Chapter 6

The Skeletal System

Bone Function
■ Support
■ Protection
■ Assist in movements
■ Mineral homeostasis: Ca, P
■ Blood cell production
❑ Hemopoiesis in red bone marrow (fetus,
pelvis, ribs, vertebrae)
■ Triglyceride storage
❑ Yellow bone marrow
Ibu Silva brought her 4-year old daughter to the
doctor. The child’s forehead was enlarged, her
rib cage was knobby, and her lower limbs were
bent and deformed.
X rays showed very thick epiphyseal plates.
What do you think she has? If you were the
doctor, what would you recommend?
■ Compact bone
■ Spongy or

trabecular bone
Types of Bones according to shape
■ Long bones: longer than wide
❑ Such as thigh, leg, arm, forearm, fingers and toes
■ Short bones: almost cube shaped
❑ Most wrist and ankle bones
■ Flat bones: thin and extensive surface
❑ Such as cranial bones, sternum, ribs and
scapulae
■ Irregular bones: do not fit above
categories
❑ Such as vertebrae
Macroscopic Structure of Bone
■ Parts of a long bone
❑ Diaphysis: shaft of long bone; made up mostly of
compact bone
❑ Epiphysis: broad end of long bone; mostly
spongy bone
❑ Metaphysis: growth area between diaphysis and
epiphysis
❑ Articular cartilage: hyaline cartilage at joint
❑ Periosteum: fibrous covering over most of bone
❑ Medullary cavity (marrow) contains bone marrow
❑ Endosteum: membrane lining medullary cavity
Long Bones
Long Bones
5. The shaft of a long bone is called the:

A) epiphysis.

B) diaphysis.

C) metaphysis.

D) periosteum.

E) endosteum.
What bone class do the ribs and skull bones fall
into?
Microscopic Structure of Bone
■ Bone is connective tissue
■ Matrix
❑ water, collagen fibers, mineral salts

■ Cells
❑ Osteogenic cells

■ Specialized stem cells that develop into

osteoblasts
❑ Osteoblasts

■ Secrete collagen fibers

■ Build matrix and become trapped in lacunae

■ Become osteocytes
Microscopic Structure of Bone

Cells (continuation)
❑ Osteocytes

■ Mature bone cells

■ Maintain bone

❑ Osteoclasts
■ Formed from monocytes

■ Digest bone matrix for normal turnover

(growth, maintenance and repair)
Histology of Bones
If osteoclasts in a long bone are more active
than osteoblasts, how will bone mass change?
A. It will stay the same
B. It will increase
C. It will decrease
Compact Bone Structure
■ Compact bone:
❑ Strongest
❑ 80% skeleton
❑ Beneath the periosteum of all bones
❑ In diaphysis of long bones

■ Arranged in osteons (Haversian systems)

❑ Cylinders running parallel to long axis of bone
Compact bone structure

■ Central canal through center of osteon

❑ Contains blood vessels, nerves, lymphatics

■ Concentric lamellae: layers of matrix

■ Lacunae: “lakes” between lamellae

❑ Contain osteocytes (bone cells)
Compact Bone Structure
■ Canaliculi (“little canals”)
❑ Contain extensions of osteocytes
❑ Permit flow of ECF between central canal and
lacunae
■ Compact bone is covered by periosteum

■ Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals

❑ Carry blood and lymphatic vessels and nerves from
periosteum
❑ They supply central (Haversian) canals and bone
marrow
Histology of Bones
Spongy Bone Structure
■ Not arranged in osteons
■ Spongy bone is lighter than compact bone,
so reduces weight of skeleton
Bone scan

■ Injecting a very small amount of radioactive

material into a vein.
■ As it wears off, it gives off a little bit of
radiation.
■ The camera takes pictures of how much
radiotracer collects in the bones.
Bone scan
■ “Hot spots”
❑ High metabolism, darker areas

❑ May indicate cancer

■ “Cold spots”
❑ Low metabolism, lighter areas

❑ May indicate osteoporosis

Bone scan "Hot spots”
Remodeling and Repair
■ Remodeling in response to use
❑ Resorption by osteoclasts and

❑ Deposition by osteoblasts

■ Repair after a fracture

❑ Dead tissue removed

❑ Chondroblasts 🡪 fibrocartilage 🡪
spongy bone deposited by
osteoblasts 🡪 remodeled to
compact bone
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Types of Fractures
■ Fracture: any break on a bone

■ Partial: incomplete break (crack)

■ Complete: bone broken into two or more
pieces

■ Closed (simple): not through skin

■ Open (compound): broken ends break skin
Factors Affecting Growth and Remodeling
■ Adequate minerals (Ca, P, Mg)

■ Vitamins A, C, D

■ Hormones
❑ Before puberty: hGH + insulin-like growth factors
❑ Thyroid hormone and insulin also required
❑ Sex hormones contribute to adolescent growth
spurt and estrogens to widen pelvis

■ Weight-bearing activity
Calcium Homeostasis
■ Bone is a reservoir of calcium
■ Calcium is necessary for:
❑ Function heart and respiration
❑ Blood clotting
❑ Cofactor of many enzymes
■ Blood levels of Ca2+ controlled
■ Negative feedback loops
■ Parathyroid hormone (PTH)🡪 increases osteoclast
activity + decreases loss of Ca2+ in urine
■ Calcitonin (thyroid gland)
Negative Feedback
How much calcium do I need?

■ Gender
■ Age
■ Do I need supplements?
Calcium rich foods

■ Dairy
■ Sardines
■ Green leafy vegetables
■ Soy
Exercise & Bone Tissue
■ Bone strengthened in response to use
❑ Importance of weight bearing exercise

■ Bone reabsorbed during disuse; examples:

❑ During prolonged bed rest
❑ Fracture with cast/immobilizer
❑ Astronauts without gravity
Male and Female Differences
■ Males usually have heavier bones

■ Female pelvis is wider and shallower than

male pelvis: allows for birth
Aging and Skeletal System
■ Birth through adolescence: more bone
formed than lost
■ Young adults: gain and loss about equal

■ As levels of sex steroids decline with age:

bone reabsorption > bone formation
■ Bones become brittle and lose calcium
Common disorders

■ Osteoporosis and hip fractures

■ Rickets (children) and

osteomalacia (adults)- vitamin D
deficiency
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis
■ Bone reabsorption outpaces bone formation
so bone mass decreases
■ More common in older women:
❑ Women bones are less massive
❑ Estrogens decrease after menopause
■ Other risk factors:
❑ Family history
❑ Ancestry (European, Asian)
❑ Thin, small body
❑ Inactivity
❑ Diet, smoking and alcohol
Osteoporosis
 Rickets

What do you see in the X ray? Why?

Why do you think wheelchair-bound people
with paralyzed lower limbs have thin, weak
bones of the leg and thigh?
Ibu Silva brought her 4-year old daughter to the
doctor. The child’s forehead was enlarged, her
rib cage was knobby, and her lower limbs were
bent and deformed.
X rays showed very thick epiphyseal plates.
What do you think she has? If you were the
doctor, what would you recommend?