajinagar) in 1927, a Mahaar girl named $| was married to a Maang youth named Narayan Kunde, with permission of the girl’s parents.” Also in Pune, a Maang from the Ahilya Ashram was married to a Brahmin youth that occasion persons of all castes dined together.”* Another marriage took place in Pune in November 1928 between L, Kamble (a Mahaar girl) and Dattaram Rangnath Upaasak Maratha boy)” Untouchable social reformers also put in efforts to bring mixed marriages. A reformer named Vikram Vithoba ‘Sanka brought about the marriage of an educated couple. Reformers the untouchable community also tried to arrange the marriages: orphaned and destitute girls as a means for their rehabilitat and they would also ensure their absorption into the comm Patitpaavan Das issued a pamphlet urging people not to vole candidates who opposed mixed marriages.” Couples in marriages would be felicitated.” These examples show important the issue of mixed marriages was for untouchable reformers. 3 { Some of Babasaheb Ambedkar’s co-workers, influence by’ Progressive thinking and by close association with him, thought undergoing mixed marriages themselves. The caste Hindu editot Dr. Ambedkar’s journal Janata, Shri B.R. Kadrekar, was going! ‘marty an untouchable girl who was an enthusiastic social acti _The untouchable activist D.G. Jadhav went through an inter M2 ‘We Also Made Histoftwith the sister of Kamlakant Chitre. Simi : sestet ovok, Pandurang Bhatkar, married aniee ae | te 1920, qhe views of | Babasaheb Ambedkar regarding mixed marri Fee emai rang here a mixed marriage himself, and it was his desire that jus son too should marry outside his caste. In a letter written to Patil on 22nd March 19S0 he says, “I have read the contents of your letter with regard to Yashwant’s marriage He ‘sree to marry according to his preference. Why has he tumed own the girls from Nagpur? | don’t know what they look like, tat they were well-educated girl. I think Yashwant is not going tomarry an educated girl, that is why he is by way of choosing anilliterate uirl. I do not agree with his thinking this way. | have ‘nat seen the daughter of Shri Rajbhoj. | will not say no to the marriage because she is of a different caste, because | do not believe in such things.” Babasaheb also encouraged mixed marriages by publishing ‘sows of such marriages in his paper Jamar and congratulating the couples in’ such cases. The issu Janata weekly dated 2nd June 1955 carries the news of the marriage of the upper- aste bridegroom, Bachchubhai Babubhai, with an untouchable ‘gir, Mangalabai Mahadu, following Vedic rites. It is clear from ‘hese incidents that mixed marriages were an important part of Ambedkar’s movement to destroy castes within Hinduism, Arranging Marriages throggh Advertisements ‘Byen today, among the upper castes, arranging marriages ‘though placing advertisements in newspapers is considered a somewhat inferior option; and so they miss out on a most eflective method. The untouchable community, however, had adopted this progressive method f arranging marriages early in the twentieth In the Buhishkrut Bhaarat of 22nd April 1927, the following “Boom wanted’ advertisement appeared: “ Groom Wanted: caste Mahaas, educated, well-built but aged under 25 years. The girl is ‘tdueated up to the 7th standard (Marathi), quite fair-complexioned. Dalit Women and the Tradition of Marriage usid good-looking, modest and healthy. Age above 15. The gir} hae parents, but her guardians are willing to give financial help sq her married life may be happy. Those interested should write yy address given below.””? the With a view to the overall progress of untouchable , some reformers also started homes for orphans and widows Shabu Shahu Shirsat, an untouchable reformer from Akola, f such a home on Sth June 1938, according to a printed paper. We can see from this discussion that dalit activists were efforts to reform the customs and traditions relating to mariage their community. We can conclude that bringing about reforms such as performing marriages with a minimum of expenditure because of the condition of economic deprivation in the community leaving out the unnecessary rituals and ceremonies, trying to integrate society through mixed marriages between castes and sub-castes, encouraging the desirable traditions like widow remarriage ete was a major theme of the Ambedkar movement. . Endnotes 1 Ambedkar \ Writimgs and Speeches, Volume $. 2 Bad. ol Lp. 18-19 3. Bahishkrut Bhaarat, September 1927 4 Janata, 21s April 1934, 5. Keer, Dhananjay, Muharma Phule, p. 156 6 Ibid, 7. Babishkrue Baaarat, 2ih December 1928. &. Shinde, V. R., Bhuartiva Asprushya techa Prashna, p. 124. 9 This information was obtained from the villagers at Phansavale, with ther signatures, 1. Keer, Dhananjay, Muhcoma Phule, p 150-51 Hi, Bahishérat Bhoaral, 2) st June 1927. Vadhu Rawmji Dabhade’s daugher ‘Kavatikabai married Sakharam Ingle. ‘12. Bahishkernt Bhaarat \2th Suty 1929. 1. Bahishkrut Bhaarat, 12th July 1929. Mrs. Bhangarkar, Mrs. Devakubai Samba, ‘im Janaubai Ambedkar, Mrs. Bhimabai Pawar, Mrs. Sakubas Larvankar (idoweds Mes. Chandrabat Nienkac, Mrs. Mukuias Sotambkar, Mrs. Draupadibat Twas, ‘Shedautala Venandhar and Akkabai (idowed sister of Dr. Ambedkar) were preset 14. Janta, 22nd March 1941 SV. Gaikwad and Leclavati ‘Adangale were mane on 2nd March 194), 13. Kasare DL. (1984), Midarbha tee! Dalitaanchi Chaival, p 456 A sooty © assist in marriages of reformist untouchables was established at Nagmut ® “ANagust 1936. Secretary: Anjanabi Deshbhratar. members VirendrabaiTeerhakat Deaupadibai Sakharkar 14 * We Also Made Histo ——