SPM CHEMISTRY COMPACT NOTES powered by Andrew Choo FORM 4 CHAPTER 2 MATTER AND STRUCTURE OF THE ATOMS 2.1 Kinetic Theory of Matter made up of tiny and discrete particles 1. The higher the temperature, the higher the kinetic energy of the particles [move faster] 2. Melting point is a fixed temperature where a solid changes to liquid. Boiling point is a fixed temperature where a liquid changes to gas Property Solid Gas Diagram of the C O particles ° Arrangement of _| Very closely closely packed but not | very far apart particles packedinan | in an orderly manner. | from one orderly manner. another, Movement of Only vibrate and | vibrate,rotate and vibrate, rotate particles rotate at their —_| move randomly and move freely. fxed position. _| throughout the liquid. Attraction force Very strong Moderately weak Very weak and between particles almost neglible Energy content of particles very low. Moderately very high. Experiment: Melting and Freezing Points of Naphthalene Aim To determine the melting and freezing points of naphthalene Materials : Naphthalene powder and water Apparatus: Boiling tube, beaker, conical flask, thermometer, retort stand with clamp, Bunsen bumer, be nemiiraie tripod stand, wire gauze, stopwatch and glass rod on CE a Procedure: A. Heating of naphthalene 1. Naphthalene powder is filled in a boiling tube until 4 cm height and a thermometer is placed into it. ato, {IH aphtnatene 2. The boiling tube is clamped in a water bath using a 7 Cros retort stand. The naphthalene powder is ensured to be below the water bath level. pen I 3. The water is heated and the naphtalena is stirred slowly with the thermometer. 4. When the temperature of naphthalena reaches 60°C, a stopwatch is started and the temperature of the naphthalene is recorded at 30 seconds interval until the temperature reaches 90°C 5. The results are recorded in a table | — thermometer 1 CES)B, Cooling of naphthalene 1. The boiling tube containing the molten naphthalene Thermometer is removed from the water bath. 2. Itis immediately transferred into a conical flask to be cooled slowly . Bolling tube 3. The stopwatch is started , temperature of naphthalene is recorded at 30 seconds interval until | Naphthalene, drops to 70°C. The content in the boiling tube is volt, stirred continuously to avoid supercooling Conical ask 4. The results are recorded in a table. Results and discussion: A. Heating of naphthalene Temperate (°C) Time (min) _| Temperature (°C) 0 > 0 60 2.0 70 * 3s e 4.0 80 ee 6.0 80 e044 8.0 80 of 10.0 £0 Tame (rin) ° 20 40 60 80 100 Point _| State of matter Explanation A-B | Solid Their kinetic energy increase and vibrate faster. The temperature increases. B—C | Solid and liquid | At point B, the solid naphthalene begins to melt. The temperature remains constant to overcome the forces between particles so that the solid can change into a liquid. C=D | Liquid Their kinetic energy increase and move faster. The temperature increases. B. Cooling of naphthalene Temperature °C) Time (min) _| Temperature (°C) _ 90 0 90 ° - 2.0 85 80) 4.0 80 6.0 80 2 - 8.0 80 10.0 70 o 20 40 60 80 100 Time town) Point | State of matter Explanation H-G | Liquid Heat is released to the surrounding .Lose their kinetic energy and move slower.The temperature decreases. G—F | Liquid and solid | At point G, begins to freeze. The temperature remains constant balanced by the heat energy released during the cooling process. The particles attract one another to form solid. 2 TREEF-E |Solid release heat and vibrate slower. The temperature decreases. Conclusion: The melting and freezing points of napthalene are the same, that is 60°C. ‘An experiment was carried out to determine the melting point of acetamide. - Solid acetamide was heated in a water bath until it melts completely. - Water bath used to ensure even heating. - Stir acetamide continuously during heating to ensure accuracy of the reading. Taken - The melting point of sodium chloride cannot be determined using this method because sodium chloride has a melting point above the maximum temperature of water bath which is 100°C. 2.3 Structure of the Atom Nucleon —{4 number - Valence electrons are electrons in the outermost shell of an atom eat 6 Element | Proton | Electron Froton —[z number | arrangement 4. Proton number: Number of protons in He 2 2 an atom. Li 3 24 2. Nucleon number Cc 6 24 = number of protons + number of ° 8 2.6 neutrons. Mg 12 2.8.2 3. Examples: Al 13 283 Carbon element cl 17 28.7 12,-_ | Nucleon number = 12 K TI aaeA 2LiOH + Hy * Acolourless solution is obtained which turns red litmus blue. Natrium * Metal melts and moves quickly with alittle hissing sound. + Burns with a bright yellow flame * Acolourless solution is obtained which turns red litmus blue. [more reactive than potassium] Kalium + Metal melts and moves vigorously . Produce a ‘pop’ sound and explore + Emits a lilac flame * Acolourless solutions is formed which turns red litmus blue. 2Na + 2H,0 ~ 2NaOH + H, 2K + 2H,O — 2KOH + Hp Rubidium |» Metal melts and burns very brightly. A lot of bubbles are produced. 2Rb + 2H,0 > 2RbOH + H, * Acolorless solution with pH 13.3 is formed Conelusi - Reactivity increases - React with water to produce an alkali solution and hydrogen gas. (Il) The reaction of Group 1 elements with oxygen 1. Chemical equation: Metal X + 0, > Metal oxide X Example: 4X + 0, > 2 X,0 2. Chemical equation: X,0 + HO — 2 XOH [an alkali solution] 12 Se 12as jar containing oxygen Red litmus paper is dipped in the © alkali metal solution formed Procedure: 1. A small size lithium is cut using a pen knife and forceps. 2. The paraffin oil on the surface of lithium is wiped with a filter paper. 3. Lithium is put on the gas jar spoon and is heated strongly until lights up. The burning lithium is put into the gas jar filled with oxygen. 4. Water is poured into the gas jar when reaction stops. A red litimus paper is dipped 5. The observations are recorded. Step 1 to 3 are repeated with sodium and potassium Results: Balanced chemical Element Observation equation Lithium - burns slowly with a red flame. ' = White solid is produced onsen on 6 - Dissoved in ale producing a ware 3 colourless solution. Tou - Tums red litmus paper to blue. ee Cad Natrium, - burns quickly with a yellow flame. In oxygen: - White solid is produced. 4Na +0, > 2.Na,0 - Accolourless solution. In water: - Tums red to blue. Na,O + H,O + 2 NaOH Kalium | - burns very rapidly with a purple flame. | In oxygen: - White solid is produced. 4K +0, +2K,0 - Acolourless solution. In water: - Turns red_to blue. K,O + H,O > 2 KOH Conelusi 1. Reactivity increases when going down the group.Therefore, francium is the most reactive metal Group 1 Li Na K Rb Cs Fr —______________. more reactive 2. React with oxygen to produce a metal oxide which dissolves in water forming colourless alkaline solutions which turn moist red litmus paper blue. 3. The white metal oxide solid also dissolves in sodium hydroxide solution to form a colourless solution which has pH of 9 and is basic. (Ill) Reaction of group 1 elements with chlorine Procedure 1. A small size lithium is cut. The lithium is dried with a filter paper. 2. Lithium is put on the gas jar spoon and is heated strongly until lights up. 3. The burning lithium is put into the gas jar filled with chlorine. 13 MSS 134. The observations are recorded. Step 1 to 3 are repeated with sodium and potassium. Results: Balanced chemical Element Observation equation Lithium | - burns slowly with a red flame. i: i | White solid is produced. ali+ Cl, > 2 LiCl Natrium | - burns quickly and brightly with a yellow flame. 2Na+ Cl, > 2NaCl - White solid is produced. Kalium | - burns very rapidly and brightly with a purple flame. 2K + Cl, > 2KCI - White solid is produced. Conelusior 1, Reactivity increases when going down the group. 2. Group 1 elements react with chlorine to produce a metal chloride. 4.5 Elements in Group 17/ halogens 1. Exist as diatomic molecules. 2. Physical properties a. Low melting and boiling points b. Does not conduct elekctricity c. Low density d. The colour becomes darker when going down the group Proton Electron | Melting Boiling Element | number | arrangement point (°C) _| point(°C) Eisele Fuome |g 27 Pale yellow gas Chlorine Greenish yellow er 17 2.8.7 F = aes Bromine | 35 2.8.18.7 q 8 Brown liquid r 8 g , 5 5 lodine 53 | 2.818.187 = = Black solid Asiaing | a5 | 2.8.18.32.18.7 Black solid 3. Changes in physical properties when going down Group 17: a. Atomic size: Increases because the number of shells filled with electrons increases. b. Melting point and boiling point: Increases because atomic size increases. The force of attraction between molecules becomes stronger. More heat is needed to overcome this force. c. Density: Increases because atomic mass increases. 4. Reactivity of the elements in group 17 decreases gradually when going down the group: ‘a. Number of protons increases. b. The atomic size/number of electron shells increases. 4 DUANE eee 14c. The larger the atomic size, the further distance between the nucleus and valence electron. d. The strength of the nucleus to attract one electron into the outermost shell is weaker. e. So, it is not easy for the element to pull/receive electron and form negative ion. 5. Safety precautions when handling chlorine gas a. Activity must be carried out in a fume chamber b. Wear safety goggles c. Wear rubber gloves 6. Chemical properties of group 17 elements: A. Reaction of group 17 elements with water: Procedure . Hydrochloric acid is added to potassium manganate(V!!) crystals in a test tube. 2. The chlorine gas produced is flowed into distilled water. Blue litmus paper is dipped. 3. The observations are recorded: Potassium manganate(Vil) crystals [forming chlorine gas] 1. Liquid bromine is added into distilled water ina test tube 2. Test tube is shaked. Blue litmus paper is dipped. 3. Observations are recorded. 1. Solid iodine is added into distilled water in a test tube. 2. Test tube is shaked. Blue litmus paper is dipped. 3. The observations are recorded. Liquid bromine Distilled water =} Distilled water lodine solid Element Observation Balanced chemical equation Chlorine pale yellow. white (bleached). -Chlorine dissolves easily in distilled water producing a colourless solution / -Blue litmus paper turns to red, then Cl, + H,0 Hoc! + HCI water producing a yellowish brown Bromin a omine | solution. white (bleached). -Bromine dissolves slowly in distilled - Blue litmus paper turns to red, then Br, + H,0 HOBr + HBr lodine -lodine dissolves very slowly in distilled water producing a brownish red solution. l, + HO HOI+HI 15 DUAN-Biue litmus paper turns to red and not bleached. Conclusion: 1. Reactivity decreases. 2. Dissolve in water to produce an acid and a bleaching solution. lodine element only produce an acid B. Reaction of Group 17 elements with iron wool 1. Chemical equation: 2Fe + 3X, >2Fe3X, Reaction Observation and balanced chemical equation i. Chlorine Concentrated Iron wool burns vigorously with a bright flame. Thvdrochioic TL Brown solid is formed. 6 2Fe + 3Cl, + 2FeCl, ii. Bromine Iron wool glows brightly and rapidly. Brown solid is formed. 2Fe + 3Br, > 2FeBr; iii, lodine Iron wool Heat lodine crystals Iron wool glows slowly. Brown solid is formed. 2Fe + 31, > 2Fely C Reaction of Group 17 elements with sodium hydroxide 1. Element Observation Chlorine Yellowish greenish gas dissolves easily in sodium hydroxide soluion to produce a colourless solution. Balanced chemical equation 2NaOH + Cl, > NaCl + NaOCl + HO 16 PENBromine Brown liquid dissolves in sodium hydroxide solution to produce a colourless solution. 2NaOH + Br, > NaBr + NaOBr + HO lodine Black solid dissolves slowly in sodium hydroxide solution to produce a colourless solution. 2NaOH +1, > > Nal + NaOl + H,0 4.6 Elements in Period 3 renee GPevocna cus) electronegativity Group ‘l 2 13 14 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 Element Na_| Mg | Al Si p | s_| cl ar | 12 | 13 14 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 Proton number Increases —————__—_» Semakin bertambah Elecron 2e1)282) 283 | 284 | 285|286| 287 | 288 arrangement State solid | solid | solid | solid | solid | solid | gas | gas Nature of element Metal Non-metal Semimetal Electrical Sonduainty Good Average Poor 7 Changes in Decreases + atomic size a. Atomic radius reduces from lef to right. Number of protons increases. b.Positive charges in nucleus increase. Force between nucleus and valence electron increases. Electrons are pulled closer to the nucleus. c.Atomic size becomes smaller when going across Period 3 Changes In ———— Increases ———> a. Electronegativity of an element is the strength of the element to pull electrons toward the nucleus. b. Positive charges in nucleus increase because the proton number increases. Strength of the nucleus to pull electrons towards the outermost shell increases to form negatively charged ion. c. d. Electronegativity increases when going across Period 3. SO, | ClO Formula of oxide | Na,O| MgO| Al,0, SiO, | P.O, ayn | ; ° SO, | ClO, Basic oxides _Amphoteric Acidic oxides - 7Changes in the a. Basic oxide dissolves in water to produce an alkali solution. properties of the Na:O + H20 — 2NaOH (red litmus paper tums blue) oxides of Basic oxides: metal oxides which react with acids to form salt elements in and water. Period 3 MgO + 2HNO3 —> Mg(NOs)2 + H20 b. Acidic oxide dissolves in water to produce an acidic solution Acidic oxides: non-metal oxides which react with alkalis to form salt and water cc. Amphoteric oxides: metal oxides which react with both acids and alkalis to form salt and water. Aluminium forms amphoteric oxide. This white solid oxide shows both acidic and alkaline property which dissolves in both sodium hydroxide solution and dilute nitric acid to form colourless solutions. Al,03 + 2NaOH > Na; Al,0, + H,0 (acidic property) Al,03 + 6HNO3 > 2AI(NO3)3+ 3H20 (alkali property) Force attraction towards its electrons is from weaker stronger A. Reaction of oxide elements in Period 3 with water Procedure: 1. 10.0 cm! distilled water is added in a test tube which contained half spatula of sodium oxide and the test tube is shaked. 2. The solubility of elements in water is observed and recorded and the pH value of the solutions is measured by using pH metre 3. Steps 1 and 2 are repeated using magnesium oxide, aluminium oxide and sulphur oxide. Observation: Oxide pH value Type of oxide Sodium oxide White solid dissolves in 14 Basic oxide water Magnesium White solid slightly 9 Basic oxide oxide dissolves in water Aluminium oxide | Insoluble = = Sulphur Oxide _|Gas dissolves in water 3 Acidic oxide B. Reaction of oxide elements in Period 3 with nitric acid and sodium hydroxide Procedure: 1. % spatula of magnesium oxide powder is added in two different test tubes. 2. 5.0 cm nitric acid is added into the first test tube and 5.0 cm? sodium hydroxide into the second test tube. 3. Both test tubes are heated slowly and mix it. 4. The solubility of oxide in both solutions are observed and recorded. 18 5. Step 1 to 4 are repeated using aluminium oxide dan silicon (IV) oxide. 18 CEE‘Sodium hydroxide t 1 Heat Heat ‘Observation Oxide Reaction with nitric | Reaction with sodium Type of oxide acid hydroxide Magnesium | The white solid No change. The white solid | Basic oxide oxide dissolves to form does not dissolve colourless solution. Aluminium | The white solid The white solid dissolves | Amphoteric oxide dissolves to form to form colourless solution colourless solution. Silicon (IV) | No change. The white | The white solid dissolves | Acidic oxide oxide solid does not dissolve. | to form colourless solution Transition Elements 1 ‘Transition Elements (in betwen Group 2 and 13) Unsur Peraiiban (a! antara Kumpulan 2 dan 13) 43 | Fe eel Relea) Ze| Bl ae Hii 1617 Li Be oF Na Mg|_3 67 si sa eis =p epee] =latate |K Ca set ¥ Cr Mn Fe Ge As Se Br Rb Se ¥ | Sn Sh Te Tt a ejetele Cs Ba Pb Bi Po At = Ff Fr Re Re ih FL Me Ly Og t ole a2 = ee La Ce Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu oe _— 5 we ke Th Cr Es Fm Ma_No_ be 1. Physical Proportios of Transition a. Good conductors of electricity and heat —_d. High densities b. Solids with shiny surfaces . High tensile strength c. Ductile and malleable f. High melting and boiling points 2. Characteristics of Transition Metal 19 a. Forms ions which have different oxidation number, eg: Fe(+2 and +3) b. Forms coloured ions c. Forms complex ion . Catalyst. > Ni 19 SATE —+Fe — Process Haber > NH, —> 450°C, 200 atm > Pt — VO, —> Process Contact > H,SO,—> 450'C, 1 atm Transition metals are good catalysts. A specific catalyst is used for a specific reaction, Process: ‘To manufacture tron filings, Fe Haber process ‘Ammonia, NH , Vanadium (V) oxide,(V,0..) | Contact process Sulphuric acid, H,SO. Platinum, Pt ‘Ostwald process Nitric acid, HNO Nickel, Ni Hydrogenation Margarine