C
Children’s Fantasy by
Victorian Women Writers
Katherine Magyarody
Independent Scholar, Stamford, CT, USA
Keywords
Children’s literature · Empire · Fairy tale ·
Fantasy · Gothic
Definition
Within the growing nineteenth-century market for
children’s fiction, fantasy by women writers com-
prised a major part of literary development. Much
fantasy literature appeared in both serialized and
novel forms, some building upon folk and fairy-
tale traditions, others innovating in the fields of
Gothic and portal fantasy. While male fantasists
like Lewis Carroll have dominated critical percep-
tions of Victorian fantasy for children, Edith
Nesbit’s commonsense magic, Frances Hodgson
Burnett’s fairy-tale realism, and Jean Ingelow’s
Brownie mythology continue to shape the con-
tours of the genre today.
Introduction
In the nineteenth century, fantasy by women
writers comprised a major part of literary
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022
L. Scholl (ed.), The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Victorian Women's Writing,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02721-6_248-2
development both within fantasy fiction and chil-
dren’s literature. Growing out of the fairy-tale and
romance traditions, fantasy survived and even
infiltrated rigorously didactic early nineteenth-
century children’s fiction. As children’s literature
developed modes of complex, age-specific char-
acterization, authors’ use of fantasy became less
overtly moralizing and more integrated with nar-
ratives of children’s psychological growth. Fan-
tasy fiction by women writers helped develop
ironic fairy tales, children’s Gothic, portal fantasy,
and early magical realism. While Frances
Hodgson Burnett and Edith Nesbit have entered
the canon of children’s classics, the works of
lesser-known women writers have also been
absorbed into the imaginative landscape of
childhood.
Early Victorian Fantasy: Interruptions of
the Real
By the nineteenth century, fantastic literature in
the form of fairy tales had an established history of
female authorship. Work by early female fanta-
sists, starting with Madame D’Aulnoy’s Contes
des Fées (Fairy Tales) (1697, trans. 1752),
Madame Leprince de Beaumont’s children’s ver-
sion of La Belle et la Bête (Beauty and the Beast)
(1756, trans. 1759), and the Brothers Grimm’s
community of bourgeois female storytellers con-
tributing to Kinder- und Hausmärchen (Tales for
Young and Old) (1812–1815, trans. 1823), was
2 Children’s Fantasy by Victorian Women Writers
neither British nor Victorian, yet they had a for-
mative effect on British Victorian women writers.
Despite the Enlightenment resistance against fan-
tasy, early nineteenth-century female authors
interwove their fairy-tale inheritance into seem-
ingly realistic tales of modern life.
Early nineteenth-century fantasy for children
often appears in the guise of realism, subtly sub-
verting the relentlessly didactic standards of late
eighteenth-century Rational Moralists like Mary
Wollstonecraft and Maria Edgeworth and early
nineteenth-century Sunday School Moralists like
Sarah Trimmer, Hannah More, and Mary Martha
Sherwood (Demers 2008, 285). Allegorical tales
of moral magic often make their way into novels
of everyday life, such as Mrs. Teachum’s story of
good and bad giants in Sarah Fielding’s The Gov-
erness, or The Little Female Academy (1749),
Uncle David’s stories of the Fairy Teach-All in
Catherine Sinclair’s Holiday House (1839), and
the tale of Fairy Discord and Fairy Love that
bisects the two halves of Annie Keary’s The
Rival Kings (1970). These allegorical interludes
and similarly moralistic fairy-tale collections like
Margaret Gatty’s chatty The Fairy Godmothers
and Other Tales (1851) and Frances Browne’s
lushly descriptive Granny’s Wonderful Chair
(1856) are more indebted to literary romances
than to oral folk culture. The tales’ narratives are
shaped by “social mobility and moral didacti-
cism,” using obvious naming patterns and adult
storytellers in frame narratives who explain how
fantasy is meant to support the education of Chris-
tian children (Nelson 1998, 20). The ambivalence
toward fantasy continued late into the century.
Although her father, William Makepeace Thack-
eray, reveled in magical absurdities in The Rose
and the Ring (1854), Anne Thackeray Ritchie’s
story collections like Bluebeard’s Keys and Other
Stories (1875) and Five Old Friends (1868) fea-
ture anti-fantastical fairy tales, wherein Bluebeard
is a bigamist and “The Sleeping Beauty in the
Wood” falls prey to intellectual stultification,
rather than a spell. While embedded romances
indicate authors’ recognition of fantasy’s appeal
to young audiences, the frame narratives establish
the dominance of the “real” world. Yet it was
precisely developments in realism which led to
innovations in fantasy for the young.
Making Children and Fairy Tales “Real”
Mid-century developments in the characterization
of children within literature lead to concordant
shifts in children’s fantasy, moving from straight-
forward allegories and moral tales to supple inves-
tigations of childhood anxieties, growth, and self-
conscious examinations of the narratives which
Victorians told about childhood itself. Commit-
ment to realism led to the evolution from what
Jackie C. Horne calls “ideal exemplar character
construction,” displaying morally predetermined
characteristics, to rounded child characters
displaying developmental markers and mixtures
of “ordinary” flaws and strengths (Horne 2011,
38). Michael Levy and Farah Mendlesohn note a
parallel shift in fantasy’s use of characterization
between the early and late Victorian period. While
earlier texts introduce fantastical elements in order
to impress moral lessons on a passive child figure,
later texts show child protagonists as active par-
ticipants whose likes and dislikes direct their mag-
ical experiences (Levy and Mendlesohn 2016,
46). Instead of being guided, the child protagonist
becomes a key actor in shaping the moral land-
scape of his or her world. The change in charac-
terization of children also leads to innovative
strategies for representing the fantastic. First,
authors enchant the ordinary, infusing seemingly
realist texts with storylines lifted from fairy tales.
Second, authors consider the banality of magic.
Frances Hodgson Burnett (1844–1925) is the
most famous practitioner of realist fairy tales. Her
most successful books have direct antecedents: A
Little Princess (1905) and Little Lord Fauntleroy
(1886) closely follow “Cinderella,” and in The
Secret Garden (1911a, b), the narrative of
“Sleeping Beauty” underlies both the growth of
an emotionally neglected girl and the wild space
she cultivates. While Burnett’s prose pays close
attention to day-to-day details, the resolutions of
her protagonists’ dilemmas invoke magic and
miraculous intervention, wherein the British
Empire functions as both a source of unexpected
Children’s Fantasy by Victorian Women Writers
loss and redemptive riches. Perhaps the most fan-
tastical aspects of Burnett’s writing are the perfect
boys she imagines in Cedric of Little Lord
Fauntleroy (1886) or Pan-like Dickon and the
rejuvenated “Master” Colin of The Secret Garden.
By contrast, Sara Crewe’s complex exploration of
how much her “Little Princess” identity depends
on her material wealth and piglike Mary Lennox’s
healthy growth outdoors are character-driven and
grounded in psychological realism. Despite her
commitment to the reality effect, Burnett’s narra-
tives are best understood as romances wherein
external landscapes evolve to reflect the psycho-
logical terrain of the protagonist.
Balancing Burnett’s deceptively realistic
romances, Edith Nesbit’s success stemmed from
her overt satirization of magic as a cure-all.
Nesbit’s “realist” books, like the Bastable family
trilogy beginning with The Story of the Treasure
Seekers (1899), reveals the dependence of chil-
dren’s literature on fairy-tale resolutions. The chil-
dren stumble upon a princess in Greenwich Park,
but they cannot save her from strict nannies.
Whiny Albert-next-door is forced to dress like
Little Lord Fauntleroy, but is no prince in dis-
guise. At the same time, Nesbit’s narratives
depend on the very tropes she teases for structural
closure. Treasure Seekers, like A Little Princess,
ends with a rich Uncle back from India who is
described as arriving in a “fairy cab” and deliver-
ing “heaps of presents, like things out of a fairy-
tale.” Empire is substituted for magic as the real
source of enchantment. Nesbit’s overt fantasies,
like Five Children and It (1902) and The
Enchanted Castle (1907), reveal the gap between
children’s expectations of magic and magic’s
“reality.” Wishes go wrong and mythological
creatures are more likely to be vain or irritable
than generous. Nesbit’s admixture of the fantastic
and the banal has led Teya Rosenberg to charac-
terize her fantasy as “early magical realism”
(Rosenberg 2006, 63). Nesbit’s limitation on fan-
tasy-as-resolution gestures toward a lingering cul-
tural suspicion of escapism. Subsequently, many
children’s classics succeed by exploring the ten-
sion between the desire for fantasy and the limits
of realism. Thus, the heroine of L.M.
Montgomery’s Canadian Anne of Green Gables
3
(1908) works Burnett-like to overlay her reality
with a fantastical gloss she has lifted from her
favorite romances, but the deflating results of her
adventures are worthy of Nesbit. Whereas
Nesbit’s self-conscious use of fantasy tropes pro-
vides room for humor, her innovations avoid the
deeper psychological exploration possible in non-
ironic fantasy.
Gothic Fantasy for Children
While the nursery had a reputation for a place
where female servants terrified children with
spooky stories, the psychological complexity of
mid- to late-century children’s literature allowed
fantasy to develop into children’s Gothic
(Townshend 2008, 19). Gothic fiction for adults
often uses children as symbols of the uncanny and
threatened innocence, but Victorian children’s
Gothic dwells on children’s agency in discovering
the past, investigating the home, and rejecting
mismanaged forms of mentorship (Walsh 2007,
183). Mary Louisa Molesworth’s Uncanny Tales
(1896) features haunted houses that lead into
Burnett’s attics in A Little Princess and the locked
doors of The Secret Garden. Broken or closed
domestic spaces often hide dysfunctional parent-
ing, such as the bad pedagogy of Burnett’s Miss
Minchin, the lost mothering of Lilias Craven, and
the tragically delayed – though ultimately restor-
ative – fatherhood of Mr. Carrisford, Ram Dass,
and Archibald Craven. While Molesworth and
Burnett provide consoling narrative closure,
Lucy Lane Clifford’s enduringly popular “The
New Mother” (1882) edges into horror. Testing
the limits of maternal love, two intentionally
naughty girls (bearing the nicknames of the
author’s own daughters) find their good mother
replaced with a glass-eyed, reptilian substitute.
The tension between “Gothic children” and
“children’s Gothic” – between fiction about chil-
dren and fiction for children – can be seen in the
marketing of Christina Rossetti’s poetry and fic-
tion. As in Clifford’s “The New Mother,” in
Rossetti’s best-known work, “Goblin Market”
(1862), sisters’ moral dependence on each other
to choose sin (or not) provides narrative
4 Children’s Fantasy by Victorian Women Writers
momentum. Though now best known as a parable
of women’s sexuality, “Goblin Market” was
published alongside illustrations by Laurence
Housman (1893) and Arthur Rackham (1933)
for a children’s audience (Kooistra 2002, 206).
More overtly aimed at children, Rossetti’s Speak-
ing Likenesses (1874) includes the rather twee
story of Flora, who escapes her birthday party to
an even worse party in fairyland whose grotesque
participants enact violent games of “Self Help,”
and the darker tale of Maggie, who is tormented
by strange creatures while walking home. Lucy
Maud Montgomery’s post-Victorian Emily of New
Moon trilogy (1923–1927) bridges the gap
between the adult and children’s Gothic. Emily
both solves a mystery, wherein her supernatural
abilities reverse the narrative of a “bad” mother (a
woman thought to have abandoned her family
instead perished tragically), and she must also
contend with the non-supernatural threat of Dean
Priest, a man whose wish to mentor her literary
talent verges into sexual and creative control. In
these tales, horror is found lurking within the
everyday trials of girlhood. Middle-class chil-
dren’s containment within the domestic spaces
and their terrorization by the mundane leads not
only to the uncovering of home’s uncanny side; it
also leads to fantasies of escape into distant lands.
Portal Fantasy: Fairyland and Empire
Besides finding the fantastic within the familiar,
female authors also participated in the development
and popularization of portal fantasy, wherein chil-
dren enter magical worlds in order to participate in
quests. Whereas Charles Kingsley’s The Water-
Babies (1863) and Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adven-
tures in Wonderland (1869) have garnered the most
critical attention, they were complemented by pop-
ular books like Jean Ingelow’s Mopsa the Fairy
(1869) and Mary Louisa Molesworth’s The Cuckoo
Clock (1877). Although Ingelow’s Jack and
Molesworth’s Griselda receive far more consistent
mentorship than Carroll’s Alice, their journeys are
not unlike those of Kingsley’s Tom or that of
Diamond in George MacDonald’s At the Back of
the North Wind (1871). Fantastical worlds are often
portrayed as fairylands or alternate realities, but the
displacement can also be chronological. The fan-
tastical world in Nesbit’s The Story of the Amulet
(1906) and The House of Arden (1908) is history
itself, which the child-protagonists visit with the
help of a magical guide, in a trajectory similar to
Rudyard Kipling’s Puck of Pook’s Hill (1906).
Although Kipling’s text was more famous during
its time of publication, Nesbit’s fiction has proved
enduringly popular.
Nesbit and Kipling’s simultaneous journey
into the past in pursuit of a mythological
“English” heritage points to a resurgence of folk-
lore. The expansion of the British Empire led to
interest in regional, national, and imperial identi-
ties as expressed through narrative; as before,
women were key players in collecting and pub-
lishing folklore. These ranged from Annie and
Eliza Keary’s The Heroes of Asgard: Tales from
Scandinavian Mythology (1857) to Flora Annie
Steel and Richard Carnac Temple’s Wide Awake
Stories A Collection of Tales Told by Little Chil-
dren, Between Sunrise and Sunset, in the Panjab
and Kashmir (1884). Women were also signifi-
cant contributors to volumes edited by men. Thus,
in The Red Fairy Book (1890) and his subsequent
folk- and fairy-tale collections, Andrew Lang
acknowledges the significant contributions of his
wife, Leonora Blanche Alleyne, and other female
adapters and translators. Alternatively, suffragist
Mary de Morgan used her On a Pincushion, and
Other Fairy Tales (1877) to create a new mythol-
ogy for modern Britain that supported women’s
political agency.
Modes of Publication
Children’s fantasy was no exception to the nine-
teenth-century norm of serialized publication.
Both general interest and child-centered maga-
zines included fantasy as part of their fare. Along-
side George MacDonald’s Good Words for the
Young (1868–1877), wherein he introduced
readers to The Princess and the Goblin (1872),
and the American St. Nicholas Magazine (1873–
1940), edited by Mary Mapes Dodge, didactic
fairy-tale author Margaret Gatty founded Aunt
Children’s Fantasy by Victorian Women Writers
Judy’s Magazine in 1866 and edited it until her
death in 1873 (Brake and Demoor 2009, 249).
Aunt Judy’s Magazine provided a venue for fan-
tasy by Lewis Carroll and Hans Christian Ander-
son (Hahn and Morpurgo 2015, 41), as well as a
space for Gatty’s daughter Juliana Ewing to
develop her own brand of fantasy, resulting in
The Brownies and Other Tales (1871). Following
Gatty’s death, the magazine continued until 1885,
edited by another Gatty daughter, Horatia (Sump-
ter 2008, 63). Across the Atlantic, Burnett began
her career with a story published in the St. Nich-
olas Magazine and continued to debut works like
Little Lord Fauntleroy there in serial form. Nesbit
was also an avid magazine writer, publishing
stories for what was to be Treasure Seekers in
both Pall Mall and Windsor. Nesbit also published
in Nister’s Holiday Annual and the Illustrated
London News, though the fee she received for
her later work for The Strand was so profitable –
at 30 pounds per segment – as to monopolize her
work on The Psammead (later Five Children and
It), The Book of Dragons (serialized 1899,
published in 1901), and Wet Magic (serialized
1912, published 1913) (Briggs 1987, 219). The
publication of children’s fantasy by women
authors in general interest magazines demon-
strates the high visibility of both the genre and
its authorship within Victorian print culture.
The Afterlives of Victorian Children’s
Fantasy by Women
Despite the success of women fantasy authors in
serial and novel form, they rarely received great
critical attention in contemporary discussions of
children’s fiction. Molesworth, Gatty, and Ewing
all had established readerships and expansive
publication records but were not enshrined like
male peers such as Carroll and MacDonald.
Nesbit was known not only as a children’s author
but as the wife of the (now obscure) journalist
Hubert Bland and as a founding member of the
Fabian Society. Though Burnett was hailed as an
equal of George Eliot and Henry James for her
adult novel, That Lass o’Lowrie’s (1877), her
5
critical reputation slipped as her children’s fiction
gained popularity.
Nevertheless, with The Secret Garden and A
Little Princess, Burnett is perhaps the only Victo-
rian woman fantasist writing for children whose
work has reached first-rate canonical status.
Alongside Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in
Wonderland, J.M. Barrie’s (1911) Peter Pan,
Rudyard Kipling’s The Jungle Book (1894), and
R.L.Stevenson’s Treasure Island (1883),
Burnett’s novels have been continuously adapted
and illustrated for a variety of age groups as well
as for the stage and screen. The demoted princess
and the hidden garden have become common
tropes of child-culture equal to that of feral boys,
pirates, and desert islands. Like Peter Pan’s sequel
by Geraldine McCaughrean, Peter Pan in Scarlet
(2006), A Little Princess was granted a twenty-
first-century sequel, Hilary McKay’s Wishing for
Tomorrow (2011). Five Children on the Western
Front (2014) by Kate Saunders followed, a sequel
to Nesbit’s most famous fantasy series that marks
her continued popularity with young readers.
Nesbit’s greatest influence may be seen in the
work of the new masters of children’s fantasy
like Dianna Wynne Jones, J.K. Rowling, and
Neil Gaiman, particularly in the representations
of self-conscious magic-users and their everyday
problems.
Work by female authors survives in part
because their texts and reputations were revived
by each other. Burnett republished and
repopularized Frances Browne’s Granny’s Won-
derful Chair as Stories from the Lost Fairy Book
in 1887, prompting it to be reissued almost yearly
for nearly a decade. Despite Nesbit’s teasing take-
downs of Burnett in her fiction, the references
establish a mutually reinforcing readership.
Today’s canon-defining Puffin Classics recom-
mend Nesbit to young readers of Burnett and
vice versa, suggesting that the rivals are closer to
each other than either might have liked. The con-
tinued presence of Burnett and Nesbit’s work in
print was aided by influential twentieth-century
authors like “Lois Lowry, Katherine Paterson,
Philippa Pearce, Joan Bodger, Jean Little” giving
“tributes of their childhood reading,” rather than
academic preservation (Lundin 2006, 284). By
6 Children’s Fantasy by Victorian Women Writers
contrast, the academic evaluation of female fan-
tasy authors by children is recent and often
fraught. The first critical edition of a Nesbit
novel appeared in 2013, edited by Claudia Nel-
son, and the centennial of The Psammead trilogy
in 2006 provided grounds for a Nesbit-focused
critical collection. Marghanita Laski’s Mrs.
Ewing, Mrs. Molesworth, and Mrs. Hodgson Bur-
nett (1950) proved a starting point for a now-
robust field of Burnett criticism. Yet, despite the
work done by scholars like Gretchen Holbrook
Gerzina (2004) and Phyllis Bixler to rehabilitate
Burnett’s reputation as a rival of Henry James,
Peter Hunt’s 2011 Oxford University Press intro-
duction to The Secret Garden is highly ambiva-
lent. Although mid-twentieth-century critics like
Gillian Avery (1961, 1975) and Roger Lancelyn
Green (1961) wrote biographies of Ewing and
Molesworth, respectively, they, Ingelow, and
Ritchie remain marginal figures whose work has
yet to be fully rediscovered.
However, exceptions exist. While the canoni-
zation of authors ensures an awareness of literary
inheritance, two intriguing cases of fantasy stories
by “lesser” female fantasists speak to the absorp-
tion of female-authored fantasy into the culture of
childhood. Juliana Horatia Ewing’s The Brownies
and Other Tales (1871) has one of the most per-
vasive cultural influences of Victorian female fan-
tasists through the Girl Guides and Girl Scouts’s
adoption of her Brownie mythology. The use of
Ewing’s characters to organize young girls’ activ-
ities is somewhat ironic, considering Ewing’s use
of the Brownie to expound on boys’ capacity for
domestic labor. While the Brownie name has
become disassociated in twenty-first-century Girl
Guide practice from its original narrative, Ewing’s
mythology of the house-elf has a more recent
legacy in J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series,
wherein the household drudgery of a young boy
bonds him to a literal house-elf.
Whereas the transmission of the Brownies was
institutional, overt, and adult-instigated, the after-
life of Lucy Lane Clifford’s “The New Mother”
attests to the difficulty of recovering and recog-
nizing minor Victorian women writers’ contribu-
tions to the fantasy genre when popularity means
absorption into oral child-culture. Although Neil
Gaiman has acknowledged Lucy Lane Clifford’s
“The New Mother” as a source for his popular
children’s novel Coraline (2002) (Goss 2009, 69),
Clifford’s tale has entered the realm of
“authorless” urban legend. “The New Mother” is
retold in Alvin Schwartz’s enduringly popular
More Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark (1984) as
“The Drum” and in the noted fantasy author Alan
Garner’s Collected Folk Tales (2011) as “Iram,
Biram.” The transmission of Clifford’s story
through oral culture before reappearing in print
leads to the absence of recognition for her author-
ship in male-edited collections. Clifford’s case of
a “disappearing author” provides a neat parallel
for the mostly uncredited folktale collecting by
women in the famous anthologies of the Brothers
Grimm and Andrew Lang (Harries 2013, 529).
The slide of Clifford’s story also functions as a
reminder of the ongoing slipperiness of generic
borders between literary fantasy and “folk” tale.
Summary
Victorian women authors of children’s fantasy
wrote in diverse styles and ranged in their
approaches to the fantastic, from interpolated
fairy tales in moral-realist texts to children’s hor-
ror to metafictional satires of escapist fiction
aimed at child audiences. While authors placed
themselves within traditions of didacticism and
romance, they also incorporated innovations in
realism and portal fantasy. Thus, Victorian
women’s contributions to the children’s fantasy
are both explicit and hidden, canonical and stylis-
tic, distinct to the nineteenth century and contin-
uous into the twenty-first century.
Cross-References
▶ Burnett, Frances Hodgson
▶ Children’s Magazines
▶ Eliot, George
▶ Ewing, Juliana
▶ Fairytales
▶ Goblin Market (Rossetti)
▶ Gothic
Children’s Fantasy by Victorian Women Writers
▶ Ingelow, Jean
▶ Molesworth, Mary Louisa
▶ Nesbit, Edith
▶ Rossetti, Christina
▶ Steel, Flora Annie
▶ Thackeray Ritchie, Anne
▶ The Story of the Amulet (Nesbit)
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Oxford University Press.
McKay, H. 2011. Wishing for Tomorrow, Illus. Nick
Maland. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Molesworth, M.L. 1877. The Cuckoo Clock. London:
Macmillan and Company.
Montgomery, L.M. 1908; 2004. Anne of Green Gables. Ed.
Cecily Devereux. Peterborough: Broadview.
———. 1923; 2014. Emily of New Moon. Toronto: Tundra
Books.
8 Children’s Fantasy by Victorian Women Writers
Nelson, C. 1998. Art for Man’s Sake: Frances Browne’s
Magic and Victorian Social Aesthetics. Bookbird 36
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Nesbit, E. 1899; 2013. The Story of the Treasure Seekers
and The Wouldbegoods. In Classics of Children’s Lit-
erature, ed. Claudia Nelson. New York: Palgrave
Macmillan.
———. 1901; 2010. The Book of Dragons. New York:
Random House.
———. 1902; 2008. Five Children and It. In Puffin
Classics, Illus. Quentin Blake. New York: Penguin.
———. 1906; 2018. The Story of the Amulet. In Puffin
Classics, Illus. H. Millar. New York: Penguin.
———. 1907; 2017. The Enchanted Castle. Vintage
Children’s Classics. New York: Penguin.
———. 1908; 1958. The House of Arden. Illus. H.R.
Millar. London: E. Benn.
———. 1913; 2001. Wet Magic. New York: Books of
Wonder.
Ritchie, A.T. 1868. Five Old Friends, and A Young Prince.
London: Smith, Elder and Co.
———. 1875. Bluebeard’s Keys and Other Stories.
Leipzig: Bernhard Tauchnitz.
Rosenberg, T. 2006. Generic Manipulation and Mutation:
E. Nesbit’s Psammead Series as Early Magical Real-
ism. In E. Nesbit’s Psammead Trilogy: A Children’s
Classic at 100, ed. Raymond E. Jones, 63–88. Lanham:
Scarecrow Press.
Rossetti, C. 1874. Speaking Likenesses. London:
Macmillan.
———. 1893. Goblin Market. Illus. Laurence Housman.
London: Macmillan.
———. 1933. Goblin Market. Illus. Arthur Rackham.
London: George G. Harrap.
Saunders, K. 2014. Five Children on the Western Front.
London: Faber and Faber.
Sinclair, C. 1839. Holiday House. New York: Robert
Carter.
Steel, F.A., and R. Carnac. 1884. Wide Awake Stories A
Collection of Tales Told by Little Children, Between
Sunrise and Sunset, in the Panjab and Kashmir. Lon-
don: Trubner & Co.
Stevenson, R.L. 1883; 2011. Treasure Island. In Oxford
World Classics, ed. Peter Hunt. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Sumpter, C. 2008. The Victorian Press and the Fairy Tale.
Houndsmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Thackeray, M.T. 1854. The Rose and the Ring. London:
Smith, Elder, and Co.
Townshend, D. 2008. The Haunted Nursery: 1746–1830.
In The Gothic in Children’s Literature: Haunting the
Borders, ed. Anna Jackson, Roderick McGillis, and
Karen Coats, 15–38. Abingdon: Routledge.
Walsh, S. 2007. Gothic Children. In The The Routledge
Companion to Gothic, ed. Catherine Spooner and
Emma McEvoy, 183–190. Abingdon: Routledge.