13

Passive Solar
Energy Systems*

INTRODUCTION

Passive solar energy systems use natural, nonmechanical forces-

including sunshine, shading, and breezes-to help heat and cool homes
with little or no use of electrical controls, pumps, or fans.
It should not be assumed that passive solar building heating mea-
sures are less effective or that their application is less widespread than the
active measures. In fact there are few, if any, buildings that would not ben-
efit in comfort and energy cost savings by the use of one or more passive
measures.
Passive heating systems often depend on ”thermal storage mass” to
absorb and store the sun’s energy for use within a building. Storage mass
includes materials such as rock, stone, concrete or water, which store large
quantities of heat as they absorb the sun’s energy. This storage is accompa-
nied by a moderate rise in temperature-the larger the temperature rise,
the greater the energy stored. Later, as the thermal storage mass cools, the
stored heat is released to heat the living space. ”Phase change” materials
may also be used for storage.
New passive buildings are generally integrated into their sites. Their
design takes advantage of the natural environment to heat and cool the
building by natural means. For example, evergreen trees are planted on
the north side for winter protection, and deciduous trees on the south side
to heighten winter sun access. Hillsides are used as earth berms that insu-
late the building. Indigenous materials, such as adobe or rocks are used for
thermal mass and insulation. Southerly orientation and glazing contribute
direct solar gain for heating. Thermal mass on or near south glazing con-

*Source:Residential Conservation Service Auditor Training Manual.

345
346 Handbook of Energy Engineering

tributes to heating as well. Shading devices and overhangs are used to

keep out the high summer sun when cooling is needed, and the thermal
mass absorbs heat, effectively cooling the structure. Many of these passive
features can be retrofitted to appropriately oriented existing structures.
Passive systems may require some attention from building occu-
pants to perform at their peak. For example, someone may have to slide
insulation into place to close off windows at night or during periods of
extended cloud cover to reduce heat losses. Also, vents may have to be
opened to control heat flow.
Well-designed passive buildings incorporate energy-saving features
beyond standard improvements (insulation, weather stripping and caulk-
ing). Depending on the specific location and design of the building, a va-
riety of methods are suitable for additional energy savings in retrofit situ-
ations. For example, vestibules, now called airlock entries, are reappear-
ing as a popular way to keep incoming blasts of cold or hot outside air to
a minimum. Effective placement of vegetation such as trees, shrubs and
vines is a natural, simple way to protect a building from temperature ex-
tremes.
This chapter discusses five passive solar systems:

Thermosyphon domestic hot water systems.

Direct gain glazing systems.
Indirect gain systems.
Sunspaces.
Window heat gain retardant devices.

THERMOSYPHON DOMESTIC
HOT WATER SYSTEMS

Thermosyphon systems are generally considered to be passive mea-

sures most suitable for warm climates.

DIRECT GAIN GLAZING SYSTEMS

In direct gain systems, the building itself is a solar collector. Direct

gain in its simplest form is probably the easiest way to apply solar energy
to any building. It simply involves letting the sun shine in through added
Passive Solar Energy Systems 347

south-facing windows, thereby heating space directly. Nearly all of the

sunlight entering a room is immediately converted to heat.
Thermal mass for storing excess heat (such as a concrete floor) may
be located with direct exposure to the sunlight or in some other part of the
building. All materials can store heat, but some store more than others.
Table 13-1lists the heat capacities (ability to store heat) of some common
materials. Of the materials listed, air holds the least amount of heat and
water the most.

Table 13-1. Heat Capacities of Common Materials

Heat Capacity
Material (Btulft3-"F)

Air (75'F) ........................................................................................... 0.018

Clay .................................................................................................. 13.9
Sand.................................................................................................. 18.1
Gypsum ........................................................................................... 20.3
Limestone ....................................................................................... .22.4
Wood, oak........................................................................................ 26.8
Glass ................................................................................................. 27.7
Brick ................................................................................................. 28
Concrete.......................................................................................... .28
Asphalt ............................................................................................ 29
Aluminum ....................................................................................... 36.6
Marble .............................................................................................. 38
Copper ............................................................................................. 51.2
Iron ................................................................................................... 55
Water ................................................................................................ 62.5

To reduce heat loss and thus increase overall thermal performance,

insulation may be placed next to the glass at night, either inside or out-
side. During the heating season, south-facingglass takes advantage of the
sun's low position in the sky; in the summer when the sun is high in the
sky, the glass may be shaded by overhangs or foliage. Both east and west
glass, even in cold climates, can admit somewhat more solar energy than
they lose if nighttime insulation is used. North glazing should be kept at a
minimum.
Vertical glass admits almost as much heat during the winter as tilted
glass (skylights) and is much easier to insulate and keep clean; also, ver-
tical glass does not break as easily. Many codes require tilted glass to be
tempered, which is more expensive than regular window glass.
South-facing windows that are designed to distribute heat to as
348 Handbook of Energy Engineering

much of the building as possible are preferred. Clerestory windows with

adequate overhangs should be considered before skylights.
If possible, south-facingwindows that are exposed to the sun should
be located so that the sunlight falls directly on thermal mass (heavy ma-
sonry fireplaces, masonry floors, water walls, etc.). Structures built with
concrete floors (e.g., slab on grade) are frequently carpeted, eliminating
the exposure of thermal mass. Replacing the carpeting with heavy ceramic
tiles could result in greatly increased solar storage, reduced building heat
load and lower heating bills.
Thermal mass provides nighttime heating by reradiating stored heat
to living space. Thermal mass also tempers temperature swings that can
occur. Some people will not want nighttime heating if it means altering
their space to provide storage; others will not mind the changes necessary
to provide some nighttime heating, to prevent overheating and to moder-
ate temperature variations.

Applications
Addition of south-facing glazing should be considered as a poten-
tial passive solar retrofit wherever south-facingwalls are available and an
outside view is desired. Direct gain systems help to heat buildings.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Glass is relatively inexpensive, widely available and thoroughly test-
ed. The overall direct gain system can be one of the least expensive means
of solar heating, the simplest solar energy system to conceptualize and the
easiest to build. In many instances, it can be achieved by simply enlarging
existing windows. Direct gain systems, besides heating the interior, provide
natural lighting and a view. To meet a small fraction of the heating needs of
a building, direct gain systems do not necessarily need thermal storage.
On the other hand, ultraviolet radiation in the sunlight can degrade
fabrics and photographs. If the desire is to achieve large energy savings,
then relatively large glazing areas and correspondingly large amounts of
thermal mass are required to decrease temperature swings. Thermal mass
can be expensive, unless it serves a structural purpose. Interior daily tem-
perature swings of 15 to 20 degrees are common even with thermal mass.

Construction Terms
ClerestonpVertical window placed high in wall near eaves; used for
light, heat gain, and ventilation.
Passive Solar Energy Systems 349

Double Glazed-A frame with two panes of transparent glazing with

space between the panes.
Fenestration-The arrangement, proportioning, and design of win-
dows or doors in a building.
Glazing-Transparent or translucent material, generally glass or
plastic, used to cover a window opening in a building.
Header-A horizontal structural member over an opening used to
support the load above the opening.
Lite-A single pane of glazing.
Movable Insulation-Insulation (such as shutters, panels, curtains, or
reflective foil draperies) that can be moved manually or by mechanical
means.
Shading Coeficient-The ratio of the solar heat gain through a specific
glazing system to the total solar heat gain through a single layer of clear
double-strength glass.
Tempered Glazing-Glazing that has been specially treated to resist
breakage.
Thermal Mass-Any material used to store the sun’s heat or the
night‘s coolness. Water, concrete, and rock are common choices for ther-
mal mass. In winter, thermal mass stores solar energy collected during the
day and releases it during sunless periods (nights or cloudy days). In sum-
mer, thermal mass absorbs excess daytime heat, and ventilation allows it
to be discharged to the outdoors at night.
Thermal Storage Floors, Ceilings, and Interior Walls-Floors, ceilings,
and interior walls that contain thermal mass and are used to collect and/
or store heat in solar energy systems. They can be exposed to sun directly
or receive only indirect solar heat to be effective.

INDIRECT GAIN GLAZING SYSTEMS

Any passive heating system that uses some intermediary material

for heat collection and/or storage before passing that heat on to its desired
place of use can be called an indirect passive system. The term ”indirect
gain systems” means the use of panels of insulated glass, fiberglass or
other transparent substances that direct the sun’s rays onto specially con-
structed thermal walls, ceilings, rockbeds, or containers of water or other
fluids where heat is stored and radiated.
350 Handbook of Energy Engineering

Trombe Wall
The Trombe wall uses a heat storage mass placed between glass and
the space to be heated. Per unit of thermal storage mass used, the Trombe
wall makes the best use of the material. While the temperature swing in
the material is great, the temperature variation in the heated space is small.
See Figure 13-1 for some features of a Trombe wall.

Water Wall
The water wall uses the same principle as the Trombe wall and in-
volves replacing the existing wall, or parts of it, with containers that hold
water. The water mass then stores heat during the day and releases the
heat as needed.

Healing

C"oli,rg

Figure 13-1. Trombe Wall: Heating and Cooling

Passive Solar Energy Systems 352

Thermosyphon Air Panels (TAP)

TAP systems are often called ”day heaters” because of their effec-
tive use during the day, since they have no storage. They are similar in
appearance to active flat-plate collectors and are often mounted vertically.
A TAP system has one or more glazings of glass or plastic, an air space,
an absorber, another air space and (often) an insulated backing. Air flows
naturally up in front of, behind or through the absorber and re-enters the
building through a vent at the top. Figure 13-2 displays structural features
of TAP systems.

Applications
Trombe walls, water walls and thermosyphon air panel systems all
provide heat. Each system requires south-facing opaque walls with solar
access.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Trombe and water walls have several advantages:
Glare and ultraviolet degradation of fabrics are not problems.
Temperature swings in the living space are lower than with direct
gain or convective loop systems.
The time delay between the absorption of solar radiant energy by the
surface and the delivery of the resulting heat to the space provides
warmth in the evening.

Trombe and water walls have the following disadvantages:

Two south walls (a glazed wall and a mass wall) are needed.
Massive walls are not often found in residential construction (al-
though thermal storage walls may be the least expensive way to

Figure 13-2. Airflow through a TAP System

352 Handbook of Energy Engineering

achieve the required thermal storage since they are compactly lo-
cated behind the glass).
In cold climates, considerableheat is lost to the outside from the warm
wall through the glazing unless the glazing is insulated at night.

Thermosyphon Air Panels (TAP) systems have the following advan-

tages:
Glare and ultraviolet degradation of fabrics are not problems.
TAPs provide one of the least expensive ways to collect solar heat.
To provide a small fraction of the heating needs of a building, ther-
mal storage is not needed.
TAPs are easily incorporated onto south facades.
TAPs are readily adaptable to existing buildings and require less
skill for resident installation.
Because the collector can be thermally isolated from the building in-
terior, night heat losses are lower than for any other uninsulated pas-
sive system.

TAP systems have the following disadvantages:

The collector is an obvious add-on device.
Both careful engineering and construction are required to ensure
proper airflows, air seals and adequate thermal isolation at night.
The thermal energy is delivered as warmed air-it is difficult to store
this heat for later retrieval because air transfers heat poorly to other
mass.
It's often impractical to add much collector area.
Occupant use patterns, and natural airflows within the structure will
strongly affect the usability of energy delivered; siting should thus
be thoughtful and creative.

ConstructionTerms
Absorber-The surface in a collector that absorbs solar radiation and
converts it to heat energy. Generally, matte black surfaces are good absorb-
ers and emitters of thermal radiation, while white and metallic or shiny
surfaces are not.
Buckdraft Dumper-A damper designed to allow air flow in only one
direction.
Damper-A device used to vary the volume of air passing through an
air outlet, inlet or duct.
Passive Solar Energy Systems 353

Drum Wall-A type of thermal storage wall in which the thermal

mass is large metal drums filled with a storage medium, usually water.
Masonry-Stone, brick rammed earth, adobe, ceramic, hollow tile,
concrete block, gypsum block or other similar building units or materi-
als, or a combination thereof, bonded together with mortar to form a wall,
pier, floor, roof or similar form.
Solid Masony-Masonry in which there are no voids; for instance,
concrete block with filled cores.
Thermal Lag-The ability of materials to delay the transmission of
heat; can be used interchangeably with time lag.
Trombe Wall (or Solar Mass Wall)-A massive wall that absorbs col-
lected solar heat and holds it until it is needed to heat the interior.

SOLARIA/SUNSPACESYSTEMS

The terms "sunspaces" and "greenhouses" are both commonly used

to refer to this measure; they are used interchangeably in this discussion.
Sunspaces could be considered a form of direct gain system. Sunlight is
absorbed in the sunspace by thermal storage mass (such as bricks or water
in containers), which then radiates heat. Existing doors and windows are
frequently used to allow heated greenhouse air to flow into interior living
spaces. The sunspace can be sealed off from the rest when too much heat
is gathered or when there is insufficient sunlight to contribute to heating.
Closing doors and windows between interior space and the sunspace at
night or on particularly cloudy days may also be necessary.
Although single glazing for sunspaces will result in a maximum
light transmission for plant growth and solar gain, single glass will permit
a large amount of heat loss at night. In northern climates, double glazing
will retard this heat loss. Additionally, movable insulation can be applied
to prevent nighttime heat loss.
Thermal mass can be expensive. Therefore, if it can be reduced or
eliminated and wider temperature fluctuations allowed, the cost of a sun-
space will be substantially less. However, system efficiency will be re-
duced.
A greenhouse can be thought of as a buffer zone between the outside
environment and the inside of the building. In this buffer zone, direct so-
lar gain causes wide temperature fluctuations and a higher temperature
indoors than outdoors at virtually all times of the day. These higher in-
354 Handbook of Energy Engineering

door temperatures buffer the adjacent living area, reduce building heat
loss and can be used immediately to help heat living area.
The sunspace is a versatile passive solar measure. It can be added
to many different architectural designs with pleasing results. Sunspaces
are equally compatible with expensive and inexpensive homes. Figure 13-
3 illustrates attached retrofit sunspaces. Figure 13-4 illustrates a retrofit
greenhouse for a mobile home.
The four basic methods for transferring thermal energy from the
greenhouse into interior living space are:

Direct solar transmission.

Direct air exchange.
Conduction through common walls.
Storage in and transfer from gravel beds or other thermal mass.

Figure 13-5 illustrates an example of thermal mass in the form of wa-

ter drums. These storage methods are often used in combination. For ex-

Attached "' -
Pit Greenhouse

Figure 13-3. Attached Retrofit Greenhouses

Passive Solar Energy Systems 355

8O-GaI. Hot Water

Horizontal
Melal Roller Shade
Insulated

Mobile Home
Crank Mechanism
lor Sun Control Shade

Warm

cool

4m Cooling

Mobile Home
I

Heating

Figure 13-4. Attached Greenhouse on a Mobile Hole

Insuhtad Wall

Figure 13-5. Example of Storage in an Attached Greenhouse

356 Handbook of Energy Engineering

ample, in addition to a common heat storage wall to conduct heat from the
greenhouse to the building, forced or natural air flow (direct air exchange)
can also be used.

Applications
A sunspace can provide heat and additional living space, as well as
the opportunity to grow vegetables during most of the year, in nearly all
climates. Building a sunspace is a good do-it-yourself project, especially
for small groups of neighbors and friends.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Greenhouses have several advantages:
Temperature swings in adjacent living spaces are moderated.
They provide space for growing food and other plants. They reduce
heat loss from buildings by acting as a buffer zone.
They are readily adaptable to most existing residential buildings.
Since the greenhouse serves more than one function, it can be a natu-
ral and integrated part of the building design.

Because sunspaces are a form of direct gain system, their greatest

disadvantage is that a poor design can lead to wide indoor temperature
fluctuations. To combat this problem, indirect gain elements are often
combined with direct gain, e.g., Trombe walls or water walls, to provide
the tempering effect of thermal mass. In general, greenhouses are most
economical when they have purposes in addition to providing heat and
are built to a standard of quality that will enhance the functional and ap-
praised value of the home.
A second consideration is having maximum sunlight penetration in
the winter (for heat) and less penetration in the summer (to prevent over-
heating). To achieve this, a rule of thumb of latitude k15" is applicable for
optimal greenhouse glazing tilt, with appropriate shading.
Aesthetics can also be a concern with sunspaces. The architectural
lines of a house need to be aesthetically matched. Sometimes this leads to
an extreme tilt and sometimes no tilt. In each case, interior design (addi-
tion or subtraction of thermal mass, outside venting, movable insulation,
etc.) has to compensate for poor design from a passive solar energy point
of view.
A fourth concern is movable insulation, which is necessary in most
cases for retention of winter heat gain.
Passive Solar Energy Systems 357

WINDOW HEAT GAIN RETARDANTS

Shading is the most effective method of reducing heat gain through

transparent materials, and, ideally, a shading device should allow sun-
light in during the winter. The term "window heat gain retardants" means
mechanisms that significantly reduce summer heat gain through south-
facing windows (* 45"of true south) by use of devices such as awnings, in-
sulated roll-up shades, metal or plastic solar screens, or movable rigid in-
sulation. Included as window heat gain retardants (WHGR)are any devic-
es that provide shading. Other examples of these devices are sunscreens,
exterior roll blinds, exterior shutters, Venetian blinds, film shades, opaque
rolls and insulating shutters and blinds.
Internal shading can reduce the amount of heat dispersed within a
space. The most common internal shading devices are Venetian blinds,
vertical blinds, shades, draperies, reflective films and shutters. These de-
vices can reject up to 65% of the solar radiation that strikes the glass di-
rectly.
External shading is more effective than internal shading; it can keep
up to 95%of the solar radiation from entering the building (100% if opaque
shutters are used). Many devices are available for exterior shading. Hori-
zontal overhangs, with fixed and movable elements, are very effective on
south windows, because the sun is highest as it approaches due south dur-
ing midday. The sun also is higher in summer than in winter, and the over-
hang can be positioned to screen the sun in summer but admit it in win-
ter. On east or west elevations, however, the sun's angle is too low to be
blocked out by horizontal overhangs, and properly oriented vertical lou-
vers have proved more beneficial. If the louvers are movable, the user can
control them to provide a better view or greater admission of light when
the sun is located on the opposite face of the building. Trees, vines, and
adjacent buildings may also provide shade, depending on their proximity,
height and orientation. Many summer shading devices can also provide
window insulation in the winter. Care should be taken in their application
so that beneficial winter solar heat gain is not lost. As an example, heat
reflecting material may work best year-round if it is mounted on a retract-
able shade.

Applications
Window heat gain retardants help keep buildings cool in summer.
They should be considered wherever summer solar heat gain through
358 Handbook of Energy Engineering

windows causes overheating. More particularly, substantial dollar (and

resource) savings are possible when retardants are used to diminish ex-
penses for air conditioning.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Any heat gain retardant device has advantages and disadvantages
and to list all of them for the wide range of shading devices would be im-
practical. Instead, here are a few key ones for each device.
For sunscreens, visibility can remain as high as 86% while providing
daytime privacy. Sunscreens block solar radiation reflected from nearby
objects more effectively than other measures. However, drapes or blinds
must be used for privacy at night.
With an exterior roll blind, energy-conserving effects can be achieved
year-round. In summer, shading is provided by day and ventilation by
night (with the blind raised). In winter, insulation is provided by night
with the blind lowered, and solar gain by day with the blind raised. How-
ever, the blind cannot be tilted to provide a view.
For exterior shutters and blinds, protection of windows is provid-
ed from storm damage, vandalism, or intrusion. However, operation and
maintenance of exterior devices can be time-consuming.
For awnings, ease of installation and attractiveness are advantages.
However, they are subject to wind damage and they must be maintained.
New fabric may be necessary every four to eight years if fabric awnings
are used instead of more permanent wood or metal awnings.

Construction Terms
Awning-A shading device, usually movable, used over the exterior
of a window.
Heat Rejective and Heat Absorbing Window or Door Materials -Glaz-
ing, films or coating applied to existing windows or doors; they have ex-
ceptional heat absorbing or heat reflecting properties.
Overhang-A horizontal or vertical projection over or beside a win-
dow used to selectively shade the window or door on a yearly basis.
Shading Device-A covering that blocks the passage of solar radia-
tion; common shading devices consist of awnings, overhangs, or trees.
Shutter-Movable cover or screen for a window or door.