1 STRAIGHT LINE Coordinate Geometry Introduction The most popular coordinate system is the rectangular Cartesian system.

Here we consider the space to be two-dimensional. Through a point O, referred to as the origin, we take two mutually perpendicular lines xOx and yOy and call them the x axis and the y axis respectively. x is called the x-coordinate or the abscissa of P and y is called the y-coordinate or the ordinate of P. y The distance of the origin from the coordinate axes is zero, the coordinates of the origin are P(x,y) (0, 0).
y O x M x

Note :

If the position of point P (x, y) is known, then the lengths OM (= x) and MP (= y) can be determined. If the lengths OM and MP are known, the coordinates of the point P are determined. The distances measured along Ox and Oy are taken as positive, whereas, the distances measured along Ox and Oy are taken as negative.
y B(x2,y3)

Distance between two points Let A and B be two given points, whose coordinates are given by A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) respectively. Then AB =
x1 x 2
2

A(x1,y1) O M N

L x

y1 y 2

Note: Three given point A, B, C are collinear (or lie on a straight line) if the sum of the distances between two pairs of points is equal to the distance between the third pair of points.
A B C

The points A, B and C (arranged in that order) are collinear if AB + BC = AC.

Three non collinear points always form a triangle.

Area of a triangle Let (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) respectively be the coordinates of the vertices A, B, C of a triangle ABC. Then the area of triangle ABC, is 1 x1 y 2 y3 x 2 y3 y1 x3 y1 y 2 2

2
x1 1 x2 = 2 x3 y1 y2 y3 1 1. 1

Area of a polygon of n sides First of all we plot the points and see their actual order. Let A1(x1, y1), A2(x2, y2),..., An(xn, yn) be the vertices of the polygon in anticlockwise order. Then area of the polygon xn yn 1 x1 y1 x 2 y 2 = . ..... x1 y1 2 x 2 y 2 x3 y3 Note: If the vertices are in the clockwise order then take modulus. Section formula Coordinates of the point P dividing the join of two points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) x x y y internally in the given ratio 1 : 2 are P 2 1 1 2 , 2 1 1 2 .
2

Coordinates of the point P dividing the join of two points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, x x y y y2) externally in the ratio of 1 : 2 are P 2 1 1 2 , 2 1 1 2 .
2 1 2 1

If the point P divides the line joining A and B internally in the ratio 1 : 2, it can also be said that P divides the line joining A and B externally in the ratio 1 : 2. Centroid of a triangle

The centroid of a triangle is the point of concurrency of its medians. The centroid G of the triangle ABC, divides the median AD, in the ratio of 2 : 1. The centroid of the triangle, the coordinates of whose vertices are given by A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2) and C(x3, y3) respectively, is x1 x2 x3 y1 y2 y3 . , 3 3
B A (x1, y1)

F G

(x2, y2)

C (x , y ) 3 3

Incentre of a triangle The incentre I of a triangle is the point of concurrency of the bisectors of the angles of the triangle. A (x1, y1) The incentre of the triangle, the coordinates of whose vertices are given by A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2), C(x3, y3), is E F ax1 bx2 cx3 ay1 by2 cy3 I where a, b, c , a b c a b c C (x , y ) B are the lengths of sides BC, CA, AB respectively. 3 3 D (x2, y2) Circum-centre of a triangle

3 This is the point of concurrency of the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of the triangle. This is also the centre of the circle, passing through the vertices of the given triangle. Orthocentre of a triangle This is the point of concurrency of the altitudes of the triangle. Ex-Centre of a triangle Excentre of a triangle is the point of concurrency of bisectors of two exterior and third interior angle. Hence there are three I3 excentres I1, I2 and I3 opposite to the three vertices of a triangle. If A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2) and C(x3, y3) are the vertices of a triangle ABC, (x2, y2)B co-ordinates of centre of ex-circle opposite to vertex A are given as I1(x, y) = ax1 bx2 cx3 ay1 by2 cy3 , a b c a b c . Similarly co-ordinates of I2(x , y) and I3(x , y) are ax1 bx2 cx3 ay1 by2 cy3 I2(x, y) = , , a b c a b c I3(x, y) = Locus When a point moves in a plane under certain geometrical conditions, the point traces out a path. This path of the moving point is called its locus. Equation of Locus The equation to the locus is the relation which exists between the coordinates of all the points on the path, and which holds for no other points except those lying on the path. Procedure for finding the equation of the locus of a point (i). If we are finding the equation of the locus of a point P, assign coordinates (h, k) to P. (ii) Express the given conditions as equations in terms of the known quantities and unknown parameters. (iii). Eliminate the parameters, so that the eliminant contains only h, k and known quantities.

(x1, y1) A I2 c b a C(x3, y3)

I1

ax1 bx2 cx3 , a b c

ay1 by2 cy3 . a b c

4 (iv). Replace h by x, and k by y, in the eliminant. The resulting equation is the equation of the locus of P. Straight Line Any equation of first degree of the form Ax + By + C = 0, where A, B, C are constants represents a straight line (at least one out of A and B is non zero). The coordinates of any point on the x axis are of the form (a, 0), where a may be positive or negative i.e. the ordinate of any point on the x axis is zero. Hence the equation of the x axis is y = 0. For a line parallel to the x axis at a distance c from it, the ordinate of any point P on the line is c. Hence the equation of a line parallel to the x axis is of the form y = c. The coordinates of a point on the y axis are (0, b) for positive or negative b so that the equation of the y axis is x = 0. For a line parallel to the y axis at a distance d, the abscissa of any point on the line is d. Hence the equation of a line parallel to the y axis is of the form x = d. Slope If is the angle at which a straight line is inclined to the positive direction of the xaxis, then m = tan , (0 < 180) is called the slope of the line. For a line parallel to the x axis, = 0 tan = 0 so that the slope of the line parallel to the x axis is zero. For a line parallel to the y axis, = /2 tan = so that the slope of the line parallel to the y axis is (and hence not defined). For 0 < < /2, tan > 0 so that the slope of the line increases from zero to infinity (i.e. the line rises from right to left) as is increased from zero to /2. For /2 < < , tan < 0, the slope of the line decreases and the line falls from right to left as is increased from /2 to . Since tan = tan ( + ), the slope of a line is independent of its direction. Standard equations of the Straight Line Slope Intercept From: y = mx + c, where m = slope of the line c = y intercept
M C O y P(x,y) y = mx + c L N where m = tan x

The equation of the line is mx = y Intercept Form: x/a + y/b = 1 x intercept = a y intercept = b

c or y = mx + c.
y (o, b) B
x a y b 1

x A (a, o)

The equation of the line AB is

x a

y b

1.

5 Normal Form: x cos + y sin = p, where is the angle which the perpendicular to the line makes with the axis of x and p is the length of the perpendicular from the origin to the line. p is always positive. The equation of the line AB is or x cos + y sin = p.
x p sec y pcos ec 1

y B p P O A x

Slope point form (a) One point on the straight line (b) The gradient of the straight line i.e., the slope m of the line Equation: y - y1 = m(x - x1), where (x1, y1) is a point on the straight line. The equation of a line in the slope intercept form is y = mx + c. Since the point (x1, y1) lies on it, y1 = mx1 = c. Subtracting, we get y y1 = m (x x1).

Two point form Equation: y y1

y2 x2 y1 x x1 x1

y 2 y1 . x 2 x1 Note: To fix the definite position of a straight line, two conditions must be given. The general equation of a line i.e. ax + by + c = 0, involves three constants. However, dividing them by a non zero constant (a or b or c), say c, we get a b x y 1 0 or a1x + b1y + 1 = 0. c c Hence the general equation of a straight line contains two arbitrary constants. Hence, we can determine the equation of a particular line if two conditions are given. Parametric form

where (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are the two given points. Here m

To find the equation of a straight line which passes through a given point A(h, k) and makes a given angle , with the positive direction of the x-axis. P(x, y) is any point on the line LAL . AP = r so that x h = r cos , y P L r y k = r sin A x h y k r . This is the parametric form of (h, k) cos sin L the equations of the straight line LAL . x The coordinates of P are (h + r cos , k + r sin ). These are the coordinates of any point on the line at a distance r from the point A. For different values of r, we get different points on the line. Angle between two straight lines

m1 m2 1 m1m2 where m1 and m2 are the slopes of the two lines. tan 1 tan 2 m1 m2 If tan ( 1 . 2) = 1 tan 1 tan 2 1 m1m2
If is the angle between two lines, then tan =
m1 m2 , 1 m1m2 and these values are supplementary to each other. Most often we are interested in the acute angle, so that m m2 tan = 1 . 1 m1m2 Note: y (i). If the two lines are perpendicular to each other then m1m2 = 1. y = m1x + c1 Any line perpendicular to ax + by + c = 0 is of the form bx ay + k = 0. 180(ii). If the two lines are parallel or are coincident, then m1 = m2. y = m2x + c2 2 1 Any line parallel to ax + by + c = 0 is x of the form ax + by + k = 0.

Since angle

can be acute or obtuse, we write tan

Length of the Perpendicular from a Point on a Line The length of the perpendicular from P(x1, y1) on ax + by + c = 0 is The distance between two parallel lines The distance between two parallel lines ax + by + c1 = 0 and ax + by + c2 = 0 is Family of lines The general equation of the family of lines through the point of intersection of two given lines is L + L = 0, where L = 0 and L = 0 are the given lines, and is a parameter. It can be easily verified that the point (x1, y1) of intersection of the lines L = 0 and L = 0 satisfies L + L = 0 for all values of . Note: For an arbitrary constant k1 the equation ax + by + k1 = 0 represent a family of lines parallel to the given line ax + by + c = 0. For an arbitrary constant k2 the equation bx ay + k2 = 0 represents a family of lines perpendicular to the line ax + by + c = 0. Concurrency of Straight Lines

ax1 by1 c a
2

c1 c 2 a2 b2

Three lines are said to be concurrent if they meet at the same point. The condition for 3 lines a1x + b1y + c1 = 0, a2x + b2y + c2 = 0, a3x + b3y + c3 = 0 to be concurrent is

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a1 b1 b2 c1 c2 0.

(i)

a2

a3 b3 c3 (ii) The three lines are concurrent if any one of the lines passes through the point of intersection of the other two lines. We find the point of intersection of any two lines. If this point lies on the third line. i.e. its coordinates satisfy the equation of the third line, the three lines are concurrent.

Angle Bisectors To find the equations of the bisectors of the angle between the lines a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0. A bisector is the locus of a point, which moves such that the perpendiculars drawn from it to the two given lines, are equal. a x b1y c1 a2 x b2 y c 2 The equations of the bisectors are 1 2 2 a1 b1 a2 b2 2 2 Pair of straight lines The general equation of second degree a represents a pair of straight lines if h g ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 h g b f 0 abc + 2fgh - af2 - bg2 - ch2 f c

= 0 and h2 ab. The homogeneous second degree equation ax 2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0 represents a pair of straight lines through the origin. If lines through the origin whose joint equation is ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0, are y = m1x and 2h a y = m2x, then y2 - (m1 + m2)xy + m1m2x2 = 0 and y2 + xy + x 2 = 0 are identical. b b If is the angle between the two lines,

m1 m2 4m1m2 m1 m2 2 h2 ab then tan = . a b 1 m1m2 1 m1m2 The lines are perpendicular if a + b = 0 and coincident if h 2 = ab.
Translation of Axes: It is sometimes desirable to simplify the equation of a given curve or to bring it to some standard from by shifting the origin of coordinates axes to some other point, the axes remaining parallel to the original axes. This process is called the translation of axes. y y when the origin is shifted from (0, 0) to (h, k), P(x,y) the axes remaining parallel to the original axes, P(x ,y ) we substitute x + h for x and y + k for y in the given equation and obtain the new one which O(h,k) N refers to the new system of coordinates x
O (0,0) L N x