Speech production

Speech production is the process by which thoughts are translated into speech. This includes the selection
of words, the organization of relevant grammatical forms, and then the articulation of the resulting sounds
by the motor system using the vocal apparatus. Speech production can be spontaneous such as when a
person creates the words of a conversation, reactive such as when they name a picture or read aloud a
written word, or imitative, such as in speech repetition. Speech production is not the same as language
production since language can also be produced manually by signs.

In ordinary fluent conversation people pronounce roughly four syllables, ten or twelve phonemes and two to
three words out of their vocabulary (that can contain 10 to 100 thousand words) each second.[1] Errors in
speech production are relatively rare occurring at a rate of about once in every 900 words in spontaneous
speech.[2] Words that are commonly spoken or learned early in life or easily imagined are quicker to say
than ones that are rarely said, learnt later in life, or are abstract.[3][4]

Normally speech is created with pulmonary pressure provided by the lungs that generates sound by
phonation through the glottis in the larynx that then is modified by the vocal tract into different vowels and
consonants. However speech production can occur without the use of the lungs and glottis in alaryngeal
speech by using the upper parts of the vocal tract. An example of such alaryngeal speech is Donald Duck
talk.[5]

The vocal production of speech may be associated with the production of hand gestures that act to enhance
the comprehensibility of what is being said.[6]

The development of speech production throughout an individual's life starts from an infant's first babble and
is transformed into fully developed speech by the age of five.[7] The first stage of speech doesn't occur until
around age one (holophrastic phase). Between the ages of one and a half and two and a half the infant can
produce short sentences (telegraphic phase). After two and a half years the infant develops systems of
lemmas used in speech production. Around four or five the child's lemmas are largely increased, this
enhances the child's production of correct speech and they can now produce speech like an adult. An adult
now develops speech in four stages: Activation of lexical concepts, select lemmas needed, morphologically
and phonologically encode speech, and the word is phonetically encoded.[7]

Contents
Three stages
Neuroscience
Disorders
History of speech production research
Aspects of speech production models
Model
The Utterance Generator Model (1971)
The Garrett model (1975)
Dell's model (1994)
Levelt model (1999)
Places of articulation
Articulation
Development
See also
References
Further reading

Three stages
The production of spoken language involves three major levels of processing: conceptualization,
formulation, and articulation.[1][8][9]

The first is the processes of conceptualization or conceptual preparation, in which the intention to create
speech links a desired concept to the particular spoken words to be expressed. Here the preverbal intended
messages are formulated that specify the concepts to be expressed.[10]

The second stage is formulation in which the linguistic form required for the expression of the desired
message is created. Formulation includes grammatical encoding, morpho-phonological encoding, and
phonetic encoding.[10] Grammatical encoding is the process of selecting the appropriate syntactic word or
lemma. The selected lemma then activates the appropriate syntactic frame for the conceptualized message.
Morpho-phonological encoding is the process of breaking words down into syllables to be produced in overt
speech. Syllabification is dependent on the preceding and proceeding words, for instance: I-com-pre-hend
vs. I-com-pre-hen-dit.[10] The final part of the formulation stage is phonetic encoding. This involves the
activation of articulatory gestures dependent on the syllables selected in the morpho-phonological process,
creating an articulatory score as the utterance is pieced together and the order of movements of the vocal
apparatus is completed.[10]

The third stage of speech production is articulation, which is the execution of the articulatory score by the
lungs, glottis, larynx, tongue, lips, jaw and other parts of the vocal apparatus resulting in speech.[8][10]

Neuroscience
The motor control for speech production in right handed people depends mostly
upon areas in the left cerebral hemisphere. These areas include the bilateral
supplementary motor area, the left posterior inferior frontal gyrus, the left insula,
the left primary motor cortex and temporal cortex.[11] There are also subcortical
areas involved such as the basal ganglia and cerebellum.[12][13] The cerebellum For right handed
aids the sequencing of speech syllables into fast, smooth and rhythmically people, the majority of
organized words and longer utterances.[13] speech production
activity occurs in the

Disorders left cerebral

hemisphere.

Speech production can be affected by several disorders:

Aphasia Developmental verbal Speech disorder

Anomic aphasia dyspraxia Speech error
Apraxia of speech Dysprosody Speech sound disorder
 Aprosodia Infantile speech Spoonerism
Auditory processing disorder Lisp Stuttering
Cluttering Malapropism
Mispronunciation

History of speech production research

Examples of speech errors. The target is what the speaker intended to say. The error is what the speaker
actually said. These mistakes have been studied to learn about the structure of speech production.

Until the late 1960s research on speech was focused on comprehension. As researchers collected greater
volumes of speech error data, they began to investigate the psychological processes responsible for the
production of speech sounds and to contemplate possible processes for fluent speech.[14] Findings from
speech error research were soon incorporated into speech production models. Evidence from speech error
data supports the following conclusions about speech production.

Some of these ideas include:

1. Speech is planned in advance.[15]

2. The lexicon is organized both semantically and phonologically.[15] That is by meaning, and by
the sound of the words.
3. Morphologically complex words are assembled.[15] Words that we produce that contain
morphemes are put together during the speech production process. Morphemes are the
smallest units of language that contain meaning. For example, "ed" on a past tense word.
4. Affixes and functors behave differently from context words in slips of the tongue.[15] This
means the rules about the ways in which a word can be used are likely stored with them,
which means generally when speech errors are made, the mistake words maintain their
functions and make grammatical sense.
5. Speech errors reflect rule knowledge.[15] Even in our mistakes, speech is not nonsensical. The
words and sentences that are produced in speech errors are typically grammatical, and do not
violate the rules of the language being spoken.

Aspects of speech production models

Models of speech production must contain specific elements to be viable. These include the elements from
which speech is composed, listed below. The accepted models of speech production discussed in more detail
below all incorporate these stages either explicitly or implicitly, and the ones that are now outdated or
disputed have been criticized for overlooking one or more of the following stages.[16]
The attributes of accepted speech models are:

a) a conceptual stage where the speaker abstractly identifies what they wish to express.[16]

b) a syntactic stage where a frame is chosen that words will be placed into, this frame is usually sentence
structure.[16]

c) a lexical stage where a search for a word occurs based on meaning. Once the word is selected and
retrieved, information about it becomes available to the speaker involving phonology and morphology.[16]

d) a phonological stage where the abstract information is converted into a speech like form.[16]

e) a phonetic stage where instructions are prepared to be sent to the muscles of articulation.[16]

Also, models must allow for forward planning mechanisms, a buffer, and a monitoring mechanism.

Following are a few of the influential models of speech production that account for or incorporate the
previously mentioned stages and include information discovered as a result of speech error studies and other
disfluency data,[17] such as tip-of-the-tongue research.

Model

The Utterance Generator Model (1971)

The Utterance Generator Model was proposed by Fromkin (1971).[18] It is composed of six stages and was
an attempt to account for the previous findings of speech error research. The stages of the Utterance
Generator Model were based on possible changes in representations of a particular utterance. The first stage
is where a person generates the meaning they wish to convey. The second stage involves the message being
translated onto a syntactic structure. Here, the message is given an outline.[19] The third stage proposed by
Fromkin is where/when the message gains different stresses and intonations based on the meaning. The
fourth stage Fromkin suggested is concerned with the selection of words from the lexicon. After the words
have been selected in Stage 4, the message undergoes phonological specification.[20] The fifth stage applies
rules of pronunciation and produces syllables that are to be outputted. The sixth and final stage of Fromkin's
Utterance Generator Model is the coordination of the motor commands necessary for speech. Here, phonetic
features of the message are sent to the relevant muscles of the vocal tract so that the intended message can
be produced. Despite the ingenuity of Fromkin's model, researchers have criticized this interpretation of
speech production. Although The Utterance Generator Model accounts for many nuances and data found by
speech error studies, researchers decided it still had room to be improved.[21][22]

The Garrett model (1975)

A more recent (than Fromkin's) attempt to explain speech production was published by Garrett in 1975.[23]
Garrett also created this model by compiling speech error data. There are many overlaps between this model
and the Fromkin model from which it was based, but he added a few things to the Fromkin model that filled
some of the gaps being pointed out by other researchers. The Garrett Fromkin models both distinguish
between three levels—a conceptual level, and sentence level, and a motor level. These three levels are
common to contemporary understanding of Speech Production.[24]

Dell's model (1994)

In 1994,[25] Dell proposed a model of the lexical network that
became fundamental in the understanding of the way speech is
produced.[1] This model of the lexical network attempts to
symbolically represent the lexicon, and in turn, explain how
people choose the words they wish to produce, and how those
words are to be organized into speech. Dell's model was
composed of three stages, semantics, words, and phonemes. The
words in the highest stage of the model represent the semantic
category. (In the image, the words representing semantic category
are winter, footwear, feet, and snow represent the semantic
categories of boot and skate.) The second level represents the This is an interpretation of the Dell's
words that refer to the semantic category (In the image, boot and model. The words at the top represent
skate). And, the third level represents the phonemes ( syllabic the semantic category. The second level
information including onset, vowels, and codas).[26] represents the words that denote the
semantic category. The third level
represents the phonemes (syllabic
Levelt model (1999) information including onset, vowels, and
codas).
Levelt further refined the lexical network proposed by Dell.
Through the use of speech error data, Levelt recreated the three
levels in Dell's model. The conceptual stratum, the top and most abstract level, contains information a
person has about ideas of particular concepts.[27] The conceptual stratum also contains ideas about how
concepts relate to each other. This is where word selection would occur, a person would choose which words
they wish to express. The next, or middle level, the lemma-stratum, contains information about the syntactic
functions of individual words including tense and function.[1] This level functions to maintain syntax and
place words correctly into sentence structure that makes sense to the speaker.[27] The lowest and final level
is the form stratum which, similarly to the Dell Model, contains syllabic information. From here, the
information stored at the form stratum level is sent to the motor cortex where the vocal apparatus are
coordinated to physically produce speech sounds.

Places of articulation
The physical structure of the human nose, throat, and vocal cords allows for
the productions of many unique sounds, these areas can be further broken
down into places of articulation. Different sounds are produced in different
areas, and with different muscles and breathing techniques.[28] Our ability to
utilize these skills to create the various sounds needed to communicate
effectively is essential to our speech production. Speech is a psychomotor
activity. Speech between two people is a conversation - they can be casual,
formal, factual, or transactional, and the language structure/ narrative genre
employed differs depending upon the context. Affect is a significant factor
Human vocal apparatus that controls speech, manifestations that disrupt memory in language use due
used to produce speech to affect include feelings of tension, states of apprehension, as well as
physical signs like nausea. Language level manifestations that affect brings
could be observed with the speaker's hesitations, repetitions, false starts,
incompletion, syntactic blends, etc. Difficulties in manner of articulation can contribute to speech difficulties
and impediments.[29] It is suggested that infants are capable of making the entire spectrum of possible vowel
and consonant sounds. IPA has created a system for understanding and categorizing all possible speech
sounds, which includes information about the way in which the sound is produced, and where the sounds is
produced.[29] This is extremely useful in the understanding of speech production because speech can be
transcribed based on sounds rather than spelling, which may be misleading depending on the language being
spoken. Average speaking rates are in the 120 to 150 words per minute (wpm) range, and same is the
recommended guidelines for recording audiobooks. As people grow accustomed to a particular language
they are prone to lose not only the ability to produce certain speech sounds, but also to distinguish between
these sounds.[29]

Articulation

Articulation, often associated with speech production, is how people physically produce speech sounds. For
people who speak fluently, articulation is automatic and allows 15 speech sounds to be produced per
second.[30]

An effective articulation of speech include the following elements – fluency, complexity, accuracy, and
comprehensibility.[31]

Fluency: Is the ability to communicate an intended message, or to affect the listener in the way
that is intended by the speaker. While accurate use of language is a component in this ability,
over-attention to accuracy may actually inhibit the development of fluency. Fluency involves
constructing coherent utterances and stretches of speech, to respond and to speak without
undue hesitation (limited use of fillers such as uh, er, eh, like, you know). It also involves the
ability to use strategies such as simplification and gestures to aid communication. Fluency
involves use of relevant information, appropriate vocabulary and syntax.
Complexity: Speech where the message is communicated precisely. Ability to adjust the
message or negotiate the control of conversation according to the responses of the listener,
and use subordination and clausal forms appropriate per the roles and relationship between
the speakers. It includes the use of sociolinguistic knowledge – the skills required to
communicate effectively across cultures; the norms, the knowledge of what is appropriate to
say in what situations and to whom.
Accuracy: This refers to the use of proper and advanced grammar; subject-verb agreement;
word order; and word form (excited/exciting), as well as appropriate word choice in spoken
language. It is also the ability to self-correct during discourse, to clarify or modify spoken
language for grammatical accuracy.
Comprehensibility: This is the ability to be understood by others, it is related with the sound of
the language. There are three components that influence one’s comprehensibility and they are:
Pronunciation – saying the sounds of words correctly; Intonation – applying proper stress on
words and syllables, using rising and falling pitch to indicate questions or statements, using
voice to indicate emotion or emphasis, speaking with an appropriate rhythm; and Enunciation
– speaking clearly at an appropriate pace, with effective articulation of words and phrases and
appropriate volume.

Development
Before even producing a sound, infants imitate facial expressions and movements.[32] Around 7 months of
age, infants start to experiment with communicative sounds by trying to coordinate producing sound with
opening and closing their mouths.

Until the first year of life infants cannot produce coherent words, instead they produce a reoccurring
babbling sound. Babbling allows the infant to experiment with articulating sounds without having to attend
to meaning. This repeated babbling starts the initial production of speech. Babbling works with object
permanence and understanding of location to support the networks of our first lexical items or words.[7] The
infant’s vocabulary growth increases substantially when they are able to understand that objects exist even
when they are not present.
The first stage of meaningful speech does not occur until around the age of one. This stage is the
holophrastic phase.[33] The holistic stage refers to when infant speech consists of one word at a time (i.e.
papa).

The next stage is the telegraphic phase. In this stage infants can form short sentences (i.e., Daddy sit, or
Mommy drink). This typically occurs between the ages of one and a half and two and a half years old. This
stage is particularly noteworthy because of the explosive growth of their lexicon. During this stage, infants
must select and match stored representations of words to the specific perceptual target word in order to
convey meaning or concepts.[32] With enough vocabulary, infants begin to extract sound patterns, and they
learn to break down words into phonological segments, increasing further the number of words they can
learn.[7] At this point in an infant's development of speech their lexicon consists of 200 words or more and
they are able to understand even more than they can speak.[33]

When they reach two and a half years their speech production becomes increasingly complex, particularly in
its semantic structure. With a more detailed semantic network the infant learns to express a wider range of
meanings, helping the infant develop a complex conceptual system of lemmas.

Around the age of four or five the child lemmas have a wide range of diversity, this helps them select the
right lemma needed to produce correct speech.[7] Reading to infants enhances their lexicon. At this age,
children who have been read to and are exposed to more uncommon and complex words have 32 million
more words than a child who is linguistically impoverished.[34] At this age the child should be able to speak
in full complete sentences, similar to an adult.

See also
FOXP2
KE family
Neurocomputational speech processing
Psycholinguistics
Silent speech interface
Speech perception
Speech science

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Further reading
Gow DW (June 2012). "The cortical organization of lexical knowledge: a dual lexicon model of
spoken language processing" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3348354). Brain
Lang. 121 (3): 273–88. doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2012.03.005 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bandl.20
12.03.005). PMC 3348354 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3348354).
PMID 22498237 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22498237).
Hickok G (2012). "The cortical organization of speech processing: feedback control and
predictive coding the context of a dual-stream model" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article
s/PMC3468690). J Commun Disord. 45 (6): 393–402. doi:10.1016/j.jcomdis.2012.06.004 (http
s://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jcomdis.2012.06.004). PMC 3468690 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC3468690). PMID 22766458 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22766458).
Hickok G, Houde J, Rong F (February 2011). "Sensorimotor integration in speech processing:
computational basis and neural organization" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3
057382). Neuron. 69 (3): 407–22. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2011.01.019 (https://doi.org/10.1016%
2Fj.neuron.2011.01.019). PMC 3057382 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3057
382). PMID 21315253 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21315253).
Hickok G, Poeppel D (2004). "Dorsal and ventral streams: a framework for understanding
aspects of the functional anatomy of language". Cognition. 92 (1–2): 67–99.
doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2003.10.011 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cognition.2003.10.011).
PMID 15037127 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15037127).
Poeppel D, Emmorey K, Hickok G, Pylkkänen L (October 2012). "Towards a new neurobiology
of language" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3495005). J. Neurosci. 32 (41):
 14125–31. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3244-12.2012 (https://doi.org/10.1523%2FJNEUROSCI.
3244-12.2012). PMC 3495005 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3495005).
PMID 23055482 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23055482).
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of heard speech, spoken language and reading" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PM
C3398395). NeuroImage. 62 (2): 816–47. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.04.062 (https://doi.or
g/10.1016%2Fj.neuroimage.2012.04.062). PMC 3398395 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/a
rticles/PMC3398395). PMID 22584224 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22584224).
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evolution" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3223784). Philos. Trans. R. Soc.
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