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Geography of Tourism in India

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Geography of Tourism in India
MD. SALEEM MIR*

Tourism is a comprehensive term associated with many branches

of study, like history, art, economy, society, commerce, trade, trans-
port, and environment. It is a new, emerging field in geography that
integrates and embraces almost all branches of geography, covering
spatial interactions, flows and places, and regional geographies. Its
relation with geography pertains primarily to the location. Tourism
requires and uses geographical space (Martin 2005) and this space
is an important factor influencing the location of tourism. Although
economic factors dominate most of the decisions concerning location
of tourist activities, it is geography that provides the territorial base on
which such activities are carried out.
Geography of tourism has a long history. The first article on tour-
ism in a geographic journal was published in 1933 in the United States
(US). One more tangible and strong evidence of growing geographi-
cal interest in tourism was provided by International Geographical
Union’s establishment of a working group in tourism and recreation
in 1972 (Pearce 1979). Since then, the academic field of tourism geog-
raphy has been developing with newer avenues of study. However,
there is a paucity of published work in geographical journals because
relatively few geographers are actively participating in the sub-field
of tourism as the subject matter lacks prestige as compared to other
sub-domains of geography (Mitchell 1979).
Yet, geographers have made important contributions to the study
of tourism because of their unique point of view. All social sciences

* The author is grateful to Professor H. Ramachandran, University of Delhi, for

his constant invaluable support.
42 URBANIZATION, INDUSTRY, AND DEVELOPMENT

examining tourism, tourists, or tourism phenomena observe the same

subject matter, namely, landscapes, functions, facilities, and institu-
tions, and utilize the same and similar information sources in their
research efforts (Mitchell 1979). However, the geographer’s standpoint
involves three aspects pertaining to place, environment, and relation-
ships, both in regional and systematic perspectives. Regional geogra-
phers concern themselves with the nature and character of a particular
tourism resort, while systematic geographers examine the individual
system or topics like tourism, recreation, and leisure (Mitchell and
Murphy 1991). Three key concepts are associated with the geography
of tourism, namely, spatial scale, geographic components of tourism
system, and spatial interactions between the components of tourism
system. Scale may be of international, regional, or local level. Even
micro-level studies are not uncommon. The components include the
tourism-generating areas, receiving areas, and the routes connecting
the two. Spatial interactions include explaining and measuring the
tourist flows (Boniface and Cooper 2005).
Geographers have dealt with many facets of tourism. In the early
stages of its development, economic aspects were concentrated upon
more. Then, the focus shifted towards the modification of landscape
by tourism, classification of tourism activities, and location analysis.
After the 1960s, the main concern of geographers became the nature
and place of tourism in the overall subject matter of geography (Pearce
1979). So, there have been shifts in tourism research from evaluation of
demand and supply to examining different types of tourism impacts,
and further to the discussion of planning and policy issues (Hall and
Page 2006). The recent trend is the environmental impact of tourism,
ecotourism, and sustainable development of tourism. A study carried
out on describing the pattern of growth of tourism research in Annals
of Tourism Research has shown a significant increase in publications
regarding methodology and theory, development, and impacts of
tourism (Xiao and Smith 2006).

TRENDS IN TOURISM RESEARCH IN INDIA

Although India had been an early starter of tourism industry, it is only
lately that serious academic studies and research work on tourism
have emerged. Contribution of tourism to the gross domestic product
 GEOGRAPHY OF TOURISM IN INDIA 43

(GDP) and foreign exchange, and its rising trend, make this an indus-
try of vital importance. It can lead to the development of backward
areas without altering much of their ecology. Still, much emphasis is
not given to the field of tourism geography as only a few departments
offer courses on geography of tourism despite its job potential and
interdisciplinary nature.
The purpose of this chapter is to explore the trends and focus areas
of the research in geography of tourism in India. But, before examin-
ing the recent trends, it is necessary to have a brief look at the earlier
focus areas. The available literature shows that various aspects of
tourism have been addressed. Hill and mountain tourism has been an
important aspect of research for Indian geographers since its develop-
ment as a distinct field of academy. Comparative studies of different
hill resorts have been carried out by Negi (2002) and Pradhan (2000).
Impacts and prospects of tourism development in mountainous areas
have been focused upon by Arora (1998), Chander (1995), Mandal
(1989), Negi (1996), and Sattar (1997). Cultural and ethnic implica-
tions of tourism flow to isolated mountain regions are discussed by
Singh and Kaur (1985), and further prospects of developing ethnic
and folk traditions have been investigated by Kaur (1982). Singh
(1982) has brought forth the significance of sacred sites in Garhwal
Himalayas, while Joshi and Pant (1990) have analysed the implica-
tions of recent tourism development in Nainital, an important tour-
ist spot situated in the Himalayas. Grewal (1994) has examined the
sustainability of western Himalayas for international tourism devel-
opment. Lamichhane and Singh (2002) have examined the aspect of
sustainable management of tourism in Pokhara, Nepal. Sukumar et al.
(1996) have done an extensive study on the problems and prospects of
tourism in Kanniyakumari, Tamil Nadu.
Impact of tourism on social, environmental, and cultural aspects
has been studied by Kaur (2001), Misra (1999), Motiram (2002), Ram
(1996), Sewak (1996), and Verma (1995). Environmental degrada-
tion due to tourism development and the remedies are discussed by
Chakraborty (1999). Economic aspects of tourism development have
been emphasized by Mandal (1992), Rajak (2002), and Sood (1990).
Other arenas explored by geographers are coastal tourism (Kumar
1992), desert tourism (Gaur 2002), ecotourism (Sangeeta 1997), and
problems and prospects of international marine tourism (Jreat 1994).
44 URBANIZATION, INDUSTRY, AND DEVELOPMENT

So, it is obvious from this brief literature review that the research in
tourism geography in India has been more inclined towards the envi-
ronmental aspects. However, some works have emerged in otherwise
less-known fields, like marine and desert tourism.
The available literature from 2003 to 2009 is reviewed to look into
the emerging avenues of research in tourism geography. The review
covers largely published work. Although a wide range of material has
been used, but the limitations of availability or unintentional neglect
on my part restrains me from calling it an exhaustive study. I hope
the references and the research cited here are representative of the
main trends in the field and provide an insight to the geographers for
furthering their interest in the field.
Tourism is an interdisciplinary subject and it is very difficult to
place much of the research outputs under a specific discipline because
of their cross-cutting areas of interest. However, some major trends
are noticeable and can be classified under the following heads:
• globalization and tourism;
• trends of tourism;
• economic aspects;
• impact of tourism on environment and society;
• sustainable tourism development; and
• infrastructure and hospitality.

GLOBALIZATION AND TOURISM

Since globalization has a very important role to play in determining
the trends and volume of tourist flow, such studies form an impor-
tant part of research in geography of tourism. There is a reciprocal
relationship between tourism and globalization. Globalization has
widened the horizons of tourism and created a wider space for tour-
ism industry by making it possible to visit all destinations, and that
too within much less time and cost. There are very few international
policies which restrict the movement of a tourist. In fact, tourism
has led to globalization process in the areas of transportation, com-
munications, and financial systems. So, tourism and globalization
reinforce each other. Travel for business purposes is increasing due to
the diversification of international trade. For example, in 1990, 55 per
 GEOGRAPHY OF TOURISM IN INDIA 45

cent of visitors to India stated their purpose as sightseeing and leisure,

which came down to 50 per cent in 2004, and for business purposes,
the proportion increased from 14 per cent to 16 per cent during the
same period. Thus, international business and trade-related travel is
now accounting for a greater proportion of tourism (Mir 2008).
Hans (2008), in an extensive study on globalization and tourism
development, has addressed the emerging issues in tourism in the age
of globalization, wherein globalization poses new challenges to tour-
ism industry, like liberalization of the sector, social and political con-
cerns, and infrastructure bottlenecks. Tourism is, in fact, one of the
more acceptable and pleasant facets of globalization. Globalization
has both positive and negative impacts on tourism industry. It pro-
vides direct capital investment opportunity to hotel, accommodation,
and other infrastructure related to tourism (Motiram 2005). At the
other end, in a globalized world, the problems in a region can have
adverse impact on a global scale. For example, threat of terrorism in
some parts of the world has impacted on tourism trends on a wider
scale. Terrorist attacks in the US and Bali have had a profound effect
on the arrivals to India and other parts of world. Outbreak of severe
acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) or swine flu also has had a global
impact on international tourism. However, the positive impacts out-
weigh the negative effects of globalization on tourism (Bansal and
Gautam 2006; Murugan 2005).

CHANGING TRENDS OF TOURISM

Volume of tourist flows, concentration or diversification of tourism
market, structure of tourists, and the receipts generated through
tourism development are other important aspects that have received
attention of the research efforts.
Bansal and Gautam (2006) have highlighted the changing tour-
ism trends in World Tourism Organization (WTO) regions. The
shift towards short-duration travel and last-minute reservations and
growth in Internet bookings is observed. Further, special interest
products, like health, golf, medical, cruise, and ecotourism, and focus
on domestic tourism can be seen. Shift of traditional mass tourism
towards new forms and concepts of tourism is emerging. Dhar (2006)
has also done an extensive study on international tourism trends and
46 URBANIZATION, INDUSTRY, AND DEVELOPMENT

emerging challenges. Suneja (2006) has focused on global tourist

trends, both arrivals and receipts, by regions and countries. Temporal
study of foreign exchange earnings through tourism has revealed a
fluctuating trend, with the years 2001 and 2002 showing a negative
growth because of the worldwide impact of WTO attack and breakout
of SARS.
Motiram (2003) has brought out the growth trends of international
tourism in Thailand and has analysed tourism motivation, infrastruc-
ture, tourism policy, and planning and impact of tourism in Thailand.
He concluded that tourism is one of the major industries and a
renewable resource. It acts like a catalytic agent to economic growth
and foreign exchange earnings. Thailand receives the largest share
of international tourist arrivals as well as foreign exchange earnings
among the Asian nations. It rapidly developed in the 1970s and 1980s
because of the development of tourism infrastructure like accom-
modation, transportation, communication, health care, and services.
State’s role has also been very critical because of the policies and plans
that favour tourism both from neighbouring countries (Association
of Southeast Asian Nations [ASEAN]) as well as long-distance travel
from European countries and America.
Babu (2008) holds that inbound tourism in India since independence
reveals a gloomy picture. Tourism was given the least priority national
tourism policy was drafted. Even after the liberalisation of economy,
tourism scenario did not change much in India. India’s early entry even
has not helped because of the overemphasis on the established American
and European markets. He points out that our domestic market is huge
and growing, so we should concentrate more on that rather than on
foreign visitors who are less reliable and inconsistent.
Singh and Tarun (2006) have done an extensive study on inbound
and outbound tourism of India and analysed its impact on foreign
exchange situation. They also deal with domestic tourism and the share
of various states in tourism. It is observed that the tourists, nowadays,
are experienced, independent, flexible, quality conscious, adventure-
some, and ready to spend sufficient amount of money. Travel patterns
are related with the tourists’ perceptions of the destination rather than
the means of travel.
International tourism is a highly fluctuating industry with poten-
tial visitors quickly abandoning the formerly popular destinations due
 GEOGRAPHY OF TOURISM IN INDIA 47

to political instability or degraded environment. Thus, for a sustain-

able inflow of tourists, we have to enhance our infrastructure to meet
international standards, keep our country free from political strife,
protect our natural environment, and conserve the biodiversity. So,
India needs a pragmatic tourist-friendly policy so as to benefit from
this fastest-growing industry (Mir 2008). It should emphasize on
image building to divert international tourism market towards its des-
tinations. In fact, India has the highest potential to attract the highest
number of international tourists (Bansal and Gautam 2006).
Domestic tourism is showing a phenomenal growth but it is
unevenly distributed as the share of just three states, namely, Uttar
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu, in domestic tourism is
more than 64 per cent. Purpose of travel of domestic tourists reveals
that travel for social purposes and pilgrimage are the main motives
for domestic tourism. But there are many other emerging areas like
health or medical tourism and ecotourism (Suneja 2006).

ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF TOURISM

The relationship between economic development and tourism can
be well understood by comparing the tourist arrivals and tourism
receipts with the GDP. Out of the top 15 tourist destinations of the
world in 1990, nine are high-income economies, four are upper–
middle-income economies, and only one (China) is from low-income
economy group. In 2004, no country from low-income economy
group is among the top 15 destinations. Although China is there in
the list, it has already jumped to middle-income group. In terms of
tourism receipts, 13 out of the top 15 tourism destinations belong to
high-income group in 1990; and in 2004, there are 12 top destinations
from this group. There is a strong relationship between the GDP of
a country and the tourism receipts it gets. As the number of tourists
to a particular destination decreases from top to bottom, so does the
GDP, with few exceptions, like Japan, Germany, and Spain. Developed
countries are both the major sources and destinations of the interna-
tional travellers. In general, the growth of international tourist arriv-
als significantly outpaces growth of economic output as measured in
GDP. In the years when the world economic growth exceeds 4 per
cent, the growth of tourism volume tends to be higher. When GDP
48 URBANIZATION, INDUSTRY, AND DEVELOPMENT

growth falls below 2 per cent, tourism growth tends to be even lower.
But this is not the case when correlation is run between tourist arrivals
to the states in India and their per capita net state domestic product,
meaning thereby that it is not the economy of the whole state that
lures the tourists to visit it but the availability of the tourism product
and the accessibility to it. The countries having per capita GDP more
than that of India contributed more than 80 per cent of total interna-
tional tourists that visited India in 2004. Out of this, more than 65 per
cent was shared by those countries having per capita GDP more than
US$ 10,000. Countries with per capita GDP less than that of India
shared just about 20 per cent of all international tourists to India. If we
exclude Bangladesh from the list, then the share of countries having
per capita GDP less than that of India comes down to a mere 6 per
cent (Mir 2008).
Raina and Jain (2004) have argued that tourism remains a First
World phenomenon despite its extraordinary growth, as 90 per cent of
the world travel market lies in developed countries. They have further
concluded that tourism flows extensively from one developed coun-
try to another. Tourism is perceived as a renewable resource and its
growth is associated with the revolution of transport and communica-
tion, which has been possible only due to technological revolution.
As a country gets richer, people normally work less hours and
enjoy greater leisure time, and as the people acquire more dispos-
able income, the demand for travel and tourism grows exponentially.
In fact, travel is the first priority of an income earner after the basic
requirements of home, food, and essentials (Ranga 2003).
Pais (2006) has calculated the employment coefficient of tourism
(number of jobs created for a unit of foreign tourist expenditure) in
India and has come to the conclusion that it is declining. However,
due to the overall growth in tourism inflow and the receipts generated,
there has been an increase in total employment generated. Anbalagan
et al. (2005) make the point that the role of technology and communi-
cation has speeded up the tourism industry to serve different sectors,
thereby transforming the society and economy. Apart from monetary
benefits, tourism can help in national integration and international
understanding. Its spread effect is wide and its returns are much
higher than agriculture and manufacturing sectors. Indian tourism
industry is growing fast, but it is losing the Chinese outbound tourism
 GEOGRAPHY OF TOURISM IN INDIA 49

to other Asian and Western destinations. They argue that we need to

emphasize on the domestic and Asian tourism markets, which are fast
growing. Rising middle class, increasing income, and high growth
rate of economy are the positive aspects of India’s growing domestic
tourist market. However, cost–benefit analysis of tourism industry
has shown some interesting facts, such as, the local inhabitants are
not getting much benefit; instead, the major share goes to business
firms and big commercial centres (Suneja 2006).
Murugan (2005) is of the view that the challenges faced by this
industry in India are high tax rates, airline seat capacity, hotel room
availability, cheating, etc. Some of his suggestions for tourism devel-
opment are: the abolition of visa requirement for main source coun-
tries; boost given to domestic tourism; coordination between central
and state governments; and attention to be paid to heritage museums.

IMPACT OF TOURISM ON ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETY

Although tourism is considered to be a smokeless industry, it is not
free from repercussions on the physical and cultural landscape on
which it thrives. The emergence of tourism is one of the most remark-
able incidences after the world war era, but problems emerge due to
the unrestrained arrival of tourists beyond the level of tolerance or
carrying capacity of popular destinations. Its negative impacts are
many and varied, namely, depletion of resources, pressure on land,
and heavy stress on the tourist resorts, infrastructures, facilities, and
services at all destinations. Constant and considerable disturbance
of landscapes and national parks and throwing of waste into rivers,
seasides, and mountainous areas are other environmental problems
(Chakrabarty 2006; Motiram 2003).
Mountain and hill resorts are considered to be highly vulnerable
to tourism development. Sikkim, a beautiful tourism spot, is facing
environmental and other problems due to tourism development.
Chettri and Sharma (2009) hold the growth of tourism responsible
for the destruction of forests. Extraction of firewood, fodder, and
timber for tourism use has been found to be prominent all along the
trekking tracks. Selective removal of preferred species of trees has
led to the change in tree cover. Regulation of the tourism industry
and development of ecotourism are thought to be panacea to the
50 URBANIZATION, INDUSTRY, AND DEVELOPMENT

problem. Likewise, Joshi and Dhyani (2009) have argued that tourism
in Sikkim is in the developmental stage and projections have shown
a high growth in the near future. This growth is definitely going to
bring with it the ill effects on fragile environment, infrastructure, and
culture of this Himalayan tourist resort. Declining trends of livestock
population, foodgrain output, and change in agricultural pattern are
the price that Sikkim is paying to sustain tourism. Chaudhary (2004)
has also focused on Sikkim while dealing with the development and
utilization of tourism resources, while Thathang (2005) has analysed
the social, economic, and environmental impacts due to the develop-
ment of tourism in the mountainous country of Nepal.
Along the trails of camping sites, informal solid waste dumping
spots have emerged. High erosion-prone Zaskar region is vulnerable
to soil erosion, while Changthang wetlands are prone to underground
water pollution. Wildlife habitats are threatened by fragmentation and
grasslands seem overgrazed in patches. Off-road driving, concentrated
in few regions, has also has a very bad impact on the environment.
Urban development in and around the Leh city, on poorly suitable
lands of riverbanks or hilly areas, is one of the emerging problems that
has come out through a study (Geneletti and Dawa 2009). Problems
arise due to unrestrained arrival of tourists and uncontrolled devel-
opment of facilities beyond the level of tolerance. Effects on natural
environment like fauna and flora, due to pollution, erosion, etc., and
effects on built-up environment, due to architectural aspects, change
of land use, and burden on infrastructure, have been underlined
repeatedly (Bhattacharya and Sankar 2005).
Farooquee et al. (2008) have carried out a study to assess the socio-
cultural and environmental impacts of tourism on the local inhabit-
ants due to camping and white-water rafting on Ganga River. They
have considered tourism as a double-edged activity, with positive
impacts being the increase in income generation, employment, and
infrastructure and improvement in social services. And the negative
repercussions include degradation of environment, decline of water
quality, and land use changes. Nainital, an important hill station,
faces the problems of pollution of the lake, the main attraction for
tourists. Moreover, the open spaces are being occupied by increasing
encroachment of tourism infrastructure and other facilities. Apart
from the environmental problem, the unorganized growth of tourism
 GEOGRAPHY OF TOURISM IN INDIA 51

has led to the shortage of infrastructural and recreational amenities.

Stress on civic amenities, congestion, and overcrowding are rampant
during the peak season (Pant 2003).
Tourism’s impact on the coastal landscape is addressed by
Gangopadhyay and Chakraborty (2003). The very development
of tourism in Digha, a geologically unfeasible coastal track in West
Bengal, has been questioned. Unplanned growth of tourism industry
on this permanently reclaimed coastal tract has led to the environ-
mental degradation. During the peak season, even bathing in sea
water becomes injurious to health. Sewerage and waste management
is lacking, and so are safety and security arrangements.
Social problems associated with tourism development are growth
of casinos, bars, and prostitution, loss of local identity and culture,
acute social stress, and change in employment structure (Babu 2006).

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

Rapid progress is seen in Indian tourism industry because of gov-
ernment policies and the efforts of various professional bodies, but
the real challenge is to sustain and increase the growth of tourism
by exploring other avenues like health and ecotourism and agritour-
ism. Sustainable tourism refers to the activities that function within
ecological-carrying capacities, along with gaining economic benefits.
In short, it helps in the overall development of the region and has a
tremendous potential of growth if the seasonality of this industry is
curbed and proper policy is applied to utilize this industry (Kumar
and Chandrasekar 2004; Sharma and Singh 2004).

Ecotourism
The focus currently is on how sustainable tourism can be developed,
especially in regions that are remote but have a high potential for
tourism development. There is a need to investigate the region’s devel-
opment potential through ecotourism and review the sustainability of
such development process. Ecotourism is a useful path for destination
development in India (Pechlaner and Reuter 2009).
Sustainability of tourism at currently known resorts is necessary.
Abreu (2008) has dealt with this in the context of increasing tourist
52 URBANIZATION, INDUSTRY, AND DEVELOPMENT

arrivals in Goa. While Goa offers a variety of tourism products, the

emphasis is being given to beach tourism only. Suggestions given to
avoid the problems associated with tourism include: diversifying the
areas of tourism; training the local guides and local people; maintain-
ing control of prices; improving safety; etc. His concluding remarks
are that the government and local people should come together to
sustain tourism in Goa and, as it has a very important place in the
economy of Goa, tourism should be carried out in a systematic way.
Ecotourism is considered an environmentally sustainable form
of tourism development. It is carried out to understand the culture
and natural beauty of an area without altering the integrity of the
ecosystem. It is nature-based tourism and involves the tourist in the
conservation of the tourism spots and such areas are managed to be
ecologically sustainable. Ecotourism is the remedy for the problems
associated with other forms of tourism, like mass tourism, in ecologi-
cally sensitive areas. This should be integrated with land use zoning,
site developments, educating visitors, controlling and regulating the
flow, local involvement, and nature-based accommodation, instead of
investing in hotels (Biju 2004; Joshi and Dhyani 2009).

Mountain Tourism
Research in mountain tourism has been carried out by Indian geog-
raphers from a much earlier time (Mitchell and Murphy 1991). Ratti
(2007) has devoted a chapter to the study the geography of tourism in
Himalayas. He has traced the development of tourism in Himalayas
back to the Vedic period. All Hindu religious scriptures are full of
praise of Himalayas. Holy men took journeys to Himalayas and it
turned out to be a heaven of pilgrimage tourism for Hindus, Sikhs,
and Buddhists centuries ago. Then, explorers and mountaineers
started exploring the beauty and might of these huge mountains.
The decade of the 1950s was the golden era of mountaineering in the
Himalayas. Today, many of our holy Hindu pilgrimage sites are in
Himalayas only, like Bedrinath, Kedarnath, Vaishno Devi, Gangotri,
Amaranth cave, Rishikesh, and the like. Besides, there are clusters of
mountain peaks which tourists dream of climbing. Many sanctuaries
and national parks are located there. Rivers, glaciers, natural springs,
and exotic flora and fauna are all attractions for the tourists.
 GEOGRAPHY OF TOURISM IN INDIA 53

Singh and Mishra (2004) have dealt with the aspects of cultural and
ethnic changes due to tourism development in mountainous regions,
along with the environmental implications. Human vulnerability and
risks in mountain regions due to tourism development are high. They
argue that these problems should be addressed before any tourism
activity is encouraged in such delicate surroundings. Bhattacharya
and Bhagabati (2005) have tried to identify and assess the potential
sacks of tourism activity in the area of hill districts of Assam. Based
on the criteria of importance, accessibility, seasonality, popularity,
and fragility, tourism potential index is calculated and subsequently,
seven potential pockets are identified for the development of tourism.
Categorization has been done by calculating tourist potentiality index
using both the demand and supply components of these pockets.
Assam has a meagre share in the proportion of tourism as compared
to the country as a whole, and such tourism is confined to Kaziranga
and Guwahati only. Its hill districts are not being promoted, which
leads to the over-utilization of the few known tourism spots there.

Adventure Tourism
Of late, India has also started to offer adventure tourism to inter-
national and domestic tourists. There is great scope for developing
this type of tourism, which the young and enthusiastic tourists have
an inclination for. India has much to offer to adventure tourists, for
example, rock climbing, white-water rafting, skiing, and cycling on
hilly roads. Even tourism ministry has approved some of the adven-
ture tour operators. There were 15 such operators in the country in
2005. Out of these 15 adventure tour operators, 13 were in Delhi only,
with one each in West Bengal and Uttaranchal (Mir 2008). The study
by Kuniyal (2005) shows how visitors, host communities, and gov-
ernment can reduce waste creation and earn income from waste in
various ways. Two case studies representing Himalayas—one for trek-
king (in and around the valley of flowers, 1,830–4,330 metre) and the
other for expeditions (Pindari Valley, 2,300–5,500 metre)—have been
researched in depth. Visitor inflows during the four months’ annual
activity period of both locations ranged from 25,000 in expedition
to 116,392 in trekking areas. Non-biodegradable waste dominated
biodegradable waste at 66.4 per cent for expedition and 85.0 per cent
54 URBANIZATION, INDUSTRY, AND DEVELOPMENT

for trekking areas. The sustainable solid waste management options

urgently needed are rejection (of waste-prone commodities), reuse,
recycling, and bio-composting from a variety of waste compositions
that are usually considered valueless and useless by local people,
trekkers, and mountaineers. A possible scheme of administration is
necessary.
Geneletti and Dawa (2009) have shown their concern for growing
environmental impacts due to extreme seasonality, lack of infrastruc-
ture and proper planning in mountain resorts, and the increasing
interference with the fragile ecosystems. They have used geographic
information system (GIS) modelling and remote sensing imageries
for the study. Emphasis has been given to trekking-related activities in
Ladakh region of India. This is an all-encompassing study to under-
stand the patterns of tourism-induced environmental degradation
along the trekking tracks. Although mountain tourism has turned out
to be a boon for economic development of Ladakh, at the same time,
it is posing a threat to the conservation of the environment. Regarding
the feasibility of opening the whole region for tourism activities, the
authors have suggested that the environmental implications need to
be measured, modelled, and mitigated before any such step is taken.
Moreover, the trekkers should be diverted to less fragile environments
to minimize the pressure over the already known trails.
Adventure tourism has been dealt with by Lala and Anisa (2008).
They find that Kashmir Valley receives just a fraction of adventure
tourists because of lack of infrastructure and the volatile situation.
Apart from mountain climbing, other adventure tourism options that
Kashmir provides are white-water rafting, skiing, paragliding, etc.
Specific marketing strategies, security of the entire tourism network,
effective planning, quality assurance, aviation facilities, and subsidies
are some of the recommendations put forward by the authors for the
development of adventure tourism in Kashmir. Adventure tourism
should be promoted as such tourism will have less impact on the sen-
sitive ecology of the valley.

Wildlife Tourism
Sekhar (2003) has done a commendable work relating to the devel-
opment potential of tourism in protected areas (Sariska Tiger
 GEOGRAPHY OF TOURISM IN INDIA 55

Reserve). Steady growth of tourism has been seen in Sariska since it

was declared a protected area in 1978. Majority of the locals support
wildlife tourism, along with conservation. But the weak infrastructure
forces tourists to take only short visits, although the area has much
more to offer. People gaining from tourism are strongly in favour of
conservation of the reserve so as to sustain their livelihood. But the
uneven distribution of tourism benefits is a grave problem. About 76
per cent locals have said that they do not get any direct or indirect
benefits from tourism. The need is to regulate the outsiders involved
in tourism business to ensure the fair distribution of benefits.
Bhattacharya and Sankar (2005) observe that the concept of eco-
tourism was initiated mainly due to negative impacts of other forms
of tourism on environment, sociocultural and economic aspects of
the area. Here, carrying capacity becomes an effective measure of
sustainability because it maintains balance between development and
conservation. It is a threshold beyond which one should not go with-
out proper planning and can act as a benchmark against which one
can gauge the changes. Further, it acts as an early warning system of
trouble. Criteria for measuring it include the tolerance of host popula-
tion, satisfaction of visitors, rate of growth, and capacity based on cost
and benefits. Carrying capacity is calculated as a function of quality of
resource of an area, the tolerance of its resources to use, the number
of visitors, type of design used and management of visitors, and the
attitude and behaviour of its tourists and managers. Needless to say,
there are serious problems with measures of carrying capacity.
Wildlife parks and reserves, sanctuaries, and protected areas are a
key to saving genetic diversity and species from extinction. In Africa,
economic potential of wildlife tourism is much higher than India.
Visit to such areas helps in understanding the environment better.
They have much greater impact on human thought. Tourism activ-
ity at national parks and protected areas can serve as a self-financing
mechanism, and hence acts as a tool for conservation, but only if the
level and type of management is appropriate. The carrying capacity of
the area needs to be respected. Interest in nature and wildlife tourism is
increasing rapidly, but high growth, even in well-planned ecotourism
products, is far from sustainable because open access to these so-called
renewable natural sites can lead both to economic and environmental
inefficiency. There is more conflict between wildlife and farm and crop
56 URBANIZATION, INDUSTRY, AND DEVELOPMENT

production. Avoiding crop production in proximity to wildlife parks

is recommended but it is not feasible. Diversification of wildlife-based
tourism away from national parks onto other private and communal
lands is another option to minimize the ecological impacts, as is done
in many countries of Africa. Wildlife tourism should not be promoted
as an economy-augmenting machine but as an ecologically sustainable
activity to promote the cause of conservation (Khan 2006).

Agritourism
Rural or agritourism development has been given emphasis recently
in some destinations in India. There is a high demand to promote
rural tourism because of the tremendous competition that Indian
agriculture is facing due to globalization and uncertain climatic con-
ditions. We need to examine the key issues involved in the develop-
ment of agritourism in India, the challenges faced by this industry,
and suggest recommendations for the success of this industry. To
develop agritourism, a village/agricultural farm should offer a vari-
ety of animals, birds, and local culture to attract tourists. Then, the
tourists should be involved in farm practices and finally, rural crafts,
etc., should be available for tourists to purchase (Gopal et al. 2008;
Husain 2004). This would also promote nature-based accommoda-
tion, instead of investing in hotels. Alternatives of mass tourism are
health and village tourism, sports and games tourism, etc., which
should reduce seasonality of tourism (Chakrabarty 2006; Hans 2008).

INFRASTRUCTURE AND HOSPITALITY

The linkage of tourism with transport and other infrastructure indus-
tries is strong and the growth in one leads to the development in
another (Hans 2008; Ranga 2003). In fact, accommodation and trans-
port are the two vital requirements for tourism. The development of
railways, steamships, motor car, and jet engine were important tech-
nical changes that encouraged travel. Not only did they make travel
quicker but also it became safer and more comfortable. Some remote
corners of the globe are now accepted holiday centres just because of
the development of transportation. With the new information tech-
nology, for example, Internet, not only is it possible to find out the
 GEOGRAPHY OF TOURISM IN INDIA 57

price, availability, and location of a holiday spot but also the clients
can take a virtual tour of the hotel they would be staying in and the
rainforest they would be walking in. Improved telecommunications
make it simpler to keep in touch with home, thereby making the tour-
ists worry less. Infrastructure is one of the most important factors
affecting tourism, both domestic and international. Accommodation
includes hotels, boarding houses, motels, inns, holiday villages, tour-
ist complexes, camping sites, private apartments, etc. Hotel is the
most popular form of accommodation, while air transport is the
most important form of transportation for international tourism (Mir
2008). Tourism product includes the ‘amalgam’ of transport, accom-
modation, attraction, and entertainment. Accommodation sector is
central to international tourism and tourism flow is directly depen-
dent on the quality of this sector (Purba 2004; Raj 2003).
The tourism industry has not flourished in proportion to the
natural and cultural tourism products available in India. The reason
lies in poor infrastructure and marketing. Increasing investments in
tourism infrastructure are needed to tap the full potential of tourism
industry. Access, accommodation, and activity are the three critical
areas because of which tourism in India is in a poor condition. Singh
(1996) has quoted Ron Wynn saying that ‘the charm of Indian temples
and wildlife is such that any international traveller would love to be in
India. All he or she needs is a comfortable transfer, good accommoda-
tion and safe stay.’ Not only is it necessary to develop international
air transport but also domestic transport, both surface and air. It is
not only that a tourist is brought into a country and the job is done,
but he has to be provided with easy and comfortable access to all the
attractions to make him stay longer (Mir 2008).
Infrastructure is the problem and hotel capacity acts as a bottleneck
for tourism development in India and there is pressure for accom-
modation (Kumar 2006). Weak infrastructure leads to short visits
because of non-availability of good-quality hotel rooms to stay longer.
Hence, the areas with well-developed infrastructure have a flourish-
ing tourism industry (Babu 2006; Ringzin 2004).
Chakrabarty (2006) explains, in detail, the tourism resources of
Pachmarhi, Madhya Pradesh, and analyses the status of accommoda-
tion and transport—two vital requirements for tourism. Lack of infra-
structure and dearth of trained manpower are the main reasons for
58 URBANIZATION, INDUSTRY, AND DEVELOPMENT

these problems. Similarly, Lala and Anisa (2008), while considering

Kashmir as a potential Himalayan tourist spot, conceive that develop-
ment of infrastructure is the need of the hour to boost tourism in this
mountain resort.

RESEARCH GAPS
Although interest in the field of tourism is growing, there are still
some areas that are largely neglected. Medical tourism is one such
area. It is one of the fastest-growing sectors in India. Another category
that needs to be addressed is cultural (including heritage) tourism.
One more aspect that needs to be highlighted is the image of country
as one tourism destination, in spite of India being the land of variety
of tourism activity. Geographers can play an important part here.

***

Research in tourism geography in India is lopsided. Geographers are

more inclined towards aspects like analysis of trends of tourism flow,
impacts of tourism on the environment, or the sustainability of tour-
ism. Model building research is not popular. Geographers need to take
more regional studies in tourism, with emphasis on finding the ways
to open new areas for tourism development. Development of potential
tourism areas, especially in the backward regions, needs to be encour-
aged so that the pressure on established destinations is relieved and
the benefit of tourism industry is distributed more homogeneously.
Carrying capacity studies need to be done extensively for all tourism-
attracting areas and potential areas of attraction. Specific purpose
tourism, like adventure tourism, sports tourism, health tourism, and
ecotourism, needs to be emphasized more and research should be
carried out to delineate such regions. Geographical research in tour-
ism should act as an impetus to the diversification of tourism into
backward and inaccessible areas.

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