Wood Material Science & Engineering

ISSN: 1748-0272 (Print) 1748-0280 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/swoo20

Hydraulic conductivity of some perishable wood

species in Southeastern Nigeria: A quantitative
approach to determine their treatability

Godswill C. Ajuziogu, Eugene O. Ojua, Anthony E. Nweze & Fabian O. Attah

To cite this article: Godswill C. Ajuziogu, Eugene O. Ojua, Anthony E. Nweze & Fabian O.
Attah (2020): Hydraulic conductivity of some perishable wood species in Southeastern Nigeria: A
quantitative approach to determine their treatability, Wood Material Science & Engineering, DOI:
10.1080/17480272.2020.1760352

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/17480272.2020.1760352

Published online: 06 May 2020.

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WOOD MATERIAL SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
https://doi.org/10.1080/17480272.2020.1760352

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Hydraulic conductivity of some perishable wood species in Southeastern Nigeria: A

quantitative approach to determine their treatability
Godswill C. Ajuziogu, Eugene O. Ojua , Anthony E. Nweze and Fabian O. Attah
Department of Plant Science and Biotechnology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Wood is a biological material that is readily degraded by bacteria, fungi, and insects, as a result, Received 8 February 2020
enormous economic losses are incurred annually. The potentials of perishable wood species would Revised 21 April 2020
be dependent on their treatability to increase their service life. This study reports on the treatability Accepted 21 April 2020
of wood by testing the hydraulic conductances as estimated by Hagen Poiseuille equation on four
KEYWORDS
perishable wood species (Artocarpus heterophyllus, Canarium schweinfurthii, Pycanthus angolensis Hagen Poiseuille equation;
and Treculia Africana) commonly grown in the Southeastern Nigeria using five preservatives hydraulic conductance;
chemicals (No-pest® Strip2, solignium, DD-force, spent-oil from petrol engine and spent-oil from penetratability; permeability;
diesel engine). The vessel lumen radius of P. angolensis was significantly (P < 0.05) wider as preservatives; wood quality;
compared to those of A. heterophyllus and T. Africana, while C. schweinfurthii had the longest wood protection
vessel- members with an average radius of 0.390 ± 0.019 mm. Water-based preservatives (No-pest®
Strip2 and DD-Force) and Solignium were less viscous and showed higher penetrating ability.
P. angolensis was highly responsive to treatments with less viscous preservatives, however,
A. heterophyllus and C. schweinfurthii were also found to be moderately responsive to treatments,
therefore, appear promising for protective treatment and could be used as a substitute to highly
priced commercial timber species.

Introduction Another important factor that determines the effectiveness

of wood preservative is its wettability which ensures the
Wood is an outstanding renewable building material. Taking
adhesion of the liquid and solid materials to the wood
into consideration the exceptional qualities of wood (such
(Kúdela and Wesserle 2013, Lopes et al. 2018). The surfaces
as low thermal conductivity, mechanical strength, and aes-
of wood are uneven, spotted with pits, and soft as a result
thetic value), it has played an important role in a variety
of surfacing, unlike the surfaces of metals. The tangential
of ways to man. However, when wood products come in
and radial surfaces of most wood samples consist of
contact with wet ground or exposed to too much moisture
concave lumen surfaces with common cell walls (Piao et al.
conditions, biological deteriorations may occur (Ajuziogu
2010). Due to the difference in tracheid radius in softwood
et al. 2018). This, therefore, implies that wood is also biode-
and radii of fibre and vessels in hardwood, a 1 mm/dia
gradable and has some weaknesses (Temiz et al. 2014, Aju-
water droplet could cross 17–58 tracheids in softwoods and
ziogu et al. 2019a). Wood is a biological material that is
33–100 fibres or 3–50 vessels in hardwoods (Piao et al. 2010).
readily degraded by bacteria, fungi, and termites, as a
The wettability of the wood surface is a multifaceted
result, enormous economic losses are incurred annually
phenomenon controlled by the physical and chemical proper-
(Schultz and Nicholas 2002, Banana et al. 2012, Ajuziogu
ties of the wood and the liquid used (Tshabalala 2005, Kudela
et al. 2018).
2014, Lopes et al. 2018). However, the capacity of a liquid to
Wood preservation being a control measure in opposition
wet the surface of a solid is assessed through the size of the
to wood-degrading driving forces is a technique of plummet-
contact angle between the two materials (Kúdela and Wesserle
ing and/or preventing attacks by the degrading actions of
2013, Kudela 2014, Lopes et al. 2018). More so, water flowing
wood-deteriorating agents, thereby improving the service
through the lumen of dead vessel elements is often compared
life of the wood (Banana et al. 2012, Ajuziogu et al. 2019a).
to the movement of liquid through a bundle of perfect cylind-
There are different methods of application of wood preserva-
rical pipes. Such comparisons apply the equation known as the
tives. These include deluging and fogging, brushing and
Hagen-Poiseuille Law: the flow of water through capillaries is
spreading, immersion, spraying, hot and cold steeping in
proportional to the fourth power of the conducting element
open tanks, diffusion, double vacuum, and pressure impreg-
radius (Dickison 2000). As water is moving upward through
nation (Rabbi et al. 2015). However, the pressure treatment
the axial pathway, it also is circulating horizontally across the
method had been reported to be the most effective tech-
axis from tracheary cell to tracheary cell and its passes
nique of applying of these preservatives (Richardson 1993,
through pit pairs at the same time (Dickison 2000).
Ajuziogu et al. 2018).

CONTACT Eugene O. Ojua eugene.ojua.pg78127@unn.edu.ng

© 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 G. C. AJUZIOGU ET AL.
The potentials of perishable wood species are dependent
on their treatability to increase their utilization. Improving
the value of such underutilized species will offer forest man-
agers more flexibility to manage forest resources as well as
to preserve the commercial timber species (Lebow et al.
2005). This aim of this study was to report on the treatability
of four perishable wood species commonly grown in South-
Eastern Nigeria, by analysing theoretically their hydraulic con-
ductivity of the wood vessel member following the Hagen-
Poiseuille Law.
Materials and methods
Wood samples collection and identification
The wood materials used in this work include four Nigerian
timber species as listed in Table I collected from South
Eastern Nigeria. The samples from the heartwood were col-
lected with the help of the Forest Ranger attached to the
Nsukka timber market from dried sawed wood kept for con-
struction purposes. Preliminary identification of the samples
was made following the guidelines of Desch and Dinwoodie
(1981). A confirmatory identification of the samples was
made through the microscopic studies of their section and
the features observed were compared to those of Desch
and Dinwoodie (1981). Artocarpus heterophyllus Frost com-
monly known as Jackfruit or Bread of the Tropics can grow
up to 30 m in height and 2 m in girth with numerous leaves
and branching patterns (Ubi et al. 2016). The wood has a
density of 0.60 g/cm3, average Modulus of Elasticity of
6378 Nmm−2, Modulus of rapture of 119 Nmm−2 and basic
density of 458 kgm−3 (Brown 1997, Zziwa et al. 2012). Canar-
ium schweinfurthii is a large forest tree growing up to 50 m
high, 4.5 m in girth and its crown reaching the upper
canopy of the forest, with a long clean (Ngbolua et al. 2015).
At 12% moisture content, wood has a density of 0.40 g/cm3,
average modulus of rapture of 77.5–109 Nmm−2, modulus
of elasticity of 7370–14,630 Nmm−2, compression parallel to
grain 38-60.5 Nmm−2, compression perpendicular to grain
8-9.5 Nmm−2, shear 13–14 Nmm−2, (Brown 1997, Kochummen
et al. 2018). Pycanthus angolensis (Welw.) Warb commonly
kwon as African nutmeg is a large evergreen tree growing
about 35 m in height and 60–150 cm in bole diameter
(Achel et al. 2012). At 12% moisture, its wood density is
0.40 g/cm3, average Modulus of Elasticity of 7900 Nmm−2,
Modulus of rapture of 37.9 Nmm−2 with a compression and
shear strength of 20 and 5.8 Nmm−2 (Brown 1997, Kretsch-
mann 2010). Treculia africana commonly called “African
breadfruit” grows up to 30 m high, 4–6 m in gridth (Agbogidi
and Onomeregbor 2008, Nuga and Ofodile 2010). The wood
has compression strength of 45.72 Nmm−2 (Ajuziogu et al.
2019b).
Table I. Timber species with their families and trade names.
Species Families
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Moraceae
Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. Burseraceae
Pycanthus angolensis (Welw.)Warb Myristicaceae
Treculia Africana Decne. Moraceae
Sample preparation
Small blocks of the heartwood of each of the wood species
were made and divided into two sets. The first sets were pre-
served in 40% formaldehyde acetic acid (FAA) contained in a
small glass container to soften the wood samples for trans-
verse sectioning (TS), while the second sets were oven-dried
to remove moisture in readiness for the maceration process.
Sectioning and maceration of the samples
Then the TS of the samples (about 18–30 µm thick) were
made with the aid of a Reichert sledge microtome in the
Anatomy Laboratory, Department of Plant Science and Bio-
technology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The sections were
further stained with phloroglucinol and conc. HCL.
Schultz’s method as adopted by Ajuziogu et al. (2018) was
used for the maceration. Chips of wood of the four species
about the size of half match sticks were placed differently in
long labelled test-tubes and 2 g of 2% KClO3 crystals were
added to each of the test tubes. 10 ml of conc. HNO3 was care-
fully introduced into the test-tubes through the side. The set-
up was allowed to react in a fume cupboard while standing on
a test-tube rack until the chips are softened and bleached. In
tubes when the reactions were slow, the racks were put in an
oven and heated to 60°C until the maceration of the chips
occurred. Distilled water was poured in each of the tubes,
covered and shaken and allowed to stand in a rack till the
pulp settles. Excess solutions were decanted from the test-
tubes and the softened bleached chips were washed several
times with distilled water till they become clear. The resultant
pulps were then separately transferred into well-labelled
specimen bottles. A drop of formalin was added to each
bottle to prevent fungal attacks, while a drop of glycerine
was added to removes air bubbles from the mass. The
bottles were stained with safranine.
Measurement of vessel member
The stained fibres and vessels were mounted differently on a
slide in 30% glycerine, carefully covered with a cover slide,
and then examined and measured under a calibrated light
microscope. The vessel dimensions were measured using
KARL KAPS asslar/Wetzlar Nr39805 microscope, to which an
ocular micrometer was fitted in the ocular tube. The ocular
micrometer was first calibrated using a stage micrometer
placed on the stage of the microscope by aligning its zero
mark with that of the ocular. The number of units of the
ocular which aligns with a given unit of the stage micrometer,
in a given magnification was noted. This was used as the con-
version factor in the subsequent measurements. The conver-
sion factors were worked out as follows:
. At ×40 magnification (20 units of ocular = 0.55 mm; 1unit
Trade names
of ocular = 0.55 mm/20 = 0.0275 mm)
Jack, Jackwood
o The conversion factor at ×40 = 0.0275 mm
Canarium, “Ube” . At ×100 magnification (40 units of ocular = 0.54 mm; 1unit
Jlomba, Llomba of ocular = 0.54/40 = 0.0135 mm)
Breadfruit
o The conversion factor at ×100 = 0.0135 mm
 WOOD MATERIAL SCIENCE & ENGINEERING 3

. At ×400 magnification (71 units of ocular = 0.25 mm; 1unit Table IV. Correlation matrix of the vessel dimensions and their conductivities to
of the ocular = 0.25 mm/71 = 0.004 mm) the treatment of wood chemicals.
o The conversion factor at ×400 = 0.004 mm Vessel Vessel
radius length (mm) Viscosity Conductivity
Vessel radius 1
Vessel length (mm) –.625** 1
The dimensions measured were: vessel length (this was Viscosity .001 .000 1
measured with the tail inclusive), vessel diameter (the vessel Conductivity .630** –.443** –.251 1
diameter was calculated by taking the average of two **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
measurements made from alternate directions of the vessel
opening), vessel lumen radius (calculated as half of the
lumen diameter), thirty different xylem vessel members Results
were measured from the transverse section (TS) in each of
the four wood species from various dimensions as stated The results as presented in Table II shows the average dimen-
above. sion of the vessel characteristics of the four plants. It was
The hydraulic conductivities of the samples were esti- observed that the vessel lumen radius of P. angolensis was sig-
mated using the Hagen-Poiseuille equation. nificantly (P < 0.05) wider as compared to that of
A. heterophyllus and T. africana which had vessel lumen of
0.075 ± 0.003 and 0.051 ± 0.002 mm respectively. Although
pr 4 C. schweinfurthii similarly had the longest vessel- members
Hagen-Poiseuille (K) =
8lh with an average of 0.390 ± 0.019 mm, this was only signifi-
cantly (P < 0.05) longer than the length of P. angolensis
vessel- member (Table II).
where K is the conductivity, r is the radius of the vessel lumen, Spent-oil from diesel engine was found to be significantly
l is the length of vessel member and η is the viscosity (P < 0.05) viscous than every other preservative used. It
(Newman 1976, Ajuziogu et al. 2018). recorded a viscosity level was 336.67 ± 0.44 centipoise while
The viscosities of the five liquids (No-pest®Strip2, DD- the water-based preservatives (No-pest® Strip2 and DD-
Force, Solignium, Spent-oil gotten from petrol engine and Force) and Solignium were less viscous (Table III).
Spent-oil gotten from diesel engine) were tested using the P. angolensis plant species recorded higher hydraulic conduc-
digital viscometer (China made, model NDJ-53 viscometer). tivity with the less viscous preservatives. However, no signifi-
The viscosity reading was taken using spindle number two cant differences were recorded on the hydraulic
(2) at the speed of sixty rounds per minute (60 rpm) at conductivities of the plants in response to the different pre-
the room temperature of 30°C. Three different readings servatives (Table IV).
were obtained and the average was taken. The viscosities Table IV shows the coefficient of correlation between the
in millipascal (mPa) were converted to centipoises as different parameters collected. It was observed that hydraulic
follows: 1 mPa/s = 1centipoises conductivity had no significant correlation with viscosity.
Data collected were subjected to analysis of variance and However, the vessel radius positively correlated with conduc-
coefficient of correlations was carried out between the tivity while the vessel length negatively affects the conduc-
vessel dimensions and their conductivities to the wood treat- tivity of the timber species (Table IV).
ment chemicals.

Discussion
Table II. Average dimensional characteristics of vessel members in the four
plant species measured in millimetres (mm). The wood samples from the four species studied possess
Plants Vessel lumen radius (mm) Vessel-member length (mm) vessel elements joined end to end and fibres with tapering
A. heterophyllus 0.075 ± 0.003bc 0.352 ± 0.012a ends, ray parenchyma tissues that ran horizontally and vertical
C. schweinfurthii 0.104 ± 0.003ab 0.390 ± 0.019a axial parenchyma tissue which shows the characteristic fea-
T. africana 0.051 ± 0.002c 0.389 ± 0.020a
tures of the angiosperms (hardwood). The possession of
P. angolensis 0.129 ± 0.029a 0.140 ± 0.006b
vessel and fibres shows as an advancement over Gymnos-
Data are present with means ± standard error. Means are separated using
Duncan’s new multiple range test (DNMRT) at P < 0.05 with means with perm and Pteridophytes, where the tracheids perform the
different alphabets on each column representing significant differences. dual function of mechanical support and water conduction

Table III. Viscosities of the fluids and their corresponding hydraulic conductance of the four plant species.
Hydraulic conductivity (×10−5 centipoise)
Preservatives Viscosity (30°C) A. heterophyllus C. schweinfurthii T. africana P. angolensis
No-pest® Strip2 4.33 ± 0.17c 0.85 ± 0.18 2.87 ± 0.78 0.17 ± 0.03 27.04 ± 19.48
DD-Force 6.50 ± 0.00c 0.58 ± 0.14 1.88 ± 0.43 0.11 ± 0.02 18.56 ± 13.58
Solignium 4.50 ± 0.00c 0.83 ± 0.20 2.71 ± 0.62 0.16 ± 0.02 26.80 ± 19.61
Spent-oil from petrol engine 250.83 ± 2.49b 0.02 ± 0.00 0.05 ± 0.01 0.00 ± 0.00 0.47 ± 0.34
Spent-oil from diesel engine 336.67 ± 0.44a 0.01 ± 0.00 0.04 ± 0.01 0.00 ± 0.00 0.36 ± 0.26
Data are present with means ± standard error. Means are separated using Duncan’s new multiple range test (DNMRT) at P < 0.05 with means with different alphabets
on each column representing significant differences.
4 G. C. AJUZIOGU ET AL.
(Oladele 1994). The function of the thick-walled fibre and the
vessels in the angiosperm (hardwood) is to provide mechan-
ical support and conduct water and dissolved mineral salt
respectively.
The porous nature of the vessels in the angiosperm gives
them an added advantage over the gymnosperm whose trac-
heids are imperforate to the movement of fluid. During this
study, P. angolensis vessel gave more penetrability to the
fluids than other plants used, its vessel lumen radius (0.129
± 0.029 mm) was wider than the other three plants used.
Moreover, the vessel member of the four plants is more pene-
trable to No-pest® Strip2, solignium and DD-force (less viscous
preservatives) and resistance to the most viscous oils (spent-
oil from petrol engine and spent-oil from diesel engine),
which has the viscosity of 250.83 and 336.67 centipoises
respectively. Ajuziogu et al. (2018) had similarly observed
that less viscous fluids had higher penetrating ability than
more viscous fluids. However, due to the non-significant cor-
relation observed between viscosity and hydraulic conduc-
tivity, it is reasonable to say that other factors such as the
vessel length and radius of the wood are responsible for the
permeability of the preservatives and not the viscosity.
This study also confirms the report of Uwe (2014) who
reported that the vessel lumen radius is the principal
factor to be considered in determining hydraulic conduc-
tance. T. africana had the narrowest vessel lumen radius
and it appeared less penetrable to the fluids than the
other three plant species. The negative correlation observed
between hydraulic conductivity and vessel- member length
implies that the longer the vessel the lower the conduc-
tivity, while the positive relationship between hydraulic con-
ductivity and vessel lumen radius signifies the influence of
wider vessel in hydraulic conductivity. The lumen resistance
and pit resistance had been attributed as limiting factors for
the flow of fluid in the tracheids element (Gibson et al.
1985, Ajuziogu et al. 2018). However, penetrability may be
improved by the application of vacuum in the treatment
of wood (Oladele 1994).
Conclusion
From the study it was observed that more viscous fluids
(spent-engine oil from petrol engine and diesel engine) had
lower hydraulic conductivity while the least viscous fluid
(No-pest® Strip2, solignium and DD-force) had a high hydraulic
conductivity. However, the viscosity of the fluid is not a deter-
mining factor in the use of the preservative in wood treatment
but the vessel length and radius would determine the effec-
tiveness of the preservative going through the vessel
member. Also, it has been shown in this study that
P. angolensis wood which had wider vessel lumen was more
permeable to the fluids, therefore increasing the chance of
being preserved with less viscous preservatives, more so,
A. heterophyllus and C. schweinfurthii also appear promising
for protective treatment. T. africana which had smaller
vessels would require high-pressure equipment to force the
preservatives into the wood or be incised to create more
channels for the preservatives to enter.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
ORCID
Eugene O. Ojua http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8280-1175
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