Teaching and Teacher Education 73 (2018) 151e161

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Teaching and Teacher Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tate

Spiral effects of teachers’ emotions and emotion regulation strategies:

Evidence from a daily diary study
Shiri Lavy*, Ron Eshet
a
University of Haifa, Abba Khoushy Ave 199, Haifa, 3498838, Israel

h i g h l i g h t s

Daily dynamics of teachers' emotional experiences are crucial to their work.

Results revealed spiral effects of teachers' negative emotions and surface acting.

Teachers' positive emotions triggered a positive spiral of decreased surface acting.

The negative and positive spirals affected teachers' burnout and job satisfaction.

The results highlight the importance of processing teachers' negative emotions.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Based on the "broaden and build" theory of positive emotions, we explored daily dynamics of teachers’
Received 1 August 2017 emotions and their regulation, expecting positive emotions to promote teachers' use of adaptive emotion
Received in revised form regulation strategies, and trigger upward spirals leading to further use of these strategies and increased
28 March 2018
teacher well-being. Negative emotions were expected to have opposite effects. Sixty-two teachers
Accepted 3 April 2018
Available online 7 April 2018
completed daily measures of emotions, emotion regulation, burnout, and job satisfaction during 10
workdays. Results supported direct and cyclic effects of surface acting, indicated positive effects of deep
acting, and suggested that emotion regulation strategies underlie effects of emotions on satisfaction and
Keywords:
Teachers
burnout.
Teaching © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Emotion regulation
Positive emotions
Negative emotions
Emotional labor

1. Introduction experience or expression of emotions (Gross, 1998; Oplatka, 2009;

Teaching is one of the most emotionally loaded occupations
(Johnson et al., 2005). Teachers' work is filled with emotions, which
arise throughout the workday in interactions with students, par-
ents, and colleagues (Hargreaves, 2000; Sutton & Wheatley, 2003).
This emotional load is one of the most important predictors of
burnout (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002; Farber, 1991; Friedman,
2000), which is a crucial problem of teachers, whose burnout
rates (and resulting dropout rates) are very high (De Heus &
Diekstra, 1999; Ingersoll, 2003; Schaufeli & Buunk, 2003). In this
context, emotion regulationdthe intentional modification of the
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: shirilavy@gmail.com (S. Lavy), Ron.eshet@gmail.com
(R. Eshet).
Zembylas, 2005)dis one of the most important tasks of educators,
required for their professional functioning and effectiveness, as
well as for their subjective sense of efficacy and psychological well-
being (Oplatka, 2009; Sutton, 2004; Yin & Lee, 2012; Yin, Huang, &
Lee, 2017). Teachers assert that effective emotion regulation pro-
motes their achievement of pedagogical goals and facilitates
healthy, strong, effective relationships with their students, which in
turn promote educational processes (Hargreaves, 2000; Sutton,
2004). Despite the dominant role of emotion regulation in teach-
ers' work (e.g., Hargreaves, 2000), research on the subject is limited,
especially quantitative research (e.g., Sutton & Wheatley, 2003;
Uitto, Jokikokko, & Estola, 2015). As a result, teachers' emotions and
emotion regulation often receive limited attention in teacher edu-
cation, policy, and reforms (Hargreaves, 2000, 2013; O'Connor,
2008; Uitto et al., 2015).
The present research aims to address the need for further

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2018.04.001
0742-051X/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
152 S. Lavy, R. Eshet / Teaching and Teacher Education 73 (2018) 151e161
quantitative examination of teachers' emotion regulation processes
and seeks to broaden our understanding of these processes’ ante-
cedents and effects, including their role in mitigating (or
enhancing) teacher burnout and job satisfaction. Based on relevant
literature (e.g., Fredrickson, 2001, 2013), the present research fo-
cuses on positive and negative emotions as potential antecedents of
teachers' use of certain adaptive and maladaptive emotion regu-
lation strategies, which can be intentionally modified. It further
suggests spiral effects of teachers' emotion regulation strategies on
their emotions, as well as on their burnout and job satisfaction. The
research includes a daily diary survey, which enables the explora-
tion of daily dynamics of emotions and their regulation strategies,
while assessing time precedence of their daily changes, and is thus
often used to infer causal effects of one variable on the other (e.g.,
Author et al., 2014; Author et al., 2016; Author et al., 2013;
Sonnentag & Starzyk, 2015; West & Hepworth, 1991). To the best of
our knowledge, this will be the first quantitative, integrative study
of the daily dynamics of teachers' emotions, emotion regulation
strategies (including surface acting and deep acting), and teachers'
burnout. As such, it can offer important insights about daily
emotion regulation processes to researchers, teachers, teacher ed-
ucators, school counselors, and principals.
1.1. The nature of positive and negative emotions
Emotions comprise sequences of physiological, psychological,
and behavioral responses, which arise when individuals need to
evaluate a situation that encompasses an opportunity or a chal-
lenge (Gross, 1998). They play a crucial role in decision making
(Damasio, 1994) and in preparing individuals for responding to
events in the world (Fridja, 1986). More specifically, emotions are
created in a process of appraising the meaning of an event (Gross,
1998). When the event is positively appraised, the resulting
emotion is positive; when the event is negatively appraised, the
resulting emotion is negative (Lazarus, 1991). Positive and negative
emotions have different effects, and both can be beneficial (e.g.,
Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005; Tamir & Ford, 2012). Negative
emotions (e.g., fear, anxiety, frustration) decrease the thought-
action repertoire, lead to a single action possibility (Fredrickson,
2001, 2013), and prompt the arousal of several systems related to
the autonomic nervous system (e.g., heart and vascular systems;
Gross & Levenson, 1993; Kreibig, 2010). When facing immediate
danger, minimizing the response repertoire to a single response
and increasing physiological arousal leads to prompt action, which
can save a person's life (Fredrickson, 2001; Levenson, 1988). Posi-
tive emotions, on the other hand, as suggested in Fredrickson's
(2001) “broaden and build theory”, broaden individuals' percep-
tion of the world and can have long-term effects on these percep-
tions, broadening the thought-action repertoire and increasing
restorative physiological and psychological ability (Tice,
Baumeister, Shmueli, & Muraven, 2007; Tugade & Fredrikson,
2004; Tugade, Fredrikson, & Barrett, 2004). Thus, positive emo-
tions increase individuals' ability to create and develop new re-
sponses and build resources, which can further increase their
positive emotions in the future and build their psychological
resilience (Fredrickson, 2001, 2013).
Over prolonged time periods, chronic experiences of negative
emotions have been associated with physiological and psycholog-
ical ailments, such as heart disease (Engebretson, Matthews, &
Scheier, 1989), cancer (Gross, 1989), and emotional exhaustion
(Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002). At work, such prolonged experi-
ences of negative emotions impair employees' performance and
increase their turnover intentions (Wright & Cropanzano, 1998). On
the other hand, positive emotions have been associated with better
health (Danner, Snowdon, & Friesen, 2001; Fredrickson &
Levenson, 1998) and better coping (e.g., Fredrickson & Joiner,
2002) in life, and with increased performance (Lyubomirsky et al.,
2005), more organizational citizenship behavior (Author et al.,
2016; Author et al., 2016), and less withdrawal behaviors and
turnover intentions at work (see meta-analysis of Lyubomirsky
et al., 2005).
1.2. Emotion regulation strategies: Deep and surface acting
Several jobs in modern organizations require expressing certain
emotions and avoiding the expression of other emotions in order to
pursue job and organizational goals. Emotion regulation at work,
referring to the process by which individuals intentionally regulate
the time or nature of their experiences or expressions of emotions
in order to obtain short- or long-term job goals (Grandey, 2000;
Gross, 1998), has also been called emotional labor (when this
emotion regulation is motivated by external factors such as
managerial demands) and emotional work (when motivated by
internal factors; Callahan & McCollum, 2002; Hochschild, 1983).
Both terms have been used in reference to teachers' work (see
Oplatka, 2009), and thus here we have chosen to use the more basic
term emotion regulation (e.g., Yin et al., 2017). Emotion regulation
processes are crucial to teachers’ work, as a core component of
educational work includes expressing care, empathy, and support
for students and exhibiting appropriate emotions during teaching
and interpersonal interactions with students (Mayseless, 2016;
Oplatka, 2009; Sutton & Harper, 2009). Teachers' ability to effec-
tively regulate their emotions is closely linked with students'
learning (Fried, 2011; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009) and to teachers'
sense of efficacy (Yin et al., 2017).
Emotion regulation processes can include deep actingda delib-
erate change of the experienced emotion through regulating the
precursors of the emotions. Such change can occur, for example,
when one changes the evaluation of the event as negative or pos-
itive, while reappraising the event or situation e thinking about it
again while considering alternative appraisals/evaluations, which
can lead to other emotions. Emotion management processes can
also comprise surface actingda mere change of the expressed
emotion without changing the felt or experienced emotion (i.e.,
“faking in bad faith”; Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987, p. 32) (Grandey, 2000;
Hochschild, 1983). Both deep and surface acting aim to result in
similar emotional expression, congruent with the job goals
(Hochschild, 1983). Additional emotion regulation strategies, which
have been recently suggested, allow adaptive integration (Roth,
Assor, Niemiec, Ryan, & Deci, 2009), and/or genuine expression
(Yin & Lee, 2012) of the felt emotions. Although these strategies
seem to be interesting and effective (at least to a certain degree),
studies on these strategies are more limited, and they were not
included in the present research, which focused on the more
broadly studied strategies-deep acting and surface acting.
Although deep acting and surface acting seem to have similar
end goals-to yield an emotional expression congruent with the job
requirements (Hochschild, 1983), they differ in their effectiveness
and in their physiological and mental costs. Deep acting is typically
considered more adaptive, because it has been associated with
decreased teacher burnout (Chang, 2013) and exhaustion (Philipp
& Schupbach, 2010) and with an increased sense of self-efficacy
(Yin et al., 2017) and accomplishment (Brackett, Palomera, Mojsa-
Kaja, Reyes, & Salovey, 2010). Furthermore, teachers' subjective
reappraisal of their students' behaviors has been shown to mediate
the associations of students' behavior, motivation, and discipline
with teacher burnout, suggesting that specific kinds of appraisals
may be key in buffering the exhausting effects of students'
misbehavior (Becker, Keller, Goetz, Frenzel, & Taxer, 2015; Chang,
2013). Surface acting, on the other hand, is typically considered
 S. Lavy, R. Eshet / Teaching and Teacher Education 73 (2018) 151e161
less adaptive, because it has been associated with decreased
teacher self-efficacy and with increased exhaustion and burnout
(Chang, 2013; Naring, Briet, & Brouwers, 2006; Yin et al., 2017). In
other occupations, surface acting has also been associated with
decreased performance (Hülsheger & Schewe, 2011) and health
problems (e.g., Gross, 1989).
The disparate effects of deep vs. surface acting seem to stem
from their differential effectiveness in reducing the emotional
discomfort (also called “emotive dissonance”) that accompanies the
misfit between the genuinely experienced emotion and the
emotion that has to be expressed in order to adhere to organiza-
tional or job requirements (Kruml & Geddes, 2000). Such disso-
nance creates tension and requires emotional resources (e.g.,
Hochschild, 1983). In deep acting, there is an attempt to change
the experienced emotion (e.g., by reappraisal of the event) and
create a more appropriate emotion that better fits the job re-
quirements. In surface acting, the experienced emotion is not
modified; instead, its expression is suppressed. Thus, the discrep-
ancy between the experienced emotion and the emotion which
expression fits the job requirements is not reduced (Hochschild,
1983). This prolonged discrepancy is accompanied by increased
physiological arousal (e.g., of the heart and blood system), which is
initiated by the felt negative emotions (Kreibig, 2010) and
enhanced by their suppression (Gross & Levenson, 1997). Such
enhanced arousal of the physiological systems may explain some of
the negative physiological and emotional effects of surface acting
(Gross, 1989).
1.3. Antecedents of deep/surface acting
Several factors can lead to use of a particular emotion regulation
strategy (e.g., deep/surface acting), including personality charac-
teristics, organizational expectations and characteristics, and
events at work that trigger positive or negative emotional re-
sponses (Grandey, Diefendorff, & Rupp, 2013; Kammeyer-Mueller
et al., 2013). The present research focuses on teachers' positive
and negative daily emotional experiences, and suggests that these
experiences influence teachers' use of deep and surface acting,
because they affect teachers’ resources and thus their ability to
perform deep acting.
According to Fredrickson's (2001, 2013) broaden and build
theory, positive emotions broaden the thought-action repertoire,
build psychological resilience, and enhance individuals' capacity to
generate a wider range of responses to events; thus they are ex-
pected to create the resources and capacity required for deep acting
and decrease the need for surface acting. The main challenges of
deep acting are finding new, positive meaning in events and cir-
cumstances that are initially perceived as negative, and summoning
the notable cognitive effort required for this process. Positive
emotions may assist in coping with these two challenges, because
they contribute to individuals' ability to produce numerous re-
sponses to problems (Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002) and find positive
meaning in negative circumstances (Tugade & Fredrikson, 2004).
In a similar vein, positive emotions are expected to decrease
teachers’ use of surface acting, which has been associated with
emotional exhaustion and low capacity for the cognitive effort
required in deep acting (e.g., Philipp & Schupbach, 2010). Because
positive emotions increase psychological resources and resilience
(Fredrickson, 2013), teachers who experience more positive emo-
tions at work are expected to experience less exhaustion and thus
experience a reduced need for the use of surface acting in their
work (as they have the capacity to cope more effectively with their
feelings). A study that used the experience-sampling method pro-
vided initial evidence for the potential of teachers' positive emo-
tions (i.e., excitement) to decrease momentary use of surface acting
153
(Keller, Chang, Becker, Goetz, & Frenzel, 2014).
Following the same rationale, negative emotions, which narrow
the thought-action repertoire and enhance individuals' focus on
one specific response (Fredrickson, 2013), are expected to decrease
individuals' capacity to generate alternative interpretations to an
event and thus decrease deep acting and increase surface acting,
when emotion regulation is required. Furthermore, days charac-
terized by more salient negative emotions are expected to typically
require more emotion regulation efforts overall, because negative
emotional expressions are typically less congruent with profes-
sional goals (Gosserand & Diefendorff, 2005).
Studies of personality and emotion regulation provide initial
support for these ideas, while associating the trait of positive
affectivity with deep acting, and trait negative affectivity with
surface acting (Cheung & Tang, 2009). Based on the vast literature
on effects of short-term emotions (e.g, Fredrickson, 2013), and on
the notion that such emotions can change more readily than per-
sonality traits, in the present research we further examined the
effects of daily emotions on changes in emotion regulation strate-
gies. Our first and second research hypotheses were:
H1. Positive emotions will: (a) increase teachers' use of deep
acting and (b) decrease their use of surface acting.
H2. Negative emotions will: (a) decrease teachers' use of deep
acting and (b) increase their use of surface acting.
Furthermore, previous studies have linked deep acting with
decreased emotional exhaustion and increased job satisfaction, and
have associated surface acting with increased emotional exhaus-
tion, depersonalization, and impaired well-being (Cheung & Lun,
2015; Hülsheger & Schewe, 2011; Philipp & Schupbach, 2010;
Taxer & Frenzel, 2015). Research has specifically shown that for
teachers, deep and surface acting mediate the associations between
the emotional demands of teaching and teachers’ well being (Yin,
Huang, & Wang, 2016).
Thus, in the present research we expected teachers' emotion
regulation strategies to affect not only their emotions, but also
other aspects of their well-being. Teacher well-being is an area of
interest, to a large extent because research has consistently shown
that teachers suffer from high burnout rates, similar to or greater
than those in other social professions (Ghanizadeh & Jahedizadeh,
2015; Hakanen, Bakker, & Schaufeli, 2006; Schaufeli & Buunk,
2003), and that teacher burnout is one of the primary reasons for
turnover and diminished performance (Grant, 2017; Shen et al.,
2015). Thus, in the present study, we included a measure of
teachers' daily burnout, hypothesizing (based on the above
mentioned literature, e.g., Hülsheger & Schewe, 2011; Philipp &
Schupbach, 2010) that teachers’ decreased use of deep acting and
increased use of surface acting may increase teacher burnout and
hamper their well-being.
Researchers have argued for the importance of acknowledging
positive, and not just negative, aspects of teacher well-being (e.g.,
Renshaw, Long, & Cook, 2015). In an attempt to include a such a
positive aspect, which is related to teachers' personal well-being,
we chose (based on previous studies-e.g., Yin et al., 2016) teach-
ers' job satisfaction. This measure of personal attitudes has been
consistently associated with performance (Judge, Thoresen, Bono,
& Patton, 2001), psychological well-being, and health (Faragher,
Cass, & Cooper, 2005), and yet did not include measures directly
related to factors outside the teachers (such as school climate and
connectedness to school; e.g., Renshaw et al., 2015)- which are less
likely to be affected, at the daily level, by teachers’ daily emotion
regulation practices.
We expected that increased use of deep acting and decreased
use of surface acting, following experiences of positive emotions,
154 S. Lavy, R. Eshet / Teaching and Teacher Education 73 (2018) 151e161

would both increase teachers' job satisfaction (reflected in measures of the study variables on consecutive days, over a period
decreased teacher burnout and increased teacher job satisfaction). of ten workdays. This method enables examination of time prece-
In a similar vein, decreased use of deep acting and increased use of dence in changes of the variables and the associations of these
surface acting, following experiences of negative emotions, were changes with subsequent daily changes in the other study vari-
expected to decrease teachers' job satisfaction. ables. Specifically, this method enables evaluating the effect of daily
fluctuations in the independent variable on daily changes in the
H3. Teachers' increased use of deep acting will (a) increase
dependent variable. Such effect may imply that changes in the
teachers' job satisfaction, and (b) decrease teachers' burnout.
dependent variable are a result, at least to some extent, of the
H4. Teachers' increased use of surface acting will (a) decrease changes in the independent variable (Author et al., 2016;
teachers' job satisfaction, and (b) increase teachers' burnout. Sonnentag & Starzyk, 2015; West & Hepworth, 1991). In the present
study, we chose to use this method in order to examine the causal
Increased/decreased use of deep/surface acting may have
effects of daily positive and negative emotional experiences on
additional effects. Philipp and Schupbach's (2010) longitudinal
teachers' daily use of deep and surface acting during the workday,
study showed a consistency effect, indicating that teachers typically
and vice versa, in order to examine the study hypotheses. In
continue using the same emotion regulation strategy. Here we
addition, we used the same method in order to explore the effects
suggest that the tendency to maintain the use of emotion regula-
of deep and surface acting on teachers' daily burnout and job
tion strategies may be more than a habit (Mauss, Bunge, & Gross,
satisfaction. The method seemed appropriate because of the short-
2007). It may result from the effects of using a certain emotion
term nature of emotional experiences (Fredrickson, 2001), as well
regulation strategy on teachers' emotional states. Deep acting
as the daily fluctuations in emotion regulation strategies (Gross,
seems to elicit positive or neutral emotional states (Grandey, 2003;
2002) and the immediate effect on teachers’ job outcomes (Keller
Scott & Barnes, 2011) and thus it is expected to further broaden (or
et al., 2014; Philipp & Schupbach, 2010).
at least not narrow) teachers' thought-action repertoire. This would
enable teachers to use this strategy again in the future and enjoy its
2.1. Participants
benefits, in terms of increased positive affect and decreased
exhaustion, thus limiting their need to use surface acting in the
The study comprised 62 teachers (57 women, 5 men), aged
future. On the other hand, surface acting elicits negative emotions
25e58 (M ¼ 39.55, SD ¼ 8.59), who voluntarily participated in the
(Grandey, 2003; Hülsheger & Schewe, 2011; Scott & Barnes, 2011)
study. Their tenure ranged from 1 to 32 years (M ¼ 12.97,
and is thus expected to narrow teachers' thought-action repertoire
SD ¼ 8.76), and their workload ranged from 8 to 29 (M ¼ 21.44,
and hamper their ability to use deep acting when coping with
SD ¼ 4.07) frontal teaching hours per week. The teachers were from
events that require emotion regulation later on in their work. In this
39 different elementary (74%), middle (14%), and high (12%) schools
way, teachers' positive emotions may prompt an upward spiral
in northern Israel, and all of them had a bachelor's (55%) or a
(Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002), in which increased use of deep acting
master's (45%) degree.
and decreased use of surface acting further maintain teachers'
positive emotions, which in turn enable the further increased use of
2.2. Procedure
deep acting and decreased use of surface acting in response to
adverse events and ultimately increase teachers' well-being. A
Upon approval of the University Ethics Committee and the Chief
parallel downward spiral may be prompted by teachers' negative
Investigator of the Ministry of Education, potential teacher partic-
emotions, which are expected to increase use of surface acting
ipants were recruited in teachers’ formal and informal meetings
rather than deep acting, leading to more negative emotions, which
(e.g., staff meetings in schools, professional training). After an initial
limits teachers' capacity for deep acting and results in further
description of the study was provided, teachers who expressed
surface acting in response to adverse events and increases teachers'
interest in participating received a more detailed explanation about
exhaustion (Fig. 1; see Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002 and Burns et al.,
the nature and specific requirements of the study and completed a
2008 for upward and downward spiral details). Thus, our final
consent form and a brief demographic questionnaire. Then, they
research hypotheses, reflecting the processes leading to upward/
completed a brief daily questionnaire (with the measures described
downward spirals were:
below) over the course of ten workdays. Questionnaire completion
H5. Teachers' increased use of deep acting will be associated with was monitored online on a daily basis. A reminder message was
(a) an increase in teachers' positive emotions, and (b) a decrease in sent by phone to teachers who failed to complete the questionnaire
teachers' negative emotions. on a certain day. The few participants who missed more than three
days were omitted from the study database. Retention rate in the
H6. Teachers' increased use of surface acting will be associated
study was high (92%).
with (a) a decrease in teachers' positive emotions, and (b) an in-
crease in teachers' negative emotions.
2.3. Measures

2. Method Daily experience of positive and negative emotions. Participants'

daily emotional experiences were assessed with a shortened
The research hypotheses, summarized in Fig. 1, were examined (seven-item) version of the Short Positive and Negative Affect Scale
in a daily dairy survey, in which participants completed daily (S-PANAS; Thompson, 2007). Specifically, participants were asked

H1, H2
H3, H4
Positive/Negative Emotion Regulation: Job Satisfaction
Emotions Deep/Surface Acting Work Burnout
H5, H6

Fig. 1. The research hypotheses.

 S. Lavy, R. Eshet / Teaching and Teacher Education 73 (2018) 151e161 155

to rate the extent to which they experienced each of the seven
emotions (i.e., attentive, alert, active, determined, afraid, agitated,
upset) during their workday. Responses were rated on a seven-
point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 7 (all the time).
The internal consistency was satisfactory for both the positive
emotions subscale (Cronbach's a ¼ 0.93) and the negative emotions
subscale (Cronbach's a ¼ 0.82).
Daily use of emotion regulation strategies. Participants' daily use
of emotion regulation strategies was assessed with the Hebrew
version of the Emotional Labor Scale (ELS; Brotheridge & Lee, 2003;
Yagil, 2012). In the present study, we used the second part of the
scale, which assesses the extent to which employees use each
specific emotional labor strategy. This part comprises three items
assessing the use of deep acting (e.g., “I try to actually experience
the emotions that I must show”) and five items assessing the use of
surface acting (e.g., “I resist expressing my true feelings”), rated on a
seven-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 7 (always).
The subscales showed satisfactory internal consistency: Cronbach's
a0 s were 0.79 and 0.91 for the deep acting and surface acting sub-
scales, respectively.
Daily burnout. Participants' burnout was assessed with a short-
ened (four-item) version of the Burnout Measure Short Version
(Pines, 2005). Specifically, participants rated the extent to which
they felt exhausted/tired, hopeless, trapped, and helpless during
the workday. Responses were rated on a seven-point Likert-type
scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 7 (always). The scale's internal
consistency was satisfactory (Cronbach's a ¼ 0.82).
Daily job satisfaction. Job satisfaction was assessed with a
shortened, two-item Hebrew version (Braslavsky, 1997) of the
general job satisfaction scale from the Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS;
Hackman & Oldham, 1975). The items were modified to enable
assessment of daily (rather than general) job satisfaction (i.e., “were
you generally pleased with your job today?”; “were you generally
happy with the tasks that you were required to do today?”). Re-
sponses were rated on a five-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1
(very displeased) to 7 (very pleased). The scale showed high internal
consistency (Cronbach's a ¼ 0.94).
3. Results
3.1. Data analysis strategy
days did not correspond with the literature on teachers’ emotion
regulation. However, these associations fit some of the general
literature on emotion regulation at work, which indicates that
employees whose work requires more emotion regulation use
more deep acting as well as more surface acting, and that both
emotion regulation strategies seem to be associated with burnout-
although the association of deep acting is notably smaller (see
meta-analysis - Hülsheger & Schewe, 2011). Further analyses of the
daily data were conducted to enable more accurate examination of
the daily associations (and dynamics) of the variables.
Before testing the hypotheses related to the daily effects, we
examined the need for Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM), by
computing the intraclass correlation (ICC) for each of the study
variables (examining the ratio of the between-person variance
divided by the within-person variance). The ICCs were significant,
ranging from 0.33 to 0.64 (Table 1), thus justifying the need for
multilevel analysis.
The research hypotheses pertaining to daily effects were
examined using two-level HLM analyses. This kind of analysis is
considered appropriate for diary studies because it takes into ac-
count the joint variance of different responses of the same partic-
ipant (e.g., Author et al., 2016; Sonnentag & Starzyk, 2015). In the
present study, the daily responses were nested within participants,
so that level 1 represented the day level and level 2 represented the
participant level. Level 1 data comprised independent and depen-
dent variables from the same day, in addition to a control varia-
bledthe level of the dependent variable on the previous day. This
enabled predicting the change in the dependent variable, from the
independent variable, while controlling for the previous-day level
of the dependent variable. This kind of analysis, in which the effects
of emotions on the same day are examined, is suitable for such
examination of daily effects of emotions at work, as shown in
previous studies (Sonnentag & Starzyk, 2015). At the second level,
relevant demographic variables were entered into the equation in
order to control for their effect. Specifically, we controlled for
teachers’ education, workload, and tenure (based on Lackritz, 2004;
Sutton & Wheatley, 2003; Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007). The
regression equations were based on the following schema:
Dependent Variable (DV) ¼ p0i þ p1i X (Independent Variable
(IV)ti) þ p2i X (Previous Day DVti) þ eti

Means, standard deviations, and correlations of the study vari- p0i ¼ b00 þ b01 X (Education Leveli) þ b02 X (Workloadi) þ b03 X
ables (across the 10 days) are presented in Table 1. As indicated in (Tenurei)
the table, most variables were in the expected range, although
teachers' positive emotions were relatively high and teachers' p1i ¼ b10 þ r1i
negative emotions were relatively low (compared with PANAS
norms; Watson & Clark, 1999). Most correlations were also in the p2i ¼ b20 þ r2i
expected range and direction, although the positive associations of
deep acting with surface acting and with burnout across the ten Level 1 variables were entered into the equation uncentered (to

Table 1
Means, standard deviations, ICCs, and correlations of the study variables.

Mean SD ICC 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 Positive emotions 5.90 1.14 0.52

2 Negative emotions 1.86 1.25 0.54 -.16**
3 Deep acting 2.68 1.43 0.64 -.02 .26**
4 Surface acting 2.18 1.28 0.61 -.17** .43** .58**
5 Burnout 2.14 1.23 0.50 -.22** .73** .28** .43**
6 Job satisfaction 4.08 0.88 0.33 .58** -.33** .00 -.22** -.43**
7 Education e e -.24 -.09 -.09* -.04 .01 -.18
8 Workload 21.44 4.07 .07 .05 .19 .09* -.02 .11
9 Tenure 12.97 8.76 -.05 .02 .13 .00 -.17 -.06

Notes: **p < 0.01; the range of all daily variables (numbered 1e6) is 1e7; daily variables (numbered 1e6) were aggregated across the 10 workdays, person variables
(numbered 7e9) were assessed once.
156 S. Lavy, R. Eshet / Teaching and Teacher Education 73 (2018) 151e161

maintain scale consistency across the independent and dependent
variables). Level 2 control variables were entered into the equation
grand centered. The HLM unstandardized coefficients are pre-
sented in Tables 2e4.
3.2. Predicting daily changes in deep and surface acting from
positive and negative emotions (hypotheses 1e2)
First, we examined the effect of teachers' positive and negative
emotions on a certain day (2 IV's) on their use of deep acting on that
day (DV; H1a þ H2a), while controlling for previous day deep acting
and for teachers' demographic variables (education level, workload,
and tenure). The results indicated that teachers' daily negative
emotions were significantly associated with increased deep acting
(and not with decreased deep acting, as hypothesized), while
teachers' daily positive emotions were not significantly associated
with changes in deep acting (Table 2).
In a similar way, we explored the effects of teachers' daily
positive and negative emotions (2 IV's) on their daily use of surface
acting (DV; H1b þ H2b), while controlling for previous day surface
acting and for demographic variables. The results showed that, as
expected, teachers' daily positive emotions were significantly
associated with decreased surface acting, while teachers' daily
negative emotions were significantly associated with increased
surface acting (Table 2).
3.3. Predicting daily changes in teacher job satisfaction and
burnout from their use of deep acting and surface acting
(hypotheses 3e4)
The effects of teachers' daily use of deep acting and surface
acting on their daily job satisfaction (H3a þ H4a) were explored in
an equation in which teachers' job satisfaction on a certain day was
the dependent variable and teachers' use of deep acting and surface
acting on that day were the independent variables. Previous-day
job satisfaction and demographic variables (education level,
tenure, and workload) were also included as control variables. The
results showed that, as expected, teachers’ daily use of deep acting
was significantly associated with increased job satisfaction and that
teachers' daily use of surface acting was significantly associated
with decreased job satisfaction (Table 3).
The effects of teachers' daily use of deep acting and surface
acting emotion regulation strategies (2 IV's) on their daily burnout
(DV; H3b þ H4b), were examined in a similar way, while controlling
for previous-day burnout and for demographic variables. The re-
sults indicated that teachers' daily use of deep acting was not
significantly associated with changes in their burnout, and that
teachers' daily use of surface acting was negatively associated with
increased burnout (Table 3).
3.4. Exploring spiral effects (hypotheses 5e6)
The spiral effects of teachers' use of emotion regulation strate-
gies (deep and surface acting) on teachers’ positive emotions were
examined by exploring the effects of teachers' deep acting and
surface acting (2 IVs) on a certain day, on their positive emotions on
that day (DV; H5a þ H6a), while controlling for previous-day
positive emotions and demographic variables. The results indi-
cated an association of teachers' daily use of deep acting with
increased positive emotions, and an association of teachers' daily
use of surface acting with decreased positive emotions (Table 4).
The effects of teachers' daily use of deep and surface acting on
their negative emotions (H5b þ H6b) were examined in a similar
way, while controlling for previous-day negative emotions and
demographic variables. The results indicated that teachers’ daily
use of deep acting was not significantly associated with changes in
negative emotions, while teachers' daily use of surface acting was
associated with increased negative emotions (Table 4). Fig. 2
summarizes all the hypotheses and results.
4. Discussion
Teachers' emotions and emotion regulation are core compo-
nents of their workday, but their importance and impact have not
been fully acknowledged in recent research (Sutton & Wheatley,
2003). Teachers' emotions and the use of specific emotion regula-
tion strategies seem to have major effects on fatigue (Philipp &
Schupbach, 2010) and emotional exhaustion (Keller et al., 2014;
Naring et al., 2006), as well as on efficacy (Brackett et al., 2010; Yin
et al., 2017). Teachers also reported that the ability to manage their
emotions in class has a very important role in their daily func-
tioning and well-being, as well as in their ability to attain their
teaching and educational goals (Sutton, Mudrey-Camino, & Knight,
2009) and effectively handle student misbehavior and discipline
issues (Becker et al., 2015; Chang, 2013). The present study aimed to
advance our understanding of the daily dynamics of teachers'
emotions, emotion regulation, and well-being indicators, via the
use of a daily diary method to examine these dynamics. Specifically,
the study focused on the potential effects of positive and negative
emotions on the use of deep and surface acting, the spiral effects of
using these emotion regulation strategies on teachers’ emotions,
and the influence of these processes on teachers' burnout and job
satisfaction (Fig. 1). Our main goal was to shed light on the ways in
which emotional experiences and their regulation affect teachers'
daily burnout, daily job satisfaction, and daily capacity to further
conduct adaptive emotion regulation.
The study's findings (summarized in Fig. 2) indicated that daily
positive emotions are associated with decreased surface acting and
that negative emotions are associated with increased surface

Table 2
HLM coefficients predicting daily changes in teachers' emotion regulation strategies, from positive and negative emotions e combined effects.

Daily deep acting Daily surface acting

b SE DF t-value b SE DF t-value

Intercept 1.72*** 0.41 57 4.17 1.80*** 0.38 57 4.76

Level 1 (day level)
Positive emotions 0.00 0.06 60 0.06 0.14* 0.06 60 2.53
Negative emotions 0.18** 0.06 60 2.77 0.35*** 0.06 60 6.25
PD-deep/surface acting 0.25*** 0.04 60 6.46 0.25*** 0.05 60 5.22
Level 2 (teacher level)
Education level 0.04 0.11 57 0.32 0.00 0.07 57 0.02
Work load 0.01 0.03 57 0.20 0.03 0.02 57 1.51
Tenure 0.01 0.01 57 0.54 0.00 0.01 57 0.31

Notes. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001; b ¼ Parameter Estimates; PD¼ Previous Day; SE ¼ Standard Errors; DF ¼ Degrees of Freedom.
 S. Lavy, R. Eshet / Teaching and Teacher Education 73 (2018) 151e161 157

Table 3
HLM coefficients predicting daily changes in teachers' well-being at work, from teachers' deep and surface acting.

Daily job satisfaction Daily burnout

b SE DF t-value b SE DF t-value

Intercept 3.77*** 0.23 57 16.45 1.37*** 0.14 57 9.69

Level 1 (day level)
Deep acting 0.10** 0.03 60 2.86 0.03 0.04 60 0.75
Surface acting 0.24*** 0.05 60 5.07 0.31*** 0.07 60 4.26
PD-burnout/job satisfaction 0.12** 0.04 60 2.97 0.05 0.05 60 0.92
Level 2 (teacher level)
Education level 0.11* 0.06 57 2.04 0.14 0.08 57 1.79
Workload 0.02 0.02 57 1.44 0.02 0.02 57 1.19
Tenure 0.01 0.01 57 1.84 0.02* 0.01 57 2.29

Notes. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001; b ¼ Parameter Estimates; PD¼ Previous Day; SE ¼ Standard Errors; DF ¼ Degrees of Freedom.

Table 4
HLM coefficients predicting daily changes in teachers' emotions from teachers' deep and surface acting e combined effects.

Daily positive emotions Daily negative emotions

b SE DF t-value b SE DF t-value

Intercept 5.35*** 0.34 57 15.57 1.17*** 0.19 57 6.21

Level 1 (day level)
Deep acting 0.11** 0.04 60 2.95 0.05 0.05 60 1.07
Surface acting 0.24*** 0.06 60 3.99 0.39*** 0.06 60 6.39
PD-positive/negative emotions 0.13 0.05 60 2.82 0.00 0.04 60 0.07
Level 2 (teacher level)
Education level 0.14 0.08 57 1.84 0.25** 0.09 57 2.79
Workload 0.00 0.02 57 0.15 0.01 0.02 57 0.36
Tenure 0.02* 0.01 57 2.61 0.02 0.01 57 1.74

Notes. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001; b ¼ Parameter Estimates; PD¼ Previous Day; SE ¼ Standard Errors; DF ¼ Degrees of Freedom.

H1a (+) Emotion Regulation: H3a (+) Job

Positive
Emotions Deep Acting Satisfaction
H2a (-)** H4a (-)

H1b (-) H3b (-)

Negative Emotion Regulation:

Work
Emotions Surface Acting
H2b (+) Burnout
H4b (+)

Direct Effects
*Hypotheses which were not supported by the findings are marked in dashed lines
**Although negative emotions were hypothesized to decrease deep acting, results
indicated that they were actually associated with increased deep acting (contrary to
the hypothesis).

H5a (+)
Positive Emotion Regulation:
Emotions Deep Acting
H6a (-)

H5b (-)

Negative Emotion Regulation:

Emotions H6b (+) Surface Acting

Spiral Effects
*Hypotheses which were not supported by the findings are marked in dashed lines

Fig. 2. The research findings (conceptual summary of the findings)*.

158 S. Lavy, R. Eshet / Teaching and Teacher Education 73 (2018) 151e161
acting, as well as with a smaller increase in deep acting. The find-
ings also showed that daily use of surface acting decreased teach-
ers' positive emotions and increased their negative emotions,
triggering a downward spiral effect, while using deep acting only
increased positive emotions, and did not decrease negative emo-
tions. Finally, the findings indicated that daily use of surface acting
was associated with an increase in teachers' daily burnout and a
decrease in their daily job satisfaction, and that deep acting was
only associated with an increase in daily job satisfaction.
4.1. Theoretical implications
The findings related to positive emotions suggested that these
emotions are associated with decreased use of surface acting,
suggesting that they help teachers avoid the use of less adaptive
emotion regulation strategies. These findings correspond with a
previous study using experience sampling data, which indicated
that teachers' excitement was associated with decreased use of
surface acting during class (Keller et al., 2014). Unexpectedly (but in
line with previous studies), positive emotions were not associated
with more (or less) use of deep acting. A possible explanation is that
the general level of required emotion regulation when experiencing
positive emotions during the day was decreased, as these emotions
typically fit better with the required emotional expressions in
teachers' work (e.g., Sutton, 2004; Taxer & Frenzel, 2015). Another
possible explanation of the lack of change in the use of deep acting
when feeling positive emotions, is that when teachers experience
these emotions and have a significant amount of mental resources,
they use other types of emotion regulation strategies, which are
less commonly discussed in the literature and were not examined
in the present study. Such emotion regulation strategies include
genuine expression of emotions (Yin & Lee, 2012; Yin et al., 2017),
which has indeed been associated with positive emotional expe-
riences (Taxer & Frenzel, 2015), and emotional integration (Roth
et al., 2009), which involves awareness of one's emotional state
and the ability to use this awareness to regulate emotional
behavior. Future research can further explore whether experi-
encing positive emotions, which broadens the scope of attention
(Fredrickson, 2013), enable teachers to be more aware of their
emotional state and use more integrated and genuine emotion
regulation strategies, and what are the daily dynamics that may
foster such processes.
With regard to negative emotions, the findings indicated sig-
nificant associations of negative emotions with increased surface
acting, as expected, but also with increased deep acting. Because
negative emotions are characterized by decreased cognitive re-
sources (Fredrickson, 2001), experiencing negative emotions may
lead teachers to use more surface acting, which requires a narrower
cognitive capacity. The somewhat smaller increase in deep acting
when experiencing negative emotions may stem from the overall
higher levels of emotion regulation required when experiencing
negative emotions, as well as from teachers' attempts not only to
reduce their negative expressions but also to willfully increase their
positive emotions (Gosserand & Diefendorff, 2005; Sutton et al.,
2009). Reducing negative expressions can be attained through
both deep and surface acting, whereas increasing genuinely felt
positive emotions can only be achieved by using deep acting,
because of the need to change the authentic emotion. Thus,
teachers who experience negative emotions in class may use sur-
face acting to avoid negative expressions, but also use deep acting
in order to increase their authentic, experienced, positive emotions.
Furthermore, the study's findings revealed that daily surface
acting was associated with increased negative emotions and with
decreased positive emotions. These findings support the idea that
negative emotions, followed by increased surface acting, trigger a
downward spiral in which increased negative emotions further
enhance the use of surface acting, and so on. For example, a teacher
who had a fight with their spouse or principal may come to class
with depleted mental resources. This teacher may later fail to help a
student in class and feel frustration. In order not to damage his/her
interactions (and progress) with this student in the future, he/she
tries not to express this frustration and to manage his/her emotion.
The fact that his/her cognitive capacity is limited (due to the
negative feelings about the morning argument) may lead the
teacher to use surface acting, as he/she will be unable to
acknowledge alternative interpretations for what happened in the
classroom (e.g., that the student had come a long way and, although
not yet successful, had made significant improvement). Following
the use of surface acting, the frustration is suppressed, but not
altered. Thus, in addition to the decrease of positive emotional
experience, other feelings (e.g., anger) may arise following the
continued frustration. The next time the teacher tries to help a
student and experiences frustration, the teacher's cognitive ca-
pacity will be even more limited, due to the negative emotions, and
he/she is thus more likely to perform surface acting againdkeeping
the negative emotions bottled up again. These spiraling effects are
expected to continue, in what may feel like an emotional trap.
The spiral effects related to positive emotions and deep acting
were somewhat different: Although daily positive emotions were
not associated with increased use of deep acting, the use of deep
acting was associated with increased positive emotions (but not
with a change in negative emotions). These results suggest that the
effects of positive emotions may be more complex than those of
negative emotions, perhaps due to a possible reduction of the need
to conduct emotion regulation when feeling more positive emo-
tions during the day, because these emotions are typically more
congruent with teachers’ job requirements (Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987;
Sutton, 2004). In a similar vein, the effects of deep acting do not
mirror the effects of surface acting, because the effectivity of deep
acting in reducing negative affect seems to be limited (at the daily
level). Thus, the effects of positive and negative emotions on
emotion regulation cannot be simply paralleled; rather, they seem
to be qualitatively different. Further research is required on the
specific cognitive resources required for each emotion regulation
strategy, and on the ways different emotions facilitate these
resources.
The importance of the study's findings regarding the effects of
teachers' emotions on their use of deep and surface acting is
underscored by the notable associations of surface acting with
increased burnout and decreased job satisfaction and the associa-
tion of deep acting with increased job satisfaction. These findings
suggest that, in line with previous research on employees (Kruml &
Geddes, 2000), teachers who use surface acting to change their
emotional experience hamper their well-being at work (e.g., Gross
& John, 2003; Philipp & Schupbach, 2010). On the other hand,
employees who use deep acting have a better chance to increase (or
maintain) their well-being (Gross & John, 2003) and decrease their
emotional exhaustion (Philipp & Schupbach, 2010). The findings of
the current study provide additional evidence for these processes
at the daily level and also suggest that, at the daily level, different
aspects of well-being may be affected by the use of emotion
regulation strategies in different ways (or at different time in-
tervals; see Grandey, 2015), as deep acting was indeed associated
with increased job satisfaction but not with decreased burnout.
4.2. Study limitations
As one of the first daily diary surveys on the dynamics of
teachers' emotions and emotion regulation strategies, the study
had an exploratory nature and thus suffered from a few limitations.
 S. Lavy, R. Eshet / Teaching and Teacher Education 73 (2018) 151e161
First, the study was based on self-report measures, some of which
were short (e.g., the job satisfaction measure) and is thus prone to
suffer from various biases (e.g., anchoring effects, primacy and
recency effects, time pressure, consistency motivation; Paulhus &
Vazire, 2007). In order to overcome these issues, future studies
should include additional physiological and behavioral measures
(e.g., cardiovascular measures, electrodermal measures, respiratory
measures etc.; Kreibig, 2010) to assess positive and negative emo-
tions. The study also failed to include measures assessing teachers'
performance (which may also be reflected in their students' feel-
ings and achievements), as well as measures of contextual and
personality factors that may affect emotional dynamics. Future
studies would benefit from including such measures, which can
promote insights about the effects of emotions and emotion
regulation dynamics on teachers' and students' performance and
about the unique and interactive effects of organizational and
personality factors (e.g., positive/negative affectivity; Diefendorff,
Grandey, Erickson, & Dahling, 2011) on these dynamics. In a
similar vein, using an experience sampling approach would allow
for more accurate examination of the dynamic nature of emotions
and their regulation, and conducting the study over a longer time
period, may yield more definite results and enable examining long-
term effects. Furthermore, the sample of the present research
comprised mostly women teachers, from one country, who seemed
to experience a more positive emotions and less negative emotions
than usual. These characteristics may have affected the findings;
thus, it may be beneficial to pursue the study with a larger, het-
erogenic sample in other countries.
4.3. Practical implications
Teachers' emotional expression and emotion regulation
crucially affects the quality of the teaching process and the class
climate (Sutton et al., 2009), as well as teacher efficacy (Yin et al.,
2017) and students’ learning and achievements (e.g., Fried, 2011;
Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). Thus, the findings of the present
study hold important implications for principals, counselors, and
teachers, highlighting the effects of teachers' emotional experi-
ences on their ability to manage their emotions adaptively and
effectively and delineating daily dynamics underlying these effects.
The results demonstrate the need to acknowledge and nurture
teachers' emotional experiences during the workday and the
importance of creating opportunities for teachers to experience
more positive and less negative emotions in schools. One way of
enhancing positive emotions during the day is, as suggested by the
results of the present study, to encourage teachers to increase their
use of deep acting and decreased their use of surface acting when
regulating emotions at work, as deep acting was associated with
increased positive affect and surface acting-with decreased positive
affect. However, if teachers lack resources to use deep acting
emotion regulation strategies to enhance their positive emotions,
such positive emotions may also be induced in other ways,
including simple, inexpensive intentional daily/weekly activities
such as expressing gratitude, practicing kindness, prioritizing
positive activities etc. (e.g., Catalino, Algoe, & Fredrickson, 2014;
Lyubomirsky & Layous, 2013). The literature also points to other
possible sources of positive affect that teachers may intentionally
foster, such as a sense of meaning at work (Author et al., 2017), and
harmonious passion at work (Mo, 2016).
Furthermore, the findings indicate that the harmful effects of
negative emotions may be more detrimental than the favorable
effects of positive emotions, and thus these negative emotions
should be addressed or processed in various ways. The present
research finding suggest that such negative emotions can be
decreased if by using less surface acting when regulating one's
159
emotions at work. However, if teachers lack resources to conduct
deep acting, negative emotions can be decreased in additional way.
For example, by increasing the levels of support and respect pro-
vided to teachers (Hakanen et al., 2006; Russell, Altmaier, & Van
Velzen, 1987), or by providing teachers with training and knowl-
edge regarding different emotion regulation techniques, and facil-
itating a caring, supportive context in which teachers can discuss
their emotions and promote their emotion regulation capacities. In
a similar vein, teacher training programs should consider the
importance of teachers' emotion regulation strategies and their
effects, as well as the effects of teachers' experiencing more positive
emotions and less negative emotions over the workday, while
suggesting ways to promote daily positive experiences and
decrease negative experiences (for examples see Lyubomirsky &
Layous, 2013).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2018.04.001.
References
Author et al. (2013). (Details removed for peer review).
Author et al. (2014). (Details removed for peer review).
Author et al. (2016). (Details removed for peer review).
Author et al. (2017). (Details removed for peer review).
Becker, E. S., Keller, M. M., Goetz, T., Frenzel, A. C., & Taxer, J. L. (2015). Antecedents
of teachers' emotions in the classroom: An intraindividual approach. Frontiers in
Psychology, 6, 635. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00635.
Brackett, M. A., Palomera, R., Mojsa-Kaja, J., Reyes, M. R., & Salovey, P. (2010).
Emotion-regulation ability, burnout, and job satisfaction among British
secondary-school teachers. Psychology in the Schools, 47, 406e417. https://
doi.org/10.1002/pits.20478.
Braslavsky, D. (1997). Professional attachments and job satisfaction depending on
interpersonal attachment styles (Master’s thesis). Available from Bar Ilan Theses
Library (Record No. 41611).
Brotheridge, C. M., & Grandey, A. A. (2002). Emotional labor and burnout:
Comparing two perspectives of “people work.” Journal of Vocational Behavior,
60, 17e39. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.2001.1815.
Brotheridge, C. M., & Lee, R. T. (2003). Development and validation of the emotional
labour scale. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 76,
365e379. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317903769647229.
Burns, A. B., Brown, J. S., Sachs-Ericsson, N., Plant, E. A., Curtis, J. T., Fredrickson, B. L.,
et al. (2008). Upward spirals of positive emotion and coping: Replication,
extension, and initial exploration of neurochemical substrates. Personality and
Individual Differences, 44, 360e370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.08.015.
Callahan, J. L., & McCollum, E. E. (2002). Obscured variability: The distinction be-
tween emotion work and emotional labor. In N. M. Ashkanasy, W. J. Zerbe, &
€rtel (Eds.), Managing emotions in the workplace (pp. 219e231). Armonk,
C. E. Ha
NY: M. E. Sharpe.
Catalino, L. I., Algoe, S. B., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2014). Prioritizing positivity: An
effective approach to pursuing happiness? Emotion, 14, 1155e1161. https://
doi.org/10.1037/a0038029.
Chang, M. L. (2013). Toward a theoretical model to understand teacher emotions
and teacher burnout in the context of student misbehavior: Appraisal, regula-
tion and coping. Motivation and Emotion, 37, 799e817. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11031-012-9335-0.
Cheung, F., & Lun, V. M. C. (2015). Emotional labor and occupational well-being. A
latent profile analytic approach. Journal of Individual Differences, 36, 30e37.
https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000152.
Cheung, F. Y. L., & Tang, C. S. K. (2009). The influence of emotional intelligence and
affectivity on emotional labor strategies at work. Journal of Individual Differ-
ences, 30, 75e86. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001.30.2.75.
Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes' error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain. New
York, NY: G. P. Putnam.
Danner, D. D., Snowdon, D. A., & Friesen, W. V. (2001). Positive emotions in early life
and longevity: Findings from the nun study. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 80, 804e813. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.80.5.804.
De Heus, P., & Diekstra, R. F. W. (1999). Do teachers burn out more easily? A
comparison of teachers with other social professions on work stress and
burnout symptoms. In R. Vandenberghe, & A. M. Huberman (Eds.), Under-
standing and preventing teacher burnout: A sourcebook of international research
and practice (pp. 269e284). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Diefendorff, J. M., Erickson, R. J., Grandey, A. A., & Dahling, J. J. (2011). Emotional
display rules as work unit norms: A multilevel analysis of emotional labor
among nurses. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16, 170e186. https://
doi.org/10.1037/a0021725.
160 S. Lavy, R. Eshet / Teaching and Teacher Education 73 (2018) 151e161
Engebretson, T. O., Matthews, K. A., & Scheier, M. F. (1989). Relations between anger
expression and cardiovascular reactivity: Reconciling inconsistent findings
through a matching hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57,
513e521. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1990-00634-001.
Faragher, E. B., Cass, M., & Cooper, C. L. (2005). The relationship between job
satisfaction and health: A meta-analysis. Occupational and Environmental
Medicine, 62, 105e112. Retrieved from http://oem.bmj.com/content/62/2/105.
Farber, B. A. (1991). Crisis in education: Stress and burnout in the American teacher.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology e the
broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56,
218e226. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.56.3.218.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2013). Positive emotions broaden and build. Advances in Experi-
mental Social Psychology, 47, 1e53. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-407236-
7.00001-2.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Joiner, T. (2002). Positive emotions trigger upward spirals to-
ward emotional well-being. Psychological Science, 13, 172e175. https://doi.org/
10.1111/1467-9280.00431.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Levenson, R. W. (1998). Positive emotions speed recovery from
the cardiovascular sequelae of negative emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 12,
191e220. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379718.
Fridja, N. H. (1986). The emotions: Studies in emotion and social interaction. Cam-
bridge, England: Cambridge University.
Fried, L. (2011). Teaching teachers about emotion regulation in the classroom.
Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 36, 116e127. https://doi.org/10.14221/
ajte.2011v36n3.1.
Friedman, I. A. (2000). Burnout in teachers: Shattered dreams of impeccable pro-
fessional performance. Psychotherapy in Practice, 56, 595e606. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10852147.
Ghanizadeh, A., & Jahedizadeh, S. (2015). Teacher burnout: A review of sources and
ramifications. British Journal of Education, Society, and Behavioral Sciences, 6,
24e39. https://doi.org/10.9734/BJESBS/2015/15162.
Gosserand, R. H., & Diefendorff, J. M. (2005). Emotional display rules and emotional
labor: The moderating role of commitment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90,
1256e1264. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2005-14549-016.
Grandey, A. A. (2000). Emotion regulation in the workplace: A new way to
conceptualize emotional labor. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5,
95e110. https://doi.org/10.1037//1076-8998.5.1.95.
Grandey, A. A. (2003). When "The show must go on": Surface and deep acting as
determinants of emotional exhaustion and peer-rated service delivery. Academy
of Management Journal, 46, 86e96. https://doi.org/10.2307/30040678.
Grandey, A. A. (2015). Smiling for a wage: What emotional labor teaches us about
emotion regulation. Psychological Inquiry, 26, 54e60. https://doi.org/10.1080/
1047840X.2015.962444.
Grandey, A., Diefendorff, J., & Rupp, D. E. (2013). Emotional labor in the 21st century:
Diverse perspectives on emotion regulation at work. New York, NY: Routledge.
Grant, M. C. (2017). A case study of factors that influenced the attrition or retention
of two first-year special education teachers. Journal of the American Academy of
Special Education Professionals, 77(84). Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?
id¼EJ1129641.
Gross, J. J. (1989). Emotional expression in cancer onset and progression. Social
Science & Medicine, 28, 1239e1248. https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(89)
90342-0.
Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review.
Review of General Psychology, 2, 271e299. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.
org/buy/1998-10496-003.
Gross, J. J. (2002). Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences.
Psychophysiology, 39, 281e291. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0048577201393198.
Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation
processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 348e362. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-
3514.85.2.348.
Gross, J. J., & Levenson, R. W. (1993). Emotional suppression: Physiology, self-report,
and expressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64,
970e986. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1993-36668-001.
Gross, J. J., & Levenson, R. W. (1997). Hiding feelings: The acute effect of inhibiting
negative and positive emotion. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 95e103.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.106.1.95.
Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. (1975). Development of the job diagnostic survey.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 159e170. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076546.
Hakanen, J. J., Bakker, A. B., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2006). Burnout and work engagement
among teachers. Journal of School Psychology, 43, 495e513. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jsp.2005.11.001.
Hargreaves, A. (2000). Mixed emotions: Teachers' perceptions of their interactions
with students. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16, 811e826. https://doi.org/
10.1016/S0742-051X(00)00028-7.
Hargreaves, A. (2013). Preface: The day of judgment. In M. Newberry, A. Gallant, &
P. Riley (Eds.), Emotion and school: Understanding how the hidden curriculum
influences relationships, leadership, teaching, and learning (pp. xv-xx). Bingley,
UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited..
Hochschild, A. R. (1983). The managed heart. Berkeley, CA: University of California
Press.
Hülsheger, U. R., & Schewe, A. F. (2011). On the costs and benefits of emotional
labor: A meta-analysis of three decades of research. Journal of Occupational
Health Psychology, 16, 361e389. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/
2011-13471-007.
Ingersoll, R. M. (2003). Is there really a teacher Shortage? CPRE research reports.
Retrieved from http://repository.upenn.edu/cpre_researchreports/37.
Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2009). The prosocial classroom: Teacher social
and emotional competence in relation to student and classroom outcomes.
Review of Educational Research, 79, 491e525. https://doi.org/10.3102/
0034654308325693.
Johnson, S., Cooper, C., Cartwright, S., Donald, I., Taylor, P., & Millet, C. (2005). The
experience of work-related stress across occupation. Journal of Managerial
Psychology, 20, 178e187. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940510579803.
Judge, T. A., Thoresen, C. J., Bono, J. E., & Patton, G. K. (2001). The job satisfactionejob
performance relationship: A qualitative and quantitative review. Psychological
Bulletin, 127, 376e407. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.3.376.
Kammeyer-Mueller, J. D., Rubenstein, A. L., Long, D. M., Odio, M. A., Buckman, B. R.,
Zhang, Y., et al. (2013). A meta-analytic structural model of dispositonal affec-
tivity and emotional labor. Personnel Psychology, 66, 47e90. https://doi.org/
10.1108/02683940510579803.
Keller, M. M., Chang, M. L., Becker, E. S., Goetz, T., & Frenzel, A. C. (2014). Teachers'
emotional experiences and exhaustion as predictors of emotional labor in the
classroom: An experience sampling study. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1e10.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01442.
Kreibig, S. D. (2010). Autonomic nervous system activity in emotion: A review.
Biological Psychology, 84, 394e421. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.biopsycho.2010.03.010.
Kruml, S. M., & Geddes, D. (2000). Catching fire without burning out: Is there an
ideal way to perform emotional labor? In N. M. Ashkanasy, C. E. J. Hartel, &
W. J. Zerbe (Eds.), Emotions in the workplace (pp. 177e188). Westport, CT:
Quorum.
Lackritz, J. R. (2004). Exploring burnout among university faculty: Incidence, per-
formance, and demographic issues. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20,
713e729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2004.07.002.
Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Progress on a cognitive-motivational-relational theory of
emotion. American Psychologist, 46, 819e834. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-
066X.46.8.819.
Levenson, R. W. (1988). Emotion and the autonomic nervous system: A prospectus
for research on autonomic specificity. In H. L. Wagner (Ed.), Social psycho-
physiology and emotion: Theory and clinical applications (pp. 17e42). London,
England: Wiley.
Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect:
Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803e855. https://
doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803.
Lyubomirsky, S., & Layous, K. (2013). How do simple positive activities increase
well-being? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22, 57e62. https://
doi.org/10.1177/0963721412469809.
Mauss, I. B., Bunge, S. A., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Automatic emotion regulation. Social
and Personality Psychology Compass, 1, 146e167. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-
9004.2007.00005.x.
Mayseless, O. (2016). The caring motivation: An integrated theory. New York, NY:
Oxford University Press.
Moe, A. (2016). Harmonious passion and its relationship with teacher well-being.
Teaching and Teacher Education, 59, 431e437. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.tate.2016.07.017.
Naring, G., Briet, M., & Brouwers, A. (2006). Beyond demand-control: Emotional
labor and symptoms of burnout in teachers. Work & Stress, 20, 303e315. https://
doi.org/10.1080/02678370601065182.
Oplatka, I. (2009). Emotion management and display in teaching: Some ethical and
moral considerations in the era of marketization and commercialization. In
P. A. Schutz, & M. Zembylas (Eds.), Advances in teacher emotion research: The
impact on teachers' lives (pp. 55e71). New York, NY: Springer.
O'Connor, K. E. (2008). “You choose to care”: Teachers, emotions and professional
identity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24, 117e126. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.tate.2006.11.008.
Paulhus, D. L., & Vazire, S. (2007). The self-report method. In R. W. Robins,
R. C. Fraley, & R. F. Krueger (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in personality
psychology (pp. 224e239). New York, NY: Guilford.
Philipp, A., & Schupbach, H. (2010). Longitudinal effects of emotional labour on
emotional exhaustion and dedication of teachers. Journal of Occupational Health
Psychology, 15, 494e504. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2010-
22711-012.
Pines, A. M. (2005). The burnout Measure: Short version (BMS). International Journal
of Stress Management, 12, 78e88. https://doi.org/10.1037/1072-5245.12.1.78.
Rafaeli, A., & Sutton, I. S. (1987). Expression of emotion as part of the work role.
Academy of Management Review, 12, 23e37. https://doi.org/10.5465/
AMR.1987.4306444.
Renshaw, T. L., Long, A. C. J., & Cook, C. R. (2015). Assessing teachers' positive psy-
chological functioning at work: development and validation of the teacher
subjective wellbeing questionnaire. School Psychology Quarterly, 30, 289e306.
https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000112.
Roth, G., Assor, A., Niemiec, C. P., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2009). The emotional and
academic consequences of parental conditional regard: Comparing conditional
positive regard, conditional negative regard, and autonomy support as
parenting practices. Developmental Psychology, 45, 1119e1142. Retrieved from
http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2009-09998-008.
Russell, D. W., Altmaier, E., & Van Velzen, D. (1987). Job-related stress, social sup-
port, and burnout among classroom teachers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72,
 S. Lavy, R. Eshet / Teaching and Teacher Education 73 (2018) 151e161
269. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.72.2.269.
Schaufeli, W. B., & Buunk, B. P. (2003). Burnout: An overview of 25 years of research
and theorizing. In M. J. Schabracq, J. A. M. Winnubst, & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), The
handbook of work and health psychology (pp. 383e425). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
Scott, B. A., & Barnes, C. M. (2011). A multilevel field investigation of emotional
labor, affect, work withdrawal, and gender. Academy of Management Journal, 54,
116e136. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMJ.2011.59215086.
Shen, B., McCaughtry, N., Martin, J., Garn, A., Kulik, N., & Fahlman, M. (2015). The
relationship between teacher burnout and student motivation. British Journal of
Educational Psychology, 85(4), 519e532. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12089.
Sonnentag, S., & Starzyk, A. (2015). Perceived prosocial impact, perceived situational
constraints, and proactive work behavior: Looking at two distinct affective
pathways. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 36, 806e824. https://doi.org/
10.1002/job.2005.
Sutton, R. E. (2004). Emotional regulation goals and strategies of teachers. Social
Psychology of Education, 7, 379e398. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-004-4229-
y.
Sutton, R. E., & Harper, E. (2009). Teachers' emotion regulation. In L. J. Saha, &
A. G. Dworkin (Eds.), International handbook of research on teachers and teaching
(pp. 389e401). New York, NY: Springer.
Sutton, R. E., Mudrey-Camino, R., & Knight, C. C. (2009). Teachers' emotion regu-
lation and classroom management. Theory Into Practice, 48, 130e137. https://
doi.org/10.1080/00405840902776418.
Sutton, R. E., & Wheatley, K. F. (2003). Teachers' emotions and teaching: A review of
the literature and directions for future research. Educational Psychology Review,
15, 327e358. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026131715856.
Tamir, M., & Ford, B. Q. (2012). When feeling bad is expected to be good: Emotion
regulation and outcome expectancies in social conflicts. Emotion, 12, 807.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024443.
Taxer, J. L., & Frenzel, A. C. (2015). Facets of teachers' emotional lives: A quantitative
investigation of teachers' genuine, faked, and hidden emotions. Teaching and
Teacher Education, 49, 78e88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2015.03.003.
Thompson, E. R. (2007). Development and validation of an internationally reliable
short-form of the positive and negative affect schedule (PANAS). Journal of
Cross-cultural Psychology, 38, 227e242. https://doi.org/10.1177/
0022022106297301.
Tice, D. M., Baumeister, R. F., Shmueli, D., & Muraven, M. (2007). Restoring the self:
Positive affect helps improve self-regulation following ego depletion. Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology, 43, 379e384. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.jesp.2006.05.007.
161
Tschannen-Moran, M., & Hoy, A. W. (2007). The differential antecedents of self-
efficacy beliefs of novice and experienced teachers. Teaching and Teacher Edu-
cation, 23, 944e956. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2006.05.003.
Tugade, M. M., & Fredrikson, B. L. (2004). Resilient individuals use positive emotions
to bounce back from negative emotional experiences. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 86, 320e333. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/
2004-10747-009.
Tugade, M. M., Fredrikson, B. L., & Barrett, L. F. (2004). Psychological resilience and
positive emotional granularity: Examining the benefits of positive emotions on
coping and health. Journal of Personality, 72, 1161e1190. https://doi.org/10.1111/
j.1467-6494.2004.00294.x.
Uitto, M., Jokikokko, K., & Estola, E. (2015). Virtual special issue on teachers and
emotions in Teaching and Teacher Education (TATE) in 1985e2014. Teaching and
Teacher Education, 50, 124e135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2015.05.008.
Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1999). The PANAS-X: Manual for the positive and negative
affect schedule - expanded form. Retrieved from https://ir.uiowa.edu/
psychology_pubs/11/.
West, S. G., & Hepworth, J. T. (1991). Statistical issues in the study of temporal data:
Daily experiences. Journal of Personality, 59, 609e662. https://doi.org/10.1111/
j.1467-6494.1991.tb00261.x.
Wright, T., & Cropanzano, R. (1998). Emotional exhaustion as a predictor of job
performance and voluntary turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83,
486e493. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1998-02893-011.
Yagil, D. (2012). The mediating role of engagement and burnout in the relationship
between employees' emotion regulation strategies and customer outcomes.
European Journal of Work & Organizational Psychology, 21, 150e168. https://
doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2011.557549.
Yin, H., Huang, S., & Lee, J. C. K. (2017). Choose your strategy wisely: Examining the
relationships between emotional labor in teaching and teacher efficacy in Hong
Kong primary schools. Teaching and Teacher Education, 66, 127e136. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.04.006.
Yin, H., Huang, S., & Wang, W. (2016). Work environment characteristics and
teacher well-being: The mediation of emotion regulation strategies. Interna-
tional Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13, 907. https://
doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13090907.
Yin, H. B., & Lee, J. C. K. (2012). Be passionate, but be rational as well: Emotional
rules for Chinese teachers' work. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28, 56e65.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2011.08.005.
Zembylas, M. (2005). Teaching with emotion: A postmodern enactment. Charlotte, NC:
Information Age Publishing.