NEURAL CONDUCTION AND SYNAPTIC
TRANSMISSION that the ratio of negative to positive charges
Neurons Resting Membrane Potential
- Membrane potential is the difference in
electrical charge between the inside and
outside of the cell.
- Microelectrodes are extremely
recording electrodes, which are used for
intracellular recording.
Construction of Microelectrodes
- Recording of membrane potential involves
connecting the intracellular and extracellular
electrodes by wire to an oscilloscope.
 Oscilloscope - a device that displays
differences in the electrical potential at the
two electrodes over time. The differences
are displayed as vertical displacements of a
glowing spot that sweeps across
fluorescent screen.
Resting Membrane Potentials
- The steady membrane potential of a resting
neuron is about -70 millivolts.
Ionic Basis of the Resting Potential
- Ions are positively or negatively charged
particles.
- The resting potential results from the fact
greater inside the neuron compared to the
outside.
- There are four factors that can explain how
the unequal distribution of charges occurs.
fine
Homogenizing Factors
 Random Motion - The ions found in neural
tissues are random in motion and the
particles in random motion tend to become
more evenly distributed because they are
more likely to move down their concentration
gradients.
 Electrostatic Pressure - Any accumulation
of charges, positive or negative, in one area
tends to be dispersed by the repulsion of
charges in the vicinity and the attraction of
opposite charges concentrated elsewhere.
Counteract These Homogenizing Factors
- There are four kinds of ions that contribute
significantly to the resting potential: the
a sodium ion (Na+), potassium ions (K+),
chloride ion (Cl-) and various negatively
charged protein ions.
- The two properties, passive and active, are
the two forces responsible for the unequal
distribution of the following ions. Passive
does not involve a consumption of energy
while the active involves some consumption
of energy.
- The differential permeability of sodium,
chloride, potassium, and protein ions is
 considered as a passive property. In resting
neurons, potassium and chloride ions pass
through the neural membrane, the sodium
ions pass through it with difficulty while the
negatively charged protein ions does not
pass through it at all.
- Ion channels are specialized pores in neural
membranes through which specific ions
pass through.
- Sodium potassium pumps are active
transport mechanism that pumps sodium - When the potential reaches the threshold,
ions out of the neurons and the potassium the membrane opens its sodium channels
ions in. and permits sodium ions to flow into the cell.
- A rapid depolarization and then reversal of
the usual polarization, is the action potential.
Action Potential

- Messages sent by axons are called action

Action Potential serve Two functions
potentials.
- We can measure a neuron’ s potential with a 1. First function - To transmit and encode
microelectrode. information.
- If we now use another electrode to apply a 2. Second function - To initiate cellular
negative charge, we can further increase the events such as muscular contraction.
negative charge inside the neuron. This
change is called as hyperpolarization (from -  Transmission of neuronal signals -
70 mV to - 72 mV). Various ions such as sodium, potassium and
chloride are unequally distributed between
the outside and inside of the cell.
 Electrical gradient - More positively
charged ions outside the cell relative to the
inside.
 Electrochemical gradient - Ionic imbalance

 Depolarization – decrease the resting

membrane potential (from - 70 mV to - 67 Membrane potential
mV).
- The difference in total charge inside and
outside of the cell.

 70 millivolts - The inside of the cell is
approximately 70 mv less positive than the
outside.
 Inside of the cell - Net negative charge
 Outside of the cell the resting - Net
positive charge
 Resting-membrane potential - The point
where the cell has achieved electrochemical
equilibrium.
 Ion channel - Ions across the membrane
through a structure.
Ion Channel
 Graded potential - Resulting change in
membrane potential is small, can vary in
size, and can be negative or positive.
 Voltage-gated sodium channels - 3 states,
open, close and inactivated.
 Threshold voltage - Channel changes to an
open position.
 Depolarization - Positive-sodium ions enter
the cell. Membrane potential becomes less
negative and more positive as it approaches
to 0 mv.
 Overshoot - Voltage gradient goes to zero
and beyond 0 up to a positive 30 mv.
 Repolarization - Potassium-electrochemical
gradient, potassium ions flow out of the cell.
Making it less positive and eventually
negative.
 Hyperpolarization - Potassium channel
close.
 Absolute refractory period - A nerve
cannot fire another action potential.
 Relative refractory period - Sodium
channels open and cell is hyperpolarized
due to a potassium.
Concept of the Synapse
Great pioneers of modern neuroscience
 Ramón y Cajal – anatomically demonstrate
a gap separating neurons from one another
in late 1800s.
 Charles Scott Sherrington - physiologically
demonstrated that communication between
one neuron and the next differs from
communication along a single axon.
Properties of Synapses
- Charles Sherrington studied reflexes, which
is an automatic muscular response to
stimuli.
- The circuit from sensory neuron to muscle
response is called a reflex arc.
- He strapped a dog into a harness above the
ground and pinched one of the dog’s feet.
After a fraction of a second, the dog flexed
(raised) the pinched leg and extended the
other legs.
- Later, he observed several properties of
reflexes suggesting special processes at the
junctions between neurons:
a. Reflexes are slower than conduction
along an axon.
b. Several weak stimuli presented at
slightly different times or locations
produce a stronger reflex than a
single stimulus does.
c. When one set of muscles becomes
excited, a different set becomes
relaxed.
Speed of a Reflex and Delayed Transmission
at the Synapse
- Temporal Summation - The integration of
neural signals that occur at different times
on the same neuron.
- The neuron that delivers transmission is the
presynaptic neuron. The neuron that
receives it is the postsynaptic neuron.
- A graded depolarization is known as an
excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP). It
results from a flow of sodium ions into the
neuron. If an EPSP does not cause the cell
to reach its threshold, the depolarization
decays quickly.
- Spatial Summation - The integration of
signals that occur at different sites on the
neuron.
Inhibitory Synapses
- A pinch on the foot sends a message along
a sensory neuron to an interneuron (an
intermediate neuron) in the spinal cord,
which in turn excites the motor neurons
connected to the flexor muscles of that leg.
- Sherrington surmised that the interneuron
also sends a message to block activity of
motor neurons to the extensor muscles in
the same leg and the flexor muscles of the
three other legs.
- The temporary hyperpolarization of a
membrane is called an inhibitory
postsynaptic potential, or IPSP and it
resembles an EPSP. An IPSP occurs when
synaptic input selectively opens the gates
for potassium ions to leave the cell (carrying
a positive charge with them) or for chloride
ions to enter the cell (carrying a negative
charge).
Relationship Among EPSP, IPSP, and Action
Potentials.
- Synapses simply produce on and
responses. In fact, synapses
enormously in their duration of effects.
- The EPSPs increase the frequency of action
potentials above the spontaneous rate,
whereas IPSPs decrease it.
The Discovery of Chemical Transmission at
Synapses
 T. R. Elliott - a young British scientist,
reported in 1905 that applying the hormone
adrenaline directly to the surface of the
heart, the stomach, and the pupils produces
the same effects as those of the sympathetic
nervous system.
 Otto Loewi - a German physiologist, liked
the idea of chemical synapses but did not
see how to demonstrate it more decisively.
He then performed an experiment using two
frogs and later concluded that nerves send
messages by releasing chemicals.
The Sequence of Chemical Events at a
Synapse
off 1. The neuron synthesizes chemicals that
vary serve as neurotransmitters. It synthesizes
the smaller neurotransmitters in the axon
terminals and synthesizes neuropeptides in
the cell body.
2. Action potentials travel down the axon. At
the presynaptic terminal, an action potential
enables calcium to enter the cell. Calcium
releases neurotransmitters from the
terminals and into the synaptic cleft, the
space between the presynaptic and
postsynaptic neurons.
3. The released molecules diffuse across the
cleft, attach to receptors, and alter the
activity of the postsynaptic neuron.
4. The neurotransmitter molecules separate
from their receptors.
5. The neurotransmitter molecules may be
taken back into the presynaptic neuron for
recycling, or they may diffuse away.
6. Some postsynaptic cells send reverse
messages to control the further release of
neurotransmitter by presynaptic cells.
 Neurotransmitters

Synthesis of Transmitters - Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers

and they carry these chemical signals
Storage of transmitters
(messages) from one neuron to the next
- Neurons that release serotonin, dopamine, target.
or norepinephrine contain an enzyme, MAO - The next target can be another nerve cell, a
(monoamine oxidase), that breaks down muscle cell or gland. Without these
these transmitters into inactive chemicals. neurotransmitters, your body can ’t function
Several antidepressant drugs inhibit MAO. well.

Release and diffusion of transmitters - There are four classes of neurotransmitters:

the amino acids, monoamines, the recently
 Presynaptic inhibition - A form of inhibition discovered soluble gases and acetylcholine.
that selectively reduces a neuron ' s
responsiveness to specific synaptic input; it
 Amino Acids – involves in most functions of
is mediated by excitatory axoaxonal
nervous system. The four widely known
synapses.
amino neurotransmitters are glutamate,
 Postsynaptic inhibition - A form of aspartate, glycine, and gamma-aminobutyric
inhibition that reduces a neuron ' s acid (GABA).
responsiveness to all excitatory synaptic
input. 1. Glutamate – most common excitatory
 Exocytosis - The process of neurotransmitter. It plays a key role in
neurotransmitter release. cognitive functions like thinking, learning and
memory. When imbalances in the glutamate
Activating receptors of the postsynaptic cell
levels occurs, it commonly associated with
 Ionictropic receptors - Receptors that are Alzheimer’s disease, dementia, Parkinson’s
associated with ligand activated ion disease, and seizures.
channels. 2. Aspartate – most abundant excitatory
 Metabotropic receptors - Receptors that neurotransmitter and increases the
are associated with signal proteins and G likelihood of depolarization in the
proteins. (guanosine-triphosphate-sensitive postsynaptic membrane.
proteins) 3. Glycine – most common inhibitory
 Second messenger - A Chemical neurotransmitter and is found in the spinal
synthesized in a neuron in response to the cord. It is involved in controlling hearing
binding of a neurotransmitter to a processing, pain transmission and
metabotropic receptor in its cell membrane. metabolism.
4. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) – one attention and focus to allow you to react in
of the most common inhibitory different stressors. Diseases include are
neurotransmitters of nervous system, high blood pressure and diabetes.
particularly found in the brain. It regulates 4. Norepinephrine – also called as
brain activity to prevent problems in the noradrenaline, it is most widely known for its
areas of anxiety, irritability, concentration, effects on alertness, arousal, decision-
sleep, seizures, and depression. making, attention, and focus.
5. Histamine – regulates body functions
including wakefulness, feeding behavior and
 Monoamines – this is slightly larger than motivation. It plays a role in asthma,
amino acid neurotransmitters. It regulates bronchospasm, mucosal edema, and
consciousness, cognition, attention, and multiple sclerosis.
emotion. Many disorders of nervous system
involve abnormalities of monoamine and
many drugs that people also take affect
these neurotransmitters.

1. Serotonin – an inhibitory neurotransmitter

that helps to regulate mood, sleep patterns,
anxiety, appetite, and pain. Diseases that
are associated with serotonin imbalance are
seasonal affective disorder, anxiety,
depression, fibromyalgia, and chronic pain.
2. Dopamine – plays a role in your body’s
reward system and helps with focus,
concentration, memory, sleep, mood, and
motivation. Diseases associated with
dopamine imbalance include Parkinson’s
disease, schizophrenia, bipolar disease,
restless legs syndrome, attention deficit
hyperactivity (ADHD).
3. Epinephrine – also once called as  Neuropeptides – chains of amino acid. Also

adrenaline, it is responsible for the body’s called neuromodulators, because they have

fight or flight response. It stimulates the several properties that set them apart from

body’s responses by increasing heart rate, other transmitters.

breathing, blood pressure, blood sugar and - are important for hunger, thirst, intense pain,
blood flow to your muscles and heighten and other long-term changes in behavior
and experience.
1. Endorphins – body’s natural pain reliever, it
reduces pain when is release and low levels
Neurotransmitters and Behavior
of endorphins play a role in fibromyalgia and
some types of headaches. - Synapses are the building blocks of
behavior. Difference in behavior between
one person and another relates to activity at
 Soluble Gases – produced in the neural the synapses.
cytoplasm and is diffuse through the cell - People with greater amounts of dopamine
membrane into the extracellular fluid and release tend to be more impulsive and more
then into nearby cells. It stimulates the inclined to seek immediate pleasure.
production of second messenger and broken - The drugs that help control Parkinson’s
down immediately, making it last for only disease, anxiety, schizophrenia, and other
seconds. Its two types are nitric oxide and disorders act at synapses, suggesting that
carbon monoxide. these disorders reflect excesses or deficits
 Acetylcholine – release in the autonomic of certain transmitters.
nervous system and regulates heart rate,
blood pressure and gut motility. It also plays
a role in muscle contractions, memory, Pharmacology of Synaptic Transmission
motivation, sexual desire, sleep, and
- Some of the ways drugs influence
learning. When imbalances are present,
psychological processes through their
health issues like Alzheimer’s disease,
effects on synaptic transmission.
seizures, and muscles spasms.

Two Fundamental Kinds on Synaptic

 Hormones - A hormone is a chemical that is
Transmission
secreted by cells in one part of the body and
conveyed by the blood to influence other 1. Agonists - Drugs that facilitate the effects of
cells. a particular neurotransmitter.
2. Antagonists (receptor blocker) - Drugs
1. Reuptake - The more common of the two that inhibit the effects of a particular
mechanisms for deactivating a released neurotransmitter.
neurotransmitter.
2. Enzymatic Degradation - The breakdown
of chemicals by enzymes- one of the two
mechanisms for deactivating released
neurotransmitters.
 5. Stimulant Drugs - Boost mood and reduce
fatigue while boosting excitement, alertness,
and activity.
6. Amphetamine and Cocaine - stimulate the
nucleus accumbens's dopamine synapses
7. Dopamine Transporter - is a protein that
the presynaptic terminal typically uses to
reabsorb released dopamine.
8. Methylphenidate – stimulant drug.
Prescribed with people who has ADHD.
o Individuals who take
methylphenidate pills notice a slow
rise in the concentration of the
substance over the course of an
hour or more, followed by a slow
fall.
o The immediate flush of enthusiasm
is absent.
9. Nicotine - Is a substance found in tobacco.
o Nicotinic receptors, are abundant on
neurons that release dopamine in
the nucleus accumbens.
o Nicotine, enhances reward.
10. Opiates Drugs - Opiate medicines share
Psychoactive Drugs Example: chemical similarities with those made from

1. Cocaine - a potent catecholamine agonist opium poppies.

that is highly addictive. o Includes, morphine, heroin, and

2. Benzodiazepines - A class of GABA methadone.

agonists with anxiolytic, sedative, and o soothe users, reduce their focus on

anticonvulsant properties. current issues, and lessen their

3. Atropine - A receptor blocker at muscarinic sensitivity to pain.
cholinergic synapses. 11. Marijuana – Contains tetrahydrocannabinol
4. Curare - A blocker of nicotinic cholinergic (THC) and other cannabinoids.
synapses that produces paralysis by o The psychological effects: A
blocking transmission at neuromuscular sensory experience that is more
junctions. intense and the perception that time
is moving more slowly are two
 examples of marijuana's - Alcohol or Alcohol dependence is the
psychological effects. memory and habitual use of alcohol despite medical or
cognitive problems. social harm.
o Cannabinoids - have been used - In moderate amounts, alcohol relaxes
medically to relieve pain or nausea, people and decreases anxiety, but when
to combat glaucoma and to increase people stop drinking, it starts to increase
appetite. Located on the presynaptic their anxiety.
neuron. - Alcohol affects neuron in several ways, it
o Cannabinoid receptors - the most blocks activity at the glutamate receptors,
prevalent receptors in several the brain ' s main excitatory site.
regions of the mammalian brain.
Two types of Alcoholism
Abundant in areas of the
hypothalamus and hippocampus. 1. TYPE 1 - Alcohol problems develop usually
o Two brain chemicals bind to after age of 25. may not or may have
Cannabinoid receptors: relatives with alcohol abuse.
1. Anandamide 2. TYPE 2 - Alcoholism have more rapid onset,
2. Sn-2 arachidonylglycerol (2-AG) usually before age 25. Most men, and most
have close relatives with alcohol problems.
12. Hallucinogenic Drugs – Distort perception.

o Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) –

chemically resemble serotonin.
o Methylenedioxymethamphetamine
(MDMA or Ecstasy) – increase the
release of dopamine, similar to
amphetamine or cocaine. When in
higher doses, it can release serotonin,
altering perception and cognition like to
hallucinogenic drug.
o After using MDMA, users experience
lethargy, depression, high body
temperature, occasionally to life-
threatening levels.

Alcohol and Alcoholism