INTRODUCTION

Topology is the area of mathematics which investigates continuity and

related concepts. Important fundamental notions are for example open and
closed sets, continuity, homeomorphism. Originally coming from questions in
analysis and differential geometry, by now topology permeates mostly every
field of math including algebra, combinatorics, logic, and plays a fundamental
role in algebraic/arithmetic geometry as we know it today.

The objective of this dissertation is to present a class of mappings

called almost continuous mappings. This class contains the class of continuous
mappings and is contained in the class of weakly continuous mappings.
Almostcontinuous mappings turn out to be the natural tool for studying almost
compact spaces. Most of the work in function space topologies concerns
continuous functions. An almost continuous function is one whose graph can
be approximated by graphs of continuous functions.

There are five main chapters in this project,

Chapter -I - begins with preliminaries.
Chapter - II - discuss about Husain’s almost continuous functions.
Chapter - III -discuss about Singal-Singal’s almost continuous mappings.
Chapter - IV - discuss about Comparing Almost Continuous Functions.
Chapter - V - discuss about Almost Sg-continuous Functions.
 CHAPTER-I

PRELIMINARIES

Definition 1.0.1
Let X be a set and τ be a collection of subsets of X . Then τ is said to be
a topology on X if it is satisfies the following properties:

(i) φ and X are in τ .

(ii) The union of the elements of any sub collection from τ is in τ .

(iii) The intersection of the elements of any finite sub collection from τ is in τ .

A set X for which a topology τ has been specified is called a topological space . A
topological space is an ordered pair (X, τ ) consisting of a set X and a τ on X .

Definition 1.0.2
Let (X, τ ) be a topological space. A subset U of X is said to be an open

set of X if U belongs to the collection τ i.e., U ∈ τ .

Example 1.0.1
In the real line R, (a, b), (a, ∞), (b, ∞) are open in standard topology.

Definition 1.0.3
Let X be a topological space. A subset A of X is said to be closed if X – A
is open.
Example 1.0.2
The subset [a, b] of R is closed.

Since R −[a, b] = (−∞, a) ∪ (b, ∞) .

Since (−∞, a) and (a, ∞) are open and the union of finite number of open sets is alsoopen.

Therefore (−∞, a) ∪ (b, ∞) , so that R − [a, b] is open.

Therefore [a, b] is closed.

2
Definition 1.0.4
Let A be a subset of topological space X and let x be a point of X . We say
that x is a limit point of A if every neigbourhood of x intersects A in a point
other than x itself.

Definition 1.0.5

Let A be a subset of a topological space. A point x ∈ A is said to be an interior

point of A if A is a neighbourhood of x . The set of all interior points of A is
called the interior of A.
We write Int(A) for the interior of A. A is open if and only if A = Int(A) .

Definition 1.0.6
Let X be a topological space and let A be subset of X . Then closure of A is
definedas the smallest closed set containing A.
We write Cl(A) for the closure of A. A is closed if and only if A = Cl(A) .

Definition 1.0.7
Let X be a set and A be subset of X. Then A is said to be dense subset of X
if Cl(A) = X .

Lemma 1.0.1
Let A and B be the subsets of X . Then

(1) Int(X) = X and Int(φ) = φ .

(2) Int(A) ⊂ A.

(3) Int(Int(A)) = A.

(4) A ⊂ B =⇒ Int(A) ⊂ Int(B) .

(5) Int(A ∩ B) = Int(A) ∩ Int(B) and Int(A) ∪ Int(B) ⊂ Int(A ∪ B) .

3
Definition 1.0.8
Let X and Y be topological spaces. A map f : X → Y is said to be an open
map if for every open set U of X , the set f (U) is open in Y .

Definition 1.0.9

A function f : X → Y is said to be continuous at a point x ∈ X if for every

neighbourhood V of f(x) , there exists a neighbourhood U of x such that f (U ) ⊂ V .

Equivalently, a function f : X → Y is said to be continuous if every open set

V of Y , the set f −1(V ) is open set of X .

Definition 1.0.10
A topological space X is said to be satisfies T 1 axiom or T 1 space if every finite
point sets are closed in X .

Definition 1.0.11
A topological space X is said to be satisfies Hausdorff or T2 space if every
pair of distinct points in X , there exist neighbourhoods U and V of x and y ,

respectively such that U ∩ V = ∅.

Definition 1.0.12
A space X has a countable basis at each of its points is said to satisfy first
countability axiom or to be first countable.

Definition 1.0.13
Let X be a topological space. A separation of X is a pair U, V of disjoint nonempty
open subsets of X whose union is X . The space X is said to be connected if there
does not exists a separation of X .

Definition 1.0.14
A space X is said to be locally connected at x if for every neighbourhood U
of x , there is a connected neighbourhood V of x contained in U . If X is locally
connectedat each of its points, then X is said to be locally connected.

4
 Definition 1.0.15
A space X is said to be locally compact at x if there is some compact subspace
Cof X that contains a neighbourhood of x . If X is locally compact at each of its points,
then X is said to be locally compact.

Definition 1.0.16

A space X is said to be compact if every open covering A of X contains a finite

subcollection that also covers X .

Definition 1.0.17
Let X be a topological space. Suppose that one point sets are closed in X . Then X
is said to be regular if for each pair of a point x and a closed set B disjoint from x ,
there exists disjoint open sets containing x and B , respectively.

Definition 1.0.18

Let X be a topological space and let A ⊂ X . Then A is said to be regularly open

if Int(Cl(A)) = A.

Definition 1.0.19
A space is called a Urysohn space if for every pair of distinct points x and y , there

exist sets U and V such that x ∈ U, y ∈ V and Ū ∩ V̄ = ∅ .

5
 CHAPTER-II

HUSAIN’S ALMOST CONTINUOUS

FUNCTIONS

Definition 2.0.20
Let X and Y be the topological spaces. A function f : X → Y is almost contin-
uous at a point x0 ∈ X if and only if for every open set V in Y containing f (x0) , the
set Cl(f −1(V )) is a neighbourhood of x0 .
If f is almost continuous at each point of X , then f is called almost continuous.

Definition 2.0.21
Let X and Y be the topological spaces and let F denote the set of all functions on
X to Y . Let C denote the subset of F containing all the continuous functions.
For f ∈ F , the graph of f denoted by G(f ) is the set {(x, f (x))|x ∈ X} ⊂ X × Y . Let
X × Y be a product topology.
A Function f ∈ F is said to be almost continuous if and only if for each open set
U in X × Y containing the graph of f , there exists a g ∈ C such that G(g) ⊂ U .

Theorem 2.0.1
Every continuous function is almost continuous.

Proof:
Let f : X → Y be continuous function and let x ∈ X .
Then for every open set V of Y containing f (x) , the set f −1(V ) is an open set of X
containing x .
Since f −1 (V ) ⊂ Cl(f −1 (V )) .

5
Since f −1(V ) is open set, so that Cl(f −1(V )) is a neighbourhood of x .
Hence f is an almost continuous function. Q
The following Examples are gives a function which is almost continuous but these are
not continuous.

Example 2.0.3 Let R represent the reals with standard topology. Let f : R → R be
defined by (
x if x is rational;
f (x) =
−x if x is irrational;
Then f is almost continuous but not continuous function.

Proof:
For if 0 < ϵ < 1 , then {x : |f (x)| < ϵ} is not dense in a neighborhood of O.
On the other hand, some wildly discontinuous function may turn out to be almost con-
tinuous.
For example, f(x) = 0 or 1 according to whether x is rational or irrational is not continuous
anywhere but is almost continuous.

Example 2.0.4 Let R represent the reals with standard topology. Let f : R → R be
defined by
(
sin(1/x) if x /= 0;
f (x) =
0 if x = 0;
Then f is almost continuous but not continuous function.

The first theorem concern necessary and sufficient condition for a function be almost
continuous:

Theorem 2.0.2
Let X and Y be the topological spaces. A function f : X → Y is almost continuous
at a point x0 ∈ X if and only if for every open set V ⊂ Y containing f (x0) , there exists
an open set U ⊂ X containing x0 such that f −1(V ) is dense in U .

Lemma 2.0.2
Let f : X → Y be almost continuous at x 0 ∈ X , where X is T1 space and x0 ∈ X
is a limit point of X .Then for every pair of open set U ⊂ X and V ⊂ Y containing x0
and f (x0) respectively, there exists an x ∈ U \ {x0} such that f (x) ∈ V .

Proof:
Let f : X → Y be a almost continuous at x0 ∈ X and x0 ∈ X is a limit point of X .
Assume that conclusion is not true.

6
Then there exist open sets U1 and V1 containing x0 and f (x0) respectively, such that
U1 ∩ f −1(V1) = {x0 } .
Thus no point of U1 is a limit point of f−1(V1) in the T1 space X .
Therefore U1 ∩ Cl(f −1(V )) = {x0 } .
Hence x0 is a not a limit point, which is contradiction to the hypothesis that f is almost
continuous at x0 .
This proves the lemma. Q

Theorem 2.0.3
Let f : X → Y be almost continuous at x0 ∈ X , where X is T 1 space and both X
and Y are first countable. If x0 is a limit point of X , there exists a sequence {xn} of
distinct points in X converging to x0 such that {f (xn)} converges to f(x0) .

Proof:
Let X be T1 space and first countable.
Also let Y be first countable.
Let f : X → Y be almost continuous at x0 ∈ X .
Let {Un} and {Vn} be countable descending bases at the point x0 and f (x0) , respec-
tively.
By using previous Lemma, for the two open sets U1 and V1 , there is a point x1 ∈ U1\{x0}
such that f (x1) ∈ V1 .
Now considering the open sets U2 and V2 , U2 \ {x1} is an open set containing x0 in the
T1 space X .
Again by lemma, there exists a point x2 ∈ U2 \ {x0, x1} such that f (x2) ∈ V2 .
Proceeding like this, we have for the open sets Uk and Vk , Uk \ {x1, x2, · · · , xk−1} is
open set containing x0 and hence there exists a point xk ∈ Uk \ {x1, x2, · · · , xk−1} such
that f (xk) ∈ Vk .
Since x0 is a limit point of X , so every neighbourhood of x0 contains in finitely many
points of X .
Now we have constructed a sequence {xn} of distinct points of X converging to x0 such
that f(xn) ∈ Vn for each positive integer n .
That is {f (xn)} converges to f (x0) . Q

Corollary 2.0.1
Let f : X → Y be almost continuous at x0 ∈ X where X and Y are T2 space,
then the point x0 is not a removable discontinuity of f .

Theorem 2.0.4
Let f : X → Y be any function and let D be a dense subset of X . If f |D is
continuous, then f is almost continuous at each point of D .

Proof:
Given D be a dense subset of X , that is D̄ = X .

7
Assume that f |D is continuous.
We claim that f is almost continuous at each point of D .
Let x0 ∈ D and V be any open set containing f (x0) .
Since f |D is continuous, there exists an open set U in X containing x0 such that
(D ∩ U ) = (f |D) −1 (V ) = D ∩ f −1 (V ) .
Therefore D ∩ U ⊂ D ∩ f −1(V ) =⇒ D ∩ U ⊂ f −1(V ) . Since D is dense, so that
U ⊂ Cl(D ∩ U ) ⊂ Cl(f −1 (V )) =⇒ U ⊂ Cl(f −1(V )) .
Therefore f is almost continuous at x0 . Q
The following shows that restrictions of almost continuous functions to arbitrary sub-
sets of the domain may not be almost continuous.

Example 2.0.5 Consider the almost continuous function f : R → R defined by

(
1 if x is rational;
f (x) =
−1 if x is irrational;
Let M be the set consisting of all nonnegative rationals together with all negative irra-
tionals. Then f |M is not almost continuous at x = 0 .

Theorem 2.0.5
If f : X → Y is almost continuous and U is open subset of X , then f |D is almost
continuous.

Proof:
Assume that f is almost continuous.
Let U be open subset of X .
For any regular open subset V of Y such that (f |U )−1(V ) = U ∩ f −1(V ) , Since f is
almost continuous, so that f −1(V ) is open.
Since finite intersection of open sets is open.
Therefore U ∩ f −1(V ) is open subset of U .
That is (f |U )−1(V ) is an open subset of U .
Therefore f |U is almost continuous. Q The
following example, due to kuratowski and discussed briefly in [7] , describes a function
which is connected and almost continuous but not continuous.

Example 2.0.6 Let I = [0, 1] and any function f : I → I is defined by

f(x) = lim sup(a1 + a2 + · · · + an)/n for each x ∈ I

where the ai are given by the unique nonterminating binary expansion of the number
x = (0. a1a2 · · · ) . Then the function f is connected and almost continuous but not
continuous.

8
Definition 2.0.22
The function f : X → Y is called finitely closed at x0 ∈ X if and only if for each
open set V ⊂ Y containing f (x0) , there exist an open set V1 containing f (x0) where
V1 ⊂ V such that X \ Cl(f −1(V1)) consists of finitely many components.

Definition 2.0.23
Any function f : X → Y is said to be a connected if f preserves connected subsets
of X , that is there exists a subset U of X such that f (U) is connected.

Our next theorem gives condition when a connected function is also almost continuous.

Theorem 2.0.6
Let f : X → Y be connected where Y is regular.If f is finitely closed at x 0 ∈ X ,
then f is almost continuous at x0 .

Proof:
Let f be connected.
Assume that f is finitely closed at x0 ∈ X .
We claim that f is almost continuous at x0 .
Suppose that f is not almost continuous at x0 ∈ X .
There exists an open set V ⊂ Y containing f (x0) such that x0 is not interior to
Cl(f −1(V )) .
Then x0 is a limit point of X \ Cl(f −1(V )) .
Since f is finitely closed at x0 , there exists an open set V1 containing f (x0) , where
V1 ⊂ V , such that X \ Cl(f −1(V1)) consists of finitely many components C1, C2, C3,
· · · , Cn .
Since V1 ⊂ V =⇒ f −1 (V1 ) ⊂ f −1 (V ) =⇒ Cl(f −1 (V1 )) ⊂ Cl(f −1(V )) .
Since x0 is not interior to Cl(f −1(V1)) , so that x0 a limit point of X \ Cl(f −1(V1)) .
Hence x0 is a limit point of some component Ck, 1 ≤ k ≤ n .
Therefore Ck ∪ {x0} is connected.
But f (Ck ∪ {x0}) = f (Ck) ∪ {f (x0)} is not connected in the regular space Y .
Because f (x0) ∈ V1 , while f (Ck) ⊂ Y \ V1 , which is a contradiction to the connected
hypothesis of f .
Therefore f is almost continuous at x0 . Q

Definition 2.0.24
Let X, Y be the topological spaces and let f : X → Y be any function. The set
G(f ) is a closed subset of X × Y if and only if for every x 0 ∈ X and y ∈ Y but
y /= f (x0) , then there exist open sets U and V containing x0 and y respectively, such
that f(U ) ∩ V = ∅ .
Let X, Y are arbitrary spaces and M ⊂ Y is compact. If any function f : X → Y
having closed graph, then f −1(M ) is a closed subset of X .

9
 If any function f : X → Y , where Y is compact, having closed graphs, then f is
continuous.

Theorem 2.0.7
Let f : X → Y be any function, where Y is locally compact and either a regular T 1
space or a Hausdorff space. If for each compact V ⊂ Y , f −1(V ) is closed, then G(f ) is
closed.

Proof:
Let f : X → Y be any function, where Y is locally compact and either regular T1 or
T2 space.
Assume that for each compact set V ⊂ Y , the set f −1(V ) is closed in X .
We claim that G(f) is closed.
let x0 ∈ X and y ∈ Y but y f (x0 ) .
Since Y is either T1 or T2 space, then there exists a neighbourhood V ⊂ Y containing
y such that f (x0 ) ∈
/V.
The collection of closed compact neighbourhoods of y is a base for its neighbourhood
system.
Let V1 ⊂ V be a neighbourhood containing y .
That is V1 be closed compact neighbourhood y .
By the assumption, f −1(V ) is closed in X .
Then X \ f −1(V ) = U is open and f (U ) ∩ V1 = ∅ .
Therefore G(f ) is closed. Q

Theorem 2.0.8
Let f : X → Y be almost continuous, where f is injective and has closed graph.
Then X is T2 .

Proof:
Let x, w ∈ X be the distinct points.
Since f is injective, so that f (x) /= f (w) .
Since G(f ) is closed, there exist open sets U and V containing x and f (w) respectively,
such that f−1(V ) ⊂ X \ U .
Since f be almost continuous, then Cl(f −1(V )) is a neighbourhood of w .
Since U is open, so that X \ U is closed.
Therefore Cl(f −1(V )) ⊂ X \ U .
There exist disjoint open sets in X containing x and w respectively.
That is the pair of distinct points have distinct neighbourhoods.
Therefore the space X is T2 (or) Hausdorff space. Q

Theorem 2.0.9
Let Y is locally connected and T2 . Let f : X → Y be almost continuous. If f and
f −1 preserve connected sets, then G(f ) is closed.

10
Proof:
Let x0 ∈ X and y /= f (x0) ∈ Y .
Since Y is T2 , so that there exists disjoint open sets U and V containing y and f (x0)
respectively.
Since Y is locally connected, then there exists a connected neighbourhood W ⊂ V
containing f (x0) .
So that U and W are disjoint.
That is, U ∩ W = ∅ =⇒ f −1(U) ∩ f −1(W ) = ∅ .
Since f −1 preserves connected sets.
If any x ∈ f −1(U ) is a limit point of the connected set f −1(W ) , then {x} ∪ f −1(W ) is
a connected set.
But f ({x} ∪ f −1(W )) = {f (x)} ∪ W .
Since U contains f (x) and U and W are disjoint neighbourhoods.
Therefore f ({x} ∪ f −1(W )) is not connected, which is a contradiction to f preserves
connected set.
Since f−1(U ) ∩ f−1(W ) = ∅ =⇒ Cl(f −1(U )) ∩ Cl(f −1 (W )) = ∅ .
Since f is almost continuous, there is an open set T ⊂ ClF −1(W ) containing x0 .
This implies T ⊂ f −1(W ) =⇒ f (T ) ⊂ W =⇒ f (T ) ∩ U = ∅ .
Therefore G(f ) is closed. Q

Theorem 2.0.10
Let f : X → Y be almost continuous, where Y is locally compact. If Y is either
regular or Hausdorff and G(f ) is closed, then f is continuous.

Proof:
Let f : X → Y be almost continuous, where Y is locally compact.
Assume that Y is either regular or T2 and G(f ) is closed.
We claim that f is continuous.
Let x0 ∈ X and V be a neighbourhood of f (x) . Since Y is locally compact, then there
exists a compact neighbourhood W of f (x0) such that W ⊂ V .
Since G(f ) is closed, f −1(W ) is closed by Theorem 3.6 [1] so that Cl(f −1(W )) =
f−1(W ) .
Since f is almost continuous, so that Cl(f −1(W )) is a neighbourhood of x0 .
Since W ⊂ V =⇒ f −1(W ) ⊂ f −1(V ) =⇒ Cl(f −1(W )) ⊂ f −1(V ) .
Therefore f −1(V ) is a neighbourhood of x0 .
Therefore f is continuous at x0 . Q

Corollary 2.0.2
Let f : R → R be almost continuous. If G(f ) is closed, then f is continuous.

Theorem 2.0.11
Let f : X → Y be almost continuous, where Y is regular, locally connected space. If

11
f has the property that Cl(f −1(C)) ⊂ f −1(Cl(C)) for every connected subset C ⊂ Y ,
then f is continuous.

Proof:
Given f : X → Y be almost continuous, where Y is regular and locally connected space.
Assume that f has the property Cl(f −1(C)) ⊂ f −1(Cl(C)) for every connected subset
C ⊂Y .
We claim that f is continuous.
Let x0 ∈ X and V be a neighbourhood of f (x0) .
Since Y is regular, there exist a closed set W .
Also Y is locally connected, there exist a connected neighbourhood W ⊂ V containing
f (x0) such that Cl(W ) ⊂ V .
Then f −1 (Cl(W )) ⊂ f −1(V ) .
By the our assumption, f has the property that Cl(f −1(W )) ⊂ f −1(Cl(W )) , where W
is connected.
Therefore Cl(f −1(W )) ⊂ f −1(Cl(W )) ⊂ f −1 (V ) =⇒ Cl(f −1 (W )) ⊂ f −1 (V ) .
Since f is almost continuous, then Cl(f −1(W )) is a neighbourhood of x0 .
That is f −1(V ) is a neighbourhood of x0 .
Therefore f is continuous at x0 . Q

Theorem 2.0.12
Let f : X → Y be almost continuous, where X is T2 and Y is a regular, locally
connected T2 space. If f is connected and f −1(C) is connected for every connected
subset C ⊂ Y , then f is continuous.

Proof:
Let f : X → Y be almost continuous, where X is T2 and Y is a regular, locally
connected T2 space.
Assume that f is connected and f −1(C) is connected for every connected subset C ⊂ Y .
We claim that f is continuous.
Let C be any connected subset of Y .
Since f −1 preserves connected sets, that is f −1(C) is connected and let K = f −1(C) .
Since K is connected , so that f preserves connected sets further more f (Cl(K)) ⊂
Cl(f (K)) by Theorem 3.3 of [5] .
Then f (Cl(K)) ⊂ Cl(f (f −1(C))) = Cl(C) that is,
f (Cl(K)) ⊂ Cl(C) =⇒ f (f −1(Cl(K))) ⊂ f −1(Cl(C)) =⇒ Cl(K) ⊂ f −1(Cl(C)) =⇒
Cl(f −1(C)) ⊂ Cl(f −1(C)) .
Applying Theorem 10 of [5] , hence f is continuous. Q

Definition 2.0.25
A map f : X → Y is said to be a semiconnected if f −1 preserves closed connected
subsets of Y .

12
 The following theorem states conditions under which a function that is both semicon-
nected and almost continuous is continuous.

Theorem 2.0.13
Let f : X → Y be almost continuous, where Y is locally connected and regular. If
f is semiconnected then f is continuous.

Proof:
Let f : X → Y be almost continuous, where Y is locally connected and regular.
Assume that f is semiconnected. We claim that f is continuous.
Let x0 ∈ X and V be any neighbourhood of f (x0) .
Since Y is locally connected and regular, there is connected neighbourhood W containing
f (x0) such that Cl(W ) ⊂ V . Since f is semiconnected.
Therefore f −1(W ) ⊂ f 1 (Cl(W )) ⊂ f −1(V ) and since f −1(Cl(W )) is closed.
This implies Cl(f −1 (W )) ⊂ f 1 (Cl(W )) ⊂ f −1(V ) .
Since f is almost continuous, there is a neighbourhood U ⊂ Cl(f −1(W )) containing x0 .
Since Cl(f−1(W )) ⊂ f −1(V ) =⇒ U ⊂ f −1(V ) =⇒ f (U ) ⊂ V .
Therefore f is continuous at x0 . Q

Theorem 2.0.14
Let f : R → Y be almost continuous, where Y is locally connected. If f −1(C) is con-
nected for every connected subset C of Y , then f is continuous.

Proof:
Let f : R → Y be almost continuous, where Y is locally connected.
Assume that f−1 preserves connected sets.
We claim that f is continuous.
Let x0 ∈ R and C be any open set containing f (x0) .
Since Y is locally connected, there is a connected neighbourhood C be assumed.
Since f −1 preserves connected sets.
Therefore f −1(C) is connected subset of R .
Therefore f −1(C) is must be an interval in R and f −1(C) is containing x0 .
Since f is almost continuous, there exist a neighbourhood Cl(f −1(C)) of x0 containing
x0 .
Therefore x0 is an interior point of f −1(C) .
Therefore f −1(C) is a neighbourhood of x0 .
Hence f is continuous at x0 . Q

Corollary 2.0.3
Let f : R → R be almost continuous. If f −1(C) is connected for every connected
subset C of R , then f is continuous.

13
Proof:
Let x0 and V be a neighbourhood containing f (x0) in R .
Therefore V is must be an interval in R and also it is connected.
Since f −1 preserves connected sets, so that f −1(V ) is connected subset of R .
Therefore f −1(V ) is an interval in R .
This implies Cl(f −1(V )) is also an interval in R .
Since f is almost continuous, there exists a neighbourhood Cl(f −1(V )) containing x0 .
Therefore x0 is an interior point of f −1(V ) .
Therefore f −1(V ) is a neighbourhood of x0 .
Hence f is continuous. Q

14
 CHAPTER-III

SINGAL-SINGAL’S ALMOST CONTINUOUS MAPPINGS

Definition 3.0.26
A set A is called regularly open if it is the interior of its own closure or equivalently,
if it is the interior of some closed set. A is called regularly closed if it is the closure
of its own interior or equivalently, if it is the closure of some open set.

Definition 3.0.27
The function f : X ⊂ Y is called almost continuous at x ∈ X if for every
neighbourhood M of f (x) , there exists a neighbourhood U of x such that f (U ) ⊂
Int(Cl(V ))V . It is easy to see that the neighbourhoods M and N can be replaced by
open neighbourhoods.

Remark 3.0.1
It is clear that if f : X → Y is continuous at a poit x ∈ X , then it is almost
continuous at x . But the converse of this statement may not be true, as the following
example shows.

Example 3.0.7
Let R be the set of real numbers and let τ consist of φ, R and the complements of
all countable subsets of R . Let X = {a, b} and let τ ∗ = {X, φ, {a}} .
Let f : (R : τ ) → (R, τ ∗) be defined as follows:
(
x if x is rational;
f (x) =
−x if x is irrational;

Then f is almost continuous at each of R , but f is not continuous at x ∈ R if x is

rational.

15
Theorem 3.0.15
For a mapping f : X → Y , the following are equivalent:

(a) f is almost continuous at x ∈ X .

(b) For every regularly open neighbourhood M of f (x) , there is a neighbourhood N of
x such that f (N ) ⊂ M .

(c) For each net {xλ}λ∈D converging to x , the net {f (xλ)}λ∈D is equivalently in every
regularly open set containing f (x) .

Proof:
(a) ⇒ (b) . If f is almost continuous at x and M is a regularly open neighbourhood of
f (x) , then there is a neighbourhood N of x such that f (N ) ⊂ Int(Cl(M )) = M .

(b) ⇒ (c) . Let {xλ}λ∈D be a net converging to x and let U be any regularly open set
containing f (x) .
Since f is almost continuous, there is an open set M containing x such that f (M ) ⊂ U .
Now, since M is open set containing x and the net {xλ}λ∈D converges to x , therefore
there is a λ0 ∈ D such that λ ≥ λ0 ⇒ x − λ ∈ M .
The set D is directed by J ≥J .
Thus, for all λ ≥0, f (xλ) ∈ f (M ) ⊂ U .
Hence the net is eventually in U .

(c) ⇒ (a) . Suppose that f is not almost continuous at x .

Then there is an open set V containing f (x) such that for every open set U containing
x , f (U ) ∩ (Y − Int(Cl(V ))) /= ∅ .
This implies that U ∩ f −1(Y − Int(Cl(V ))) /= ∅ for every open set U containing x.
The family U of all open sets U containing x is directed by set inclusion.
For each U ∈ U choose a point xU belonging to U ∩ f −1(Y − Int(Cl(V ))) .
Then {xU }U∈U is a net in X which converges to x and is such that no f (xU ) is in
Int(Cl(V )) . Thus {f (xU )}U∈U is not eventually in the regularly open set Int(Cl(V )) ,
which is a contradiction. Q

Definition 3.0.28
A mapping f : X → Y is said to be almost continuous if it is almost continuous at
each point x of X.

Remark 3.0.2
An almost continuous mappings mayfail to be continuous. The mapping f previous
example is an almost continuous mapping which is not continuous. The following is
another example of such a mapping.

Example 3.0.8
Let (R, τ ) be the space of previous example and let U denote the usual topology for

16
R . Let i be the identity mapping of (R, U) onto (R, τ ) . Then i is almost continuous
but not continuous at any point.

Theorem 3.0.16
For a mapping f : X → Y , the following are equivalent:

(a) f is almost continuous.

(b) Inverse image of every regularly open subset of Y is an open subset of X .

(c) Inverse image of every regularly closed subset of Y is an closed subset of X .

(d) For each point x of X and for each regularly open neighbourhood M of f (x) ,
there is a neighbourhood N of x such that f (N ) ⊂ M .

(e) f −1 (A) ⊂ Int(f −1(Int(Cl(A))) for every open subset A of Y .

(f) Cl(f −1(Int(Cl(B)))) ⊂ f −1(B) for every closed subset B of Y .

(g) For any point x ∈ X and for any net {xλ}λ∈D which converges to x , the net
{f (xλ)}λ∈D is eventually in each regularly open set containing f (x) .

Proof:
(a) ⇒ (b) . Let U be any regularly-open subset of Y .
Let x ∈ f −1(U ) , then f(x) ∈ U .
Therefore there exists an open set V in X such that x ∈ V and f (V ) ⊂ Int(Cl(U )) =
U.
Thus, x ∈ V ⊂ f −1(U ) and therefore f −1(U ) is a neighbourhood of x .
Hence f−1(U ) is open.

(b) ⇒ (c) . Let A be any regularly closed of Y .

Then Y − A is regularly open and therefore f −1(Y − A) is open, that is, X − f −1(A) is
open.
Hence f −1(A) is closed.

(c) ⇒ (d) . Since M is regularly open, therefore Y − M is regularly closed, and conse-
quently f −1(Y − M ) is closed, i.e., f −1(M ) is open.
Also, x ∈ f −1(M ) = N (say).
Then N is a neighbourhood of x such that f (N ) ⊂ M .
(d) ⇒ (e) . Let x ∈ f −1(A) . Then Int(Cl(A)) is a regularly open neighbourhood of
f (x) , since A is open.
Then, there exist an open neighbourhood N of x such that f (N ) ⊂ Int(Cl(A)) .
Thus, x ∈ N ⊂ f −1(Int(Cl(A))) . This means that x ∈ Int(f −1 (Int(Cl(A)))) .
Hence f −1 (A) ⊂ Int(f −1 (Int(Cl(A)))) .

17
 (e) ⇒ (f ) . Since Y − B is open, therefore f −1 (Y − B) ⊂ (Int(f −1(Int(Cl(A))))) . This
implies that [X − f −1(Int(Int(Cl(Y − B)))) ⊂ f −1(B) .
That is, Cl(f −1(Cl(Int(B)))) ⊂ f −1(B) .
(f) ) ⇒ (g) . Let N be any regularly open set containing f (x) .
Then, Y − N being closed, Cl(X − f −1(Cl(Int(Y − N )))) ⊂ f −1(Y − N ) .
Since Y − N is regularly closed, therefore Cl(f −1(Y − N )) ⊂ X − f −1(N ) .
Since the net {xλ}λ∈D converges to x , therefore there exists λ0 ∈ D such that for all
λ ≥ λ0 ( D is directed by J ≥J ) xλ ∈ f −1(N ) .
This means that f (xλ) ∈ N for all λ ≥ λ0 .
That is, the net {f (xλ)}λ∈D is eventually in N .
(g) ⇒ (a) . By using (c) of previous theorem, it is clear that f is almost continuous.
This completes the proof of the theorem. Q

Definition 3.0.29
A mapping f : X → Y is said to be weakly continuous if for each point x ∈ X
and each neighbourhood V of f (x) , there exists a neighbourhood U of x such that
f (U ) ⊂ Cl(V ) . It is easy to see that the neighbourhoods in the definition can be replaced
by open neighbourhoods.

Remark 3.0.3
Obviously, every almost continuous mapping is weakly continuous. But a weakly con-
tinuous mapping may fail to be almost continuous.

Example 3.0.9
Let R be the set of real numbers and let τ = {φ, R} ∪ {U ⊂ X : X − U is countable
or all of X} .
Let X = {a, b, c} and let τ ∗ = {φ, {a}, {c}, {a, c}, X} . A map f : (R, τ ) → (X, τ ∗)
defined by (
a if x is rational;
f (x) =
b if x is irrational;
Then f is a weakly continuous open mapping which is not almost continuous at Q .

Proof:
Let x ∈ Q .
Then f (x) = {a} ∈ Q .
Then f (x) ∈ U , where U is a neighbourhood of f (x) and it mist contain {a, b} .
Therefore there exists a neighbourhood V of x such that f (V ) = {a, b} .
That is f (V ) ⊆ CL(U ) .
Therefore f is weakly continuous.
Let x ∈ Q .

18
Then f (x) = {a} , {a} is an open set.
Then Cl({a}) = {a, b} .
That is Int(Cl({a})) = {a} .
That is x ⊆ U , U must contain Q and Qc .
Therefore f (U ) = {a, b} ¢ Int(Cl({a})) = {a} .
Therefore f is not almost continuous. Q

Theorem 3.0.17
If f : X → Y is a weakly continuous open mapping, then f is almost continuous.

Proof:
Let x ∈ X and let M be an neighbourhood of x .
Since f is a weakly continuous, there is an open neighbourhood N of x such that
f (N ) ⊂ Cl(M ) .
Since f is open, therefore f (N ) is open.
Then f (N ) ⊂ Int(Cl(M )) and consequently f is almost continuous. Q

Corollary 3.0.4
An open mapping is almost continuous if and only if it is weakly continuous.

Definition 3.0.30
A space is said to be semi regular if for each point x of the space and each open
set U containing x , there is an open set V such that x ∈ V ⊂ Int(Cl(V )) ⊂ U .

Theorem 3.0.18
If f is an almost continuous mapping of a space X into a semi-regular space Y ,
then f is continuous.

Proof:
Let x ∈ X and let A be an open set containing f(x) .
Since Y is semi regular, there is an open subset M of Y such that, f(x) ∈ M ⊂
Int(Cl(M )) ⊂ A .
Now, since f is almost continuous, therefore there is an open subset U of X containing
x such that f (x) ∈ f (U ) ⊂ Int(Cl(M )) . Thus U is an open set containing x such that
f(U ) ⊂ A .
Thus f is continuous at x .
Since x is arbitrary, it follows that f is continuous. Q

Theorem 3.0.19
If f is an open continuous mapping of X onto Y and if g is an mapping of Y into
Z , then g ◦ f is almost continuous if and only if g is almost continuous.

19
Proof:
First, let g ◦ f be almost continuous.
Let A be a regularly open subset of Z .
Since g ◦ f is almost continuous, therefore (g ◦ f )−1(A) is open, that is, f −1(g−1(A)) is
open.
Also, f is open.
Therefore f (f −1(g−1(A))) is open, that is g−1(A) is open and consequently g is almost
continuous.
Now, let g be almost continuous and let S be any regularly open subset of Z .
Then g−1(A) is an open subset of Y .
Since f is continuous, therefore f −1(g−1(A)) is an open subset of X .
That is, (g ◦ f )−1(A) is an open of X .
Hence g ◦ f is almost continuous. Q

Theorem 3.0.20
Every restriction of an almost continuous mapping is almost continuous.

Proof:
Let f be an almost continuous mapping of X into Y and let A be any subset of X .
For any regularly open subset S of Y , (f |A) −1 (S) = A ∩ f −1 (S) .
But, f being almost continuous, f −1(S) is open and hence A ∩ f −1(S) is a relatively
open subset of A .
That is, (f |A) −1 (S ) is an open subset of A .
Hence f |A is almost continuous. Q

Theorem 3.0.21
Let f map X into Y and let x be a point of X . If there exists a neighbourhood N
of x such that the restriction of f to N is almost continuous at x , then f is almost
continuous at x .

Proof:
Let U be any regularly open set containing f (x) .
Since f |N is almost continuous at x .
Therefore, there is an open set V1 such that x ∈ N ∩ V1 and f (N ∩ V1) ⊂ U .
The result now follows from the fact that N ∩ V1 is a neighbourhood of x . Q

Corollary 3.0.5
Let f map X into Y and let {Gλ : λ ∈ A} be an open cover of X . If for each
λ ∈ A, f |Gλ is almost continuous at each point of Gλ , then f is almost continuous.

20
Theorem 3.0.22
If f is a mapping of X into Y and X = X1 ∪ X2 , where X1 and X2 are closed
and f |X1 and f |X2 are almost continuous, then f is almost continuous.

Proof:
Let A be a regularly closed subset of Y .
Then, since f |X1 and f |X2 are both almost continuous, therefore (f |X1 ) −1 (A) and
(f |X2 ) −1 (A) are both closed in X1 and X2 respectively.
Since X 1 and X2 are closed subsets of X , therefore (f |X 1 ) −1 (A) and (f |X 2 ) −1 (A) are
also closed subsets of X .
Also, f −1 (A) = (f |X1 ) −1 (A) ∪ (f |X2 ) −1 (A) .
Thus f −1(A) is the union of two closed sets and is therefore closed.
Hence f is almost continuous. Q

Theorem 3.0.23
If f is a mapping of X into Y and X = X1 ∪ X2 , and if f|X1 and f |X2 are both
almost continuous at a point x belonging to X1 ∩ X2 , then f is almost continuous at x .

Proof:
Let U be any regularly open set containing f (x) .
Since x ∈ X1 ∩ X2 and f |X 1 , f |X2 are both almost continuous at x , therefore there
exist open sets V1 and V2 such that x ∈ X1 ∩ V1 and f (X1 ∩ V1) ⊂ U and x ∈ X1 ∩ V2
and f(X2 ∩ V2) ⊂ U .
Now, since X = X1 ∪ X2 , therefore f (V1 ∩ V2) = f (X1 ∩ V1 ∩ V2) ∪ f (X2 ∩ V1 ∩ V2) ⊂
f (X1 ∩ V1) ∪ f (X2 ∩ V2) ⊂ U .
Thus, V1 ∩ V2(= V ) is and open set containing x such that f (V ) ⊂ U and hence f is
almost continuous at x . Q

Theorem 3.0.24
∗
Q
Let∗ fα : Xα → Xα be almost continuous for each α ∈ I and let f : α∈I Xα →
Q α∈I X α be defined be setting f ((xα)) = (fα(xα)) for each point (xα) ∈ Q α∈I Xα . Then
f is almost continuous.

Proof:
Q Q
Let (xα) ∈ α∈I Xα and let O∗ be a regularly open subset X ∗α of containing f ((xα)) .
Q ∗
Q ∗
Then there is a member
Q α∈I O α of the defining base of the product topology on α∈I X α
∗ ∗ ∗
such that f ((xα)) ∈ α∈I Oα ⊂ O∗ and Oα = Xα for all α ∈ I except for a finite number
of indices αi , i = 1, 2, · · · , n (say) and O ∗αi is and open subset of X ∗αi, i = 1, 2, · · · , n .
Now, since O∗ is regularly open, therefore Int(Cl( Qα∈I O∗α)) ⊂ O∗ .
Thus, each αi, fαi (xαi ) ∈ Oα∗i ⊂ Int(Cl(O∗αi)) and fα i being almost continuous, there is
αi ∈ Uαi and f αi (xαi ) ∈ f αi (Uαi ) ⊂ Int(Cl(O α )) .
an open subset Uαi of X ∗ such that x ∗
Q αi i

Thus, α∈I Uα where Uα = Xα when α /= αi, i = 1, 2, · · · , n , is an open set containing

21
 Q
xα such that f ( α∈I U α) ⊂ O ∗ .
Hence f is almost continuous. Q

Theorem 3.0.25
Q
Let h : X → α∈I Xα be almost continuous. For each α ∈ I define fα : X → Xα
by setting fα(x) = (h(x))α . Then fα is almost continuous for all α ∈ I .

Proof:
Let Pα denote the projection of X into Xα .
Then Pα ◦ h = fα for each α .
Now Pα is open and continuous for each α and h is almost continuous.
Therefore by theorem 5.0.5, Pα ◦ h is almost continuous.
That is, fα is continuous for each α . Q

Definition 3.0.31
A point x of a subset A of a space is called a boundary point of A if it is not an
interior point of A .

Theorem 3.0.26
The set of all points of X at which is not almost continuous is identical with the
union of the boundaries of the inverse images of regularly open subsets of Y .

Proof:
Suppose f is not almost continuous at a point x ∈ X .
Then there exists a regularly open set V such that f (x) ∈ V and for every open set U
containing x , we have f (U ) ∩ (Y − V ) /= ∅ .
Thus, for every open set U containing x , we must have U ∩ (X − f −1(V )) /= ∅.
Therefore x cannot be an interior point of f −1(V ) .
But x belongs to f −1(V ) .
Hence x is a point of the boundary of f −1(V ) .
Now, let x belong to the boundary of f −1(G) for some regularly open subset G of Y .
Then f (x) belongs to G .
If f is almost continuous at x , then there is an open set U such that x belongs to U
and f (U ) ⊂ G .
Thus x ∈ U ⊂ f −1 (f (U )) ⊂ f −1 (G) .
Therefore x is an interior point of f −1(G) , which is a contradiction.
Hence f is not almost continuous at x . Q

Definition 3.0.32
A space is called a Urysohn space if for every pair of distinct points x and y , there
exist open sets U and V such that x ∈ U , y ∈ V and Cl(U ) ∩ Cl(V ) = ∅ .

22
Theorem 3.0.27
If f is a weakly continuous, one-to-one mapping of X into Y and if X is compact
and Y is Uryshon, then f is open.

Proof:
Let A be an open subset of X .
Then X − A , being a closed subset of the compact space X , is compact.
Since every weakly continuous image of a compact space is almost compact, therefore
f (X − A) , is almost compact.
Since f is one-to-one, therefore, f (X − A) = Y − f (A) , whence Y − f (A) is almost
compact.
Since Y is a Urysohn space, therefore Y − f (A) is closed and hence f (A) is open. Q

Corollary 3.0.6
If f is an almost continuous, one-to-one mapping of X onto Y and if X is compact
and Y is Urysohn, then f is open.

Proof:
Let f : X → Y be an almost continuous mapping.
We claim that f is weakly continuous.
Let x ∈ X , then f (x) ∈ Y and M is a neighbourhood of f (x) .
Since f is almost continuous mapping, there exists a neighbourhood N of x such that
f(N ) ⊆ Int(Cl(U )) .
But M is a regularly open neighbourhood of f (x) .
Therefore f (N ) ⊆ Int(Cl(U )) = Cl(M ) , where M is a open neighbourhood.
Therefore f (N ) ⊆ Cl(M ) .
Hence f is weakly continuous. Q

Definition 3.0.33
A space X is said to be almost regular if for each regularly closed set A and each
point x ∈
/ A , there are disjoint open sets U and V such that x ∈ U , A ⊂ V .

Theorem 3.0.28
If f is an almost-continuous, closed mapping of a regular space X onto a space Y
such that f −1(y) is compact for each point y ∈ Y , then Y is almost regular.

Proof:
Let A be a regularly closed subset of Y and suppose that y ∈
/ A.
Then, f −1(y) ∩ f −1(A) = ∅ , f −1(A) is closed by the almost continuity of f and f −1(y)
compact.
Since X is regular, there exist disjoint open sets G and H such that f −1(A) ⊂ G ,
f −1 (y) ⊂ H .

23
Now, let P = {z : f −1(z) ⊂ G} and Q = {z : f −1(z) ⊂ H} .
Then y ∈ P , A ⊂ Q , P ∩ Q = ∅ .
Also since f is closed, therefore P and Q are open.
Hence Y is almost regular. Q

Theorem 3.0.29
If f is an almost continuous, closed mapping of a normal space X onto a space Y ,
then any two disjoint regularly closed subsets of Y can be strongly separated.

Proof:
Let A and B be two disjoint regularly closed subsets of Y .
Then f −1 (A) and f −1 (B) are disjoint, closed subsets of the normal space X and there-
fore there exist open sets G and H such that G ∩ H = ∅ , f −1 (A) ⊂ G , f −1 (B) ⊂ H .
Let P = {y : f −1(y) ⊂ G} and Q = {y : f −1 (y) ⊂ H} .
Then, since f is closed, therefore P and Q are open sets. Also, A ⊂ P , B ⊂ Q and
P ∩ Q = ∅.
Hence the result. Q

24
 CHAPTER-IV

COMPARING ALMOST CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

In this paper, Husain introduced the concept of almost continuous mappings and in-
vestigated some of their properties. On the other hand, Singal and Singal have also
introduced the concept, similarly called almost continuous mappings, which is in fact dif-
ferent from that in the sense of Husain.
In this paper, we use the abbreviations ”a.c.H.” means almost continuous in the sense
of Husain and ”a.c.S.” means almost continuous in the sense of Singal and Singal.

Definition 4.0.34 [6]

The function f : X → Y is said to be almost continuous in the sense of Stallings
if given any open set W ⊂ X × Y containing the graph of f , there exist a continuous
function g : X → Y such that the graph of g is a subset of W .

Definition 4.0.35 [2]

The function f : X → Y is almost continuous at x ∈ X in the sense of Husain
if for each open set V ⊂ Y containing f (x) , the closure of f −1(V ) is a neighbourhood
of x .
If f is almost continuous at each point of X , then f is called almost continuous.

Definition 4.0.36 [10]

The function f : X ⊂ Y is called almost continuous at x ∈ X in the sense of
Singal and Singal if for each open set V ⊂ Y containing f (x) , there exists an open set
U ⊂ X containing x such that f (U ) is a subset of the interior of the closure of V .
If f is almost continuous at each point of X , then f is called almost continuous.

Result:
The first two theorems point out similarities between a.c.S. and a.c.H. functions.

25
Theorem 4.0.30
Let f : X → Y be a function and let g : X → X × Y , given by g(x) = (x, f (x)) , be
its graph map. Then g : X → X × Y is a.c.S. if and only if f : X → Y is a.c.S.

Proof:
Assume that f is a.c.S.
Let x ∈ X be a arbitrary point.
We claim that g is a.c.S. at a point x ∈ X .
Let W ⊂ X × Y be an open set containing the point g(x) = (x, f (x)) .
Then there exist open sets R ⊂ X, V ⊂ Y containing x and f (x) respectively, such that
R×V ⊂ W .
Since f is a.c.S., there exists an open set U ⊂ R ⊂ X containing x such that f (U ) ⊂
Int(Cl(V )) .
We know that U ⊂ Cl(U ) and Int(Cl(V )) ⊂ Cl(V ) , now
U × Int(Cl(V )) ⊂ Cl(U ) × Cl(V ) = Cl(U × V ) =⇒ Int(U × Int(Cl(V ))) ⊂ Int(Cl(U ×
V )) .
However Int(U × Int(Cl(V ))) = Int(U ) × Int(Int(Cl(V ))) = U × Int(Cl(V )) , since U
and Int(Cl(V )) are both open sets.
Therefore, U × Int(Cl(V )) ⊂ Int(Cl(U × V )) .
Since f (U ) ⊂ Int(Cl(V )) , so that g(U ) ⊂ U × Int(Cl(V )) ⊂ Int(Cl(U × V )) .
Hence g is a.c.S. at x ∈ X .
Conversely, Assume that g is a.c.S.
We claim that f is a.c.S. at a point x ∈ X .
Let x ∈ X and for any open set V ⊂ Y containing f(x) .
Then X × V is an open set X × Y containing (x, f (x)) .
Since g is a.c.S., there exists an open set U ⊂ X containing x such that g(U ) ⊂
Int(Cl(X × V )) = Int(X × Cl(V )) = X × Int(Cl(V )) .
Suppose z ∈ U , then g(z) = (z, f (z)) ∈ X × Int(Cl(V )) so that f (z) ∈ Int(Cl(V )) .
Since f (z) ∈ f (U ) , therefore f (U ) ⊂ Int(Cl(V )) .
Hence f is a.c.S. at the point x . Q

Theorem 4.0.31
Let f : X → Y be a function and let g : X → X × Y , given by g(x) = (x, f (x)) , be
its graph map. Then g : X → X × Y is a.c.H. if and only if f : X → Y is a.c.H.

Proof:
Assume that f is a.c.H.
Let x ∈ X be a arbitrary point.
We claim that g is a.c.H. at a point x ∈ X .
Let W ⊂ X × Y be an open set containing the point g(x) = (x, f (x)) .
Then there exist open sets U ⊂ X, V ⊂ Y such that x ∈ U, f (x) ∈ V and U × V ⊂ W .
Now note that g−1(U × V ) = U ∩ f −1(V ) .

26
Since f is a.c.H., there exists an open set S containing x such that S ⊂ U and f −1(V )
is dense in S .
Then g−1(U ×V ) = U ∩f −1(V ) ⊃ S∩f −1(V ) so that Cl(g−1(U ×V )) ⊃ Cl(S∩f −1(V )) ⊃
S.
We get S ⊂ Cl(f −1(V )) and since S is open.
Then Cl(g−1(W )) ⊃ Cl(g−1(U × V )) ⊃ S .
Therefore Cl(g−1(W )) is a neighbourhood of x .
Hence g is a.c.H. at the point x .
Conversely, assume that g be a.c.H.
Let x ∈ X and for any open set V ⊂ Y containing f (x) .
Then X × Y is an open set in X × Y containing (x, f (x)) .
Since g is a.c.H., Cl(g−1(X × Y )) = Cl(X ∩ f −1(V )) = Cl(f −1(V )) contains a neigh-
bourhood of x .
Hence f is a.c.H. at the point x . Q

Definition 4.0.37
Let an a.c.S. function f : X → A where A ⊂ X and f (a) = a for every a ∈ A.
Then A is called an a.c.S. retract of X or an a.c.S. retraction of X .

Theorem 4.0.32
Let A ⊂ X and let f : X → A be an a.c.S. retraction of X onto A. If X is
Hausdorff, then A is a closed subset of X .

Proof:
Let A ⊂ X and let f : X → A be an a.c.S. retraction of X onto A .
Assume that X is Hausdorff space.
We claim that A is closed subset of Y .
Suppose that A is not closed.
Then there exists a point x ∈ X such that x ∈ Cl(A) but x ∈ / A.
Then f (x) /= x since f is an a.c.S. retraction of X onto A .
Since X is Hausdorff space, there exist open sets U and V in X such that x ∈ U, f (x) ∈
V and U ∩ V = ∅ .
So that U ∩ Int(Cl(V )) = ∅ .
Now let W be any open set in X containing x .
Then U ∩ W /= ∅ is open and containing x .
Consequently (U ∩ W ) ∩ A /= ∅ and contains infinitely many points of A.
Let z ∈ (U ∩ W ) ∩ A .
Then f (z) = z and since U ∩ I nt(Cl(V )) = ∅ so that z ∈ / Int(Cl(V )) .
It follows that f (W ) ¢ Int(Cl(V )) which implies that f is not a.c.S. at the point x ,
which is a contradiction, since f is a.c.S.
Hence A must be closed. Q

27
Example 4.0.10
Let I be the closed unit interval with the standard subspace topology from the reals.
Let Q represent the rationals belonging to I . Let f : I → Q be defined by
(
x if x ∈ Q;
f (x) =
0 if x ∈ I − Q;
Then f is an a.c.H. retraction of I onto Q , I is Hausdorff, but Q is not closed in I .

Definition 4.0.38
Let X be a topological space and let A ⊂ X . Then A is said to be regularly
open [10] if Int(Cl(A)) = A.

Theorem 4.0.33 Let f : X → Y be an a.c.S. surjection. If X is connected, then

f (X) = Y is connected.

Proof:
Given f is an a.c.S. surjection.
Assume that X is connected.
We claim that f (X) = Y is connected.
Suppose that f (X) = Y = A ∪ B where A and B are separated.
Then both A and B are both open and closed sets, hence are regularly open subsets of
Y.
Since f is a.c.S., then f −1(A) and f −1(B) are open in X by Theorem 2.2(b) of [10] .
Since A∩B = ∅ and Y = A∪B so that f −1 (A)∩f −1 (B) = ∅ and f −1(A)∪f −1(B) = X .
That is f −1(A) and f −1(B) give a separation of X and which is a contradiction to that
X is connected.
Therefore f (X) = Y must be connected. Q

Example 4.0.11
Let X = Y = {a, b, c} . Let the topology on X be indiscrete and topology on Y with
{∅, Y, {a, c}, {b, c}, {c}} .
Let the function f : X → Y is given by f(a) = a, f (b) = f (c) = b .
Then f is a.c.S. and the subspace f (X) = {a, b} of Y has the discrete topology.
Thus both {a} and {b} are open in the subspace topology giving immediately that f :
X → f (X) is not a.c.S. Q

Example 4.0.12
Let X = Y = {0, 1} where X has the indiscrete topology and Y has the discrete
topology. Then the identity function i : X → Y is a.c.H., X is connected, but i(X) = Y
is not connected.

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Lemma 4.0.3
Let f : X → Y be an open function. Then for every subset B ⊂ Y , f −1(Cl(B)) ⊂
Cl(f −1(B)) .

Proof:
Suppose there exists a point x ∈ Cl(f −1(V ) − f −1(Cl(V )) .
Then f (x) ∈ / C 1(V ) .
Hence there exists an open set W containing f (x) such that W ∩ V = ∅ .
Since V is open, we have V ∩ Cl(W ) = ∅ .
Since f is open function, there exists an open set U ⊂ X containing x such that
f (U ) ⊂ C1(W ) .
Then we have f (U ) ⊂ V = ∅ .
On the other hand, since x ∈ Cl(f −1(V )) , we have U ∩ f −1(V ) /= ∅ and hence
f (U ) ∩ V /= ∅ , we have a contradiction.
Hence Cl(f −1 (V )) ⊂ f −1(Cl(V )) . Q

Theorem 4.0.34
Let f : X → Y be an open a.c.S. function. Then f is a.c.H.

Proof:
Let x ∈ X and let V ⊂ Y be an open set containing f (x) .
Since f be an open a.c.S. function, by the previous Lemma, f −1(Cl(V )) ⊂ Cl(f −1(V )) .
Now we have Int(Cl(V )) is a regularly open set and that V ⊂ Int(Cl(V )) ⊂ Cl(V ) .
Since f is a.c.S., then f −1(Int(Cl(V ))) is open in X .
Then f −1 (Int(Cl(V ))) ⊂ f −1(Cl(V )) ⊂ Cl(f −1 (V )) and then Cl(f −1 (V )) is a neigh-
bourhood of x .
Hence f is a.c.H. Q

Corollary 4.0.7
If f : X → Y is an a.c.S. bijection, X compact and Y Urysohn, then f is a.c.H.

Example 4.0.13
An a.c.S. open function need not be continuous. Let X = {a, b, c} with topology
{∅, X, {b, c}} and let Y be the Sierpinski space. Then f : X → Y is given by f (a) =
f (b) = 0 and f (c) = 1 is a.c.S. but not continuous.

Theorem 4.0.35
Let f : X → Y be a.c.S. and let V ⊂ Y be open. If x ∈
/ f −1 (V ) but x ∈ Cl(f −1 (V )) ,
then f (x) ∈ Cl(V ) .

29
Proof:
Let x ∈ X be such that x ∈ / f −1 (V ) but x ∈ Cl(f −1 (V )) .
Suppose f (x) ∈ / Cl(V ) .
Then there exists an open set W such that f (x) ∈ W and W ∩ V = ∅ .
Then Cl(W ) ∩ V = ∅ and Int(Cl(W )) ∩ V = ∅ . Since f is a.c.S., there exists a open
set U ⊂ X such that x ∈ U and f (U ) ⊂ Int(Cl(W )) .
Therefore f (U ) ∩ V = ∅ .
However, since x ∈ Cl(f −1(V )), U ∩ f −1(V ) /= ∅ so that f (U ) ∩ V ∅ , which is a
contradiction.
Hence f (x) ∈ Cl(V ) . Q

Theorem 4.0.36
Let f : X → Y be an open a.c.S. function. Then for each open V ⊂ Y, Cl(f −1(V )) ⊂
f −1(Cl(V )) .

Proof:
Let f : X → Y be an open a.c.S. function.
Let V ⊂ Y be open.
Then Cl(f −1 (V )) ⊂ f −1 (Cl(V )) this implies f (Cl(f −1 (V ))) ⊂ Cl(V ) .
Since Cl(f −1 (V )) ⊂ f −1(f (Cl(f −1 (V )))) for any function, we have Cl(f −1 (V )) ⊂ f −1 (f (Cl(f −
f −1(Cl(V )) .
That is Cl(f −1(V )) ⊂ f −1(Cl(V )) .

Corollary 4.0.8
Let f : X → Y be an open a.c.S. function. Then for each open V ⊂ Y , Cl(f −1(V )) =
f −1(Cl(V )) . Q

Proof:
Let f : X → Y be an open a.c.S. function and let V ⊂ Y be open.
By previous theorem f (Cl(f −1(V ))) ⊂ Cl(V ) .
Since Cl(f −1(V )) ⊂ f −1 (f (Cl(f −1(V )))) for any function, we have Cl(f −1 (V )) ⊂ f −1(f (Cl(f −
f −1(Cl(V )) .
For every subset V ⊂ Y , f −1(Cl(V )) ⊂ Cl(f−1(V )) .
Hence we get Cl(f −1 (V )) = f −1 (Cl(V )) . Q

Theorem 4.0.37
An open a.c.H. function f : X → Y is a.c.S. if and only if Cl(f −1(V )) = f −1(Cl(V ))
for every open V ⊂ Y .

Proof:
Assume that An open a.c.H. function f : X → Y is a.c.S.
We claim that for every open V ⊂ Y , Cl(f −1(V )) = f −1(Cl(V )) .

30
Since f : X → Y be an open a.c.S. function.
Let V ⊂ Y be open.
f (Cl(f −1(V ))) ⊂ Cl(V ) .
Since Cl(f −1(V )) ⊂ f −1 (f (Cl(f −1(V )))) for any function, we have Cl(f −1 (V )) ⊂ f −1(f (Cl(f −
f −1(Cl(V )) .
For every subset V ⊂ Y , f −1 (Cl(V )) ⊂ Cl(f −1 (V )) .
Hence we get Cl(f −1 (V )) = f −1 (Cl(V )) .
Conversely, assume that f is a.c.H., open and has the condition Cl(f −1(V )) = f −1(Cl(V )) .
We claim that f is a.c.S.
Let x ∈ X and let open set V ⊂ Y containing f (x) .
Since f is a.c.H., there exists an open set U ⊂ X such that x ∈ U ⊂ Cl(f −1(V )) .
Then f (U ) ⊂ f (f−1(Cl(V ))) ⊂ Cl(V ) .
Therefore f is weakly continuous and since f is open.
Hence f is a.c.S. Q

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 CHAPTER-V

ALMOST Sg – CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

Definition 1.1 A semi-open set 𝐴 of a space X is said to be an all 𝑆𝑔-open set if for each 𝑥 ∈
𝐴, there exists a g-closed set 𝐹 such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹 ⊆ 𝐴. The family of 𝑆g–open subsets of X is
denoted by 𝑆g𝑂(X).
Definition 1.2 A space X is said to be:
1- extremally disconnected if the closure of every open subset of X is open.
2- locally indiscrete if every open subset of X is closed.
3- hyperconnected if every non-empty open subset of X is dense.
4- s*- regular if for any semi-regular set 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴, there exist disjoint open sets 𝑈 and 𝑉
such that 𝐴 ⊆ 𝑈 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝑉.
5- semi-regular, if for each semi-closed set 𝐴 and each point 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴, there exist disjoint 𝑈, 𝑉 ∈
𝑆𝑂(X) such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 and 𝐴 ⊆ 𝑉.
The intersection of all 𝑆𝑔-closed sets of X containing 𝐴 is called the 𝑆𝑔-closure of 𝐴 and is
denoted by 𝑆𝑔𝑐𝑙(𝐴). The union of all 𝑆𝑔-open sets of X contained in 𝐴 is called the 𝑆𝑔- interior of
𝐴 and is denoted by 𝑆𝑔i𝑛𝑡(𝐴).

1
Definition 1.4 A function ƒ: X → 𝑌 is called 𝑆g-continuous at a point 𝑥 ∈ X, if for each open set
𝑈 of 𝑌 containing ƒ(𝑥) there exists an 𝑆g-open set 𝐺 in X containing 𝑥 such that ƒ(𝐺) ⊆ 𝑈. If ƒ is
𝑆g-continuous at every point 𝑥 of X , then it is called 𝑆g-continuous.
Definition 1.6 Let X be a space and let 𝑥 ∈ X.Then a subset 𝑁 of X is said to be 𝑆g-neighborhood
of 𝑥 if there exists an 𝑆g-open set 𝑈 in X such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 ⊆ 𝑁.

2
Definition 1.21 For a function ƒ: X → 𝑌, the graph function 𝑔: X → X × 𝑌 of ƒ is defined by
𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥, ƒ(𝑥)) for each 𝑥 ∈ X.

Definition 2.1 A function ƒ: X → 𝑌 is called almost 𝑠𝑔-continuous if for each 𝑥 ∈ X and each
open set 𝐻 in 𝑌 containing ƒ(𝑥), there exists an 𝑆g-open set 𝐺 in X containing 𝑥 such that ƒ(𝐺) ⊆
i𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑙𝐻.

Theorem 2.9 For a functionƒ: X → 𝑌, the following statements are equivalent:

1- ƒ is almost 𝑆g-continuous.

2- For each 𝑥 ∈ X and each regular open set 𝑉 of 𝑌 containing ƒ(𝑥), there exists an 𝑆g-open set 𝑈
in X containing 𝑥 such that ƒ(𝑈) ⊆ 𝑉.

3- For each 𝑥 ∈ X and each ð-open set 𝑉 of 𝑌 containing ƒ(𝑥), there exists an 𝑆g-open set 𝑈 in X
containing 𝑥 such thatƒ(𝑈) ⊆ 𝑉.

Proof. (1) ⟶ (2) Let 𝑥 ∈ X and 𝑉 be any regular open subset of 𝑌 such that ƒ(𝑥) ∈ 𝑉. Since
every regular open set is open and since ƒ is almost 𝑆g-continuous, then there exists an 𝑆g-open
set 𝐺 such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 and (𝐺) ⊆ i𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑙𝑉, but since i𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑙𝑉 =𝑉, so ƒ(𝐺) ⊆ 𝑉.

(2) ⟶ (3) Let 𝑥 ∈ X and 𝑉 be any ð-open set of 𝑌 such that ƒ(𝑥) ∈ 𝑉. Then, there exists an open
set 𝐻 containing ƒ(𝑥) such that 𝐻 ⊆ i𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑙𝐻 ⊆ 𝑉. Since i𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑙𝐻 is a regular open subset of 𝑌
containing ƒ(𝑥). So by (2), there exists an 𝑆g-open set 𝑈 in X containing 𝑥 such that ƒ(𝑈) ⊆
i𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑙𝐻. Thus, ƒ(𝑈) ⊆ 𝑉.

(3) ⟶ (1) Let 𝑥 ∈ X and 𝑉 be any open set of 𝑌 such that ƒ(𝑥) ∈ 𝑉. Then i𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑙𝐺 is a ð-open set,
therefore, by (3) there exists an 𝑆g-open set 𝑈 in X containing 𝑥 such that (𝑈) ⊆ i𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑙𝐺. This
implies that ƒ is an almost 𝑆g-continuous function.

3
Theorem 2.16 A function ƒ: X → 𝑌 is almost 𝑆g-continuous if and only if for each open set 𝑉 of
𝑌, ƒ−1(𝑉) ⊆ 𝑆gi𝑛𝑡(ƒ−1(i𝑛𝑡(𝑐𝑙𝑉)).

Proof. Let ƒ: X → 𝑌 be almost 𝑆g-continuous and let 𝑉 be any open subset of 𝑌. Let 𝑥 ∈ ƒ−1(𝑉).
Thenƒ(𝑥) ∈ 𝑉. Since ƒ is almost 𝑆g-continuous, there exists an 𝑆g-open set 𝑈 in X containing 𝑥
such that ƒ(𝑈) ⊆ i𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑙𝑉. This implies that 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 ⊆ ƒ−1(i𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑙𝑉). Therefore, 𝑥 ∈
𝑆gi𝑛𝑡(ƒ−1(i𝑛𝑡(𝑐𝑙𝑉)). Further, ƒ−1(𝑉) ⊆ 𝑆gi𝑛𝑡(ƒ−1(i𝑛𝑡(𝑐𝑙𝑉)).

Conversely, suppose for each open set 𝑉 of 𝑌, ƒ−1(𝑉) ⊆ 𝑆gi𝑛𝑡(ƒ−1(i𝑛𝑡(𝑐𝑙𝑉)). To show ƒ is

almost 𝑆g-continuous. Let 𝑥 ∈ X and 𝐻 be any open set in 𝑌 containing ƒ(𝑥). So by hypothesis
ƒ−1(𝐻) ⊆ 𝑆gi𝑛𝑡(ƒ−1(i𝑛𝑡(𝑐𝑙𝐻)). This implies that 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆gi𝑛𝑡(ƒ−1(i𝑛𝑡(𝑐𝑙𝐻) ⊆ ƒ−1(i𝑛𝑡(𝑐𝑙𝐻)). Set
𝑈 = 𝑆gi𝑛𝑡(ƒ−1(i𝑛𝑡(𝑐𝑙𝐻)) which is an 𝑆g-open set in X containing 𝑥 such that ƒ(𝑈) ⊆ i𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑙𝐻.
Thus, ƒ is almost 𝑆g-continuous.
.

4
Theorem 2.23 If 𝑌 is a hyperconnected space, then every function ƒ: X → 𝑌 is almost 𝑆g-
continuous.

Proof. Let 𝑌 be hyperconnected space and 𝐻 be any open subset of 𝑌 containing ƒ(𝑥). Then 𝑐𝑙𝐻
= 𝑌. This implies that i𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑙𝐻 = 𝑌 and for every 𝑆g-open set 𝐺 in X containing 𝑥,ƒ(𝐺) ⊆ 𝑌 =
i𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑙𝐻. Thus, ƒ is almost 𝑆g-continuous.

Theorem 2.26 If the graph function 𝑔 of a function ƒ: X → 𝑌 is almost 𝑆g-continuous, then ƒ is

almost 𝑆g-continuous.

Proof. Let 𝑔 be almost 𝑆g-continuous and 𝑥 ∈ X and 𝑈 is any open subset of 𝑌 containing ƒ(𝑥).
Then X × 𝑈 is an open set containing 𝑔(𝑥), so there exists an 𝑆g-open set 𝑉 in X such that
𝑔(𝑉) ⊆ i𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑙(X × 𝑈) = X × i𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑙𝑈. This implies that ƒ(𝑉) ⊆ i𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑙𝑈. Hence ƒ is almost 𝑆g-
continuous.

6
 CONCLUSION

In this topic, we introduced the concept of an almost continuous mappings.

We defined some basics definitions for the almost continuous functions. We dicussed
some characterizations of almost continuous mappings by showing restriction of
continuous mappings. We also given some characterizations of almost continuous
mappings by showing every continuous mapping is almost continuous but the converse
need not be true. Also we proved every almost continuous mapping is weakly continuous
but the converse need not be true. But we prove an open mapping is almost continuous
mapping is if and only if it is weakly continuous. We also given three definitions as to
when a function from one topological space to another is called almost continuous.
Similarities and dissimilarities of two of these definitions are discussed. And we
introduced the almost S g-continuity in topological spaces, and then we discussed its
characterizations.
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[5] W. J. Pervin and Norman Levine, Connected mappings of Hausdorff spaces, Proc.
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