Integrated Training System Designed in association with the club66pro.com question practice aid Module 8 2nd Edition Exclusively from WWW. aittechbooks.comIntegrated Training System Designed in a5socatlon with tha ‘lub6pro.comn tueston practice ald Preface Thank you for purchasing the Total Training Support Integrated Training System. We are sure you will need no other reference material to pass your EASA Part-66 exam in this Module. These notes have been written by instructors of EASA Part-66 courses, specifically for practitioners of varying experience within the aircraft maintenance industry, and especially those who are self-studying to pass the EASA Part-66 exams. They are specifically designed to meet the EASA Part-66 syllabus and to answer the questions being asked by the UK CAA in their examinations. The EASA Part-66 syllabus for each sub-section is printed at the beginning of each of the chapters in these course notes and is used as the “Learning Objectives’. We suggest that you take each chapter in-turn, read the text of the chapter a couple of times, if only to familiarise yourself with the location of the information contained within. Then, using your club66pro.com membership, attempt the questions within the respective sub-section, and continually refer back to these notes to read-up on the underpinning knowledge required to answer the respective question, and any similar question that you may encounter on your real Part-66 examination. Studying this way, with the help of the question practice and their explanations, you will be able to master the subject piece-by-piece, and become proficient in the subject matter, as well as proficient in answering the CAA style EASA part-66 multiple choice questions. We regularly have a review of our training notes, and in order to improve the quality of the notes, and of the service we provide with our Integrated Training System, we would appreciate your feedback, whether positive or negative. So, if you discover within these course notes, any errors or typos, or any subject which is not particularly well, or adequately explained, please tell us, using the ‘contact-us’ feedback page of the club66pro.com website. We will be sure to review your feedback and incorporate any changes necessary. We look forward to hearing from you. Finally, we appreciate that self-study students are usually also self-financing. We work very hard to cut the cost of our Integrated Training System to the bare minimum that we can provide, and in making your training resources as cost efficient as we can, using, for example, mono printing, but providing the diagrams which would be better provided in colour, on the club66pro.com website. In order to do this, we request that you respect our copyright policy, and refrain from copying, scanning or reprinting these course notes in any way, even for sharing with friends and colleagues. Our survival as a service provider depends on it, and copyright abuse only devalues the service and products available to yourself and your colleagues in the future, and makes them more expensive too. Module 8 Preface u ‘TTS Integrated Training System (© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System uoro com quston preci id Intentionally Blank " Module 8 Preface TTS Integrated Training System ©Copyright 2011wow Module 8 Chapters 8.1. Physics of the Atmosphere 8.2. Aerodynamics 8.3. Theory of Flight 8.4, Flight Stability and Dynamics Module 8 Preface Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe ‘lub6pro.com question praction ld TTS Integrated Training Systom ‘©Copyright 2011Integrated Training System bop con question racic Intentionally Blank iv Module 8 Preface ‘TTS integrated Training System © Copyright 2011TTS Integrated Training System Module 8 Licence Category B1 and B2 Basic Aerodynamics 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere Module 8.1 Physics of the AtmosphereIntegrated Training System Designed in steaciaton with the ‘lube. cor question practice ald Copyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training Support Ltd Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels. The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL 1 ‘A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject. Objectives: ‘The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject. The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples The applicant should be able to use typical terms, LEVEL 2 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. ‘An ability to apply that knowledge Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples. The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject. ‘The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject, The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures. LEVEL 3 ‘A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner. Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects. ‘The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples. ‘The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject. ‘The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject. The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions. ‘The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate. 1-2 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere TTS Integrated Training System owned) essere © Copyright 2011 nape i rapeop Integrated Training System il ested in association withthe ciueGprocom cueston paces ed Table of Contents Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere 7 The Atmosphere 7 Gas Composition, 7 Regions of the Atmosphere 7 Temperature 8 Pressure 40 Performance Ceilings 16 The Gas Laws, 17 The Intemational Standard Atmosphere (ISA) 18 Humidity 23 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere 1-3 overedy aatemert ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘ap 2 erupt ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank 1-4 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere ‘TTS Integrated Training System pvonod by sora © Copyright 2011 Soage ole oeeIntegrated Training System Designed in associ with the ‘lub6épra.com qucstion practice aid Module 8.1 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement Certification Statement These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation 2042/2003 Annex III (Part-66) Appendix |, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below: ect EASA 66 Level Coe Reference Bi B2 International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), application] 8.1 2 2 to aerodynamics. ee | Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere 15 Ue amce ecne ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copyr promos Bage2 oe rape right 2011Integrated Training System Designed i ussoctaton wih Intentionaily Blank 16 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere a ‘TIS Integrated Training System sore eters S Copy aor ae aceop Integrated Training System ‘lubé6pr0.com question practice ald Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere The Atmosphere ‘The gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth is called the atmosphere. There is no defined upper limit to the atmosphere, but most aviation activity takes place within the first 60,000 ft and therefore we need not study above that. Gas Composition ‘The gases found in the atmosphere are in the following proportions (by volume): Nitrogen 78% Oxygen 21% Other gases 1% (e.g. argon, carbon dioxide, water vapour) These proportions do not change with altitude. Oxygen is essential for the sustenance of life and the combustion of materials. In the context of aviation, oxygen is required for the combustion of fuel, a deficiency of this gas resulting in incomplete burning and reduced engine efficiency. Water vapour is present in the atmosphere in varying proportions, and is responsible for the weather around the earth, which in tum affects aircraft operations and performance. Additionally the presence of water vapour may cause icing of the airframe or engine which may impair an aircraft's performance. Regions of the Atmosphere The atmosphere is divided into a number of layers: (a) The Troposphere - Temperature decreases with an increase in height. In this region nearly all significant weather occurs. (b) The Tropopause - The upper limit of the troposphere where temperature stops decreasing with an increase of height. The tropopause is therefore the upper limit of significant weather, the first point of lowest temperature, and additionally it is the region for maximum wind strengths. The height of the tropopause varies with latitude, season of the year, and prevailing weather conditions with the result that it is usually higher in low latitudes, in summer and in fine weather. Typical heights for the tropopause are: Latitude Tropopause Height Equator 16-47km —53,000—57,000 ft 45°NIS 10-12km — 33,000—39,000 ft Poles 7% -9km — 25,000—29,000 ft Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere 1-7 {rere he Soret TTS Integrated Training System ‘age 2 dt hater ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System ancmaae a 4 (©) The Stratosphere - From the tropopause to approximately 50 km above mean sea level, and is characterized by the temperature being steady or increasing with height (4) The Mesosphere - From 50 km to 80 km. The temperature generally decreases with height. (©) The Thermosphere or lonosphere - Temperature increases with height. Temperature (a) Units The temperature scales most commonly used are Celsius (also known as Centigrade), Fahrenheit and Kelvin (also known as Absolute). The first two scales are based on the melting point of ice, being O'C and 32F respectively, and the boiling point of water, being 100€ or 212F Heat is a form of transfer of energy, and is related to the random movement of molecules in a substance. If heat is reduced, the molecules become less active. The minimum temperature to which a substance can be reduced is approximately minus 273°C and this is known as Absolute Zero, or 0 K. Correspondingly, the melting point of ice is equivalent to 273 K and the boiling point of water to 373 K. To convert from one temperature scale to another, the following formulae may be used: = 20432 5 5 c=56@- a (F-32) (b) Temperature Variation in the Troposphere At ground level, in general, the temperature increases with a decrease of latitude. With increasing altitude, the conductive and convective effects from the earth are reduced so that temperature will usually decrease with height up to the tropopause. Typical values of temperature found at the tropopause are: Latitude Temperature Equator -80T 45N/S -56T Poles -45C 1-8 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere “TTS Integrated Training System ove ye saan © Copyright 2011 “ongage meteIntegrated Training System Designed in association withthe clubepre.com question practice aig There is, therefore, a reversal of temperatures with latitude in comparison to those found at ground level. This is partly because the tropopause is higher at the equator and the temperature decrease is effective over a greater height. 27,000ft _45°¢ TROPOPAUSE 55,0008 |-80°C Figure 1.1 — Variations of the Tropopause around the World (c) Lapse Rates The temperature decrease with an increase of height is referred to as lapse rate. A representative value of 2'C/1000 ft is a typical value for the troposphere, and this figure is used as the reference for the Jet Standard. The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) uses the comparable value of 1.98°C/1000 ft. For meteorological purposes, differentiation between dry (that is, not saturated) and saturated adiabatic lapse rates is made, and the values of 3°C/1000 ft and 1.5°C/1000 ft respectively are used. The difference of lapse rate for saturated air is caused by the release of latent heat during condensation, thus reducing the temperature change. (d) Temperature and Aircraft Performance Ata given pressure, an increase of temperature results in a reduction of density. Firstly, considering airframe performance, a reduction of density ( ) reduces lift (L). This may be counteracted by increasing the true airspeed (V) to achieve the required amount of lift (L): L=C.% VS where: C, = coefficient of lift and S = surface area The dynamic pressure is gained at the expense of an increased take-off run, cruising TAS or landing run according to the stage of flight. Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere 1-9 (verano aon TTS Integrated Training System Eres lie heer ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Chora.com question pralee ad On the credit side, drag (D) reduces with increase of temperature: D=Cp% V’S Apiston engine's performance is related to the temperature of the air being drawn into the cylinder head. The higher the temperature, the lower the density and weight of fuel/air mixture that can be burnt in the combustion chamber. The power output of the engine therefore falls. with increase of temperature. For a propulsion system, piston or jet: Thrust = Mass of air x Acceleration to which air is subjected Thus an increase of temperature will reduce the mass flow and, therefore the thrust. Pressure Definition Pressure is the force exerted on a unit area, i.e.: Force _ Mass Acceleration Pressure = Area Area In the atmosphere, pressure is caused by the mass of the gaseous molecules acting under the force of gravity on a given area. As all molecules act under gravity then the pressure can also be considered to be the weight of a column of air on a unit area. Figure 1.2 - A column of air 1-40 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere TTS Integrated Training Systom olnamcnaeres © Copyright 2011 ong ma crapIntegrated Training System cuubsepercom ueshon prateo a Units The metric units of pressure are dynes per square centimetre, where the dyne is the force required to accelerate 1 gram by 1 centimetre per second. The Systéme international (S1) units of pressure are Newtons per square metre, where the Newton is the force required to accelerate 1 kilogram by 1 metre per second. The Newton is equal to 10° dynes. Although largely obsolete, the Imperial system of units is still encountered, and pressure is expressed in pounds per square inch. In meteorology the unit of pressure is the millibar (mb), which is equivalent to 1000 dynes per square centimetre. Before the introduction of the millibar, meteorological pressure was measured in terms of the length of a column of mercury in a barometer that the weight of the atmosphere could support. Longth of Column ‘of Mercury Proportional to Pressure | Figure 1.3 — Principle of the Mercury Barometer Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere 1-11 ‘overt aera ‘TTS Integrated Training Systom ages at ape {© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Designed in association with the ‘lub66pr0.com question practice aid Variation of Pressure in the Atmosphere At sea level, pressure generally varies between 950 and 1050 mb. In tropical revolving storms and tomadoes, however, pressures may fall much lower. With increasing altitude the mass of overlying air decreases and so the pressure falis. Pressure values of the International Standard Atmosphere are given below: Altitude Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure (ft) (mb) (psi) {in Hg) (mm Hg) 40,000 187.6 2.72 30,000 300.9 4.36 26,000 465.6 6.75 10,000 696.8 10.11 0 1013.25 14.7 29.92 760 From the table it should be noted that at about 18,000 ft. the pressure is half the sea level value. Also, it should now be apparent that the rate of pressure decrease with height is not constant. In the first 10,000 ft. the pressure falls at a rate of approximately 1 mb per 30 ft but between 30,000 ft and 40,000 ft the pressure decrease is closer to 1 mb per 88 ft. Pressure Altitude The altitude at which a given pressure occurs in the International Standard Atmosphere is called the pressure altitude. If, for example, the pressure at the top of Mount Everest were determined as 300.9 mb, then the pressure altitude would be 30,000 ft. Assuming the same mean sea level conditions, and two columns of air of the same height, but differing temperatures, then the cold air would have a greater mass than the warm air due to the density difference. The pressure of the atmosphere, however, is caused by the mass of overlying molecules on a unit area. The pressure above the column of warm air is therefore higher than that above cold air. Because a higher pressure is found at a lower level, then the pressure altitude above warm air is lower than the pressure altitude above cold air. Alternatively it can be expressed that the true altitude of an aircraft is more than that indicated (assuming the correct mean sea level pressure has been set on the subscale) above warm air, and less than that indicated above cold air. 112 ‘Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere TTS Integrated Training System overeat fe erent © Copyright 2011 ‘mpage ls cateIntegrated Training System Designedin sssocaon wh the cutegpe.com uaston actos it Pressure Corresponding To 700mb ant 15008 A Pressure Altitude Of 10,000ft 10,000f| ISA Cold we {less dense) (more densel| 1013mb 1013mb 1013mb Figure 1.4 — Pressure Altitude — The effect of temperature on pressure Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere 1-13 over anor TTS Integrated Training System page 2 he heer ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System gned in association with the ‘lub8gpro.com question practice aid Density Defi Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance, at a specified temperature and pressure. Mass Volume Density = Units Density is expressed in grams, or kilograms per cubic metre for metric or SI units, respectively. The Imperial units are pounds per cubic feet. Factors affecting density when considering a gas are: Density= ———___Pressure_ Gasconstant Absolute temperature For a given temperature, therefore, an increase of pressure increases density, or, at a given pressure, a decrease in temperature increases density. Variation of Density in the Atmosphere At sea level, densities vary between 1.20 and 1.55 kg per cu m, the higher values being usually associated with the colder temperatures of higher latitudes, and the lower values typical of Equatorial latitudes. Air at lower levels in the atmosphere is compressed by the mass of the air above it. With increasing altitude, the overlying mass reduces and air can now expand, resulting in a further reduction of pressure. With increasing altitude the temperature also decreases, but at a rate lower than the pressure. Density, therefore, decreases with height. Density values of the International Standard Atmosphere are summarized below: Altitude Density Density fy) Ikg/cu m] [lb/cu ft] 40,000 0.302 0.019 30,000 0.458 0.029 20,000 0.653 0.041 10,000 0.905 0.056 0 1.225 0.077 At about 22,000 ft, the density is half the sea level value. We have already seen that density at sea level tends to be higher at the Poles than at the Equator. However, at 26,000 ft, the density value is similar at all latitudes. 1-14 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere TIS integrated Training System assate ie eos {© Copyright 2011 ioe carrDesigned in association withthe clubB6pr0.com question practice aia ww Integrated Training System Variation of Density with Humidity The total pressure of the atmosphere is equal to the sum of the individual pressures of the gases. The pressure of moist air is less than that for dry air, and so humidity decreases the total pressure. From the gas equation, it can be seen that the reduction in pressure results in a lower density. The greater the humidity, the lower the density. Density Altitude This is defined as the altitude in the International Standard Atmosphere at which a given density is found. Aircraft performance is largely dependent on density altitude as opposed to true or pressure altitude. Density and Performance The effects of density on lift, drag, power and thrust have been described in the section about temperature. There are, however, additional effects of density performance. Above about 300 kt TAS, air becomes significantly compressed, and locally increases the density. At much higher speeds this may give a marked increase in drag, and when increasing altitude, this can offset the otherwise reducing drag value. A similar compressibility effect increases drag on a propeller blade, reducing its efficiency, particularly at higher altitudes. A jet engine's performance, however, is enhanced by this compressibility effect as mass flow is improved. Air Density and the Human Body The reduced density of air with increasing altitude means that in a given volume of air breathed in, the oxygen content has decreased. Above 10,000 ft this reduction leads to hypoxia, its effects ranging from lack of judgment to sleepiness or collapse, according to height. At night, the reduced intake of oxygen impairs night vision at altitudes of 4,000 ft and above. To counter these problems, aircraft operating above 10,000 ft must have an enriched oxygen supply, either in conjunction with a pressurized cabin, or through face-masks. At night, ideally, oxygen should be available from ground level upwards. Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere 115, ‘overdo aenere TTS Integrated Training System ‘age? rate ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System lon wth the Clabbboro com question pate aid Performance Ceilings Service Ceiling This is defined as the altitude at which the rate of climb of an aircraft falls to a specified figure, usually 100 ft. per minute. Absolute Ceilins The absolute ceiling is the altitude at which the rate of climb of an aircraft falls to zero. Piston-Engined Aircraft For such aircraft operating under 26,000 ft. the improved atmospheric density found in winter in high latitudes will give the highest ceiling, Jet-Engined Aircraft As most jet-engined aircraft operate above 26,000 ft, then the best performance ceiling will be found at the highest pressures and lowest temperature, i.e. in summer, and at low latitudes. 116 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere {TTS Integrated Training System oovemedty ie asters ©Copyright 2011 "npn ha ceeIntegrated Training System Designed in asocaiion withthe clubsépr0.com aes The Gas Laws Introduction Whilst air is not an ideal gas, it does conform within close limits, to the results of Boyle's and Charles’ laws. Boyle's Law The volume (V) of a given mass of gas at constant temperature is inversely proportional to pressure (P): PV =constant This can be expressed in the form: Py Vy =PoVo Charles’ Law The volume of a given mass of gas at constant pressure, increases by a of its volume at oC for every 1'C rise in temperature: Vv <== constant Ff The alternative expression below is also useful: MoM TT Combined Boyle’s and Charles’ Law Equation The results of both laws may be combined in one equation, expressing the behaviour of a gas under varying conditions of pressure, volume and temperature: PV, _ PV, Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere 17 ‘emanate TTS Integrated Training Systom page vs coer ‘©Copyright 2011Integrated Training System 0: on with the in practice aid oe The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) The International Standard Atmosphere is a tabulation with altitude of the standard variation of pressure, temperature, density, viscosity, etc, appropriate to mid latitudes (45°N), released by the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO). In order to provide a datum for aircraft performance comparison, and instrument calibration, this assumed set of conditions is used. Whilst representative, these conditions do not necessarily reflect actual conditions in the atmosphere. The values used are listed below: Sea Level Conditions Property Metric Value Pressure 101.3 kPa Density 1.225 Kgim? Temperature 15 °C of 288.2 K Speed of Sound 340 mis Viscosity 1.789x10° Kg/m/s Kinematic Viscosity 1.460x10° m/s Thermal Conductivity 0.02596 W/tn/K Gas Constant 287.1 Jikg/K Specific Heat Cp 1005 J/Kg/K Specific Heat Cv 717.98 JiKg/K Imperial Value 2116.2 Ibfitt? 0.002378 slug/ft® 59 °F or 518.69 °R 1116.4 ts 3.737x10-7 slug/ft/s 1.5723x10" ft’/s 0.015 BTU/hr/t°R 1715.7 tt Ibt/slug/°R 6005 ft Ibf/slug/”R 4289 ft Ibt/stugR Ratio of Specific Heats 1.40 1.40 Gravitational Acceleration 9.80665 m/s* 32.174 fs? 118 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere TTS Integrated Training System ©Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Designed in association wi the ‘lubé6pre.com question practice ad Altitude Temperature Kinematic Speed m ft °C Pressure Density Viscosity Viscosity of Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio Sound o 0 15.2 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 340.3 152 500 14.20.9821 0.9855 0.9973 1.0121 339.7 304 1000 13.2 0.9644 0.9711 0.9947 1.0243 339.1 457 1500 12.2 0.9470 0.9568 0.9920 1.0367 338.5 609 2000 11.2 0.9298 0.9428 0.9893 1.0493 338.0 762 2500 10.2 0.9129 0.9289 0.9866 © 1.0622 337.4 914 3000 9.3 0.8962 0.9151 0.9839 1.0752 336.8 1066 3500 8.3 0.8798 0.9015 0.9812 1.0884 336.2 1219 4000 7.3 0.8637 0.8881 0.9785 1.1018 335.6 1371 4500 6.3 0.8477 0.8748 0.9758 © 1.1155 335.0 1524 5000 5.3 0.8320 0.8617 0.9731 1.1293 334.4 1676 $500 4.3 0.8166 0.8487 0.9704 1.1434 333.8 1828 6000 3.3 0.8014 0.8359 0.9677 1.1577 333.2 1981 6500 2.3 0.7864 0.8232 0.9649 1.1722 332.6 2133 7000 © 1.3. (0.7716 0.8106 0.9622 1.1870 332.0 2286 7500 0.3. 0.7571 0.7983 0.9595 1.2020 331.4 2438 8000 -0.6 0.7428 0.7860 0.9567 1.2172 330.8 2590 8500 1.6 0.7287 0.7739 «0.9540 1.2327 330.2 2743 9000 -2.6 0.7148 0.7620 0.9512 «1.2484 = 329.6 2895 9500 -3.6 0.7012 0.7501 0.9485 1.2644 329.0 3048 10000 -4.6 0.6877 0.7385 0.9457 1.2807 328.4 3200 10500 -5.6 0.6745 0.7269 0.9430 1.2972 327.8 3352 11000 -6.6 0.6614 0.7155 0.9402 1.3140 327.2 3505 11500 -7.6 0.6486 0.7043 0.9374 1.3310 326.6 3657 12000 -8.6 0.6360 0.6932 0.9347 1.3484 326.0 3810 12500 -9.6 0.6236 0.6822 0.9319 1.3660 325.4 3962 13000 -10.6 0.6113 0.6713 0.9291 1.3840 324.7 4114 13500 -11.5 0.5993 0.6606 0.9263 © 1.4022 324.1 4267 14000 -12.5 0.5875 0.6500 0.9235 © 1.4207 323.5 4419 14500 -13.5 0.5758 0.6396 0.9207 1.4396 «322.9 4572 15000 -14.5 0.5643 0.6292 0.9179 1.4588 322.3 4724 15500 -15.5 0.5531 0.6190 0.9151 1.4783 321.7 4876 16000 -16.5 0.5420 0.6090 0.9123 1.4981 321.0 5029 16500 -17.5 0.5311 0.5990 0.9094 1.5183 320.4 5181 17000 -18.5 0.5203 0.5892 0.9066 1.5388 319.8 5334 17500 -19.5 0.5098 0.5795 0.9038. 1.5596 319.2 5496 18000 -20.5 0.4994 0.5699 0.9009» 1.5809 318.5, 5638 18500 -21.5 0.4892 0.5604 0.8981 «1.6025 317.9 5791 19000 -22.4 0.4791 0.5511 0.8953. 1.6244 37.3, 5943 19500 -23.4 0.4693 0.5419 0.8924 1.6468 316.7 6096 20000 -24.4 0.4595 0.5328 0.8895 «1.6696 316.0 6248 20500 -25.4 0.4500 0.5238 «0.8867 1.6927 315.4 6400 21000 -26.4 0.4406 0.5150 «0.8838. 1.7163 «314.8 6553 21500 -27.4 0.4314 0.5062 0.8809 1.7403 314.1 6705 22000 -28.4 0.4223 0.4976 0.8781 1.7647 313.5 6858 22500 -29.4 0.4134 0.4891 0.8752. «1.7895 312.9 7010 23000 -30.4 0.4046 0.4806 «= 0.8723 «1.8148 312.2 7262 23500 -31.4 0.3960 0.4723 0.8694 1.8406 311.6, 7315 24000 -32.3 0.3876 «0.46420. 8665 1.8668 311.0 7467 24500 -33.3 0.3793 0.4561 0.8636. 1.8935 310.3. Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere 119 {peed Stern TTS Integrated Training System ‘rage 20h cht ‘©Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe clubs pr0.com question practice aid Aleitude Temperature m ft °C Pressure Density Ratio Ratio 7620 a772 7924 8077 8229 8382 8534 8686 8839 8991 o144 9296 9448 9601 9753 9906 10058 10210 10363 10515, 10668 10820 10972 10999 11277 11582 11ge7 12192 12496 12801 13106 13aiL 13716 14020 14325 14630 14935 15240 15544 15849 16154 16459 16764 25000 -34.3 25500 -35.3 26000 -36.3, 26500 -37.3 27000 -38.3 27500 -39.3 2a000 -40.3 28500 -41.3 29000 -42.3 29500 -43.2 30000 -44.2 30500 -45.2 31000 -46.2 31500 -47.2 32000 -48.2 32500 -49.2 33000 -50.2 33500 -51.2 34000 -$2.2 34500 -53.2 35000 -54.1 35500 -55.1 36000 -56.1 36089 -56.3 37000 -56.3 38000 -56.3 39000 -55.3 40000 -56.3 41000 -56.3 42000 -56.3 43000 -56.3 44000 -56.3, 45000 -56.3 46000 56.3 47000 -56.3 48000 56.3 49000 -56.3 50000 -56.3, 51000 -$6.3 52000 -56.3, 53000 -56.3 54000 -56.3 55000 -56.3, Kinematic Viscosity Viscosity Ratio Ratio 0.8607 1.9207 0.8578 1.9484 0.8548 1.9766 0.8519 2.0053 0.8490 2.0345, 0.8460 2.0643 0.8431 2.0947 0.8402 2.1256 0.8372 2.1571 6.0342 2.1892 0.8313 2.2219 Speed of sound 309.7 309. 308. 307. 307. 306. 305. 305. 304. 303. 303. o.3711 0.4481 0.3631 0.4402 0.3582 0.4325 0.3474 0.4248 0.3398 0.4173 0.3324 0.4098 0.3250 0.4025 0.3178 0.3953 0.3107 0.3881 0.3038 ov3ai1 0.2970 0.3741 0.2903 0.3673 0.2837 0.3605 0.2772 0.3539 0.2709 0.3473, 0.2647 0.3408 0.2586 0.3345 0.2526 0.3282 0.2467 0.3220 0.2410 0.3159 0.2353, 0.3099 0.2298, 0.3039 9.2243 0.2981 0.2234 0.2972 0.2138 0.2843 0.2038 0.2710 0.1942 0.2583 o.1e51 0.2462 0.1764 0.2346 0.1681 0.2236 0.1602 0.2131 0.1527 0.2031 0.1456 0.1936 0.1387 0.1845 0.1322 0.1758 0.1260 0.1676 0.1201 0.1597 0.1145 0.1522 0.1091 0.1452 0.1040 0.1383 0.09908 0.1318 0.09444 0.1256 0.09001 0.1197 -8283 18253 78223 18194 8164 18134 104 8073 +8043 +8013 0.7983 0.7952 0.7947 0.7947 0.7947 0.7947 0.7947 0.7947 0.7947 0.7947 0.7947 0.7947 0.7947 0.7947 0.7947 0.7947 0.7947 0.7947 0.7947 0.7947 0.7947 0.7947 2.2553 2.2892 2.3239 2.3592 2.3952 2.4318 2.4692 2.5074 2.5463 2.5859 302. 301. 301. 300 299. 293. 208. 297. 297. 296 2.6264 2.6677 2.6751 2.7948 2.9324 3.0768 3.2283, 3.3872 3.5540 3.7290 3.9126 4.1052 295. 8 295.2 295.1 295.1 295.1 295.1 295.1 295. 1 295.1 295.1 295.1 1 295 4.3073 4.5194 4.7419 4.9754 5.2203 5.4773 5.7470 6.0300, 6.3268, 6.6383, 295.1 295.1 295.1 295.1 295.1 295.1 295.1 295.1 295.1 295.1 17068 17373 17678 17983 is2a8 56000 -56.3, 57000 -56.3 58000 -56.3, 59000 -$6.3 60000 -56.3, 0.08579 0.1142 0.08176 0.1087 0.07793 0.1036 0.07427 0.09878 0.07079 0.09414 0.7947 0.7947 0.7947 7947 27947 6.9652 7.3081 7.6679 8.0454 8.4416 295.1 295.1 295.1 295.1 295.1 1-20 TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2011 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere ‘grenade sae enone of s teIntegrated Training System Designesin association mh the clube com question practice ad Altitude Temperature n fe Kinematic Speed Pressure Density Viscosity Viscosity of Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio Sound 19592 61000 -56. 18897 62000 56.3 19202 63000 -56. 19507 64000 -56. 19812 65000 -56. 3 06746 0.08972 0.7947 8.8572 295.1 106430 0.08551 0.7947 9.2932 295.1 106128 0.08150 0.7947 «9.7508 295.1. 105841 0.07768 «0.7947 10.231 295.1 05566 © 0.07403» «0.7947 10.735 295.1 20116 66000 -56. 20421 67000 -56. 20726 62000 -56. 21031 69000 -56. 21336 70000 -56. evo atone ‘pon 2 ns apo 204377 05305 0.07056 0.7947 11.263 295.1. 105056 0.06725 «0.7947 11.818 © 295.1 104819 0.06409 0.7947 12.399 295.1 104593 0.06108 += 0.7947 13.010 295.1 0.05822 0.7947 «13.650 295.1 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere 1-21 ‘TTS integrated Training System © Copyeight 2011Integrated Training System Desig in association win the clubsopre.cam queston prstiee ld Intentionally Blank 1-22 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere “TTS Integrated Training System sovomedty be sanent © Copyright 2011 ectoIntegrated Training System Designed in assocalion with the ‘lubé6pro.com question practice aid Humidity ‘Some water in the form of invisible vapour is intermixed with the air throughout the atmosphere. Itis the condensation of this vapour which gives rise to most weather phenomena: clouds, rain, ‘snow, dew, frost and fog. There is a limit to how much water vapour the air can hold and this limit varies with temperature. When the air contains the maximum amount of vapour possible for a particular temperature, the air is said to be saturated. Warm air can hold more vapour than cold air. In general the air is not saturated, containing only a fraction of the possible water vapour. The amount of vapour in the air can be measured in a number of ways. The humidity of a packet of air is usually denoted by the mass of vapour contained within it, or the pressure that the water vapour exerts. This is the absolute humidity of air. Relative humidity is measured by comparing the actual mass of vapour in the air to the mass of vapour in saturated air at the same temperature. For example, air at 10 contains 9.4 g/m* (grams per cubic metre) of water vapour when saturated. If air at this temperature contains only 4.7 g/m? of water vapour, then the relative humidity is 50%. When unsaturated air is cooled, relative humidity increases. Eventually it reaches a temperature at which it is saturated. Relative humidity is 100%. Further cooling leads to condensation of the excess water vapour. The temperature at which condensation sets in is called the dew point. The dew point, and other measures of humidity can be calculated from readings taken by a hygrometer. A hygrometer has two thermometers, one dry butb or standard air temperature thermometer, and one wet bulb thermometer. The wet bulb thermometer is an ordinary thermometer which has the bulb covered with a muslin bag, kept moist via an absorbent wick dipped into water. Evaporation of water from the muslin lowers the temperature of the thermometer. The difference between wet and dry bulb temperatures is used to calculate the various measures of humidity Definitions Absolute humidity: The mass of water vapour in a given volume of air (i.e., density of water vapour in a given parcel), usually expressed in grams per cubic meter Actual vapour pressure: The partial pressure exerted by the water vapour present in a parcel. Water in a gaseous state (i.e. water vapour) exerts a pressure just like the atmospheric air. Vapour pressure is also measured in Millibars. Condensation: The phase change of a gas to a liquid. In the atmosphere, the change of water vapour to liquid water. Dewpoint: the temperature air would have to be cooled to in order for saturation to occur. The dewpoint temperature assumes there is no change in air pressure or moisture content of the air. — Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere 1-23 teva yn atone ‘TTS Integrated Training System Serpe char © Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Designed in asszcation wth ‘cub68pre.com question practice aid Dry bulb temperature: The actual air temperature. See wet bulb temperature below. Freezing: The phase change of liquid water into ice. Evaporation: The phase change of liquid water into water vapour. Melting: The phase change of ice into liquid water. Mixing ratio: The mass of water vapour in a parcel divided by the mass of the dry air in the parcel (not including water vapour). Relative humidity: The amount of water vapour actually in the air divided by the amount of water vapour the air can hold. Relative humidity is expressed as a percentage and can be computed in a variety of ways. One way is to divide the actual vapour pressure by the saturation vapour pressure and then multiply by 100 to convert to a percent. Saturation of air: The condition under which the amount of water vapour in the air is the maximum possible at the existing temperature and pressure. Condensation or sublimation will begin if the temperature falls or water vapour is added to the air. Saturation vapour pressure: The maximum partial pressure that water vapour molecules would exert if the air were saturated with vapour at a given temperature. Saturation vapour pressure is directly proportional to the temperature. Specific humidity: The mass of water vapour in a parcel divided by the total mass of the air in the parcel (including water vapour). Sublimation: In meteorology, the phase change of water vapour in the air directly into ice or the change of ice directly into water vapour. Chemists, and sometimes meteorologists, refer to the vapour to solid phase change as "deposition." Wet bulb temperature: The lowest temperature that can be obtained by evaporating water into the air at constant pressure. The name comes from the technique of putting a wet cloth over the bulb of a mercury thermometer and then blowing air over the cloth until the water evaporates. Since evaporation takes up heat, the thermometer will cool to a lower temperature than a thermometer with a dry bulb at the same time and place. Wet bulb temperatures can be used along with the dry bulb temperature to calculate dew point or relative humidity. 1-24 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere TTS Integrated Training System gored by be satment © Copyaght 2011 mesa ncefea Integrated Traini SELES : = cists com aston TTS Integrated Training System Module 8 Licence Category B1 and B2 Basic Aerodynamics 8.2 AerodynamicsIntegrated Training System unpre com qaston paces id Copyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training Support Ltd. Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Maintenance Licence Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and 82 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels, ‘The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL1 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject. Objectives: ‘The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject, ‘The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and ‘examples. ‘The applicant should be able to use typical terms, LEVEL 2 ‘A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. ‘An ability to apply that knowledge. Objectives: ‘The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. ‘The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples. ‘The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject. The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject. The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures. LEVEL 3 {A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner. Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects. The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples. The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject. ‘The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematios describing the subject. ‘The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions. ‘The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate, 22 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics ‘TTS intograted Training System Pathan © Copyright 2011 page 2 chorww Table of Contents Integrated Training System Designed in association with he ‘uk.com question practice aid ‘over aanert ‘ge ema apo Module 8.2 Aerodynami 7 Airflow 7 Atmospheric Pressure. 7 Streamline Flow 8 Flow Continuity, 8 Bernoulli's Theorem 10 Airspeed a Aerodynamic and Geometric Definitions 13 Chord line 13 Mean Camber line 3B Thickness/Chord Ratio and Fineness Ratio 13 Angle of Attack 13 Wash Out 13 Wash In. 14 Wing Area 14 Mean Chord (Geometric) 14 Taper Ratio 14 Aspect Ratio 14 Wing Loading 14 ‘Sweep Angle 14 Dihedral 14 Anhedral (or Cathedral) 15 ‘Axes and Flight Controls (Primary Controls) 15 Drag. 19 Introduction 19 Profile Drag. 19 Induced Drag, 24 Total Drag 27 Wave Drag 30 Lift. 33 Introduction 33 Pressure distribution 34 Pressure gradients 35 Lift Equation 36 Lift/Drag Ratio 37 Movement of the Centre of Pressure. 38 Spanwise Distribution of Pressure _39 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 23 ‘TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Designed in association with the club66pro.com question practice aid stall 41 Introduction AL The Determining Factor The Cause 41 Alleviation 42 Engine Power Effect 43 Altitude Effect. 43 Weight Effect 43 Loading in Turns _ A Effect of shape 44 Centre of Gravity Position Effect 45 Stall Warning Devices 46 Spinning _ 46 The Deep Stall 48 Stall Speed and Stall Angle AS Wing Tip Stalling 51 Aspect Ratio Effect 53 Sweepback Effect 54 Flap Effect 56 2-4 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS integrated Training System ‘oro sonore © Copyright 2011 nage? te eo.Integrated Training System Desigeu in astoetation with the c66pr0.corn question practice aia Module 8.2 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement Certification Statement These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation 2042/2003 Annex III (Part-66) Appendix |, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below: not EASA 66 Level Objective Reference Bt B2 Airflow around a body; 8.2 2 2 Boundary layer, laminar and turbulent flow, free stream flow, relative airflow, upwash and downwash, vortices, stagnation; The terms: camber, chord, mean aerodynamic chord, profile (parasite) drag, induced drag, centre of pressure, angle of attack, wash in and wash out, fineness ratio, wing shape and aspect ratio; Thrust, Weight, Aerodynamic Resultant, Generation of Lift and Drag: Angle of Attack, Lift coefficient, Drag coefficient, polar curve, stall; Aerofoil contamination including ice, snow, frost. Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 25 veocty he erent TTS Integrated Training System cage one ‘© Copyright 2011,Integrated Training System Designed in association with the Clubs pra cen question practice ad Intentionally Blank 26 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS Integrated Training Systom sere tamer ©Copyright 2011 “engage 2 oh aIntegrated Training System club6pro.com question Module 8.2 Aerodynamics Airflow Atmospheric Pressure In the previous chapter it was shown that the atmosphere exerts pressure at all times. This type of pressure, which exerts a force on all bodies, is called static pressure and acts equally in all directions. When air is in motion, however, it possesses an additional energy (kinetic energy) due to the fact that it is moving, and the faster it moves the more kinetic energy it has. If moving air is now brought to rest against some object, the kinetic energy is turned into pressure energy. This pressure on the surface of the body which causes the moving air to stop is called dynamic pressure. The value of dynamic pressure depends on the density of the air and its speed and may be expressed as: Dynamic pressure = % V* This is an important equation which affects all aerodynamic studies. Any object in still air will experience static pressure in all directions but an object which is moving, or is placed in a moving airstream will experience an additional pressure due to the moving air being brought to. rest Still Air Moving Air Ec « a t Figure 2.1 — Still air and the adgitional pressure created in moving air If the speed of the moving air is comparatively slow, say 100 kts, the dynamic pressure exerted by it is quite small in relation to the static pressure at sea ievel. In fact the dynamic pressure will only amount to less than 2% of the static pressure. If, however, the speed is increased to, say 450 kts, the dynamic pressure rises considerably, to about 30% of the static pressure. It is important to note that at low speeds the density of the air is not significantly affected by these changes in pressure and the air can be considered as an incompressible fluid. At high speeds, however, say in excess of 300 kts, this assumption can no longer be made and the changes in density due to compressibility become significant. Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 27 nde tert ‘TTS Integrated Training System Some ec me hae ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System ow clubBépro.com quastion practice ald Streamline Flow Itis useful to illustrate the path followed by air when it passes around fixed objects and the idiom used is that of streamlines. A streamline is the path traced out by a single particle of airflow such that this particle does not cross the path of any other. This can be illustrated by dropping dye into a stream of water and watching the visible path of the dye when it moves with OE ee aoe Figure 2.2 — Airflow around a circular body Flow Continuity When water flows down a tube the principle of continuity of flow applies and the mass flow in the tube is the same at any point along its length. This rule applies even if the tube is not of constant diameter and this is clearly shown in the Figure 2.3. The mass flow at A, B and Cis the same so if the density of the water is ‘ ', the cross sectional area of the tube ‘a’ and the speed of the water is ‘v' then: Mass flow = av The continuity theorem states that the mass flow at any point A = the mass flow at point B = the mass flow at point C. 4 4 4 A B c Figure 2.3 — Airflow through a duct of increasing cross sectional area 28 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS Integrated Training System Peaityeoaaome! © Copyright 2011 “onpage zt scrapIntegrated Training System Designed in association wi the chip com question pracioo ad Venturi effect Ina venturi tube, such as that shown in Figure 2.4, that is a tube that has constriction in it, the previous rule still applies; mass flow is always a constant even if the tube is not of constant diameter If, therefore, the pressure is measured at points 1 and 2 in the venturi it can be said: 181V1 = 282V2 4 4 Point 1 Point 2 Figure 2.4 — Airflow through a venturi Considering the fluid as incompressible then as the cross sectional area ay is considerably bigger than the cross sectional area aa, the speed V; must be less than the speed Vo. In other words, as the flow passes through the venturi the speed of the fluid increases. This can often be seen when watching the flow of a river through the arch of a bridge observing how the water speeds up as it flows through the arch or constriction. The streamlines associated with this flow are shown below. It can be seen that the streamlines draw closer together as they pass through the venturi. Moving away from the concept of the tube to that of an aircraft wing, as illustrated in Figure 2.5, it can be seen that due to the curvature of the wing on its upper surface a venturi has been created between the upper surface and the undisturbed air some distance above it. The streamlines will be similar to those in the venturi and, of course, the flow of the air will be increased in speed as it passes through the venturi. Point 1 Point 2 Figure 2.5 — Airflow around an aerofoil section Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2-9 ‘oremosy ne saanect ‘TTS integrated Training System ‘Raga ene oper “ocopbh 2011Integrated Training System Designed in association wit the ‘lubéspro.comn question practiog aid Bernoulli's Theorem During the last century Bernoulli put forward his theorem stating that the total pressure (i.e. static + dynamic) in a fluid is constant if no work is done by it or on it. Total pressure H=S +% V*=constant. Referring back to Figure 2.5 and looking at the point ahead of the wing marked 1 we can find the total pressure at this point: Hy=Si+% iV? Similarly the total pressure at the point marked 2 can also be expressed as: He=Sp+%e 2Vo* However, Bernoulli's theorem states that the total pressure in a fluid is constant, therefore these two expressions must equal each other. Therefore: Sit% WViP=So4% We Considering the density to be a constant factor and knowing the speed at point 1 is less than the speed at point 2, it follows that the pressure at point 1 must be higher than the pressure at point 2. To put it differently there is a reduction in pressure over the upper surface of the wing as a result of Bernoulli's Theorem. It is this reduction in pressure over the upper surface of the wing of an aircraft that creates lift and is the reason an aircraft can fly. Stagnation Referring to Figure 2.6, note the flow of air around an object. Notice how the air divides — some flows over the top of the wing and some below it and right in the centre, at the leading edge of the wing, the air is brought completely to rest at point A. This point is called the stagnation point and it is where the full dynamic pressure plus whatever static pressure is effective at the time will be felt. —O—I———— Ss A ee Figure 2.6 — The stagnation point 210 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS Integrated Training System coronaoly he sameré © Copynght 2011 come Pals eseIntegrated Training System Designed in asociion wi the ceutien cam question practi ad Airspeed The principle of the stagnation point is used in the measurement of airspeed. Refer to Figure 2.7. Air is directed from a pitot tube facing into the airflow to a flexible diaphragm in the airspeed indicator. This flexible diaphragm, in the form of a capsule, in fact is a stagnation point and will feel the full effect of dynamic pressure. Static pressure is fed to both sides of the capsule so that it cancels out. The resultant movement of the diaphragm can be taken by a suitable linkage to a dial, this indicating airspeed. It should be noted that the airspeed indicator is in fact a dynamic pressure indicator but is calibrated suitably in knots. As it measures dynamic pressure directly it is extremely useful when flying the aircraft as most aerodynamic functions of the aircraft are directly related to dynamic pressure. For instance, the stalling speed of an aircraft is always measured in indicated airspeed and remains, for the same weight, pretty well a constant figure regardless of altitude. No mention has been made yet of compressibility and in fact this should be taken into account. The airspeed indicator reading (corrected for instrument and position errors), when corrected for compressibility at all speeds is called equivalent air speed (EAS). Diaphragm Pitot Tube; 7 Figure 2.7 — The stagnation point Static Air Line Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2-11 {ororedy be saaret ‘TTS integrated Training System ‘Souda cp {© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Designs in association wth te Speed Definitions (a) Indicated Airspeed (IAS) - The dynamic pressure of air against a vehicle, or indicated airspeed, is equal to % V*, where density, and V = true airspeed. An airspeed indicator, calibrated to ISA mean sea level conditions records the dynamic pressure as a speed. If, for example, the indicated reading were 200 kts, then it means that the dynamic pressure is the same as it would be at a true air speed of 200 kts at standard conditions at mean sea level. (b) _ Reetified Airspeed (RAS) - The indicated airspeed, corrected for instrument and position errors (IE and PE). (©) Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) - should be noted that compres: ‘he rectified airspeed corrected for compressibility (C). It lity is always a subtracted quantity. It is the airspeed at sea level which represents the same dynamic pressure as that flying at the true airspeed (TAS) at altitude. It is useful for predicting aircraft handling, aerodynamic loads, stalling etc. Note that instrument error and position error are sometimes neglected and thus EAS is then considered to be the same as IAS, and the two terms are used interchangeably. (d) True Airspeed (TAS)- The equivalent airspeed corrected for density. op [actual air density EAS =TAS x Vo dard air density Where: “standard air density” is the ISA sea level density of 1.225 kg/m? or 0.00237 slugs/ft. The ratio “actual air density / standard air density” is known as the density ratio. Density Ratios at different altitudes are listed on the ISA tables in Chapter 8.1. Note that the ratio is equal to 1 only at sea level, and reduces with altitude. Thus EAS decreases with altitude if TAS is kept constant. At 40,000 feet, the density ratio is approximately 0.25. Since \0.25 = 0.5, the EAS is half of the TAS at 40,000 feet altitude. (e) Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) - Some airspeed indicators are corrected for mean sea level compressibility. Calibrated airspeed is the value of this reading, corrected for instrument and position errors. (f) — Mach Number (Mn) - Mach number is the ratio of TAS to the local speed of sound (Lss), 2-42 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TS Integrated Training Systom er ©Copyright 2011 opage mecIntegrated Training System Designed in abbaciation with the ‘lub66px0.com question ‘ Aerodynamic and Geometric Definitions Chord line The chord line of an aerofoil is the straight line joining the leading edge to the trailing edge. It is normally used as a reference line when measuring the angular position of the wing related to the airflow. Leading Edge Trailing Edge Max Thickness: ‘Chord Length Figure 2.8 — A typical aerofoil Mean Camber line A line which joins the leading edge to the trailing edge such that it is equidistant from the upper surface and lower surface of the aerofoil. If it is curved the aerofoil is described as cambered. Thickness/Chord Ratio and Fineness Ratio This is the ratio of the maximum thickness of the cross section to the chord, and is usually expressed as a percentage. Usually, the Fineness Ratio is the inverse of the Thickness/Chord Ratio (i.e. the ratio of the chord to the thickness). Angle of Attack The angle of attack is the angle between the chord line of the wing and the direction of the relative airllow. Wash Out A decrease in wing angle of incidence from root to tip, caused by an intentional twist in the wing. Itis usually incorporated to improve stability. Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2413 evra by eater TTS Intograted Training System ‘oo 2s chee ‘o copynght 2011Integrated Training System Designed in association wit the clubBpro.com quastion pracion aid Wash In An increase in angle of incidence from root to tip, caused by an intentional twist in the wing. It is rarely incorporated because it decreases the stability of the wing. — , [Eee Line r S14 chord ; = tts Tohono -=____—+| Wing Span Figure 2.9 - Wing planform geometry Wing Area The area enclosed by the wing outline and extending through the fuselage to the centreline. Mean Chord (Geometric) The wing area divided by the span. Taper Ratio The ratio of the root chord to tip chord. Aspect Ratio The ratio of the wing span to the mean chord, or alternatively span’ to wing area. Wing Loading The weight of the aircraft divided by the wing area. Sweep Angle The angle between the lateral axis and the % chord line (may be referred to as the leading edge). Dihedral The upward inclination of the wing to the plane through the lateral axis. ‘Dihedral Angle Figure 2.10 — Dihedral angle 244 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS integrates Training System inacoees © Copyright 2011 "eat caperIntegrated Training System Designed in as P ‘lvb66pr0.com Anhedral (or Cathedral) The downward inclination of the wing to the plane through the lateral axis. practice aid ‘Anhedral Angle Figure 2.11 — Anhedral angle Axes and Flight Controls (Primary Controls) (a) Elevators The elevator is attached to the trailing edge of the tailplane and controls the pitching moment about the lateral axis. A backward movement of the control column moves the elevator up and causes the aircraft nose to pitch up. Figure 2.12 — The Elevator controls rotation about the Lateral Axis (pitching) — Longitudinal Control Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2415 Use ner deceni (ovemed yr aaamert TTS Integrated Training System Sapa ts caper ‘© Copynght 2011Integrate ini ; a AU 6 clunipeo.cnm quoston practice ald (b) Ailerons The ailerons are attached to the outboard trailing edges of the wings or mainplanes and controls the rolling motion about the longitudinal axis. If the control column is moved to the right the right aileron moves up and the left aileron down, causing a roll to the right. Figure 2.13 — The Ailerons control rotation about the Longitudinal Axis (roll) — Lateral Control (c) Rudder The rudder is attached to the rear edge of the fin and causes the aircraft to yaw about the normal axis. Movement of the right rudder pedal forward moves the rudder to the right causing the aircraft to yaw to the right about the normal axis. Figure 2.14 — The Rudder controls rotation about the Normal Axis (yaw) — Directional Control 216 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS integrated Training System alee setna © Copyright 2011 nage alistIntegrated Training Se Alternative Forms of Control (a) Stabilator or All-Moving Tail ‘Sometimes used in place of separate elevator control. Stabitator Figure 2.15 — The Stabilator (b) Spoilers May be used instead of or in addition Io ailerons. When the spoiler is operated it causes a loss. of lift on the side itis raised, thus causing a roll to that side. Movement of the control column to the right causes the right spoiler to rise but the left spoiler to remain retracted. oS Figure 2.16 - The Spoilers Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 247 (overdone ‘TTS Integrated Training System (page 2 de rarer ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Designed in association with the ‘hapoopr.com question practice aid Intentionally Blank 248 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics ‘TTS integrated Training System oorewad oy ba set © Copyright 2011 mpage perIntegrated Training System esigned in association with he slub659r0.c0m cuestion practice aig Drag Introduction Itis convenient to study the subject of drag under two distinct headings: Profile Drag or ‘Zero Lift Drag’ Induced Drag or ‘Lift Dependent Drag’ Profile Drag Profile Drag is named Parasite Drag in the USA, where it means the same. Elsewhere, the term Parasite Drag is reserved to denote the drag on an helicopter fuselage, in order to differentiate it from the Profile Drag on the rotating blades. However, in this latter differentiation of the use of the terms, their cause is identical, and is described below. Profile drag is made up of three components: (a) Skin Friction Drag (b) Form or Pressure Drag (©) _ Interference Drag. (a) _ Skin Friction and Boundary Layer Consider a flat smooth surface over which an airstream is flowing. What may seem to be a smooth surface to an observer, will, to a molecule of air, seem a very rough one. Air is a viscous medium, and any surface subjected to a moving airstream will inevitably have, through viscous adhesion, a minutely thin layer of air at its surface which has zero relative velocity. Succeeding layers adjacent to the surface will, through the same viscous action, be subject to retardation, but to a lesser degree with increasing distance (albeit a very small one) from the surface. A point is therefore reached where the airflow will be unaffected, and its velocity will be that of the ‘free stream’ airflow. This layer of air from the surface where there is zero velocity, to the point where there is no retardation, is referred to as the ‘Boundary Layer’ and is normally defined as the region in which the velocity of flow is less than 99% of the free stream value. The boundary layer exists in two forms: (a) Laminar Flow, and (b) Turbulent Flow. Physical laws dictate that at some point along a surface which is subject to a moving airstream, the flow will change from laminar to turbulent. This point is of importance in the study of drag, the significant feature being that the drag is greater in the turbulent layer than in the laminar. The main variables which dictate the change from the laminar state to the turbulent are: (a) Velocity of flow, (b) Viscosity of the fluid, or air, (c) Size of the object. Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 249 ‘ready seman ‘TTS integrated Training System page? oe raps ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System O zociation with the n question practice aid Generally speaking, the transition point (that point at which the laminar flow turns turbulent) for an aerofoil section will be at the point of maximum section depth where the velocity of flow is greatest (refer to Venturi effect). As can be clearly seen, it pays to maintain laminar boundary layer flow as long as possible over an aerofoil section in order to reduce drag, and to keep the surface as smooth as possible. ‘One method of ensuring a greater percentage of laminar flow is to maintain an increasing depth of section as far back from the leading edge as possible, thereby locating the point of maximum velocity farther aft. This results in a wing section known as a laminar flow wing; a description which is, of course, only partially true; Figure 2.17 indicates non-laminar and laminar sections. { 1 oo Conventional Section Laminar Flow Section Figure 2.17 — Non-laminar and laminar aerofoil sections Figure 2.18 shows some important features of the transition from laminar to turbulent flow, these being: (i) The depth of the laminar layer typically given as 0.07in. (ji) The depth of the turbulent layer typically given as 0.7in. (iii) The velocity gradients of the two layers being different leads to the greater shearing or friction effect occurring in the turbulent layer. Distance from ‘Surface 0.7in Transition Point Velocity Profile Laminar SEE Laminar Sub-Layer a Figure 2.18 — The Boundary Layer in the transition from laminar to turbulent flow 2-20 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS Integrated Training Systom lca setae ©Copyright 2011 ‘oases cherIntegrated Training System Designed in associalion wit the clubégre.com question practice aid (b) Form or Pressure Drag When an object is placed in a viscous fluid, such as air, which is moving relative to the object, it will experience a resistance owing to the formation of vortices which create turbulent as opposed to streamlined flow. If we regard a flat plate at right angles to an airflow as being an extreme case, the kinetic energy of the airstream is largely brought to rest and converted to pressure energy: Figure 2.19 also shows the point ‘S' which is referred to as the stagnation point. The pressure brought to rest, is referred to as the ‘Dynamic Pressure’; itis of considerable importance, and is the pressure experienced by any object when a moving airstream is brought to rest: it is quite distinct from static pressure. The formula for dynamic pressure is % V°where = air density and V is velocity. It may be seen from Figure 2.19, that the flow behind the plate is composed of vortices, and since these have low pressure in the centre, we now have high pressure in front and low behind the plate: this results in a drag force in the direction of the moving airstream: Turbulent Wake Figure 2.19 - Turbulent wakes behind a flat plate and a sphere (c) _ Reduction of drag with streamlining It is clear from the extreme case of the flat plate at right angles to the airflow, that it represents the maximum generation of vortices and turbulence; in other words, maximum resistance or drag. The production of vortices require the expenditure of energy in order to generate them, and this of course, is wasteful. By substituting a cylindrical section for the plate, we produce a less abrupt change in the path which the airflow is trying to follow. In this case, fewer vortices are generated: there is less difference in pressure from the front to the rear of the shape, and a degree of ‘streamlining’ has been achieved. Taken a step further, reference to Figure 2.20 will show a more streamlined shape as in a symmetrical aerofoil section. This shape allows the airflow a much more gradual passage from the front of the section to the rear than in the case of the cylinder. The end result therefore, of streamlining, is to produce much less vortex generation, reduced turbulence, and greatly reduced drag. Figure 2.20 — Streamlining Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 221 ovoodty he stent ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘pap 2s tr ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Designed in association with the ‘lubé6pro.com question pretice ad Although by careful streamlining considerable reductions in the form drag are achieved there is a limit to extension of the method. The ‘fineness ratio’ of an aerofoil section is a measure of its streamlining, and is defined as the chord to thickness length ratio. Figure 2.21 shows a section of conventional ratio, but if this ratio is too great, the resulting very thin section feads to structural difficulties. Thickness Figure 2.21 — Length and thickness of an aerofoil (d) _ Interference drag On a complete aircraft, the total drag is greater than the sum of the values for the individual parts of the aircraft. This additional drag is the result of ‘flow interference’ in such areas as wing/fuselage, wing/nacelle junctions, and in fact any areas where such junctions exist. This interference leads to modifications of boundary layers (discussed later) and creates greater pressure differences between fore and aft areas on the surfaces concerned, this in turn leading to greater total drag. This drag can be reduced in value by careful fairing or the addition of fillets in the areas concemed. (e) The Drag Formuta Itis found by experience that, within certain limitations of flow velocity, the resistance of an object in a moving airstream is proportional to: () The shape of the object and frontal area (ii) The square of velocity (iii) The density of the fluid As a basic formula this is written as Dragn V°S or Drag=K V°S. In the case of the flat plate, clearly, not all the air is being brought to rest by the piate, as some of it is seen to be flowing round the edges. This means that the full conversion of kinetic energy to pressure energy is not realized. For this reason, the value of ‘K’ in the second formula will vary according to the shape of the object and its associated system of vortices: the value of 'k’ is found by experiment, and is called the Coefficient of Drag (Co). The importance of the unit of dynamic pressure has already been emphasized and the above basic formula is now modified by its inclusion, The new formula therefore, becomes: 2:22 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics ue ‘TTS Integrated Training System Paradise © Copyright 2011 "gna i canaIntegrated Training System Designed in associaion with the ‘lub6pro.com question practice ais Drag=Cp% VS where Cp is the ‘coefficient of drag’, and S the wing area. The unit of dynamic pressure Ye V°, is very often written simply as ‘q’ because of its frequent use. As a point of interest, the value of Cp in the basic formula is about 0.6 for a flat plate. Other values of the drag coefficient that are of interest are: A cylindrical section 0.47 Astreamlined section 0.04 Apitot tube has a value of unity. To conclude, the combined drag due to skin friction, form drag and interference drag under the heading of ‘Profile drag’, increases in the manner shown below. The subject of Induced Drag or lift dependent drag’ is discussed in the chapter on Lift. Figure 2.22 — Drag increases with IAS exponentially (square law) Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2-23 osaty Se Seen TS integrated Training System Setpage2 he nage ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Designed in association wth the ‘lubé6pro.com question pracice i Induced Drag Introduction Pressure distribution over the upper and lower surfaces of the wing was examined in the previous chapter. As high pressure exists underneath the wing and low pressure on top of the wing, the one place where these pressures will attempt to equalize is around the wing tip. The high pressure underneath the wing moves upwards towards the low pressure on the upper surface and in doing so assumes a rotary motion. This rotary motion spirals back from the wing tip, moving in an anticlockwise direction from the right-hand wing tip as viewed from behind and in a clockwise direction from the left-hand wing tip. Energy is required to produce this rotational vortex from each wing tip and this energy can come only from thrust. The vortices therefore create drag and this drag is called induced drag. Figure 2.23 — Photograph showing the wing-tip vortex phenomenon Drift effect The larger the lift being produced by the wing, the bigger the pressure difference between the lower and upper surfaces. The larger the pressure difference the stronger the vortex produced and it can therefore be said that induced drag is proportional to lift. In straight and level flight lft must equal weight, so if weight is increased then lift must be increased and therefore induced drag will be larger. The same is also true for a turn where lift must be increased, producing more induced drag although the gravitational weight has not been changed. Vortices are shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.24. Figure 2.24 — Wing tip vortices 2-24 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS integrated Training System overedy eter © Copyright 2011 “pagel rtIntegrated Training System Desigted in association with the ‘lut66oro.com auestion practice aid Downwash The effect of the vortex is to deflect the air downwards as it passes over the trailing edge of the wing, in other words producing downwash. As the maximum strength of this movement is close to the vortex, as one moves from the wing tip towards the fuselage the downwash steadily decreases. Thus for a given strength of vortex, the larger the wing span the less will be the effect of this downwash velocity. The angular deflection of the airflow will depend on the speed. For a given downwash velocity the deflection angle will be greater at low speeds than at high speeds, as shown in Figure 2.25. Ve Figure 2.25 — Downwash angles affected by airspeed The total reaction force of a wing is at right angles, not to the initial direction of the airflow, but to the resultant between the original direction and the final direction. It will be readily seen that the more the final flow is deflected downwards — in other words the bigger the downwash — the more the total reaction is tilted rearwards, and this is clearly illustrated in Figure 2.26. The actual usable lift in level flight has to be perpendicular. This leaves a small rearward component of the total reaction force and this is induced drag. From Figure 2.26 it will be seen that the larger the lift component the bigger will be the rearward component D,, induced drag. Induced drag is in fact proportional to lift-squared. Initial Flow Resultant Final Flow (Downwash) Figure 2.26 — Induced drag increases with lift exponentially (square law) Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2-25 ‘vemos he sent TTS Integrated Training System Spon fe nor ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Designed in association with the lub66pr0.com question pracice Span Effect The wing span of the aircraft has a marked effect on the amount of induced drag. The strength of the vortex diminishes from the wing tip towards the fuselage and therefore the downwash created by it also diminishes. For a given strength of tip vortex, therefore, the longer the wing span the lower will be the average downwash and the lower the induced drag. For a given amount of lift, the longer span and short tip chord produces a weaker vortex than a wing with a short span and long tip chord and will therefore give less induced drag. In other words, the higher the aspect ratio, the lower the induced drag. Summary of Effects ‘The amount of induced drag created by a wing depends upon the amount of downwash and we saw from previously that the slower the speed the bigger the angular deflection downwards of the air. This therefore means that the induced drag is largest at low Speeds and decreases as the speed increases. We can say from this that induced drag varies inversely as the square of the speed or, induced drag is proportional to speed” To summarize the effects of induced drag, then: Induced drag increases with an increase in weight. Induced drag decreases with wing span, that is, high aspect ratio reduces induced drag. ‘Speed increases, induced drag decreases. Several deductions can be made from this summary. It becomes apparent that gliders and sailplanes having very long, narrow wings - wings with a high aspect ratio - and normally flying at very low speeds when induced drag is at its highest, therefore benefit from high aspect ratio wings to reduce this drag to a minimum. Conversely, large jet transport aircraft do not usually have high aspect ratio wings and, in addition, are usually of very high weight. From this it is apparent that at low speed they will have very high induced drag. Key Points To Note Induced Drag is proportional to Lift. Induced Drag is inversely proportional to Speed. Induced Drag is greatest toward the wing tip. Induced Drag is less with greater wing aspect ratio. A High Aspect Ratio Wing has a long span and a short chord. The amount of lift generated by the wing upper surface is greatest towards the wing root. The airflow over the upper surface of the wing in flight tends to flow towards the root. In flight, the angle of attack at which the largest amount of lift is generated for the smallest amount of drag is at approximately 4° This is known as the optimum angle of attack. It can be said that from an angle of attack of zero up to 4°the Lift/Drag ratio increases. Above 4°it decreases. At zero angle of attack a cambered aerofoil produces some lift and some drag. At zero angle of attack a symmetrical wing produces no lift but some drag. (On a wing in flight, 2/3 of the lift is produced by the upper surface and the remainder by the lower surface. 2:26 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS integrated Training System coved eer © Copyright 2011 "arpage2 ons arIntegrated Training System Designed in association with the Total Drag Introduction In preceding sections it has been shown that the aircraft is subjected to two types of drag, profile drag and induced drag. Profile drag increases with speed and is proportional to the square of the speed, and induced drag decreases with speed and is inversely proportional to the square of the speed. These two curves of profile and induced drag are shown against speed in Figure 2.27. The two curves can he amalgamated to give the total drag curve of the aircraft. The lowest point on this total drag curve gives the speed at which the total drag is a minimum. This speed is called the minimum drag speed, Vma. For a constant weight and in straight and level flight the Ving will be a constant indicated airspeed for all altitudes. It would be reasonable to assume that one would be better of flying the aircraft at Va because the drag is least at this speed. In practice however, aircraft are not normally operated at this speed because the overall efficiency, especially that of the engine, may be better at a higher speed Drag Stalling Speed ‘3 S 3. o 2 > & é A Speed ———______» Figure 2.27 — Drag curves Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2-27 ‘evra Satemont TTS Integrated Training System mpage oe crate ‘© Copyright 2011Designed in association with the club8épro.com question practice aid Integrated Training System w x Its of some importance when handling an aircraft to know if the speed is stable. By this it is meant that if for some reason the speed increases, perhaps due to temporary turbulence, does the speed tend to decay back to its original value or not? The answer to this question can be found by examining the total drag curve which is shown in Figure 2.28. Ves SPEED lg Figure 2.28 - Total Drag curve Consider an aircraft flying at speed X. In straight and level flight thrust = drag so the thrust required is indicated by the horizontal line T,. If for some reason the speed increases from X to Y, the thrust remaining unchanged, the drag now exceeds the thrust so the speed will drop back to its original value at X. If, on the other hand, the speed decays to point Z, thrust is now greater than drag and the speed will automatically return to its original value at X. It should be noted that the two speeds quoted here are above Vig. On the other side of the curve with the aircraft flying at speed A the thrust level is now T2. If the speed now reduces to B the drag becomes higher than the thrust and the speed will continue to decay. If, conversely, the speed increases to point C, the thrust becomes higher than the drag and the speed will continue to increase. These second examples are speeds below Va. This simple illustration makes clear why at speeds higher than Ving the speed tends to be stable and at speeds below Vg the speed is not stable. This speed instability below Vm is most marked on jet transport aircraft. The great weight of some of the larger types of such aircraft today produces very high induced drag values and makes handling on the approach somewhat difficult. Considerable anticipation is required to. either increase or decrease speed, the whole thing being aggravated to the slow response of jet engines. It would be fair to say that this type of aircraft requires more precise handling on the approach than the piston-engined aircraft and is less forgiving of imprecise handling. In the section on induced drag it was shown that if weight is increased then induced drag also increases. The minimum drag speed occurs at the point where the curve for profile drag crosses the curve for induced drag. As was seen from the first diagram, at this speed the value of the 2-28 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics sntnvrsnenen ‘TTS Integrated Training System sevens ye omer © Copyright 2011 tnge 2 hea.Integrated Training System Designed in association with the club66pr0.com question joe ald induced drag is the same as that of profile drag. In other words profile drag equals induced drag and total drag is double the value of either one. Figure 2.29 illustrates the fact that an increase in aircraft weight will raise the speed at which Vg Occurs. DRAG Figure 2.29 — Drag increases with aircraft weight It was shown in the previous chapter that the effect of an increase in aspect ratio is to decrease induced drag. From this it follows that aircraft with high aspect ratios will have a lower Vmg than aircraft with low aspect ratios. Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2-29 {ironed be sare ‘TTS integrated Training System ‘age 2c hs cee ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Designed in association with the ‘lubssoro.com question practice aid w Wave Drag Ithhas been shown that drag is the same at any altitude for a given IAS but an aircraft climbing at this constant IAS has a steadily increasing Mach number. When this Mach number reaches a certain value the drag starts to increase because of compressibility effects. This drag is known as wave drag and its effect on the total drag curve is illustrated in Figure 2.30. ‘SPEED ——>— Figure 2.30 - Total Drag curves — with and without compressibility effect (Wave drag) 2:30 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS integrated Training System tastes pees ors © Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Designed in astociaiion withthe ‘lub6Fipro.com: question practice aid Summary: Check list From the previous paragraphs the following has been established: an increase in angle of attack will produce an increase in lift brought about by the velocity of the airflow over the upper surface of the wing being increased. An increase in the angle of attack will cause: The Centre of Pressure to move forward. The Transition Point to move forward. The Separation Point to move forward. The Stagnation Point to move down and aft towards the undersurface of the wing. The Centre of Pressure will reach its farthest forward point at just below the stalling angle. Induced Drag is directly related to lift because as the angle of attack is increased the induced drag will increase. Due to the greater pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing, the tip vortex (the basic origin of induced drag) will become intensified. For a given speed the greater the angle of attack, the greater the induced drag. Itis important to realize that although induced drag increases with increased lift when increasing angle of attack, the increase in lift will always be much greater than drag up to and including the stalling angle. Remember the stalling angle is the angle above which a given aerofoil will stall. Induced Drag is influenced by the aspect ratio of the wing, the higher the aspect ratio for a given wing area the less the induced drag produced Induced drag is always greatest towards the wing tip where the tip vortex is generated by air flowing from the underside of the wing to the upper surface, where it then flows aft and down behind the wing and tends to converge behind the aircraft. It can also be said the flow on the upper surface of the wing tends to flow aft and towards the wing root, and on the undersurface of the wing, aft and towards the wing tip, as a direct result of the influence of the vortex at the wing tip. The flow towards the root and tip on the upper and lower surfaces cause numerous vortices to form at the trailing edge of the wing. The greater the chord length at the wing tip the more intense the tip vortex becomes and so the greater the induced drag. Hence a high aspect ratio wing with a long span and a short chord will Produce less induced drag than a low aspect ratio wing with a short span and a long chord. The Lift/Drag ratio of an aerofoil increases rapidly up to approximately 3°to 4°at which angles, the lift is some 24 times the drag. The ratio then falls progressively until at the stalling angle, approximately 15°, the lift may only be 10 or 12 times as great as the drag. Above the stalling angle the ratio falls still further until an angle of attack of 90°is reached when lift will be zero. The best all round angie of attack is 3°to 4°wher e the Lift/Drag ratio is greatest, and this angle of attack is also known as the optimum angle of attack. Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2-31 (evry a Sateent TTS Integrated Training System ‘pane? fe hap ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe clubs pro,com question practice aa Itis also important to note that a cambered aerofoil, even at zero angle of attack will produce some lift and some drag. Even at some negative angles of attack a cambered aerofoil will produce some lift and drag. But remember, a symmetrical aerofoil at zero angle of attack will produce no lift but some drag. To obtain a good understanding of aerodynamics it is important to interrelate the various points that are made at each stage and to avoid considering them as separate entities. 2-32 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics a ‘TTS Integrated Training System oowmatty be aaron, © Copyright 2011 "snoapn2oetIntegrated Training System yd in association withthe en question practice aid Lift Introduction Ithhas been shown that if a streamlined body is placed in a moving airstream it produces drag, a force in the direction of the airflow. It should be noted that the streamlined body we were ‘examining was symmetrical in shape. This drag force was the total force produced by the ‘streamlined body. If we now incline the streamlined body at a small angle to the airflow the total force is now no longer in the direction of the airflow and this is illustrated in Figure 2.31. The total force can now be resolved into two forces, drag, and the one at right angles to it, lift. Resultant Angle of 4°” ‘Attack Figure 2.31 — Resultant of Lift and Drag The diagram may give the impression that the lift and drag forces are approximately equal, but it has only been drawn this way for the sake of clarity. An aerofoil section in fact, produces lift many times greater than the value of drag it also produces. Bernoulli's theorem indicated that there will be a reduction in pressure over the upper surface of the wing; this reduction provides approximately two thirds of the lift produced by a wing. The general pressure distribution over the surfaces of a wing at a small angle of attack is illustrated in Figure 2.32. Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2-33 tpvrodoy to Sater ‘TTS Integrated Training System Serge 2 of hat ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Darignl in association wit the celubegpro.cor question practos aid Stagnation aoe Boint AeoA 4 4 AB . co: Figure 2.32 (a) - Pressure distribution around an aerofoil at a low angle of attack Pressure distribution The upper surface of the wing produces a considerable reduction in pressure but the lower ‘surfaces produce a mixture of increase and decrease in pressure as well. The detail of Figure 2.32 shows that at the leading edge of the wing, point A, the full pressure is felt, this being the stagnation point. As the air moves over the upper surface of the wing, towards station B, it is approaching an area of lower pressure and at station B the pressure is just atmospheric or static, Past station B the pressure steadily reduces until it reaches its minimum value at C as indicated by the longest vector, and after C as the air moves towards the trailing edge of the wing the pressure, although below static pressure, is now gradually increasing. The fact that the air travelling from C towards D at the trailing edge is now moving against an adverse pressure gradient is of considerable importance when we come to discuss stalling. On the under-surface of the wing at point A the pressure was above static, in fact the full dynamic pressure was felt there and to some extent an increase in pressure is felt on the under-surface of the wing up to about point E. Thereafter the wing under-surface produces a small venturi of its own which gives a reduction in pressure, and in order to limit this reduction the under-surface of the wing is given considerably less curvature than the upper. The pressure distribution as shown in Figure 2.32 (a), is for a comparatively small angle of attack, say about 4°C. Changes in the angle of attack of the aerofoil produce very considerable changes in the pressure distribution and Figure 2.32 (b) illustrates the pressure pattern at a high angle of attack, say about 12° 2-34 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS itggaod raring Sytem perieamel Scoprant aor! osIntegrated Training System Designed in association wih tha clubéépr0.com quastion practice ad Figure 2.32 (b) — Pressure distribution around an aerofoil at a high angle of attack Pressure gradients The most obvious difference between Figure 2.32 (b) and (a) is the change of shape of the below static pressure on top of the wing. The main feature of this new shape is that the point of minimum pressure is very much nearer the leading edge of the wing than it was before. This means that the air traveling from C to the trailing edge of the wing has to deal with a very much longer and larger adverse pressure gradient. The only means available to the air to travel against this adverse pressure gradient is its own kinetic energy — its energy of motion, and if that adverse pressure gradient proves to be too great for the kinetic energy of the air, the flow will in fact break away from the wing. On the undersurface of the wing the effect of the increase in pressure is enhanced, thus providing more lift and the small amount of negative pressure towards the trailing edge has been reduced. The overall effect of the increase in the angle of attack is to increase lift but this process can only be carried out to a certain point and when this, point is reached, the wing stalls. The relationship between the angle of attack and lift is illustrated below. It can be seen that there is a steady increase in lift as the angle of attack increases and then a sudden decrease at the stalling angle which occurs at about 16°. Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2-35 nn ea TTS Integrated Training System page 2 ms rap ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System ow ‘lube6pro.com question practice ait Lift Equation The basic factor controlling the value of lift is dynamic pressure. The equation for this, as already noted, is: Liftu % Vv? The size of a wing will obviously affect the amount of lift produced and this must therefore be added to the equation: Liftu % V°S, where S is the wing area. The shape of a wing will also influence the amount of lift that can be generated and this produces a factor, dependent upon the cross-sectional area of the wing, called the coefficient of lift, C_. As demonstrated with angle of attack this will have an influence upon the amount of lift generated. The coefficient of lift is in fact derivative of the wing shape and its angle of attack. The full lift equation can therefore be written: Lift=% V’SC, The shape of the lift curve for any wing will be more or less the same but it should be noted that the higher the camber of the wing the greater the lift it will develop. This is illustrated in Figure 2.34 where a cambered section is compared to a symmetrical section. A point of interest is that although the cambered section still generates lift at a zero angle of attack the symmetrical section does not. Angle of tack Figure 2.34 — Lift curves for cambered and symmetrical aerofoils 2-36 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics — ‘TTS Integrated Training System severe ont © Copyright 2011 ‘nage ts aneIntegrated Training System Designed in a8sociaion with the ‘lubé6pro.com question practice aid if/Drag Ratio The total resultant force derived from airflow over a wing can be resolved into two forces, lift and drag. The whole object of the exercise is of course to produce lift and in an ideal situation would be done without incurring drag. Unfortunately, this is never possible but it is of great importance to know the ratio between lift and drag so that the aircraft can be designed to provide the maximum amount of lift for the minimum amount of drag. Lift and drag vary with the angle of attack and the variations of these two are shown in Figure 2.35 and 2.36. t 1 t G Angle of — — — mee Figure 2.35 — C, relationship with Angle of Attack ox Usual J | Angles of Fight 028 om 020 Cy onz 08 oe | | I | i -O e 11 20 ‘Angle of Atack Figure 2.36 — Co relationship with Angle of Attack Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2.37 (ord bye Sarort TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2011 ape 2 he apeIntegrated Training System ope com ueson prac oi If these two figures are combined mathematically they produce a curve as shown in Figure 2.37. Itcan be seen that there is a steady increase in the lift/drag ratio, which is what is desirable, until an angle of attack of about 4° Thereafter th e situation deteriorates as the lift/drag ratio lessens until, at an angle of attack of around 15°, it tails right off, this being the stalling angle. The highest point on this curve where we are getting the largest amount of lift for the smallest amount of drag, occurs at about 4° and this is therefore the optimum angle of attack. Obviously, ‘the combination of most lift for least drag is the most efficient and why aircraft are usually flown at the optimum angle of attack. Angle of Attack Figure 2.37 — Lift/Drag ratio relationship with Angle of Attack Movement of the Centre of Pressure Previously the centre of pressure was defined as that point on the chord line through which the lift can be considered to act. The vector representing lift through the centre of pressure passes through the point of minimum pressure on the upper surface of the aerofoil. This is illustrated in Figure 2.38. Conte of Pressure Figure 2.38 — Centre of Pressure of an aerofoil 2-38 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS Integrated Training System nvenotby tm sane ©Copyright 2011 age 2 otis peIntegrated Training System Designed in club66pr0.com que Spanwise Distribution of Pressure The amount of lift produced by the upper surface of the wing will gradually decrease from root to tip. This means that although the pressure on top of the wing is all below static pressure, it is much lower near the root than it is near the tip. On the underside of the wing the reverse applies and the pressure near the root is much higher than it is near the tip. Looked at in plan view, this, will cause the air flowing over the upper surface of the wing to be deflected inwards and the air flowing over the underside of the wing to be deflected outwards. This is illustrated in Figure 2.39. Pressure Gradient Figure 2.39 — Wing tip and trailing edge vortices When the two airflows meet at the trailing edge of the wing they are moving in different directions and the result is to form a sheet of vortices. If one were to be able to see the air and stand behind the trailing edge of the wing, the vortices on the right-hand wing would be rotating anticlockwise and on the left-hand wing rotating clockwise. The result of these vortices is to impart a downward velocity to the airflow. This downward movement of the air as it passes over the trailing edge of the wing is called downwash. Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2-39 ovr by te dateront TTS integrated Training System Sage fe oho ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Designed in association with the o.com question practice ald <——} c Figure 2.41 — Pressure reduction at a high angle of attack As angle of attack is increased however, the minimum pressure point moves forward and the distance B to C increases until at the stalling angle, it covers most of the wing. This is illustrated in Figure 2.41. When the angle of attack reaches a certain value the air runs out of kinetic energy and breaks away from the surface of the wing in a random manner. Lift decreases sharply and drag increases considerably. Alleviation Various design features can be incorporated in the wing which will assist in ensuring that the root of the wing stalls before the tip. These are: The wing may be twisted so that the tip is at a smaller angle of incidence than the root, which will ensure that the root reaches its stalling angle before the tip. This is known as ‘Wash-out’, The cross-section of the wing tip may be given a higher camber than the root, which will give it a higher coetticient of lift. A tall-inducer may be fitted to the wing root as illustrated in Figure 2.42. These strips reduce the effective camber of the root. This reduces its coefficient of lift and will cause it to stall before the tip. 2-42 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS integrated Training System evenady te aero © Copyright 2011 rage peIntegrated Training System ve: ped in with the club6pr0.com euestion practice aid inducer Figure 2.42 — Stall inducer (or “stall strip’) Engine Power Effect If engine power is on there will be a reduction of stalling speed compared with the power-off stalling speed. With propeller-driven aircraft this is due to: Vertical component thrust The propeller slipstream over the wings. Altitude Effect In straight and level flight at the stall, for a given wing area, cross-section and weight, the lift is of fixed value. This is a most fortunate occurrence when one considers the lift equation: Lift=% V°SC; + angle of attack As lift at the stall is a fixed value and angle of attack, wing area and coefficient of lift are also constant, the total value of % V’ must also be constant. % V"is dynamic pressure shown on the airspeed indicator and it is for this reason that for a given weight an aircraft will always stall at the same indicated airspeed regardless of height. Weight Effect Any change of weight will require a different value of lift for straight and level flight, an increase in weight requiring an increase in lift. At the stalling angle in level flight, the greater the weight the more the lft required and, therefore, the higher the stalling speed. A useful rule of thumb in this contest is that the percentage increase in stalling speed is half the percentage increase in weight. Thus: Weight 2000 Ib, normal stalling speed 100 kt. Weight 2200 Ib, percentage increase 10%, stalling speed increases 5%, i.e. to 105kt. Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2-43 tovemacty fe Sateen ‘TTS Integrated Training System roma ‘© Copyright 2011,Integrated Training System Designed in association with tho clubopo.com question practon ald Loading in Turns The same effect is produced during manoeuvres, which produce a G loading, for instance, turns. During a turn the lift not only has to balance the weight but also the centrifuga! force resulting from the aircraft moving in a curved path. Because of this the lift has to be greater than in level flight and, provided the speed is kept constant, the only way that this extra lift can be derived is by an increase in angle of attack. This increase in angle of attack puts the aircraft wing nearer to the stalling angle. The result of having to produce effectively more lift from the wings is that the aircraft's weight appears to be increased, hence the expression G loading. The increase in stalling speed is calculated by taking the normal stalling speed in level flight for the aircraft's weight and multiplying it by the square root of the G loading. For example: Normal stalling speed 100 kt, 100 x V2 100 x 1.4 140 kt. Stalling speed in a 2G tum Further details of calculating staling speeds are given later in this chapter. Effect of Shape A wing does not normally stall over its entire length simultaneously. The stall begins at one part of the wing and then spreads. The main factor governing where the stall begins is the shape of the wing, and will be dealt with in a later section. It is plainly undesirable that a wing stalls from its tip first as this can lead to control difficulties. Any tendency to drop a wing at the stall may well lead to spinning. Further advantages of having a wing stall from its root rather than tip first. are that aileron control can be maintained up to the point of full stall and the separated airflow from the wing root will cause buffet over the tail which serves to act as a stall warning When the angle of attack increases to high values the upward inclination of the thrust line provides a vertical component which acts in concert with the lift to support the aircraft's weight. The slipstream from the propeller increases the speed of the air flowing over the wing, thus delaying the stall. Caution should be exercised in power-on stalls as their effect may result ina tip stall on a wing which normally stalls from the root. 244 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics voate TTS Integrated Training System gomnadby escent © Copyright 2011 nage at ecIntegrated Training System Designed in association with the club66pr0.com au 2 aid Centre of Gravity Position Effect The stalling speed will be affected by the position of the centre of gravity. If the centre of gravity is forward of the centre of pressure a down-load is required from the horizontal stabilizer. The effect of this is that the lift is supporting not only the weight through the centre of gravity but also the down-load on the tail, therefore the lift will have to be higher and in turn the stalling speed will be higher. The nearer that the centre of gravity approaches to the centre of pressure, the less will be the down-load and the stalling speed will consequently be reduced. Wing tt Tall tim Fwd CG fimit poe Bee LA _ Ee Tall tin Operational CG Figure 2.43 — Change in the position of Centre of Gravity — Effect on stall Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2-45 proc te saree TTS integrated Traling System Sinotdnenper ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System op’ Designed in association with he a ctu. J = Icing Effect The effect of ice formation on a wing is to corrupt the camber of the wing and so considerably to. reduce the coefficient of lift. This can be brought about by extremely thin layers of ice — even hoar frost — and the utmost care must be taken to de-ice the wings of an aircraft prior to takeoff if there is any suggestion that ice may be present on the wings. The drastic effect of ice in reducing the coefficient of lift and, as a result, causing the stalling speed to be much higher than normal is illustrated in Figure 2.44. | ig 4. Zu 3 163 a, ig es 4 ot a ANGLE OF ATTACK Figure 2.44 — Stall angle with and without icing Stall Warning Devices Itis not normal to have an angle of attack indicator on the flight deck; it is usual instead to have some form of stall warning alarm operated by a switch which is sensitive to angle of attack. The warning may take the following forms: A visual warning, example a flashing light. Audible warnings, example a horn. A stick shaker. Spinning Following a stall involving a wing drop, a spin may develop. Referring to Figure 2.45, the wing which drops increases its effective angle of attack due to having acquired a downward velocity. This increase in angle of attack causes a further decrease in lift and an increase in drag. The up-going wing, however, experiences a decrease in angle of attack and an increase in lift. As the lift has been reduced on the downgoing wing it will continue to drop and any attempt to raise it by the use of ailerons merely aggravates the situation because it will increase the angle of attack still further. At the same time the increase in drag on the downgoing wing, coupled with a decrease in drag on the up-going wing, will produce a yawing moment towards the dropped wing. From this it can be seen that the aircraft will roll and yaw towards the dropped wing, and this motion may be self-sustaining. If itis self-sustaining, the motion is described as a spin 2-46 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TIS itgrated Training System tas eur Scooyightzot rattanIntegrated Training System Designod ina cluecépre cam guration ion with the ee a INCREASED V INCREASED L WING RISE REDUCED V = REDUCED L = WING DROP DROPPING WING i _ BECOMES STALLED f L a OR MORE STALLED 2 > oo « < 18° RISING WING BECOMES LESS R a R STALLED 16° Z Figure 2.45 — Stall developing into a spin Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2-47 ry ‘TTS Integrated Training System Setpage shoe ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System py ed in association with the XI pro. com stn paces ad The Deep Stall Conventional recovery from a stall is by easing the stick forward to tower the nose and then applying power. However, some aircraft of current design will enter into what is known as a deep stall, or a super-stall, from which normal recovery is not possible. Broadly speaking, these aircraft have swept back wings, high speed wing sections and a high T-tail. The airflow following a stall in a conventional aircraft is illustrated in Figure 2.46. It can be seen that although the air has broken away in a random manner from the upper surface of the wing, the horizontal stabilizer and the elevators are still in undisturbed air. The result of this is that the horizontal stabilizer will produce a sharp nose down pitch which may be assisted by application of elevator. Figure 2.46 — Effect of aircraft tail configuration on Deep Stall This can be contrasted with the state of affairs when an aircraft with a high T-tail is stalled. This time the separated air from the wings, following the stall, entirely covers the horizontal stabilizer and elevators, virtually reducing their effectiveness to nil. In the case of aircraft with sweep back on the wings, the wing itself may develop a nose up pitching moment after the stall. This is due to the tendency of a swept wing to stall at the tip and so cause the centre of pressure to move forwards. The situation is often aggravated because the aircraft has now acquired a vertical downward velocity which will progressively increase the angle of attack way beyond the stalling angle. Finally, this type of aircraft is often equipped with rear-mounted engines and the effect of turbulent air entering the engine intakes may be to cause them to flame out, causing a complete loss of power. Obviously an aircraft with these characteristics cannot be permitted to stall. When such an aircraft is first built it is equipped with a tail-mounted parachute for use in test flying to bring the nose down in the eventt of it entering a super-stall. For general airline operation, aircratt of this type are fitted with equipment called a stick pusher. This is actuated by an angle of attack sensor on the fuselage (usually de-iced) which senses that the angle of attack is approaching the stall. Signals are then sent to an electro-hydraulic system, the rams of' which physically push the control stick forward, thus preventing the aircraft from entering the stall. 2-48 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics ‘TTS Intogratod Training System evens yt toro {© Copyright 2011 onnage ets peIntegrated Training System a ceogpa.com nuecton procioe ad Stall Speed and Stall Angle Calculation of the stalling speed. During level flight, lft is exactly equal and opposite to the weight. Therefore: () Lift = Weight Theliftformulais: (i) Lit = C% VS It stands to reason that when the C, is maximum, V must be a minimum value (low speed, high angle of attack). This minimum value of velocity is, therefore, the stalling speed (V;), when the CL is at maximum. value. Therefore: (iii) Lift = © Weight=Ciimay% Vs’ S So, rearranging the formula, it becomes: (iv) Weight = Chimay Ve? S Thus, to obtain the V (stalling speed), the formula is so rearranged: Therefore (v) = Ve (C.% transposed) Normal stall speed Wi) Vs = ets ire Factors affecting the stalling speed of an aircraft. 1. Weight 2. Load Factor 3. Wing Area 4, Change in Cymax) 5. Power and Slipstream Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2-49 over y ho ntorent TTS Integrated Training System Eoaye2 lime dente ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Design in association wth ho eluncopre.com question practic ad 1. Weight Any change in the weight of an aircraft will affect the stalling speed. It will be noted from the formula: Vvinan? 8 that if the weight increases, the division thereof by Cimay$ results in an increased stalling speed (Vs). 2. Load Factor Any manoeuvre that requires an increase in total lift without a corresponding increase in wing area, must increase the effective total weight acting on the aerofoils. This apparent weight increase is known as a load factor, which is defined as the ratio of the load acting on the aircraft during the manoeuvre (o the loading acting on the aircraft in straight and level flight. Total Lift __Total Weight Load Factor = es Aircraft Weight Actual Weight ‘As demonstrated in the previous paragraph, any increase in weight results in a higher stalling speed. This new stalling speed may be calculated from the following formula: New V; = Old Vs x ,f Load Factor 3. Wing Area (S) Where increased wing area is obtained by the use of Fowler flaps, the di by an increased value of (S) results in a lower value of V. jon of a given weight 4. Change in Ciumex) The use of flaps increases the C, of that wing. Once again, the division of a given weight by a larger value of C, results in a lower stalling speed. This is the advantage of the use of flap during the landing manoeuvre because it permits the original value of lift to be retained at a lower speed. It is particularly useful in the lowering of the approach speed. 5. Power and Slipstream When power is applied at the stall, the already nose-high attitude produces a vertical component of thrust as shown in Figure 2.47. This consequently reduces the work load (i.e. weight) of the wings and allows a much lower stalling speed to be attained. The slipstream at high power settings provides an extra boost to the stagnating airflow over the aerofoil and thus controls the boundary layer. 2-50 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TIS inograted Training System pemereceeal © Copyngt 2011 san toa