Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Biology
1 Cells and movements across membranes
1 Microscopes and cells
2 Specialised cells and body organisation
3 Diffusion, osmosis and active transport
5 Enzymes
2 Respiration and the respiratory system in humans
9 Aerobic and anaerobic respiration
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10 The respiratory system and breathing 1
12 The respiratory system and breathing 2
13 Smoking and the lungs
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Digestion and the digestive system in humans
15 The process of digestion
15 Digestion of different food molecules
16 The digestive system
17 Digestive enzymes
18 The absorption of food, and diet
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4 The circulatory system in humans
22 Blood and the circulatory system
24 The heart
26 Arteries, veins and capillaries
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26 Cardiovascular disease
5 Plants and photosynthesis
30 Introduction to photosynthesis
32 More about photosynthesis
6 Ecosystems, nutrient cycles and human impact
on the environment
35 Energy flow in the environment
35 Trophic levels
36 Ecological pyramids
38 Pollution
7 The variety of life
42 Classification and biodiversity
44 Biodiversity and stability
45 Getting data about biodiversity − sampling
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58 Gender and genetic modification
10 Variation and evolution
62 Variation and inherited disease
66 Evolution
66 Natural selection
68 Mapping the human genome
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11 Response and regulation
70 The nervous system and coordination
72 Homeostasis
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12 Microorganisms and disease
78 Basics of microbiology
79 Growing microorganisms
79 The immune system
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Chemistry
13 The nature of substances and chemical reactions
83 Elements and compounds
86 Chemical data and percentage composition of compounds
91 Chemical calculations
92 Yields and moles
14 Atomic structure and the Periodic Table
95 Atoms and isotopes
97 Electronic structure and the Periodic Table
99 Group 1 and Group 7
101 Reactivity of halogens
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122 Measuring the rate of a reaction
124 Explaining the rate of a reaction
125 Using a catalyst
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18 Bonding, structure and properties
130 Metals and ionic compounds
133 Ionic and covalent compounds
135 Giant covalent compounds and their properties
137 Modern materials
139 Smart materials
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19 Acids, bases and salts
142 pH
142 Reactions of metals with acids
144 Neutralisation reactions
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145 Titrations
145 Testing for a sulfate
145 Preparing soluble salts
147 Identifying chemicals
20 Metals and their extraction
152 Metals, ores and reactivity
154 Extracting metals from their ores
155 Transition metals
156 Electrolysis
156 Properties and uses of metals
157 Alloys
21 Chemical reactions and energy
163 Making and breaking bonds
Physics
23 Electric circuits
178 Common circuit symbols
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178 Current
179 Voltage
179 Using electrical circuits in the home
180 Investigating current and voltage
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182 Combining resistors in series and parallel
182 Electrical power
24 Generating electricity
185 Advantages and disadvantages of generating
electricity from different primary sources of energy
187 Comparing the cost
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188 Generating electricity in a fuel-based power station
188 Why do we need the National Grid?
189 Electrical power
190 Sankey diagrams
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190 Efficiency
25 Making use of energy
195 Conduction, convection and radiation
195 Applying density
196 Insulation
197 Units of energy – the kilowatt-hour
197 Heating and transport costs
26 Domestic electricity
201 How much does it cost to run?
202 a.c. or d.c.?
202 Using mains electricity safely
204 Micro-generation of domestic electricity
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217 Describing motion
217 Graphs of motion
218 Stopping distances
29 Newton’s laws
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222 Inertia and Newton’s first law of motion
222 Resultant forces and Newton’s second law of motion
223 Falling objects
223 Interaction paris
30 Work and energy
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227 Work
227 Gravitational potential energy
227 Kinetic energy
228 Total energy
228 Storing energy in springs
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l Oxygen is transported from the lungs to the body in the red blood cells.
l Carbon dioxide, produced in respiration is transported to the lungs,
where it is breathed out.
l Wastes are transported to the kidneys for excretion.
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l Hormones (chemical messengers which regulate processes in the
body) are transported in the plasma.
The blood is also important in fighting pathogens (microorganisms
which cause disease) and in maintaining body temperature.
Blood
Blood is made up of the following parts:
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l Plasma. The liquid part of the blood which transports water soluble
substances (e.g. digested food, carbon dioxide, urea, salts and hormones).
l Red blood cells. These are responsible for the transport of oxygen,
attached to the red pigment haemoglobin.
l White blood cells. These cells are not involved in transport, but fight
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Surface
Figure 4.1 Structure of (a) a red blood cell and (b) a phagocyte (a type of
white blood cell).
Figure 4.1 shows the structure of red and white blood cells. The essential
features of the two types of blood cell are listed.
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The circulatory system
The blood is pumped through the circulatory system by the heart, and
moves around the body in blood vessels called arteries, veins and
capillaries. It travels through the blood vessels in the following sequence:
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heart → arteries → capillaries → veins → heart
A simplified structure of the circulatory system of a mammal is shown in
Figure 4.2.
Lung capillaries
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Pulmonary
artery Pulmonary vein
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Aorta
Capillaries in an organ
circulation, because, in any one complete circuit of the body, the blood Oxygenated blood: blood
with a high level of oxygen
travels through the heart twice. The heart is divided into two halves:
in it.
l The left half receives oxygenated blood from the lungs, and pumps it
to the rest of the body. De-oxygenated blood: blood
l The right half receives de-oxygenated blood from the body and which has had most of the
pumps it back to the lungs. oxygen removed by the
tissues.
Figure 4.2 shows the two circulations.
l The pulmonary circulation takes blood to and from the lungs.
l The systemic circulation takes blood to and from the body.
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5 Which two organs does blood travel through in the pulmonary
circulation?
Answers online
The heart
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Blood is moved around the body by the pumping of the heart. The heart is
made of muscle, which, when it contracts, applies a force to the blood and
pushes it out into the arteries. The exterior of the heart is shown in Figure
4.3. The outside of the heart has its own blood supply, via the coronary
artery. Even though the heart is filled with blood, the muscular walls are
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so thick that the outside needs a separate blood supply. The blood supplies
the nutrients and oxygen that the heart needs to keep beating.
Aorta
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Pulmonary artery
Pulmonary vein
Branches of
coronary artery
Branches of
coronary vein
Vena cava
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Oxygenated blood
De-oxygenated blood enters the left atrium
enters the right atrium via the pulmonary
via the vena cava vein from the lungs.
from the body. PL The atrioventricular
valves (the bicuspid
valve on the left side
of the heart and the
tricuspid valve on the
right side of the heart)
De-oxygenated blood prevent blood flowing
Oxygenated blood from the ventricle
back into the atrium.
Direction of blood flow
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Figure 4.4 Blood flow through the heart. Functions of the heart and
blood vessels.
Blood must f low through the heart in one direction only, from the atria
to the ventricles and then out of the arteries at the top. Ensuring one-
way f low is the job of the valves. The atrioventricular (bicuspid and
tricuspid) valves between the atria and the ventricles stop backf low from
the ventricles into the atria, and the semilunar valves at the beginning of
the aorta and the pulmonary artery make sure that blood that has left the
heart is not sucked back when the heart relaxes.
l Blood f lows through the heart in the following way (the left side is
used in this example).
l Oxygenated blood f lows into the left atrium via the pulmonary vein
from the lungs.
l The left atrium contracts, forcing the bicuspid valve open so that blood
goes into the left ventricle.
l The left ventricle contracts, which forces the bicuspid valve shut but
opens the semilunar valve.
l Blood f lows out of the heart via the aorta.
6 Which blood vessel supplies the outside of the heart with food and oxygen?
7 Which side of the heart deals with de-oxygenated blood?
8 Why does the left ventricle have a thicker wall than the right ventricle?
9 Which two blood vessels have semilunar valves at their base?
10 Which blood vessel brings blood back to the heart from the main part of the body?
Answers online
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organ. It is in the capillaries that exchange of materials occurs. Oxygen incorrect – it is their walls
and nutrients are delivered to the cells and waste products (including that are one cell thick.
carbon dioxide) are picked up. Capillaries are very narrow and so the
blood f lows slowly through them. This, and the fact that there are so
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many of them, means that a lot of materials can be exchanged.
The capillaries eventually discharge their blood into veins, which take it
back to the heart.
Cardiovascular disease
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a common cause of death. CVD
includes all the diseases of the heart and the circulatory system,
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including:
l Coronary heart disease
l Heart attacks
l Angina
l Strokes
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Artery cross-section
Normal
blood flow
Narrowing of artery
Plaque Plaque
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Narrowed artery
Restricted
blood flow
Figure 4.5 The process of atherosclerosis.
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Reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease
The following are known risk factors for CVD. Some can be avoided by
adopting a healthier lifestyle, but others cannot:
l High blood pressure – High blood pressure means that your heart is
having to work harder than is ideal, which puts a strain on both your
heart and your blood vessels. One cause of high blood pressure is a diet
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that is too high in salt.
l Smoking – Tobacco smoke contains carbon monoxide, which limits
how much oxygen the blood can absorb. To get the right amount of
oxygen to the tissues, the heart needs to work harder. Smoking can
also lead to high blood cholesterol (see below).
l High blood cholesterol – One form of cholesterol is the substance
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Answers online
Summary
l Blood has two functions in the body – transport and immunity.
l Blood consists of plasma, red cells, white cells and platelets.
l The red cells are responsible for the transport of oxygen, attached
to the red pigment haemoglobin.
l The plasma transports nutrients, hormones, carbon dioxide, salts
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and urea.
l The white cells combat infections. One type, called phagocytes,
engulfs and destroys bacteria.
l The platelets help the blood to clot.
l The heart pumps blood around the body, due to the contraction of
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its muscular walls.
l The coronary artery supplies the muscle of the heart with blood.
l The mammalian circulatory system is a double circulation, in
which blood travels through the heart twice on each circuit of
the body.
l The blood leaves the heart in arteries, flows through capillaries in
the organs, then back to the heart in veins.
l Blood travels through the heart by entering the atria, passing
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through to the ventricles, and then being pumped out into the
aorta or pulmonary artery.
l The heart has two halves. The right half deals with de-oxygenated
blood, the left half with oxygenated blood.
l The main blood vessels entering and leaving the heart are the
pulmonary artery, the aorta, the pulmonary vein and the vena
cava.
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l Valves in the heart ensure the one-way flow of blood through the
heart, in the right direction.
l Materials enter and leave the blood through the thin-walled
capillaries.
l Certain factors related to lifestyle and genetics can affect the risk
of cardiovascular disease.
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100 5000
pressure (mm Hg)
Cross-sectional
Average blood
80 4000
area (cm2)
60 3000
40 2000
20
0
Arteries Capillaries
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Mean blood pressure
Veins
1000
0
Arteries Capillaries Veins
Total cross-sectional area of
blood vessels
3 35
Vessel diameter (cm)
Velocity of blood
flow (cm/sec)
28
2
21
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14
1
7
0 0
Arteries Capillaries Veins Arteries Capillaries Veins
Diameter of blood vessels Velocity of blood flow
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Figure 4.6
a) Explain why the mean blood pressure falls as the blood travels through the circulatory
system. [2]
b) Explain why the diameter of the capillaries is small, yet their total cross sectional area is
very large. [1]
c) Why is it an advantage to the body that the velocity of blood flow in the capillaries is
so low? [1]
Answers and quick quiz 4 online