N. KOSHKIN and M.

SHIRKEVICH

HANDBOOK
OF ELEMENTARY
PHYSICS

FOREIGN LANGUAGES PURUSlilNG HOUSE

Moscow
 TRANSLATED FROM THE RUSSIAN BY F. LEIB
lt
CONTENTS

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Explanatory Notes . . . . . 13
C hap t e r 1. Mechanics. . . 15

A. Kinematics
Fundamental Concepts and Laws . . . . . 15
1. Rectilinear Motion . . . . . . 16
2. Rotational Motion . . . . . . 17
3. Motion of Bodies in the Earth's Gravitati-
onal Field . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Table 1. Velocity of Motion of Different Bodies 21
Table 2. Acceleration of Different Bodies (Appro-
ximate Values) . . . . . . . . . . 21
Table 3. Escape Velocities in the Solar System 22
B. Dynamics
Fundamental Concepts and Laws . 22
1. Laws of Dynamics . . . . . 22
2. Work, Power and Energy 24
3. Dynamics of Rotation. . . 25
4. Friction '.' . . . . . . . 27
5. Law of Universal Gravitation 27
Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Table 4. Density of Some Solids (at 20C) 29
Table 5. Density of Liquids (at 20° C) . . . • 30
Table6. Density of Some Metals in the L iqu id State 30
Table7. Density of Water at Various Temperatu-
res . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Table 8. Density of Mprcury at Pressure
p=lkg:cm 2 and at Various TenJjJeI'atures 31
Table 9. Density of Various Gases anLl Vapours
at O'C and '160mm Hg, . . . . . . . . 3:2
Table 10. Average Density of Various Substan-
c.,s . . . . . _ . .. . . . . . . . •• 32
I
~ . . . .( ~_-,_....-...IIloo .....
 • CONTENTS
Table I I. Moments o.f Inertia of Various Homoge-
neous BodIes . . " . . . . . . . . 33
Table 12. Coefficients of Sliding Friction for
Various Materials . . . . . . . . . 34
Table 13. Intensity of Earth's Gravitational
Field (Acceleration of Free Fall) for
Different LOititudes at Sea Level . . 35
Table 14. Intensity of Gravitational Field
(Acceleration of Free Fall) Near
the Surface of the Sun and Planets . 35
C. Statics of Solid Bodies
Fundamental Concepts and Laws . . . . . . .
Tables . . . '.' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 15. Centres of Gra"ity of Various Homo-
geneous Bodies . . . . . . . 39
D. Elements of the Theory (If Elasticity
Fundamental Concepts and Laws. . . . . . . 40
Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Table 16. Breaking Stress of Various Materials 42
Table 17. Moduli of Elasticny and Poisson's Ra-
tios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Table 18. Compressibility of Some Liquids at
Different Temperatures . . . . . . . 44
Table 19. Allowed Stress of Various Materials 45
E. Mechanics of liqUids and Gases
Pundamental Concepts and Laws . . . . . . 45
1. Statics . . . . • . . . . . . . . 45
2. Dynamics . • . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Tables . . . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . " " 48
Table 20. Viscosity of Various liqUids at 18° C 48
Table 21. Viscosity of Various Gases at 0° C . 48
Table 22. Viscosity of Water at Different Tem-
peratures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Table 23. Viscosity of Glycerine, Castor Oil
and Benzene at Different Tempera-
tures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Table 24. Viscosity of Liquid Helium. . . . . 49
Table 25. Viscosity of Air at Different Tempera-
tures an d Pressures . . . . . . . . . 50
Table 26. Viscosity of Some Metals in the Liquid
State . • . . . . . . . . . . . . • 50
CONTENtS
C hap t e r II. Heat and Molecular Physics 51
Fundamental Concepts and Laws . . . ~J
I. Calorimetry . . . . . . . : . . .
2. Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids ~~
3. Transfer of Heat '.' '. . . . . .
4. Surface Tension of LIquIds. .. . . 51)
5 Gas Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6> Fundamentals of the Kinetic Theory of Gases 58
35
Tables iabl~ 27. Sp'ecifi~ He~t: He;t ~f 'F~si~n', Me'lti'ng 61
39 and Boiling POInts : . . . 61
Table 28. Change in Volume upen MeltIng . . 62
Table 29. Specific Heat of Vaflous Solids at
Different Temperatures . . .... . . 62
Table 30. SpeciHc Heat cp of Water at DIfferent 63
Temperatures . . . . . '.' : . . . .
Table 31. Speciflc Heat c p of LIquId Ethyl
Alcohol at Different Temperatures
and Pressures .. 63
Table 32. Specific Heat of Some .Gases at lat~ 64
Table 33. Specific Heat cp of AIr at 20 kgcm 64
Table 34. Speciflc Heat c of Carbon DIOXIde at
65 kg/erne .. . p. . . • . . . . . • • 64
Table 35. Hea(~f Vaporisation at Boiling Point
and Standard Atmospheric Pr~ss~re 65
Table 36. Heat of Vaporisation of Carbon DIOXIde
at Different Temperatures '.' '. . . . 65
Table 37. Equilibrium Densities of LIquId and
Vapour. Ethyl Al~o.hol . . : '. . . . 65
Table 38. Equilibrium Densltles of LIqUId and
Vapour. Water • • . . . . . . 66
Table 39. Critical Parameters 66
Table 40. Properties of Saturated Water ~apour 67
Table 41. Coefflcients of Volume ExpanSIOn of
Liquids 1\ at about 18 0 C '.' . . . 67
Table 42. CoefHcients of Lil1ear ExpanSIon a of
Solids at about 20° C . . . . . . . . 68
Table 43. Surface Tension of Liquids at 20° C 68
Table 44. Surface Tension of Water and Ethyl
Alcohol at Different Temperatures 69
Table 45. Surface Tension of Metals in the liq-
uid State . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Table 46. Thermal Conductivities. . . . . . . 70
Table 47. Coefflcients of Pressure Change at
Constant Volume for Various Gases 71
 CONTENTS CONTEXTS

Table 48. Thermal Conductivities of Liquids at C hap t e r IV. Electricity . . . . . . . . . 94

Various Temperatures . . . . . . . . . 71
Table 49. Thermal Conductivities of Some Gases
at Standard Almospheric Pressure . : 71
Table 50. Dependence of the Lifetime of the Pla-
netary Atmospheres on the Escape
Velocity . . . . . . . 72
Table 51. Standard Atmosphere . Table 64. Insulating Materials . .
72
Table 52. Diameters of Molecules . . . . . . . 72
Table 53. Heats of Combustion of Some Fuels
73
Table 54. Psychrometric Table of Relative Hu-
midity of Air. . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 55. Density, Pressure and Free Path of ~<
Nitrogen Molecules in the Earth's At-
mosphere . 74
C hap t e r III. Mechanical Oscillations and Wave Motion
75
Fundamental Conceots and Laws 75
1. Harmonic 'Motion : : . . . . • •
75
2. The Pendulum . 77
3. Free and Forced Oscillations .. 78
4. Sound . . . . • . B. Direct Currents
79
5. Wave Motion . . • . . • . . . . 79
Tables and Graphs . . . " . . . . . . . . . 84
Table 56. Velocity of Sound in Pure Liquids
and Oils. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 84
Table 57. Velocity of Sound in Solids at 20 c C . 85
Table 58. Velocity of Seismic Waves . . . . 86
Table 59. Velocity of Sound in Gases at I atm 86
Sound Velocity Versus Pressure in Air and Ni-
trogen . . . .. . . 87
Sound Frequency Spectrum. . . . . 87
Velocity of Water Surface Waves . 90
L~udness of Audibly Perceived Sounds . 90
DIsplacement, Velocity and Acceleration of
Water Particles due to Passage of So-
und Waves of Various Intensities . . 91
Table 60. Sound Intensity and Sound Pressure
Corresponding to the Main Frequencies
of the Decibel Scale .. " . . . . . . 92
Table 61. Reflection Coefficient of Sound Waves
for Various Interfaces (at Normal
Incidence) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Table 62. Absorption Coefficient of Sound in
Different Materials (upon Reflection) 93
A. The Electrostatic Field
Fundamental Concepts and Laws. . .. . • • . . . . 94
Tables and Graphs. . .. . . . . . . . . . 101
Table 63. Electric Field in the Earth's Atlilosph-
ere . . . . . 101
. 102
Table 65. Dielectric Constants of Some Pure liq-
uids . 103
Table 66. Dielectric Constants of Gases at 18°C
.- and Normal Pressure. .. . . . . . . 103
Table 67. Some Properties of Ferroelectric Cry-
stals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Dependence of Dielectric Constant of Some Fer-
roelectrics on the Temperature and
Field Intensity . 105
Table 68. Piezoelectric Constants of Some Cry-
stals . . . . . . . . . . • • • • . . 106
Fundamental Concepts and Laws . . . 106
I. Electric Current in Metals 106
2. Current in Electrolytes III
3. Current in Gases . 113
4. Semiconductors . 115
5. Thermoelectricity . 116
Tables and Grap.hs . . .. . . . . . . . . 116
Electric Currents in the Earth's Atmosphere 116
Table 69. Resistivity and Temperature Coeffici-
ent of Resistivity of .Metals . . , . 117
Table 70. Transition Temperatures to the Super-
conducting State for Some Metals 118
Table 71. Alloys of High Ohmic Resistance 119
Table 72. Allowed Current-Carrying Capacity of
Insu la ted Wires for Prolonged Opera-
tion . . . . . . . 119
c
Table 73. Resistivity of Electrolytes at 18 C and
Different Concentrations. . . . . . . 120
Table 74. Thermal Electromotive Force of Some
Metal Couples. . . . . . . 121
Table 75. Differential Thermal =.m.f. (a) with
Respect to Platinum . . . . . 122
Table 76. Electrochemical Equivalents 123
 8 CONTENTS
Table 77. Absolute Normal Potentials of Some
Metals
Table 78. e.m.L of Electrochemical
.
Cells
123
124
Charging and Discharging Accumulators
Table 79. Mobility of Ions in Aqueous Solutions
at 18°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
125
126
Table 80. Mobility of Electrons in Metals . . 126
Table 81. Mobility of Ions in Gases at 760 mm Hg
c
and 20 C . . . . . . . . • . • • . . 127
Table 82. Ionisation Potentials . . . . . . . . 127
Table 83. Emission Constants of Some Metals
and Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . 128
Table 84. Emission Constants of Films on Met-
als . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 85. Emission Constants of Oxide-Coated
128
Cathodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Table 86. Properties of Most Important Se-
miconductors . . . .. . 129
Table 87. Spark Gaps for Air at 760 mm Hg . 131
C. Electromagnetism
Eundamental Concepts and Laws. " 131
I. The Magnetic Field. Magnetic Induction 131
2. CGSM and MKSA Systems of Units.. . . . . 133
3. Intensity of the Magnetic Fields of Currents 134
4. Work Performed in the Motion of a Current-
Carrying Wire in a Magnetic Field~ Electro-
magnetic Induction . . . . . 136
5. Self-Induction ". 137
6. Magnetic Properties of Matter. . . . 139
Tables and Graphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Magnetic Field of the Earth .. " . . . " 141
Table 88. Properties of Some Steels Used in
Electrical Engineering. . . . . . . . 142
'fable 89. Properties of Some Iron-Nickel Alloys 142
Table 90. Properties of Some Magnetically Refra-
ctive Materials. . . . . . . . . . . 143
Table 91. Properties of Magneto-Dielectrics 143
Table 92. Principal Properties of Ferrites . . . 144
Table 93. Permeability (/-1-) of Paramagnetic and
Diamagnetic Nlaterials in CGSAI Units 144
Table 94. Curie Points of Metals. . . . . . 145
Table 95. Specific }vlagnetic Susceptibility of
Some Metals . . . . . . . . . • . . 145
,
CONTENTS
•
Dependence of Magnetic Perme?bi~ity and Indu-
~ ction on the Magnetic Field IntensIly 146
Table 96. Values of Coefficient k for Calculatin~
.~ Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
D. Alternating Currents
Fundamental Concepts and Laws. .. . . . . . . . .
Tables and Graphs. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . '.' .
,- Change in Resistance upon Transltlon from DIrect
to Alternating Current. . .. . . . . .
.-/ Variation of Inductive Reactance, Capacitive Re-
actance and Impedance with Frequency
" Table 97. Depth of Penetration (a) of High Fre-
quency Currents. . . .. . . . . . .
E. Electric Oscillations and Electromagnetic
Waves
Fundamental Concepts and'Laws . . . .
The Electromagnetic Spectrum ..
C hap t e r V. Optics . . . .
Fundamental Concepts and Laws.
I. Photometry . . . .. . . . . .
2. Principal Laws of Geometrical Optics
3. Optical Instruments . . . . . • .
4. Wave Properties of Light . . . . • .
5. Quantum Properties of Light . .
6. Thermal Radiation .
7. Types of Spectra .
Tables and Graphs. . .. . . . . . . .
Table 98. Relative Brightness Sensitivity (K,)
I
for Daytime Vision . . . . . . . . .
" Table 99. Luminance of Some Illuminated Surfa-
ces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 100. Luminance of Various Light Sources
Table 101. Illuminance in Some Typical Cases
Table 102. Reflection Coefficient (p) of Glass
and Water for Difierent Angles of In-
cidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 103. Reflection of Light Passing from Glass
into Air .
Table 104. Wavelengths of Visible Region of
Spectrum .
Table 105. Wavelenaths of Ultraviolet Region
of Spectr'~m . . . •• • • • • •
, r?
10 CONTENTS CONTENTS II

Table 106. Reflection of Light by Metals . . 175 Table 123. Relative Abundance and Activify of
Table 107. Critical Angles of Reflection . . . 175 Isotopes of Some Metals . . . . . . 194
Table 108. Wavelengths of Principal Fraunhofer Table 124. Atomic Weight. Relative Abundance
Lines 176 and Activity of Some Light Isotopes 195
Table 109. Index of Refraction for Wavelengths Table 125. Some Artificially Produced Elements 195
Corresponding to Some of the Fraun-, Table 126. Elementary and Non-Elementary Par-
hofer Lines -- 177 ticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Table 110. Optical Constants of Metals and~- Table 127. Energies of Some Particles . . . . 197
miconductors '. 177 Table 128. Energy of a Quantum of Radiation
Table 111. Index of Refraction of Gases 178 of Different Types. . 197
Table 112. Index of Refraction of Some Solids Bitlding Energy . . . . . . . . . . . 198
and Liquids , : . 178 Examples of Nuclear Reactions. . . . 198
Table 113. Dependence of Index of RefractlOn Synthesis of Helium from Hydrogen. 199
on Wavelength. " 179 Reactions of Nuclear SynthesIs. . . . . 199
Table 114. Diffuse Reflection of Some Materials t Units of Radioactivity and Radiation. . 199
in White Light . . . , . . . . . . . 180 \ Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Table 115. Specific Rotation of the Plane of I. Some Frequently Encountered Numbers 200
Polarisation for DifIerent Wave- II. Formulas for Approximate Calculations . . 200
lengths at 20 C. . . . . . . . . . 180
C

III. Elements of the Theory of Errors - 200

Table 116. Emission Spectra of Some Metals lei IV. Prefixes tothe Basic Units of Measure 202
Table 117. Luminous Efficiency, Efficiency and V. Units of Measure of Some Physical Quantities 202
Luminance of Some Light Sources 182 VI. Universal Physical Constants 203
Table 118. Electron Work Function and Photoe- VII. MKSA System of Units • . . 204
lectric Threshold of Various Substan- Subject Index. . • .. • . . . . . . , ••••• 207
ces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Table 119. Typical Characteristics of Photoe-
lectric Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Table 120. Typical Characteristics of Photocon-
ductive Cells. . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Table 121. Typical Characteristics of Barrier-
Layer Photoelectric Cells. . . . . . 185 •
C hap t e r VI. Structure of the Atom and Elementary
Particles 186
Fundamental Concepts and Laws. .. . . . . . 186
1. Units of Charge, Mass and Energy in Atomic
Physics. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
2. The Rutherford-Bohr Model of the Atom . . 186
3. The Atomic Nucleus and the Electron Shells 188
4. NuclelJr Transformations 189
5. Wave Properties of Matter. 191
Tables and Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Energv Levels of the Hydrogen Atom . . 191
'Table 122. Mendeleyev's Periodic System of the
Elements . . • •. • • • • • • • • • 192
 EXPLANATORY NOTES
PREFACE
Most of the tables are arranged in alphabetical order.
Some, however, are arranged in the order of increasing or
The compilers of the present handbook, N. 1. Koshkin and
M. G. Shirkevich, are experienced Soviet teachers. decreasing values of the tabulated quantity.
The handbook covers all the main subjects of elementary The numerical values of the quantities are given to two
physics and contains information most frequently required in or three significant figures after the decimal point, which is
industry and agriculture.
Special attention has been paid to the choice of data on sufficiently precise for most technical calculations.
the latest developments in physics, such as semiconductors, The number of figures given after the decimal point
ferroelectrics, nuclear physics, etc. varies in the tables. This is due to the circumstance that
In addition to graphs and tables the book offers brief some substances can be obtained in the pure form, whereas
theoretical expositions, definitions of fundamental concepts
and formulations of laws accompanied by explanations and others are complicated mixtures of substancE's. For example,
examples. the density of platinum is given to four significant figures:
The handbook is intended for wide circles of readers in 21.46, whereas that of brass is given to within three units
various occupa tions, and for students wi tll a background of of the second significant figure: 8.4-8.7, since the density
secondary school physics.
of brass varies within these limits depending on the compo-
sition of the given specimen.
If the heading of a column in a table contains a factor,
such as 10", this denotes that the values of the quanti ty in
that column have been increased 10" times; hence, to find
the true values one must divide the values given in the table
by this factor. For example, in the heading of the last col-
Umn in Table 18: "Compr.essibility of liquids at different
temperatures" (p. 44) the compFessibility ~ has been multi-
plied by 106 (~x 10 6 atm- I ). Thus, lhe compressibility of
acetone, according 10 this table, is 111 xlO- 6 atm- I •
The notes to the tables give the conditions for which the
values of the tabulated quantities are va lid (if these con-
dition:; are not indicated in the l'earling of Ple table). as
\IIell <IS additional mlormaliun on J:IOW to use t!,e table:" etc.
 EXPLANATORY l'OTES
/
If the physical significance of the tabulated quantity is
not quite clear to the reader, he should refer to the relevant
section: "Fundamental Concepts and Laws". This can Ie
found with the help of the table of contents or the index
at the end of the book. The appendices contain information
on the units of measure of physical quantities, formulas for CHAPTER. I
approximate calculations, and the values of some umversal MECHANICS
physical constants,
When a body changes its position relative to other bodies
it is said to be in mechanical motion. i\ change in the posi-
tion of a body relative to other bodies is detrrmined by
a change in the distance between the points of the bodies,
The unit of distance is the meter (m).
The meter is defined as 1/10,000,800 part of a quarter of
the earth's meridian (the arc of the meridian from the pole
to the equator) at sea level *.
The unit of time is the second" *, which is defined as
1/86,400 part of a mean solar day,

, A. KINEMATICS
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS
Kinematics is the study of the motion of bodies without
regard to the cause of that motion.
The simplest moving body is a point m.ass, defined as a
body whose dimensions can be neglected in describing its
motion. For example, the annual motion of the earth about
the sun can be regarded as the motion of a point mass.
whereas the daily revolution of the earth about its axis
cannot.
Every solid body can be regarded as a system of rigidly
bound point masses. The path described by a moving body
is ca lied a trajectory .
• The st3ndard meter is defined as the distance, at the melting
point of ice, betwccll two marks Oil a platinum-iridium bar which is
kept at the IlItcrnali anal Bureau of Wei ghts alld Measures and whi ell
was adopted <:IS the prototype of the mder ()y the Fi rs t Ge,;er~il Con~
fere-llee nil \V"ii,-lJts ;md :V\' ,'~l:rt:"
>C-O' ·Lle s{tcoud is llH.)f1",; pn.:ci::.cly dcllueci uy tbe ~.;).~.A. S\4ltc
S t"-JIllan!.
 16
CH, 1. MECHANICS 17
CONCEPTS AND LAWS
FUNDAMENTAL vector
According to the form of the trajectory we distinguish
· is also a
between rectilinear motion (the trajectory is a straight line) I Accelera t lon,
at the initia~ tl\n~ ;~cderation are, cml
. 'sec" mlsecZ,
and curvilinear motion (the trajectory is a curve). We also ;·t '
distinguish between uniform and non-uniform motion. r t y ,
( quantIty.
The um ts 0
nt is determme
, d by the

I
kmlsec2 . •• n mome
·t at any gl've
The veioci y
1. Rectilinear Motion
formula: v=v o al , + (1,2.)
Uniform motion is defined as motion in which a body
traverses equal distances in equal time intervals, Uniform . t' 1 ve 1' 0citv. (acceleraled motion) or
: o 's the im 18 'sitive
motion is characterised by its ve locity, The velocity of uni- ( where V L 1 ation may be po t d motion
form motion (v) is defined as the distance (s) traversed in The acce er I d motion), I accelera e
unit time (I); ative (decelera e . ' d in unilorm Y
\ neg d' tance traverse
T~e Ibs the lormula: 1
s is gIVen Y I ..L. ~2 • (1,3)
v=t' -v I 2 .
s- o· rated motion IS
s=vt. . ilormly accele r and the
(1,1) The terminal vel<?ci'\;alnv~focity, the accel"era Ion
Velocity is a vector quantity. It is characterised by mag- . e d by the 1111
nitude and direction in space, The addition (composition) of determlll . d'
distance traverse . (1,4)
ve!oci ti es is performed according to the para lle logr am 10 w
(addition of vectors), The units of velocity are: cm/sec, v• = v"0 2a-s, +
, . an exam ple of rec
t'
tl 1-
m/sec, km/sec, km/hour. lalling bodies I: ' I we denote 1e
In non-uni form mati on we differentia te between instan- The motion 01. freely stant acceleratlOn.:_
iinear motion WI~\ cf~e body lalls (v o -
6)
by h, and the
taneous and average velocity,
height h:om o't~~~e fall by g, th;n
from to to to +
If a body passes over a distance Lis in the time interval
Lit, then acceleratIOn gt
dS h=Z'
vaY = dt
is defined as the average velocity for the time interval M. 2. Rotational Motion . 'IS defined as
In other words, if the body were moving uniformly with b t an aXIs .
lion of a point a. au circle whose centre .IS
velocity v av , it would cover the distance Lis in the time dt.
The instantaneous velocity at a given moment to is defined The circular,
otion in whlc
m; the trajeeto~y IS a dicular to the aXIS,
e lane IS per pen axis is defined as
as the limit of the ratio:
m the axis and w~os fPa body about ~nd 'describe circular
, dS The rolational. mhott{t t~e points 01 the a Y h
Vt = I1m . , t'
o At ~ 0 LJ.t mo ~on inb whlc
ut thisa aXIS., , ' which a bo d y turns throug
motIon a a is motIon III
Motion in which the velocity receives equal increments Uniform esrotallOn 1 time intervals. rotation is defined as
in equal time intervals is called uniformly accelerated. The equal angl ,n v~i~~,y (w) of. un:form
l
The angu ar t out in unit tIme.
rate of change of the velocity is ca lled the acceleration (a): the angle swep tp (1,5)
Vt - Vo w =-t '
a=--t-'
" ,'1 through whic.h
, '.
IS .'the an". e ve1oc itv. lS
where vj is the velocity at the time t and vg is the veloe- h re m measure d 'n radl3ns, 'anl'ular
w e or> •n a It'nne 'I The "h 'lI1g u \" aI velocit .rv may
lil!! t. 01 0

the body turns I cond (radf sec ), 1 (\,'

the radian per se

2 3aK.46
 III
CH. 1. MECHANICS FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 19
also b
unit t~ expresslCd in terms of th where Vt and V o are the linear velocities at the time t and
Hne n, or the period of rev~l~ti:beF of'{ev.olutions in < at the initial moment of time. At any given point of the
trajectory the direction of a c coincides with the direction
W = 2mz \
2Jt ' ' ( 1 ,6a) of v. The tangential acceleration a, is related to the angular
w=_ acceleration j by the formula:
T'
The linear velocitl of . (I,6b) ac = jR.
fined as the in,t Y a POInt in rotational . . However, even when a body is in uniform rotation the
:~ ~h~g~:~e~~ ~~:;~f,;~r~~yy·vrhV:~if~~g~~atrh~fJ~~7C~~~~;icISattfeoed;
.e ormula:
points of the body are in accelerated motion, for the dir-
ection of their velocity is continually changing. Tbe accel-
eration of this motion is directed towards the axis of rotation
v=wR (i.e., perpendicu lar to the direction of the linear veloci ly)
Where R is the d i , t ' (1 7) and is callpd the centripe tal accelerat ion:
ta tion. s il11ce from the point to th . '
. In the case of non-un' .' e aXIS of 1'0- (1, lOa)
Instantaneous a d ,Iform IOtatlOn we dist" .
has turned throu~h :;e:~gre g ~~g~lar ~eloCiti~~.gUH\~:tbveen
~1;1i~e~heasaverage
angular velo~i;; a(~lm)e
ffroomthto to t~ + ~t (1, lab)
av I' e time !:1t is
where v is the linear velocity, (0 - the ilngular Yelocity,
Way =-
!:1lp and R.- the radial distance of the point from the axis of
M lotation.
oThe' limit of this I' a t·IO
us angular velocity is, by definition, The total acceleration of a point of a body in uniform
the instantane_ rotation is
W fo = lim ,!:1lp (1,11)
f1t -> 0 /.1t '
Rot~tional motion in which 3. Motion of Bodies. in the Earth's Gravitational Field
equal Increments in equal t· the angular velocity
accelerated. Ime Intervals is calJed receives Fig. 1 illustrates the trajectories of bodies which are proj-
, T!Je angular acceleration 0 . uniformly ected from point A near the surface of the earth wi th difIer-
(J) IS defined as the rate f fhunlformly accelerated t . ent velocities *. In all cases the velocity is directed hori·
o c ange of th ro atton zontally. The trajectory is a circle if the velocity of the
e angular velocity:
j = WI - Wo body V at point A is such that the acceleratiun of free fall
2

w'here wf is the a , t g is equal to the centripetal acceleration ~- (R is the radius

the initial angular ~~lll~~~t/elocity at the time t, and W is of the trajectory, which can be taken equal to the radius of
o
In uniforml wf -w
- +'t1. the earth). Hence
any point of f 0
accelerated rotation the r (1,8) v=1/Rg~7.93 km/sec.
recti on. The C~:'l body varies both in ma~~~~~dvelocitJ: v of If the velocity of the body at point A is greater than
e
characterised by"t1 In magnitude of the Ii e and I,n di- 7.93 km/sec but less than 11.2 kmjsec, then the trajectory
le tangent lUI acceleration: near velocl ty is is an ellipse; the fOCllS of the ellipse nearer to the poinl of
'Or -- v departure (point A) lies at the centre uf.'he earth. (ihis ellipse
G'=--_,_2 \.
• The resistance oj the ai r is neglected.
2'"
 20 CH, I. MECHANICS
TABLES 21

is, depicted by a solid line in

FIg. I,) If the velocity of the The maximum range corresponds to the 3nr(1e u = 45°.
If the resistance of the air is taken into account the range
body e.quals 11.2 kmj<;ec, then
and the height of the trajectory are less. For example, in
the t.ra)~ctory is a panbola. If th~ absence of air resistance a body thrown at an angle
the Initial \,elocity is greater a=20° with an initial velocity va = 550 m/sec would have
.~han 11.2 kmi\ec, tlien the tra- a range of 19,8 km, whereas a projecti Ie fired at the same
Jectory becom~ a hyperbola. In angle and with the same initial velocity would have 3 range
the last two t:ases fhe body
!eaves the earth and goes ofi"into of only 8,1 km.
mterl? lanetary space. The least TABLES
veloCl ty required for a body to Table 1
Fi!-f, I, Trajectories of bodies leave the earth is sometimes Velocity of Motion of Different Bodies
In lhe earlh's gravilalional caIled the escape velocity. The
field. path. of a body moving with Elevator inhouse . • • • . 1.5<3.5
velocity less than 7 93 k / SUbway trai n , , , . , , , . up t.o 90-100 k,;,/hou1"
represents an arc of an ellipse (dotted lin ' F" g 1 m sec Electric locomotive VL-23
dIstant focus coincides with the centre o~ ;~. I ·th ) whose Automobile ZIL-lIO , , . . , . , . , , 140
If the velocity is much less pear . Passenger train diesel locomotive TE-7 140
Torpedo boat . . . , , . • . . . . 150
ihan 7,93 km/sec the path may Passenger plane IL-14 , . , , , • . . . 415
be regarded as parabolic, and Raci ng car (1947 world record) • . . • . . . 634.2 •
Passengor jet p'lane TU-104 • • • • . • • . , up to 1,000
the acceleration of free fall Jet fighter plane. , . . • • • • • , . , . , . 2,000
may be considered constant Jet plane "Nord 1,500 Griffon 02" (1959
in magnitude and direction. world record) . . • • , . . • • • • • • , , 2,330
Bullet at exit from gun muzzle . • • • • , , 860 m,'scc
If a body is projected from Moti on of electron beam over screen of tele-
the surface of the earth at an vision set KVN·49 • • • • . • • • • . • 2,500
angle a with the horizonta I Orbital velocity of artificial earlh satellite abo11t 8,000'
more than II, (lOO •
with an initial velocity v;' Cosmi c rocket " . . . . . , .
Velocity of earth on its orbi t . .. I> ;>(1,000
much less than v = 7.93 Electrons in cathode-ray tube • 10'·
km/sec, then in this case, Electrons in betatron • . . . . up to 3XIO"
Fig. 2, Trajeclories of lJodies
too, the acceleration of free projecled from lhe surface of the
fall may be considered cons- earth wi th veloci ty Vo =550 m/sec. Table 2
tant in magnitude and direc- Curve I-angle of projecti on
a = 2 0°, curve II - angle of pro- Acceleration of Different Bodies
tion, while the surface of the jection a=;=700, curve III-angle (Approximate Values)
earth may be regarded as flat. of p,roleclton a=20°, with air reo
The trajectory will then be a Slstance taken into account. Accele- Decelera-
parabola (Fig. 2), The f3nge Accelerated motIon rati on, Decclcr.\'ted motion tion,
m/sec:! \. misec:J:
(S) and the maximum height (H) are calculated by the 1 \
formulas:
Subway trai n ••• Emergency braking
v~ sin 2a v~ si11 2 a of automobile •. ,
Landing jct plane , ,
4-5
5-8
S= ,H=-_- Racing car •••• 4.5
g 2g (1,12) Elevator in house 0,9-1.6 Parachute openi ng
Passenger trai n •. 0.35 when rale of fall is
Tramcar • . • • . 0.6 GO m/sec . . • . . . aboul 60
where Vo is the initial velocity of the body. 500,000
Shell in gun barrel
The ral1~e w1l1 be the same for two values of the angle
of proJection: a! and a 2 , where u 2 = 90· - a i •
 22 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 23
CH. I. MECHANICS
of matter in the body. The greater the quantity of matter
Table 3 in the body, the stronger is the tendency of the body to
Escape Velocities in the Solar System "reserve a constant velocity, the greater is the inertia of
Mean radius of the earth ;",";.370 km. Mass of the th the body. Thus, the quantity of matter in a body determines
5.96 .~027g ear the physical property of inertia. The measure of inertia is
the mass of the bodY.
Body Radius~'I
(Earlh= 1)
Mass
(Earlh= I)
Escape veloc-
ity, kmisec
Newton's Second Law of Motion The force acting on a body
is equal to the product of the mass of the body and the
1 I acceleration produced by this force, and coincides in direction
with the acceleration. Thus, Newton's second law of motion
Sun . • . 109.1 322.100 623 gives the relation between the app lied force (F), the mass
Mercury 0.39 0.044 3.8
Venus . . 11.97 0.82 10.4
of the body (m) and the resulting acceleration (a):
EmtlI •. 1.00 1.00 11.2 F = mao (1,13)
MOOll •••. u.n 0.0123 2.4
M3fS .••. 0.53 0.108 5.1 The motion of a body may be characterised by 3nother
Jupiter ... 10.95 317. I 60. I
Saturn .•.... 9.02 94.9 36.6 quantity, called the momentum, K = mv. If the applied
Uranus . . . . . 4.(JO 1 I}. 65 21.6
l\CptUllC ••.. : 3.92 17. 16
force is constant, then
23.9

B. DYNAMICS or
Ft=rnvt-mvo' (1,14)
.... FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS The quantity Ft is called the impulse.
The change in momentum is equal to the impulse of the
.Dynamics deals with the laws of motion f b d' force and takes place in the gjrection of action of the force.
Ilith the factors which cause or h.. . 0 o. les and Newton's Third Law of Motion. When one body exerts
e change in the motion or sh e f c ange thIS motIOn. Any
a interaction of at I~ast two baPd' 0 a body is a result of the a force on another, the second body exerts 3. force equal in
Th h' . 0 les, magnitude and opposite in direction on the first body
bodie~ ~ YSljfld quantIty. characterising the interaction of
F1 =- F2,
or the ~~;;gee of asl~~c:: ~} ~ebe;~~n~~ bho~hc.hange of motion.
or m,a, = - m 2 a2 , (1,15)
Force IS a vector qua t·t
simultaneously actina on na 0 \tdTh dd"
.e a ItJon of two force:s
w the parallelogram (addition of v~ctl~r~~rformed according to where F, is the force acting on the first body, F 2 - the force
U: acting on the second \'ody, m, and m2 - the mas~5 of the
first and second bodies; respectively.
1. Laws of Dynamics A system of bodies which interact only with other bodies
of the same system is called closed In a closed system
Newton's First Law of Motion E' b d .
a state of rest or uniform motiOl; i \ ery ? y c~ntInues in the momentum rema ins constant. For example, in a system
it is compelled to change that stat ab st~~lght Itl!e, ~nless consisting of two bodies the following relation is satisfied:
some external force. e y e applIcatIOn ci m,u, +m2 u2 = m,v, +m2 v 2 , (1,16)
That property of matter by virtue of which a b d
~o retam the magnitude and direction of ·t I.t 0 y tends where v, and v 2 are the ve loci ties of the first and second
IS called inertia. The change in th~ s vet?cl y unchanged bodies before interaction, and u, and .''2 - the respective
depends, in addition to the external for;~o, ~nontlof
y velocities after interaction.
a bto.d
1e quan tty
 24 ~~. MECHANICS
FUNDAMENTAL COKCEPTS Al'i'D LAWS 25
The mass per unit volume of a substance is called density The potential energy in the (ield of graoit at ion of the
(p). The concept of specific gravity is frequently used. Spe- earth is defined as
cific gravity (d) is the ratio of the density of a substance
to the density of water: . mEm
F- p = ". Y-'R' (1,23)
m
P=v' (1,17)
where 'Y is the gravitational constant (p. 27), mE is the mass
P
d = V (1,18) of the earth, m - the mass of the borly, and R - the d.is-
tance from the centre of the earth to the' centre of gravIty
where m is the mass of the body, P - its weight, V _ its of the body.
volume. The minus sign in formula (1,23) den.otes that whe.11
the body is removed to an infinitely great dIstance (when It
2. Work, Power and Energy is out of the field of gravitation), 'its potential energy is
taken to zero; hence. tbe energy of bodies situated at
Work (A) in physics is defined 85 the product of the force a finite distance is negative. .
and the distance through which it acts. If the force does not When a body is raised to a small heIght above the sur-
coincide in direction with the distance, then the work equals: face of the earth the gravitational field of the earth may be
regarded as homogeneoL!s (the. acceleration of free fall i$
A=FScosa, (1,19) constant in magnitude '.-Jnd elIrectlOn). In a homogeneous
where a is the angle between the force and the distance field the potential energy of a body equals
through which the body moves.
Power (N) is defined as the work performed in unit time: Ep=mgh, (I 23a)

A where m is the mass of the body, g - the acceleration of

N= T' (I,20a) free fall, h - the height of the body measured f.rom some
arbitrary level, at which the va lue o~ the potential energy
N=Fv. (1,20b) is taken equal to zero. The surface at the earth can serve,
When work is performed in <l system of bodies tlle for example, as sL,c:h an arbitrary level.
state of the system changes. The state of the system is
characterised by its energy. When the state of the system
changes work is being performed. If we denote by E', and 3. Dynamics of Rotation
E2 the initial and final energies of the system, then
E,-E 2 =A. (1,21) Newton's second lam for rotational molion takes the
f'Orm:
There are two forms of mechanical energy: kinet ie M-Jj. (l,24)
energy (E k ), or the energy of motion, which depends on the
relative velocity of the bodies, and potential energy (E p ) Of Here the moment of inertia (J) is analogous to the
the energy of position, which depe'nds on the relative posi- mass, the torque (M) - to the force.' and the angular
tion of the bodies. acceleration (j) - to the linear acce!eratlOn.
The kinetic energy of a body equals: The torque or moment of force IS defined as the product
of the force and the perpendicula.r distance. between the Illle
E _ mv 2 of action of the force and the aXIs of rotatIOn. .
k-T' (l,22~ If two torques are applied to a body, produclI1~ rota-
tion in opposite directions, then one of the torques IS arbI-
where m is the mass of the body, and v - its velocity•
trarily considered positive, and the other negatIve.

.-:-.-. .'liniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii \i.' - _

 "n or

26 CH. I. MECHANICS
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS

The moment of inertia (or rotary inertia) of a point

mass about an axis is equal to the product of the mass and
the square of its distance from the axis:
J = mR·. (1,25)
The moment of inertia of a body is the sum of the
moments of inertia of the point masses of which the body
is composed. The moment of inertia of a body can be
expressed in terms of its mass and dimensions.
The moment of inertia of a body about an axis can be
determined if we know the moment of inertia of the body
about a parallel axis passing through the centre of gravity
of the body (see p. 34). the mass of the body m and the
distance between the two axes S:
J =J e.g. +
mS·. (1,26)
In uniform rotational motion the sum of all the torques is
equal to zero.
The uniform motion of a point in a circular path
(.,miform circular motion) is characterised by centripetal
acceleration (which causes the velocity to change in direction\
and can take place only if a force acts to produce this
acceleration. This force is applied to the point which is
describing circular motion and is called the centripetal force:
mv'
Fe=R' (1,27 a)
4. Friction
When two solid bodies in contact are in motion relative
to each other, a force arises which hinders this motion.
1"his force is called friction. It is caused by the irregularities
@f the surfaces in contact, as well as by molecular forces of
interaction. When there is no layer of liquid between the
surfaces we speak of dry friction. ....
According to the character of the motion glvmg flse
to dry. friction we distinguish sliding friction (one body
slides over the surface of the other) and rolling friction
(one body rolls on the surface of the other).
The magnitude of sliding friction FIr depends on the na-
ture and quality of finish of the surfaces in contact and on the
force pressing the surfaces bgether (the perpendicular force F pl.
Flr=kF p , (1,31)
where k is the coeffiCient of frief ion; k depends on the nature
and quality of finish of the surfaces in contact, and to a
;;light degree on the velocity of motion (!he depe!1den~e on
the velocity is usual1y neglected). RollIng fnchon l~ less
than sliding frictiol., Rolling friction depends on the radIUS R
of the rolling bodY, on the force pressing the surface.
together, and on the quality of the surfaces:
Flr=k' ;, , (1,32)

F e =mw R. 2
(I,27b. where k' is a quantity characterising the surfac~s in contact;
k' has the dimensions of a length. The followmg are two
The centripetal force is directed along the radius toward' examples of the value of k' in cm:
the axis of rotation and its torque is equal to zero (the
perpendicular distance betWeen the force and the axis is A wheel with a steel rim on a steel track 0.05
zero). A cast iron wheelan a steel track 0.12
The work done when a constant torque acts through an
angle cp in rotational mot ion equals 5. Law of Universal Gravitation
A=Mcp. (1,28~ The force of attraction F between two point masses I7l.t
and m. equals:
The power developed equals
mIm.
F =y~, (1,33)
N=Mw. (1,29}
The kinetic energy of a rotating body equals where R is the distance between the masses, and y is the
2
constant of gravUaf ion, equa I to 6.67 X 10 - 8 cm' jg sec 2 (in the
Jw CGS system of units*). The constant of gravitation is a
Ek=--z . (1,30)
• See p. 204 for the CGS system of units.
 TABLES 2'9
28 CH. I. MECHANiCS

quantity equal to the force of attraction between two point

TABLES
masses of uni t mass separated by unit distance. In the case
of homogeneous spheres of mas';e'o Tn, and Tn 2 the force of Table 4
attraction is given by the same formula, except that R now Density of Some Solids (at 20°C)
denotes the distance bdween the centres of the spheres.
The weight P of a body of mass m on the surface of
the earth is determined mainly by the force of attraction
between the body and the earth: Substance Dcnsity, Substance Dcnsity,
g/cm a g/cm::l
m"Tn
P=y~,
RE Metals and alloys Minerals
where mE is the mass of the earth, and R E is the radius of Aluminium 2.7 AnthraCl te (dry) 1.2-1.5
the earth. Brass 8.4-8.7 Asbestos o. 1-0.5
Bronze 8.7-8.9 Chalk (ai r dry) 2
In accordance with the law of gravitation, the acceleration Cast iron 7 Diamond 3.51
of gravity (the intensity of the gravitational field) at a height Chromi urn 7.15.. Emery 4
H above the surface of the earth is given by .the formula: Cobalt 8.8 \. Granite 2. 5~3
Constantan 8.8R Marble 2.5-2.8
Tn E Copper . . 8.93 Quartz :!.G5
Duralumin 2.79
or g=y (R E + H)2 , Germanium
Gold
5 :3
19.31
Plastics ffnd
II laminated plastics
Cellon . . 1.3
Ri (l,34a)
Iron
Lead
Magnesium
7.S8
11.35
1.76
Fluoplaslic
Laminated amino-
2.1-2.3

Manganin . 8.5 plasts 1.4

Molybdenum 10.2 Phenoli c plastic.
where go is the acceleration on the earth's surface. Neptunium 19.5 impregnated I .34·1.4
Nickel . 8.9 Plex;gLs . . . . . 1.18
In the first approximation for H ~ R E Nickeline 8.77 Polvacrylate (orp;a-
Platinum 21.46 ni c glasS) . . . . 1.2
g:::::::go(1-2R~)' (1,34b)· Silicon
Silver
2.3
10.5
Polystyrene . .
Polyvinyl plastic I
1. 06
1.34-1 .4
Sodium 0.970 I Teflon 2.2
Steel 7.7·7.9 Textoli te 1.3·1.4
At the centre of the earth the intensify of the gravita- Tin 7.29
'I
Vi nyl pLisli c 1.38-1.40
tional field is equal to ze· Tungsten 19.31 Different materials
roo If the earth is regarded Uranium . . . 19.1 Aml)cr 1.1
as a homogeneous sphere White babbitt 7.1 Bakeli te varni sh I .4
Zlnk 7.15 Beeswax, white 0.95-0.96
then g increases with in- Wood Bone 1.1'-2.0
creasing distance from the (air dry) Glass. common 2.0
centre of the earth. Outside AIlh. mahogany 0.6-0 .8 Glass. for mt rror3. 2.55
Glass, for t!lermo-
the earth g decreases with Bamboo 0.4
I meters 2.59
increasing distance from Cedar 0.5-0 .6
Ebony 1.1-1.3 I Glass. pyrex 2. ,)9
the centre of the earth; the Glass. quartz •. 2.21
depemlence of the accel-
Lignum vitae
Oak, beech
1.1-1.4
0.7-0.9 .
I
lee (at (J0C) ••• (J.!) 17

Fig. 3. Acceleration of gravity (in· eration g on the distance Pine li. 4-(J. 5 I "I,ea . ".li-3.2
tensitv of gravitational field) versus R from the centre of the
Walnut 0.6·0.7
I }Jorcf'lain .
h~.!lhh('r. onlin;;,y,
distance from centre of earth. (The
earth is regarded as a homogeneous
sphere.)
earth is depicted in the
form of a graph in Fig. 3.
I
II hard . I q
 ,' ------------=-,.,.....-~-.._-.

30 CH, J. MECHANICS
TABLES 31
Table 5
Density of Liquids (at 20°C) Table 7
Densi ty, Density of Water at Various Temperatures (g/em')
Li qui d Liqlli d Densi ty,
go/em:l go/em a

Acetic acid 1.049 Heptane •• 0.684

t. °C I Densi ty I t, °c I Density lit, °c I Densi ty
Acetone 0.791 Hexane . . . 0.660
Aniline.
Benzene
1.02 I Machine oil 0.9 -10 0.99815 7 0,99993 25 0,99707
0.R79 Mercurv . ' . 13.55 -9 0,99843 8
Benzine 0.G8·0.72 0,99988 26 0,99681
Methyl alcohol. , 0.792 -8 0.-99869 10 0.99973 27
Bromine .. 3.12 Mi lk of average O. ~9G52
-7 0.99892 11 O.999li3 28 0,99622
Bromobenzcnc 1.495 fat content. 1.03 -6 0,99912 12 0,~9952 29 0,995D2
Chloroform . . 1.489 Nitric acid . . 1.51 -5 0,99930 13
Crude oil o .76-0.85 0.99940 30 0.99,'61
Ni trobcnzene 1.2 '""4 0.99945 14 0.99927 31
Diiodomethane 3.325 Nitroglycerine 0,99521
1.6 -3 0.99958 15 0,99913 32 0.99479
Ethyl alcohol . 0.79 Sea water 1.01·1.03 -2 0.99970 IG
Formic acid . . 1.22 Toluene " ' "
1-. 0.99897 33 0,9943G
0.866 -1 0.99979 17 0.99R80 34
Glycerine . . . . 1.26 Tri bromomethane .. 2.890 o 0,99394
0,99987 18 0,99862 35 0.99350
Heavywater (ll~O) I. 1086 Vaseline oil 0.8 1 0.99993 19 0.90843 40
Water . 0.99823 2 0,99118
0.99997 20 0,99823 50 0.98804
3 0.99999 21 0.99802 60 0,98318
4 1.00000 22 0.99780 70 0.97'171
Table 6 5 0.99999 23 0,99757 80
Density of Some Metals in the Liquid State 0,97269
6 0.99997 24 0.99732 90 0.96534
Substance Temperature, Density,
°C g . :cm:l

Aluminium
660 2.380 Note, The maximum density of water corresponds to the
900 2.315 temperature 3.98°C.
1.100 2.261
300 10.03
Gi SITlllth 600 9.66
962 9.20
1.100 17.24
Gold 1,200 17.12
1.300 17.00
Table 8
400 10.51
Lead 600 10.27 Density of Mercury at Pressure p=1 kg/em' and at
1.000 9.81 Various Temperatures
960.5 9.30
Si lver 1,092 9.20
1.300 9.00
t. OC' p, glcm' III. °C I p, g, cm' III. °C I p, glcm' I I. °C I p, g/cm'
100 0.928
Sodium 400 0.854
700 0.780 0 13.5951 25 13.5335 50 13.4723 75 13.4116
5 13.5827 30 13,5212 55 13.460 I 80
Tin
409
574
G,834
6.729
10
15
13.5704
13.5580
I
i
35
40
13.5090
13.4967
GO
65
13.4480
13.4358 I 90
100
13.3%5
13. :i753
13,3:)14
704 20 13.5457 45 13.4845 70
6.640
I I 13.42 :17
i 300 12.875
32 CH, 1. MECHAi-JICS TABLES 33

Table 9
Table 11
Density of Various Gases and Vapours at ooe and 760 mm Hg
Density, Density, Morncnts of !ncL ia of Varicu5 Homogeneous Bodies
Substance Substance g/cm 3
g/em 3

Acetylene 0,001173 Ethyl etller (s~tu-

rated) . 0.00083 Moment of
Air . . . • 0,001293 i nerti a J
Ammonia. 0,000771 Helium, 0.0001785
Argon .... 0,001783 Hydrogen 0.00008988
Krypton 0.0031'1
Benzene (saturat-
ed) . . . . . . •
Carbon di oxi de
0.000012
0.001977
Neon . .
Nitrogen . .
0.000900
0.001251 Tbin bar of length I Perpcndi cular to bar and I ml'
Carbon monoxide 0.00125 Oxygen . 0.001429
_~~~_l_OUgb its cen-I
':l1lorine . . , . .
Ethyl alcohol (sa-
turated)
0.00322
0.000033
IIOzone .
\V ~tel v"pollr (sa-
il turated)
0.002139
0.000484
.
----------
12

cutar to plane of mr'

Table 10 C!fClllar disk or cylitHlcr ;] nd P;lS5i ng
01 radi us r i t5 ceil tre 2
Average Density of Various Snbstances
Substance Density, kgm'

Asbestos felt . 600

850-900
Sphere of radi us r J_~ al!~Ci('r of sphere 0.4 mr'
Asbestos paper ----------'------
Asphalt . . . . 2,120
Beets . . . • • 650
Broadcloth . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 250
1,000-2,000 Thi n cylindric'al lUbe or I,\xi s of tube mr'
Clay. 15-20% moisture content by weight.
Concrete mi xed wi th crushed rock, 0% moisture
2,000
ring of r~dius r . I
content by weight .
Concrete dry . . . . 1,600
Corn (grai n) . . . . . 750
Cotton wool, air dry
Foam concrete . .
Gravel. air dry
80
300-1,200
1,840.
50
land radi us r I
'e:;ircularcylirjdcr of lengthl kular to axis of
and passi ng
its centre
Hay, fresh·mown
Hay, compressed . . . . . . .. 100 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ n - ' _

Lime plaster, 6-8% moisture content Lv

weight........ 1,100
Masonry, red brick I ,GOO-I, 700 Rectangular parallelepi- /\xis P.1S~:i Tl!! through
• ,silicate brick, . 1,700-1,900 ped of di mensi OIlS :la. cC'llirc Lllid 'parallel to m
Mipor (microporous rubbel') not more than 20 2b. 2r. si(~C :!a

Peas •.......•.. 700

Potatoes . . . . 670
Pressboard (made of recds). . 2GO·3GO
Reinforced concrete. 8(;/~ rnoi~Lure contcnt by
weight • . . . . . 2,200 Note, The table gives the of inertia of bodies about axes
Sand........ 1,2,00-1,600 which pilSS 1hrou~~h t lH:ir ty. The moment of inertia
Sandstone 2, GOO about <.111 .;~rl»itrf~lry ;_~x:_" ran Lc. ,\(((Jflhng to formula (1,26).
Silk. . . . . . . . . 100 For ~xdmplc, t"e ,mun,cllt (}f Illertla of a tllln lJ.l1 about an aXIs
Slag, bbst-fl!rIlclcC GOO-800 pendlculnr to the [Jar and passing thruugh one of its ends is: per-
" . t f.urndcc . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9UO·l,300
Slag-concrete, 13% moisture 10nlcntbY\\l'i:\ 1,:,OD
Snow. fresh-fallen bU-190
Woollen cloth 210
Wool! ell klt ..:....:.-~..:......:.-;....:....:...
. .:..I .:..~.:..O_() _

3. 3aK,46
34 CH. I. MECHANICS
FUND\MEXTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 35
Table 12 Table /.'J
Coefficients of Sliding Friction for Various Materials Intensity of Earth's Gravitational Ficld (Accrleration of Free
Fall) for Different Latitudes at Sea Level
Coeffi ci ent of
Surfaces in contact fri cti on Acceler.at.ion, II J\cceleraticn.
- - - - - - -'~----- __L_atitUde
I
__ cm ,ec' 11 __ . ~ti tlld_P_ _---' CI_II_S_.C_c,_'

Bronze on bronze 0.2 Ii

stecl 0.18
~)n .O:lO sS c; 4 j ' CMosco-\\-) ~lS 1 .5:': 3
978. 18t; :JQ";J7' (LclIingri.ld) ~)K I . qc<~
Cast i ron on bronze 0.21 978.634 II (i(J 0
981.914
" 011 cast iron 0.16 979.321 71)0 SHU .GOG
980.16b 80" t)";;.058
Copper on cast iron . 0.27 D8I .066 II 90" 98J.21G
Dry wood on \Vood 0.25-0.5
Fluoplastic-4 on fluoplastic 0.052-0.086
II
Fluoplastic on stainless steel 0.064-0.080 Table 14
Greased lea1her belt on melal 0.23
Hempen rope. wet, on oak 0.33 Intensity of Gravitational Field (Acceleral ion of Free Fal!)
dry. 011 oak 0.53 near the Surface of the Sun and Planets
lee on ice . 0.028
lron·bound runners on snow and ice
Leather belt, moist. on metal
0.02
0.36
Body Acccle.,rat.ioll'l
em, sec:::! I
il
Body
I Accek.flltiOn.
cms~c:':
on oak 0.27-0.38 ._----
dry. on met"l 0.56
Metal. moist. on oak 0.24-0.2U Sun . . .
Mercury
27,400 IIJuPiter. .1 2.650
dry. on oak . . • . 0.5-0.6 38(8J.~ I S,alurII . I. 17 ()
\' en us 9SO
Oak on oak. along grai n 0.48 Earth . 980- l:ranu~ .
'[' :'<cptunc
:I 980
along grai n of one surface <.lod across Mars . . 39:2 ,lVi.oon .. Hi 7
0.34
- - - - '1
grain of other
Rubber (ti res) on hard soi I 0.4-0.6 '------
on cast iron 0.83
SJidi ng beari ng, greased . . 0.02-0.08
0.25-0.45 C. STATICS OF SOLID BODIES
Steel (or cast i ron) on ferrodo
Steel on iron . . . . . 0.19
0.02-0.03 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS
icc (skates)
• steel:f; ••• 0.18 Statics deals with the conditions of equilibrium of a body
• cast iron'" . 0.16 or system of bodies. If a number of forces are acting on 3
Steel-ri mmed wheelan steel track 0.16 body at rest (in equilibrium), such that the directions of
Wooden runners on snow and ice. 0.035 the forces intersect in a single point, then the body will re-
main at res! (in equilibrium) when the vector sum of these
Note. The asterisk denotes materials used in braking and frictional forces is zero. The forces may be displaced along their line
devi res. of action.
Centre of gravity of a solid body or system of bodies.
Every particle of a body is subjec1ed to the pull of gravity.
3*
 37
2G CII. I. MECI!J\:'JICS
The condilion ti at the slim of the monH'nh of ~11 ttie
The r, --,Ulti!llt (slim) d JIl the force; of grnvitv ~cting on forces equal zero abo applies to the cquililJriul1l uf a v.:i~ul­
the of tbe ho'Y j.; ellie:1 the [~'eight of tbe hody. lass (Fig. 6).
centre oj wavily is cal Il" I tIl" ]Joint "hOLi! which the
511111 of the moments of the forces of gravity acting on all
tbe p:,rLcle, of the i; e'lui!! to zero. Tbe weight of the a b

~--Y···l---'
boriv nuy Ll' eonc,.~lIti'idl':i at its centrl' of gravity.
Type, of equilibrium. Whl'll a body relurlls to iis original
po..;ition c:ficr being ~~,ight1y di:;p1:.lceJ, th2 cquil1brlUI11 !')
said to be stabie
When a body tl'nds to move iiS far a:; ]J()';sible [rom its
or i gir::J1 position when ,lightly displac2d, the eqUilibrium is a) '2 {!}
callccl unstable.
A body is in nwtl'al pquilihriLim, if, when slightly dis- Fi~. :)
a) Flllcru ill between forres ~ct i f) FldCrlllll at 01~C
placerl, it lends neither to return to its original position nor clld ut
to move further awav fr0111 it, in other words, when the new
position is also a jJo~itio!l of equilibrium.
Pulleys. The fixed pIllle\' (Fir:_ 7) 'erves only to change
Conditions of equilibrium of a body on ~n inclined plane.
For ~ body of weight P to be in equilibrium on an inclined the direction of the applied force. The muvable plilley ~Fi[;. d)
plane which nukes an :mg1e a with the horizontal it must
be subjected to a force F
equal to F,: ~",~J.W4'$
-///"

F,=P sin a;
,,
",,/
/
\,
'\\ the force F must be di-
rected l!pw~rd along the
t". F'

'\ \'2 inclined plane (Fig. 4).

~:;:.,.,. ,~" .t. .". . .". -.,.~~::~l

The boely itself presses
nown on the inclined plane
__
:/-/~/;>;;::/I//'-/~//"";'//,, '"////'P~///,,.,,////-//-////;;Y///
wi th a force
F 2 =P cos a,
Fig. 4. EqlliH (Jil ~1l' inclined
whi Ie the inclined plane
react'S on the boely with
f F

'p .p
an equa! force. A body rc"Un,S; fceely on an inclined plane
will remain at rest ai long a, t!le force pulling it down is
less than the furce of friction. This condition is satisfied if
I p

tan a > 11, Fig. 6. Schematic cti- Fil~_;. 7. <;"'ChC;)];lri Pi,g". ,"-. Sc 1't-'m,ltic
where k is the coefficient of sliding friction. agralfl of windlass ngram of fi :\cd dia!~Tarn lllUV·
(FXR=PXr). "11k
The lever. A lever is in equilibrium if the Sllm of the
moment'S of all the forces "pplicd to it equals zero (Figs. 5, a gives us a gain ill force. Whe)1 ;l mO'/11ble jJ111 is ~t rest
and G, b). or in uniform roLt!iotl 1he lil d il fh' :Ippli iuree: and
F,a - F 2 {;==O, the sum of all tbe m(),rtteub h eqlLd tu Z'.';l),
where a and b are the lever arms of the applied forces.
38 CH. I. MECHAKICS TABLES 39

Hence it follows that TABLES

P=2F, Table 15
or Centres of Gravity of Various Homogeneous Bodies
P (see fig. 11)
F= 2 .
Body Position of centre of gravity
Pulley blocks. A pulley block (Fig. 9) is a combination
0, fixed and movable pulleys. If the block contains n mov-
Thin bar At the centre of the bar
Cylinder or prism In the middle o[ the straight line connecting
the centres of the bases of the cylinder or
prism
Sphere At the centre of the sphere
Flat thi n circular seg· On the axis of symmetry at ' \ of its height
ment ahove the base
Pyrami d or cone On the str:light line connecting the centre
tlH~_hase and lhe <.lpCX at 1/ 4 the dis~
irom the base
Hemi sphere of s).'mrnetry at the radi us
from c(,lltre of tile sphere
Thin solid triangular At the point of intersection of the mediaI'1'S
plate

oo
I

t TI

I
ott
I
I
P,illey Pi g. 10. J ack~crcw.
Fig. q.
block. ....--r -.. .
able and n fixed pulleys, then the force F required to
counteract the force P equals
F=£..
2n .
The screw. In the absence of friction the force P acting
along the axis of the screw is bulanced by a force F applied
to the circumference of the screw Glp and equill to
Ph
F=~R--·
~:1 "
where R is the rar!ius of the screw cap and h - the pitch ;Fig. 11. Po::itio!l ::;f centre of gravit,,' of some bodies of r~gular
01 the screw (Fig. 10). gc,,11l1et.ri cal shape~
 ----.~-~------------

40 CH. J. MECHANICS FUNDAMENTAL CO:\,CEPTS A:\D LAWS 41

D. ELEMENTS OF THE THEORY OF ELASTICITY P is the ultimate stress or breakillf'. s['re,s - (h: ~ire;;s 1~7d
u't'h' I 'trietion arises on the rod. fl v Is 1e {II .
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS der t~CtI asfroe~~ under which the material hec;ins to 110w
Under the action of extcma I forces a solid body under- f;~~ dcfo~~lation . incrc3se1s .~\ Itl;o.,:t[ anYe 11:~I;~~I'~t/~:stl~el~~~
goes a ch,lJJgc in shape, or is deformed. If, when the forces lied force), Pcl IS the e as.l.c dilL" t. "
Pl' I H ke's law is vahd.'· .
are removed, the body resumes its original shape, the defor- WllCl .00 if' d os britlle aGd plastiC. Bnttle ma-
mation is said to be elastic. MateI'lals are classl Ie u, .'\';. 'Ire pc-oduccd
• . I d t 'oved when verv Sl11i1 I sera ,n, , . ,
When a body undergoes eli:stic deformation internal ells- .enathem,
.in e~ttl1eJ ' .rna t e]']3
s arc Brr ' I 's ,
C8n lIst'ally
. , \\ithstand greater
tic forces (restoring forces) arise which tend to rbtore lhe
body to its original shape, The magnitude of these forces is compression than, tension. '1: > I ]1'1 a dccrea,e in the diam-
proportion a I to the deforma t ion. Tensile stra1I1. IS acclfon:PddL,ec!'w" chari'!c in the diameter,
Deformation by tension and by compression. The increase eter of the specJrT]en. Ll h j

in length (111) of a body produced by an cxterna I force (F) Ad; 'II d tlln trullsver';e strain (transverse con-
is proportional to the magnitude of the force and to the then I', =--- ,s Cd e ~ \ C. 'I
d unrt
traction1 per , d!lT!elblonJ'
' .' \ L.}.p
,. 0 ' ; ' en shows that '::.' <L
original length (1), and is inversely proportional to the
cross-sectional area (5):
I IF
The absolute va I LIe 0f
-I c~,
11-- f
.. I,ClL, .

\ i',' c:l1
-
I',

hed Poisson's rut io.

I1l=E X t,-, (I,35a) Shpar. Shear is called a def,~)~,~l~lttln~n ;1\:~li~ns;l;IC~~e r~~~:

I ers of a body para llel to a [,' 'r p ,t' I'V ,hear the
where E is a coefficient of proportionality. Formula (I,35a) tive to one another. In delO1md lOll 'J '

volume of the body re- <1'---.. ------;1

is the mathematical expression of Hooke's law. mains unchanged. The line ,/ f I 11

The quantity E is ca lIed Young's modulus, and character- 5epment AA, (Fig. 13) Pf-:'- i"1'/----r/- - - - 7 '
eq~a l to the disp lac:ement 1
ises the elastic properties of the material. The ratio : =p of one plane re lat! ve to I
1
is ca lled the stress. another. is called the ab- 1«
The deformation of rods of arb i trary length and cross-sec- solute shear. F I
For small angles of
--'
tiona I area is described by a /J""'------"
quantity called the longitudi- 5hear the angle ct~tan a=
p
· 1',=7'
M _AA t characterises the rig. 13. Ddormation by shear.
na 1 s tram
For bodies of arbitrary
- AD
felative .
deformatIOn an d'IS Ci:,II e d the
. s!iearitw strain. ,> •

shape Hooke's law is: Hooke's law for deformatiOn by shear can be written tn
the form:
p=Ee. (1,35b) p=c.=GCL, (l,36)
Young's modulus is numeri- her'" the coefficient G is ca] leri the shear moduius.. ,
cally equal to the stress requ- w CompreSSI
- ., ·b·!·ty of matif'r \Vhell a body IS . slIlJJ.ccted
ired to double the length of I I . . I .~ V' . ,0
ressure in all directicHls its \,(,llili1c r!ccre;>c,-; 1)', '. as a
a hody. Actually, however, p . It ·Iastic forces ari"l' ",11J([1 le"d to re"tu, l' ILl' body to
rupture occurs at considerab- resli e . volu!1le. T'de
its original d';!
AVio de!lned ;JS [he
ly sma IleI' stre-;ses. Fig. 12
Fif' 12. Stress versus longitudi-
na strai n. Curve 1 - plasti c ma- represents in graph form the relative change in the vo1L:I!1c of a body -V produced by
terial, curve 1/- brittle material. eX!JPrirnenL:Ily detc>rrni!ll'd re-
At point 0 fracture occurs. lation iJel\\eec p and (;, where
 42 CH. I. MECHANICS TAB LES 43

Table 17
unit change in the stress (P) acting perpendicular to its surface.
The reciprocal of the compressibility is called the modulus Moduli of Elasticity and Poisson's Ratios
of volume elasticity or bulk modulus (K.).
The change in the volume of a body Li V produced by an
increase in pressure LiP can be computed by the formula: Shear
" Youn~'s Poisson's
:i
LiV= - V~LiP, (1,37) Material modulus, modulus, ratio
kgmm :l kgmm~
where V is the original volume.
The potential energy of elast ic deformation is given by the I

formula: Epot=F:1 (1,38)

Altltninium
('(lsii ng
bronze,
.
I 10 ..,00 4,20(J

Aluminium,rolled . .
Ii, ~)OO 2, GOO-2, 700 o .32-11.36
where F is the e laslic force, and Lil - the deformation, Alumininm wire'. 7.000
draw!l
TABLES B"kelii,' .
Table 16 Brass, fo11('(1. for slii !1- IO,IHIO 0.36
Breaking Stress of Various Materials (kg/mm 2 ) buildj fig .
~l, I OOJ), noo :l, GOO-:J. 7110 II. :12-0.42
cold-drawn .
_ Brcakillg_s_ir_c_s_s _ Cast i ron, wrought
I', , ;,00
Maieri "I I I ,SOO-I G,OOO 0.23-0.27
Cast iron, while, gray
intension j n compression 1.7,1-1.03 O. :J9
1 Celluloid .
I Ii, ,,00 G,200 0.33
Amilloplasls, laminated 8 Constalltan .
20 S,400
Bakeli le . 2 -:3 SolO Copper, casti Ill!,
Brass, bronze 22-50 13,000 4,'iOO
Copper, ('old-drawn
Brick . 0.74-3 li,OOO 4,000 O. :31·11.34
Ca"st ir~n. whi te . . . Copper, rolled . . .
up to 175 7, 100 2,700
gray, fj nc-grai !led 21-25 up to 140 Duralumin, rolled.
gray.ordin:!f)-' 14-18 60-100 Geti I1C!X (laminater!
Cellon -1 ]G insuLition) 1.000-1,7011
Celluloid . . • . . . . . . 5-7 I, SOIl-:'" 000 0.2-0.3
Concrete Gla', . ::\ G,1I00-8.1l00
0.5-3.5 4, (laO
Foam plastic in slabs . . O.OG Granite
Getinax (lanIinatcd iIlsuI,:1tioll) 15-17 ] cc 1.0110 2S0- :,1111
15-18
Granite . . . . • . w
0.3 12-2G 11,1100 O,eOO
Icc (O°C) . lnvar .
0.1 0.1-0.2 1,700 71111 0.12
Oak (13% moisture content) across Lead
grain 1.5 Li mcstone 4 200
Oak (15% moisture contcnt) ;dong 12 (,00 ·1,700 I). :)3
grain . J.,1angani n
9 ..5 5 ;, , (,00
Phenoli c plasti c. i rnpregna ted 8-10 10-2G Marble . .
Pine (15% moisture content) across Phosp hor bronze, ro1 Jed 11,500 4,2110 0.32-0.35
grain 0.5 535 131 0.35
Pine (1 5% moistl.·lr~ ·c~l1te·nt) <JIang plcxiglas . . .
grain . . . . . 8 Rubber. . . . O.S 0.-17
4

,
Polyacrylate (organic 5 7 Steel, alloyed 21. 000 8,100 0.2;5-0.30
Polystyrene 4 10 \~ 8,1110 0.24-0.28
carbon 20,000-21,000
Steel, structural. . 38-42
" silicon-chromi l1m-mangane~e 155 Steel casli nl!, 17,500
carbon. . 32-80 Textoiite . . GOO-I, 000
Steel for tracks 70-kO
Vinyl plas\ic 300
Teflon. 2
TextoHte TITK . 10 15-25 Wood. 400-I,SOO I
Vi nyl plasti c . . 4 ~~~olI~_._.__ ~_~~(~)_-__ ~_ ;:). :20o , _~
---- 8
---'--~ ---------_. --------- - ' - - - - -
r
,rI
!
44 CH. I. MECHANICS

Temperature
Table 18
Compressibility of Some Liquids at Difrerent Tempertltures

Pressure , Compressi-
FUNDAM.ENTAL COXCEPTS AND L!\\VS

Allowed stress of Vario,ls Materials (kgjmm

2
Table 19
)
45

Su IJstance
I
cc .
I range, atm bility,
~ >< 10 at m - 1
1
;

M.a leri al
Aceti c aci d
I 25
I 92.5
I 81.4 ill tension \ in cOIllpressi ell

14.2 9-36 III

0 100-500 82 3-S
Acetone 0 500-I,OOIl Aluminium . . 3·S
I Il
0 I I. Illlll-I , 51l1l
59
47 Brl ck masonrv
Cast i r011, gr,.ly
0.2
2. S-S
0.06-0.25
12- \ 5
I I
I, 501l-2, lilill 411
Concrete . 0.01-0.07 0.1-0.9
Copper . 3-12 J·12
It; 8·37 '10 0.2·:3.5
Benzene 2U Oak. across gr ai 11 '
I 20
I ~F)-2U6
2%-494
78.7
G7.5 Oak, along grai n .
Pine, across grain
0.9·1.3
0.7·1
I. :3-1.5
0.15-0.2
1-\ .2
Castor oi I
I 14.8
I 1-10 47.2 Pine, along grain.
Slet'!, alloyed, ior nl. C 1, i til'
10-10 and more
bui Idi ng . . lO~40 and marc
20 I-50 112 14
20 Slee! (grade 3) \4
50-100 102
Ethyl alcohol 20 IOIl-21l0 95 Steel, carbon. for 111<leJ!i llC-
1 (j·25
20 building .• 16-25
200·300 86 Up to 0.03 O. 1l4-ll. 4
20 300-4(,;) 80 Stone masonry .
100 900·1, (11)0 73
Glyccri nc 14.8 1-10 22.1
E. MECHANICS OF LIQUIDS AND GASES

I
I 1-15 67.91
I Ii. I 1-15 76.77
JS. I 1 15 82.83
Kerosene
52.2
+
fUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS
1-15 92. :n
72. I I-I S lOll. 16
94 1-15 108.8 Liquids and gases, as distinct from soUd" of,'er no rr·
sistance to a change in shape wh'ch does not entail a chanu'
Mercury
I 20
I I-Ill
I 3.91 in vl'llume. To change the volume of a liquid or reduce the
) volume of a gas one must apply external forces. This prop-
Ni trobcllzenc 25
I 192
I 43.0
20.5 t ertv of fluids is called bulk elasticill!.
Olive oil
1 14.8

64
I 1-10
1-10
I 63.3
56.3 I Pressure (p) is defined as the perpend icular force acti ng
on unit surface.
Paraffi n (melti ng 20-1 110 83
100 20-40\J 24 1. Sti,tics
point, :35 0 C)
I 185 I 20-400
I 137
External pressure applied to a conflned gas or liquid is
Sulfuric acid
I 0
I 1-16
I 302.5 transmitted equally in all direction" (Pchcal's prinCiple).

,-
10 1-5.25
A column of liquid or gas in a uniform gravitationaJ'field
Toluene 79
I 20
I 1·2
I 91.5 exerts a pressure caused by the weight of the column. If the
liquid or gas's assulTJed to be incompressible, then the
Water
I 20 2
I 46
pressure
10 1- 5.25
(1,39)
74
Xylene
I lOll
I 1 -5. ~5
I 1:-;:2
where p is the density of the liq\\\d or gas,g is the accel-
eration of gravity, and h is the hei;;ht of the column. TIll;'
 ~-~~~-- --~-----------
46 CH. l. MECHANiCS FUNDAM.ENTAL CONCEPTS AN"D LAWS

magnitude of the pressure is independent of the shape of the Equation (1,42) is called Bernoulli's equation. From this
column and depends only on its height. equation follows Torricclli's theorem:
The heights of columns of liqUids in communicating ves-
sels are inversely proportional to their densities: y
v= 2gH, (l,43)
where v is the veloci ty of the liquid emerging from a small
hI -f".- I.. orifice in the vessel, and If i'i the height of the ~urface of
11-; fl (1,40)
the liqUid auove the orifice (Fig. 15).

A body immersed in [j fluid is buoyed up by a force equai

to the weight of the Huid displaced (Archimedes' principle).

2. Dynamics

When a fluid is in motion with a velocity much smallor

than the velocity of sound in that fluid, it may be regarded
as incompressible. The motion of fluids gives rise to forces
of friction. If these forces ilre small they may be neglected,
and the liquid or gas is called an zdeal flUid.
Motion of an ideal fluid. A liquid or gas is said to flow Fig. 14. Illustralion to for- Fig. 1 j Flnw 01 Ii quid from
at a steady rate when the velocity and the pressure remain mula (1.42). a slllall orifice.
constant at each point in the stream.
In this case an equal volume of fluid flows through any Motion of a viscous fluid. When one layer of a fluid
cross-section of the pipe: moves over another layer forces of friction arise. .
When a solid (e.g., a sphere) moves through a flUld, the
SI V I=S2 V 2' (1,41) adjacent layer of l!uid adheres. t? the surface of ~he s?lId a~d
moves with it, while the remall1l11g layers of IIUld slide oY.er
where SI and S2 are the areas of two different cross-sectiollii one another. The force acting on a solid mOVIng III a VIS-
of the pipe, and VI and v 2 are the velocities of the fluid in cous medium (lluid) is opposi te in direction to the v~locity
these cross-sectious. When the cross-sectional area of the pipe and is called the resistance of the medwm. If no edd.les are
changes, both the velocity and the pressure of the fluid formed in the wake of the moving body, then the resistance
change in such manner that .in any cross-section (for steady of the medium is proportional to the velocity v. In the
flow of an ideal fluid) the following condi tion is satisfied particular case of a sphere of radius R the resistance of the
medium is
p + pgh + f~2_=const } (1,44)
where f] is the coefficient of internal friction, or . the .coeffi:-
or (1,42) cient of Viscosity. In the CGS system of 11mb v1scosriy IS
r-v 2 'v 2 measured in poises: 1 poise=1 gm/cm sec.
PI + pgf l l T =P2lPg
l
,rI. ! 'h-tr2
2 -2' Formula (1,44) is called Stokes' formula. ..
When a small sphere fal1s through a visco.us thud Its veloc-
where p is the pressure, f is the density of the fluid, h is ity of uniform (steady) motion is determliled by the for-
the height of the given cross-section of the pi pe above a mula
given level, and V is the velocity of the fluid in the given f - el 2R 2
section of the pipe (Fig. 14). v=g-l}--X--g, (1,45)
 CH. 1. MECHA],ICS
TABLES 49
where p is il1l' deilsih of the s1'];ere, R is its radius, PI is
the density of the lJuid, 11 is it. \iscosity, and g is the accel-
eration of free fall.
The volume of fluid which nows in lInit time through a
capillar:, tllhe of radii!' r: ilne! length I when tlJe pressure
difference un tL' cd, of the lull' i,; PI .- P2 equals
1 c--r'"
Ij' >; ~2 (PI - P2 )· (1,16)

The viscosity of fit.ids depends markedly on the tempera-

ture.
TABLES t, °C
Table 20
Vb,w;lty of V::riGlI, Liquids at 18° C

U qUid
1-'~---I;)'----I~II~'d I", 10'
'I X 10' g!cm sec

I g elll gem ,ec

J',cct·I-·C-.~c':·----'- -II--.-ni-~- I ------)~-3q-3-- Table 23

; \ C l ' l O l l C .: 0:J:)71: oil, :!'f)(';u Viscosity of Glycerine, Castor Oil and Benzene
AJli Ii ilC • ,1. tl II j\ll, jlJ 11": 011 I I ;-) at Diff'erent Temperatures (T] X 102 gjcm sec)
13cllzellC'. 73 1.59

~
I u.I) 1 .
Brami nc . I.I2 alcoilol 0.032
Cart'on de. ! U. 31'-;] !I ve oj I . . . . . • . 90
Castoroi '1. 1 ,:20:> IlpcntaIlc . . . . • . . . O.2~4
Chloroform .. . 0.;) 7~) I prclPY,I. .::dcohol . . . . 2. 3Y 0 10 20 30 GO 70 100 200
Cylinder oil, d::rk :24U I:SOY3 !~ean oj~ (30 e C) 40.(j
Cv1.illdcroi] l'l'[iiH'lj ,!:Tolut.'ne........ o.(iJi
Liquid
'IHio ' -./ 1.0.(II"Water.. 1.05
Ethvl . I . ~~ , " Aylene 0.04.7 --.-
Ethyl . Od')~ I
----------~ __il.. Benzene - 0.76 0.65 0.5G 0.436 0.350 0.2GI O. III
Castor oil
Glyceri nc
- 2.440 987 455
12. 100 3,950 I ,1~0 GOU
129
180
4~
59
-
13
-
0.22
Table 21
_________
Viscosity
M
Of Varicus Ga~:C5 at 0° C
• _

II
Gas ';/ 10'1 1/'
;1 )( 10'
Table 24
sec Gas
III gem sec Viscosity of Liquid Helium
--._---------------
Air (witllOut CO~)
Ai1lJ110n~' a
1 • 7:2 Ii I-IYdrogen . • •
o. ~J:l II A\etl,ane . . . 0.84
Cdr LOll di oxi de . . 1.04
Carhon Inonoxi de.
I . 40
I. b7
'I ,\'i tri c oxi de • I .72
i\'itrof2,en . . . I. ()7
Chlorl ne . I .29 jl\itrous oxi de.
Helium . I. o~ I
II Oxygen . . . .
I. 38
1.92

4 3al(.4G
 50 CH. I. MECHANICS

't.!",i
,
! CHAPTER Ii
~.
~ ~;
HEAT AND MOLECULAR. PHYSICS
~. ,
1
20 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS
SO
The thermal state of a body is cbi.lfaderised by a quantity
Table 26 called the temperature. A change in the temperature of a
body entails a change in almost all its properties (dimen·
Viscosity of Some Meta!s in the Liquid state sions, density, elasticity, electrical conductivity, etc.).
- - - - - - - - - --.----------- ·------~f----- ----- The temperature of a body is related to the average kinet-
I 'c I ,~crn SC~ ic energy of thermal motion of its molecules.

===--------1-----
i\'etal t, Yj X 1 0;;
Temperature is expressed in d i!Terent temoerature 'cales.
---I-_-_-_-T:;~~ The most widely used is ~ R. ,.
the centigrade (or Celsius)
-------.----.. 'I ;;1: 1 II 1.(;;)
scale. The zero point of
Bismuth 1:~)1
1.:2(",} i
() . ~) D the centigrade scale is the
l,liU
point at which water is £ilJ.'~':l?g
D ·t· '1'1"1 i - 1M
/iom
~---------- I' ,1-11 I 2 _II
1 . (jq
in equilibrium with ice; ofwa/ei'
-~--,
P!l
- 8U
7U
II?
192
Lead ~~l 1. 1 S the point 100° on the cen- I 8J
70
17l
- - - - - .--------_.- tigrade scale is the boi lin~; L 8J
15!
20 1.51 point of water at standard m
50 1 • ~O I 50

Mercury
I 100
200
300
1.
1.0;)
0.00
~I atmospheric pressure. In
addition to the centigrade
scale the Kelvin (or abso-
[ 'D
[ JJ
2J
I/!
92
7l
~OO 0.83 IJ 5!
0.77 lute) scale is frequentlY He!li1Jf.poi1J!
500
O.7~ used; the zero of this scale alice o 32
liOO -10 /2
is at-273.16° C, and
-~--\ 103.7 \
a.GO
0.25 the degrees are of the same
-20
-30
-8

_------------\.
j~g -28
Sodium ().18 size as on the centi- -,0
------, grade scale. The R (;aUI1l11f
..
1.01
", 0 1.38 and Fah;-enhcit scales are
Tin 1.ILi leo;s freq uently used.
\ GOO
------' -'--------- Fig. 16 shows the cen-
tiC'rade, Reaumur and 1G. Centi gr<lclt'. Heaumllr
Fahrenheit scales for com- FahrclIhei t thermometer
parisoll. Sl.:ales.
4*
52 CH. II. HEAT AND MOLECULAR PHYSICS
t. Calorimetry
When a body is heated its internal energy is increased.
Thus, heat can he measured in units of work or energy.
Historically, however, a special unit - the calorie - was
adopted for measuring heat.
The calorie is defined as the quantity of heat required to
raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree-
from 19.5° C to 20.5° C.
The kilocalorie (or kilogram calorie)=l,OOO cal=427 kgm=
=0.24 joule.
The quantity of heat requirec1 to raise the temperature
of a hody of uni t mass frol11 to to t 1 =t o +;l..t is denoted
by !J,.Q. The mean specific heat in the given temperature
interval (I, - to) is defined as the ratio ~t. The limit of
this ratio
r ;l..Q
cto=M ~lo M temperature is called the boiling point. It remains constant
is, by definition, the true speCifiC heat at the temperature to'
The true specific heat depends on the temperature. However,
in most cases this dependence is neglected and it is assumed
that the true specific heat (or, simply, the speCific heat) can
be defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of a body of unit mass from r C to (t + It C
at any temperature t.
The quantity of heat Q absorbed by a body of mass m
when its temperature is increased by ;l..t equals
Q=cmM, (2,1)
where c is the specific heat. The specinc heat of a body also
depends on the conditions under which it is heated. If the
body is heated at constant pressure then cp is defined as
the specific heat at constant pressare. If the volume of the
body does not change upon heating, then ciJ is defined as
the specifiC heat at constant volume. When a body is heated
under constant pressure, a part of the heat imparted to it is
spent on the work of expansion of the body; hence, cp>ciJ'
The specific heats cp and c'o for a substance in the solid
state difTer very little.
For a given pressure there exists for every substance a
definite temperature, called the melting point, at which the
substance passes from the solid to the liquid state. Through-
out this transition the temperature remains constant. Upon
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 53
melting a substance increases in volume (except for ice, cast
iron and bismuth which decrease in volume). The quantity
of heat required to melt a body is given by the formula
Q~~'Am, (2,2)
where m is the mass of the molten body, and /0 is the heat
of fusi on.
The heat of fasion is defined as the quantity of heat re-
quired to convert unit mass of a solid at the melting point
into liquid at the same temperature. When a liquid crystal-
lises (solidifies), heat is evolved.
The heat of fusion is equal to the heat of crystallisation *.
When a liqUid is contained in an open vessel \'aporisa-
tion - conversion from the liqUid to the gaseous state-
takes place continually on its surface. During \'aporisation
molecules escape from the surface of the liquid. Vaporisa-
tion which takes place not only on the smface, but within
the liqUid as well, is called boiling. A liquid boils at a
definite (for a given external pressure) temperature. This
throughout the process of hoi ling. 130i ling requires the
expenditure of a quantity of heat:
Q=rrn, (2,':)
where m is the mass of evaporated liquid and r is the heat
of vaporisation.
The heat of vaporisation is defined as the quantity of heat
reqUired to convert unit mass of a liquid at the boiling
point into vapour at the same temperature. When a vapour
or gas is condensed (i.e., converted from the gaoeous to the
liquid state) heat is evolved.
The heat of vaporisation is equal to the heat of conden-
sation.
The boiling point and the melting point depend on the
external pressure.
The evaporation of a liquid from an open vessel can pro-
ceed until all of the liquid is converted into vapour. In a
closed vessel evaporation proceeds unlil a state of eqUilib-
rium between the mass of the liquid and thai of the vapour
is reached. At this slage evaporation and condensation com-
pensate each other. Such a slale of equilibrium is called
* This refers to crystalline and polycrysial!ine bodi eg. A crystalline
body is onc whose properties are difk'l"l'llt in different dlrectiuns.
A body composed of llumerous cryslal:> is called poil/crvstallill••
54 ClI. II. HEAT AND MOLECULAR PHYSICS FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 55

dynamic. A vapour which is in dynamic equilibrium with (It) is determined. by its length at 0° C (In)' the temperature
its liquid is called a saturalcd vapour. The pressure and V) and the coefficient 01 linear expanSlOn (a):
density of a saturated vapour are determined by the temper-
ature. It = IJ (l at). + (2,4)
Boiling occurs at the temperature at which the pressure The coefficient of linear expansion is defined as the mean
of the saturated vapour is equal to the external pressure. (for the temperature interval from ()C to I'C) Increase 111
The pressure and density of a saturated vapour increase, unit length of a body lor une deg'ce 1'1',12 In temperature
while the density of the liquid decreases with increasing
( a =~
temperature. When a liquid is heated in a closed vessel the X It -/ ",) .
result wil1 depend on the amount of liquid. If the quantity I
J
of liquid is great, lhen upon expansion it will eventuiJ lly Similarly, for the volume of a body
occupy the entire volume of the vessel. If the quantity of
liquid is sm3l), then at a certain temperature it will evapo- Vt = "" (1 ~t), + (2,5)
rate completely. For ~ certain initial quantity of liquid in where ~ is the coefficient of VOlellTle expansion.
th vessel the liquid and its The coefficient of vull/flU' expunsion is deiined as the mean
.MoCI1!

-;; 'SCO'07 -_ J-_.__

-.-fJ~l~f~_
I
~d'
saturated vapour will remain
"-;(g r----r--.---r--~ in eO,uilibriul1l as the temper-

'~~'' -I ;],m,: inc;-eases, up to a cer-

'"lin point, at which their
(for a given temperature interval) increase in unit volume of
., . (R
a body for om: degree rise In temperature p = VI X --1-Vt - V,,) .
For an isotropic solid (a uody whose properties are the
o

~
4PO densities become equal and
the meniscus dividing them same in every direction) ~=3a.
:::,,;. ~JO'h---+----i-_---~I'
The coefficients of volume and linear expansion are ex-
-.- disappears. This state is pressed in 1;' degree.
~ called the critical state, and
~ 200 ~~I- the values of the density, The follOWing formulas are more exact:
·iii 100
<i}' ",L_ _i--...L.+---!~
__' . pressure and temperature cor-
rcsponding to it are called
!'11 == 10 (at + vI 2
), It = lu (l.~ a/ + ht"). (2,6)
Thus, the coefficient of linear expansion varies with the tem-
1£0 ..iNC ai/iull values.
perature range in which the boely is heated.
The heat of vaporisation
For example, for iron It=lu (l+I17XIO- 7 t +4.7><10- 9 t 2 ),
depends on the temperature.
Fig. 17. Tcmpcr:ILllrc dependcnce and the coefficient of linear expansion of iron upon heat1l1g
A~; the telllpcrature ir~crcases
()f external (,+), i nte-rllal (r) (lnd from O°C to 75 c C equals 1.2lXlO- o Ijdegree, while for the
tolal (r) heats of vaporisatioll for thc heat of vaporisation de-
\vater. temperature range 0:C-750 c C it equals 1.52XIO-· I!dewee.
creases, and at the critical
When a body is heated its denSity changes. The denSity of
temperature it becomes zero.
a body at a temperature I is gi yen by the formula
The heat of vaporisation (r) is expended on the work performed
Q
by the molecules in escaping' through the surface layer
of the liquid (internal heat of vaporisation p), and the work Pt =, T~-=-Pt . (2,7)
of expansion upon passing from the liqUid to the vapour
where Po is the density of the body at O"C, and ~ is the
state (external heat of vaporisation 'I). Fig. 17 shows the
coeiflcient of volume expansion.
dependence of r, p, and ~) on the temperature t for water.
3. Transfer of Heat
2. Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids
Heat can be transmi \ted by convection, conduction and
A changein the temper;;ture of solids and liquids is ralhation (see therma I radiation).
ac(,c1l11p~\J1ie,l
l)y a c11;ln~;C' in 1hell' liIl(~Jr dinlC'nsion~ and Convect iotl. In J!u ids tem pera t lire d i;Terence, are evened
vvlUluc:. TIll: lengtil ui a solid body at J temperature t) C (l'll mainly by collwclion, 11) the !low of the lluid from a
56 CH. II. HEAT AND, MOLECULAR PHYSICS fUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS·

warmer to a colder region. Convection does not take place in 5. Gas Laws
so lids.
Conduction. Conduction is the transfer of heat brought The behaviour of most substances in the gaseous state un-
about by the random motions of atoms or molecules. der Qrdinary conditions is described _by the equation
The quantity of heat transferred through a layer of sub-
stance of thickness I and cross-sectional area S having a tem- pu =c m RT. (2,10)
perature difference T 2 - T I on its planes in a time t is fl
given by This equation is ca lled the equation of slate of an ideal gas
or the general gas law (Clapryron-Mefldeleyev' s equation). Here p
Q= A
• T-t ----T-I S t, is the pressure of the gas, v -- the volume occupied by m
l
(2,8)
grams of the gas, fl - a mole (a mole or gram molecular
where A is the thermal conductivitv. weight of any substance is an amount of that substance whose
The thermal conductil'ity is defined as the quantity of heat mass, expressed in grams, is numerically equal to the molec-
transferred in unit time through a laver of unit thickness ular weight), R - the universal gas constant, T - the tem-
and unit cross-sectional area when the ·temperature difIerence perature on the Kelvin scale. This equation is valid (in the
between the two surfaces of the layer is 10 • first approximation) for all sllbstances in the gaseous state,
The thermal conductivity is usually expressed in if the density is much less thaI. t]e density of the same sub-
kilocal cal stance in the liqUid state,
- - - - - - or ------------. In the first case the quan- The number of molecules cO>ltained in Olle mole is the same
m hour degree cm sec degree ' for all substances and is eJ11ed Avogadro's Humber (0:);
tity of heat transferred is expressed in ki loca lories when the N =6.02 X 10 28 mole-I. ,
thickness of the layer is expressed in m, the cross-sectional From equation (2,10) we dec "lee Gay-Lussac's !::lw, Charles'
area in square meters and the time in hours. law and Boyle's law. For constant p and m (since R=const
and fl is constant for the given ~ubstance)
4. Surface Tension of Liquids .. T1
vl=v oT •
The molecules in the surface of a liquid experience forces
of attraction due to the remaining molecules, which tend to ° tentDerature of the gas
where V il and To are the volume and
pull them into the liquid. at O°c. Whence follows Gay-Lussac's law (t;,n equation of an
The :iurface layer of molecules is in a state resembling that isobaric process):
of an elastic membrane under tension which tends to contract.
Every section of the surface experiences the pull of all the v = v (; (I
\ -too --!-
273 t) . (2,1 1a)
surrounding sections which keep it in a state of tension.
These forces are directEd along the surface layer and are Fo~ constant v and m we obtain Charles' law (isochoric
called forces of surface tension. proces~):
The force of surface tension 'is gi ven by the formula
F=al, (2,9)
P=Po (I +2h I) . (2,llb)
where I is the perimeter of the sllfface layer of liquid and a For constant T and III (i:;otherma 1 process) we obtain Boyle's
is the coefficient of surface tension. law:
The coefficient of surface tension (or, simply, the surface (2, lIe)
tension) is defined as the force acting on un! t length of a The quantity 1/273.16 degree- * is called the coeffiCient of
I
rectilinear boundary of [he surface layer of a liquid.
voluIne expansion at eonstalit pressure Of the coeffiCient of pressure
The smface tension decreases wi th i ncreaoing tempera ture
and vamshes at the cnt:cal temperature. • lj273.1G=3.t>6I X 10-'.
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 59
58 CH. H. HEAT AND MOLECULAR PHY',,!CS

lihange at constant volume of a~ ideal gas. For real gases at is the number of mo-
pressures close to atmosphenc or greater the respective lecules, and VI is the veloc-
coefficients differ somewhat from this value.' ity of the i~th molecu Ie.
The .demity of a gas pmay bE' computed from equation The pressure of a mixture
(2,10) If the pressure p, the ten pera lure T and the mo lecdar of ideal gases is equal to
weIght of the gas are known: lhe sum of the partial pres-
sures of the component gases.
m IJ.p
p= v== RT' (2,12) The partial pressure is dr-
finec as the pressure which
. When a gas expands isothermally (at constant temperature) P9.clJ ot the gases would exert
It performs work agall1st the external pressure. This work is j.f it alone occupied the whole
performed mainly at the expense of the heat absorbed from volume: Fig. 18. Distribution of veloci-
the surrounding medium. The temperature of the gas and the
surrounding medium remain constant. When the gas is com-
P = Pl+P2+'" + Pn' (2,16)
ties of nitrog'cn molecules at tern·
peratures 20°C and 500°C. vp-
11l0St probable velucity at gIven
pressed it releases heat which ~oes off into the surrounding wh,e re PI' P2' ... , Pn are the temperature, C - root mean
1J1uhum. p...:.. tial pressures. square veloel ly.
When the volume of a gi ;,en mass of gas changes without The average kitletic energy
heat entering or leaving the system (adiabatic process) the of translation3l motion of the
relatIOn between the p~essure ,mu the volume is express~d by molecules uepends only on the temperature of the gas:
the equatIOn of the aciJabat: 3
E =2 kT. (2,17)
pVl const, (2,13)
w here
cp
y=--~.
The molecules of a g~;s move wi th different veloci ties. Fig.
Cv I1n
18 "ives t!1C dependence of the fraction of molecules - n ,
6. Fundamentals ')f the Kinetic Theory of Gases
From the molecular point of view a gas consists of a huge
-', t;,

with velocities between vand v+ L\v, on the velocity. The

velocity corresponding to the maximum of the curve in Fig. 19
number of freely moving particles (molecules or atoms). These is called the most probable velocity.
partlcles are jr constant mot on with different velocities The average velocity of the molecules is defined by the relation
which change ,,'hen the particlei,.~lide
The pres~ure of a gas IS due to th~ impact of individual
molecules on the walls of the container. It is equal to
v av == + + v.n-+ ... + v n
VI V2
• (2,18)

1 , The average velocity is greater than the most probable

p =:3 nmc~, (2,14a) ~ vdocity and [f'SS than the root mean square velocity.
Some molecules, whose velocities are greater than the escape
or 'l' p = nkT, (2,141J) velocity, can escape from the upper layers of the atmosphere
where n is the number of molecules in unit volume, m is the

T
mass of a molecule, k = ~ is ca Led BolizlIIann's constant,
1 is the temperature on the Kelvin scale, and c is the root
mean square velocity of the molecules.
The root mean square velocity of the molecules is defined as
into interplanetary space.
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases held by the field
of gravi ty of the planet which it surrounds. The pressure of
the atmosphere decreases wi th increasing distance (h) from the
surface of the planet. If it is assumed th3l the temjJerature
of the atmosphere is independent of !lIe height, thcn

c=v/- v!+v~~~;+.~_±_u;, (2,15) (:2,19)

\
 60 CH. II. HEAT AND MOLECULAR PHYSICS:
TABLES

where /1. is the average molecular weight of the mixfure of

gases comprising the atmosphere, g - the acceleration of free
fall near the surface of the planet, R - the universal gas TABLES
constant, T - the absolute temperature, p" - the pressure of Table 27
the atmosphere at the surface of the planet, e - the base of
the natural system of logarithms (e ~ 2.72). In the case of Specific Heat, Heat of Fusion, Melting and Boiling Points
the earth this formula can be written in the form
Boil·
Spccific hcat Melli ng Hcat of
h=8,OOO log 0!.. , (2,19a) Substance at 20°C. point, fusion,
ing
p cal/g
point.
cal;g degree °C °C
where h is the height in metres, T=c273°K.
In many countries, including the U.S.S.R., scientific data
are often corrected for a standard atmospheric pressure, which Acctone 0.52 ---D,j.3 06.7
is taken equal to the pressure at sea level at 15°C when the Aluminium 0.21 ();)8.7 76.8 :2,000
mercury0
barometer registers 760 mm and the temperature f2Jls Benzene 0.407 5.5 30.4 00.2
by 6.5 with every 1,000 m increase in elevation. Brass 0.0917 DOO
Table 51 gives the relation Letween the height, pressure, Carbon di sulfi de . 0.24 -112 4 ii. 2
density and temperature of a stand:lfd atrnosplwre. Cast iron 0.12 I, I 00-1 ,200 23-33
The air about us always contains a certain amount of water Copper 0.094 1,083 11 2, :100
vapour. The mass of water vapour contained in I cubic meter Ethyl alcohOl 0.58 -114 20 7S.3
of nir is called the absolute humidity. The absolute humidity Ethyl ether 0.56 -116.3 27 34.6
can be measured by the partial pressure of the water vapour•. FluoplasU c·4 0.25-0.22
As the absolute humidity increases, the water vapour ap- Glyceri ne 0.58 -20 42 ~90
proaches the state of saturation. The maximum absolute humi- Gold 0.032 1.063 15.D ~.(jOO
dity * at a given temperature is defined as the mass of satu- Ice (water) 0.50 o 7D.7 IOU
rated water vapour contained in I cubic metre of air .. Iron 1,530 23- :33 3,000
0.119
The relative humidity i:; defined as the ra tio of the abso- Lead 5. :3ti
0.03 327
lute humidity to the maximum absolute humidity at the 'i;: Mercury 0.033 -38.9 2.8 35G.7
given temperature, eXfJrb'ied in per cent.
Methyl alcohol 0.6 -97 24 Ii\. 7
The thermal conductivity of a gas (I,) is calculated by the Naphthalene 2. 18
formu la 0.29 80
Nickel 0.11 1,452 58.3-73
I
"=-3 tV JV Cv l, (2,20) Propyl alcohol
Silver
0.57 -127 20.7
21
Of)
2, 100
0.056 D60.5
where p is the demi ty of the gas v av - the average velocity Steel O. \ 1 1,300-1,400 49
of the gas molecules, C v - the speciJic heat at constant vol- Tin 0.055 231.9 14
ume, I - the mean free path. Toluene 0.414 -95.1 17.2 I 10.7
The mean free path is defined as the average path which a Vinyl plasti c 0.271-0.286
molecule travels lwtween successive collisions with other mol- Wood:
ecules. The mean free path in a gas is given by the formula oak, G-8 % mois-
ture content by
liT \vei ght 0.57
l=c=--- , (2,21)
V 2 :Jto 2 p pine. 8 0 / 0 moisture
content by
where (f is the di2!1lelcr of a molecule of the gas. weight 0.65
Wood's alloy 0.04 65.5 8.4
,. UllU":f certain c011ditiulL::i ::~llpcrsatLlrJ.tio1l01 lilt.:: vapour can set in.
 CAJIT TI:U"'" ..

TABLES
62 CH. II. HEAT AND MOLECULAR PHYSICS
Tuble SO
Table 28
Chan~e in Volume upon l\1~!ting Specific Heat ·c!' of Water (in caljg degree) at Dilferenl tOC.

Relat; vo I Relalive

Substai:i!:e
change in
volume Substance
change j n
volume, Telllpera-
ture
Iel' ' TeIllPera-\--·-i.l- Tem;JPra-
.
1
1
iure
\
tUl'C • f'p I l'p
LlV LlV
V __ ~_-~_-'1 1
... .__._._.. il . .. . ._
If °/0 %

0° 1.0 I ()-1 :3;) ? O. '1 CIS·l 70' I .00 1-1

IJO (). ~.1 I.
G.G I Li lhiul11 . 1.5 5° I . OIJ Ii:' QB..J- 7 .J
Aluminium
· iVlagllcsi
i !,'.

10° I . ()() :-,:1 U. q ~i ~i() ROo

'· I.
Antimony -0.94 um 4.2 I
1.1111111 ~I () 0 I. no I
13i sl1luth .
Ca.:-Irnium .
-3.32
4.74
Mercury . .
I Silver
Poiassi lIni
:J.6
2.41
! 1.()()1:1
1. (lUi) \.l Ii ::~': I.IJIJIJ" 1 () () 0 I. (j(I;)G

Ccsi LIm •. 2.6 . 4.99 3()O o. D:)Bll II

Gold 5.19 Sodium () 5
Ice (water) -B.3 Tin •. 2:6 ----------- --- -------
Indium
Lead
2.5
3.6
IZinc . . 6.9

Tuol.: 31
Table 29
Specific Heat * of Various Solids (in caljg degree) at Specific Heat c, of Unuid Ethyl Alcohol (in eal'g degree) at
D if!'erent t"e Difl\rent TctTq:eratures and Pressures
a) True

0
Substance \ -2IW!-1 00 \ 0° 11000 12000 13000 1 5000

Copper . . 0.040 0.082 0.0910.094 0.09R 0.1010.107

SI Ii ca glass 0.013 0.1160.1670.199 0.2440.266
Silver . . . 0.0375 0.052 0.0560.0570.060 0.063 O. 33 (). 42 SO. 47 Ii O. ,,2;) (). 57 GO. G21i O. G7 8
10
GO 0.:J7U 1J.-125 0.472 0.,,1'1 0.5Gb O.Gl7 0.1i6G

b) Average
~ Temperature,
~OC
Substance 1-1000-00 100-1000 0°_200° 0°-300° 120 1-10 IGO I RO 200
80 100
-------- pressure,
',,---"
kt;/cm~ '-......._
Copper . .
Silica glass :I 0.. 08.7
0.113
0.093
0.183
O.5G
o .09G 0.097
0.210
0.057
I

Silver . . . .\ 0.054
10 0.7310.7810./;400.R(15 - -
O. 71G O. 7G7 0.820 0.874 0.9JO 0.999 1.09
------- 60
• The values of the specific heat, are expressed in 20-degree 1
calories (the specific heat of water at 20°C is taken c:lual to unity).
 TABLES G5
64 CH. II. HEAT AND MOLECULAR PHYSICS
Table 35
Table 32
Heat of Vaporisation at Boiling Point Gnd Standard Atmos-
Specific Heat of Some Gases at t atm (in cal/g degree) pheric Pressure
---------,----- ._-----
:': I Heat oi
Carhon Waler Ethyl Substance SUbstance vapori sa-.
"~~ Oxygen Air
dioxide vapour alcohol
I lioll, cal g
--------~----
'"0
p.
E Acetone . 125 lOS
OJ
E- c 1' ICplC V cl' IcT/c o cp Icplc" e/) IC[J!CI: cp !cj,/cv Benzene ..
Benzine, aviat ion g-rac!c
. !l4
55-7 :>
117. ()
50 !)
Carbon di sulfi de 85

O 0.21S5
100 0.223
1.397
1.385
0.240
0.241
1.400
1.397
0.1946
0.2182
1.30
1.2GO
II - - 0.320 1. 16
0.502 1.28 0.403 1.12
Ethyl alcohol
Ethyl ether . .
Kerosene
202 ,:llcohoJ
aL-oilol

200 0.230 1.37 0.24;) 1.390 0.2371 1.235 0.472 1.30 0.4S0 1.10 Liquid helium G
300 0.2376 1.353 0.250 1.37 S 0.2524 1.217 0.4S1 1.2!l 0.554 I. OS
(j00 0.2553 1.321 0.266 1.345 0.2847 1. ISS 0.527 1.26 0.756 1.06
Tu!Jle 36
Heat of Vaporisation of Carbon Dioxide at Dill.'erent
Table 33 Temperatures
._--
Specific Heat c p of Air at 20 kg/cm 2
Temperature, Heat of vapo~-~~rf---;:-CI11P:'r::turc~I---~~~'apori~
°C sati on, cal g)! 0C all, cal/'g

Temperature.
°C o I 50 II 00 I 150 I 2 00 I 250 I 2 SO -50
~40
SII.6
7U.5
I

20
o SCi.:)
37.0
-30 7'2 . .5 ;)11 1S. 0
-10 G2.':} ;J!.! U.O

Table 37
Table 34 Equilibrium Densities o! Liquid and VaroLJr.
Specific Heat cp of Carbon Dioxide at 65 kg/cm 2 Ethyl Alcohol
-------------- - - - - -

Temperature, 50 75 100 125 -J

Temperature,
0C I
Pressure, aim I Dcn~itv -::-/
liquid, g,cm:1
tyof
cd vapour,
DC-I~';i ~j~ur,.t-
g,cm 3
25 30
°C
I 1 ". ---~--'~--

78.3 1.00 O.73G;-, O.OOIGS

90 1.562 0.7151 OiJ0250
c 1J , cal'g degree . 1.37510.796010.40431 0.32410.291[°.2748 140 7.486 iJ.U(;;ll 0011,,2
170 15.61 (J.ti\!;;; 0.0'21\U
190 2:J.~H O.J7o::! (l.U:)!)?
Temperature, 200 '2~J.2 O.o5t;K 0.0;')0-3
150 200 250 300 600
°C
I I I I
210
220
230
~)5.31
42.38
50.S:)
O.S:2~jl
D.
lJ.:'
O.()(jJO
0.0--;,"1
0.11;5;)

cpo cal!g degree . . . \ 0.267910. 2G221 O. 262S[ 0.2G56 1°.2889 _. 240

_._-_.
f)Sl.q~

__._-'---------------,._----....
:!4:).1 03.1
().:L<";·_~:·J
U.~7J;-)
-_._~ ... __.. .-.--.. _
.•.
n.lil')
0.27;)6
_-_._~~----~--

5 JaK.46
 TABLES 67
66
ell. II. HEAT Al\D MOLECULAR PHYSICS

Table 38
Equilibrium Densities of Liquid and Vapour. Water

T.mperature, -\- p - - - ' , \ DCllsl ly of Denslly 01 saturat·

0C ressurc ann
1 liquid. g,cm 3 cd vapour, g,'cm 3
\ 0.02 17.2 68.3
---- o. I 4 5 .1 11. 96 5S6 .9
0.2 5\1.7 570.4
o 0.00613 1.000 0.00000484 0.4 75.4 ~:271 563.7
50 O. 1 ~ (i O.gQO 0.0000k31 (l.G 83.45 ~.7~5 554.6
1.0:,3 O. 9li 3 0.0005% O.R 93.0 2.127 ,·dS.6
100 0.00155
150 4. S,d 0.91 0.9 90.2 1.905 544.1
15.857 O. 0.00787 I \19.1 542.0
200
250 40.56 0.799 0.01 ~19 1.0333 100 ::(,~~J40.2
S7. 6 I 0.714 0.0463 1.2:1 105 1.,12 5:,9.7
300 0.0771 I.S II' 535.4
330 131. IS 0.641 2 tJ.:' 0.9% ;)29.1
O.5H O. I 135
350
360
168.63
190 O.5~8 O. I H2 3 l1B:g 0.902 526.9
214. (iR 0.4 c, 0.20:, 4 142.9 O.GI7 517.7
370 0.307 5 151.1 O.HOS 510.·1
374.15 225.G5 0.307'
ti 158.1 g:~~:~ 5tH. I
7 161.2 0.2778 498.7
8 169.6 0.2418 493.7
io 17,1.5
179.0
0.2109
0.19S0
1~g·.G
lSI I
Table 39 :~ :~U O.IGtJ:J ~73:8
16 200.4 0.11:)·1 H;].2
IS 206.2 O.12(;J 4Gl.2
Critical Parameters g::!W~
20
:,0
211.1
-'J:J?- ,S' (1.0ti I .5
4' .:J•
__4_0 ..!.._ _2.4__9,_._2___ _ ~~ ._l ~~
Substance Table 41
Coefficients of Volume Expansion of Liquids fl
---_ ••.. _ - - - at about 18'C
0.351 ---~---
Acetic acl d 32 1.6 57.2
Acelone . . 235 47 0."68 Substance 10'
SUl"lst;lI1Ce ,"< 10'
2S8.6 47.7 0.304 I j degree
Benzene . 0.460
Carbon dioxide 31. I 73
243.1 63. I 0.276 Acetone. • • • . 1-1.:J I',\\ct hy! alcohol 1 I .9
Ethyl alcohol.
~~l~~i~~~e . ~ 1~ ~ ~ i~~~::~lL~~l~l\d.. 1~.' ~
-267.9 2.26 0.069
He(iull1 . 0.031 : : :
Hydro[,ell . -239.9 12. S
Methane -o:Z.E> 45.8 0.162
0.272
CJ.rLon disul[id,,-'
Chloroform. . .
11. U
12.cl
1"llprOllV1
T I
:l.!cO!l'OI· : :
9.g
J -

Methyl alcohol 240 78.7

39.2 Ethyl alcohol 11.0 TOLll'lle...... 10.8
Naohthakllc . 468.2 Ethyl ether. If ') j urpcntine .O . . . D.40
-147.1 33.5 0.311
Ni trog'en . 0.430 Formic acid )., I\V(ltcr at •. S -.II..)() 0.53
~1:'~~'~iA~: : : : : 0::~::;ii: ~:g~
-11S.8 49.7
Oxygen
Propyl alcohol
.
263.7
320.6
49.95
41 6
0.273
0.292 Mercury
liU:
lU.O 4())_t;()'"l 4.58
Toluene . . . . 222' 0.307
II

Water 374.15 ________ I.S1 I ,,(P-t!O' 5.S7

------ ---------_._---_._--- -----_. 1 . _ - - - - - - -....' - - - - -

5::;
68 CH. II. HEAT AND NlOLECULAI( PHYSICS

Table 42 TABLES 69
Coefficients of Linear Expansion a of Solids at about 20°C
T:zble 14
SllrfilCC Tcns!on of Waler a'1d Ethvl Alcohol at Diilerent
Substance
Temperatures (in dynes,cm)

Aluminium . . 22.~ 10.2

Bismutil l:l ,1 I (). 4
Bruss . . . . . 1 t". U
13ri ck masonry .:>. ;) 'i j
II. !J
~~.3
Bronze . 17.5 II M,,(W";JliIl ~:J. 1
Carbon
CemC!i!
Ie)
\ GIH_T:_·tl~
7.!J
1 ~. n F':i 13.4
k.9
Constantan 17. (I il i'l;,ii'ill'>!,;"idil";; :: il,,) 8.7
Copper 1".7
Ii
.
~) (,
Di~:lllOlld . iI.'11 0.5
D:Jralumin 2:.!.C :i I 1 . ~)
ELlonite .. I'll II 11.0
German silvl~r 18.4 I: 1 in ~ 1.4
Glass, ordi nary B.5 4.3
Glass, J))'Tex . . :3 iIil \i 7U
Gold . . • . • . 11.5 ~;r ~Jin) SU-()O
Granl tc . . . . . B.3 gr~dn) :!-G
lec (i rom-10DC to oOe) 5i1.7 II Zi J1C 30.0
IriditllIl u.S
II
Ii

Table 45
Surface Tension of Metals in the Liquid state

Table 43 Ivletal I T,_'mper:ltuf,-',

cc
Surf;!CC'
l:\'I"')
1Cj:.~iotl,
"m
Sur'face Tcn~;jon of Liquids at 20 c C ---;:~~;~_·-I~-~J~---I-----S;-o---

.-.-~~~~.~. 1--;:.------------1-'- Bismuth

'-~"-'--- Joo----·I
400 I
.. ~';7(;'·'----
:170
SU II Surf;lce
SU\;s~::llce I
I c!YllCS,cm
'li,1 SL1~)staIlcC' I d;ll1C's,;crn
kilsion.
________ 1 ~()O 3li3

--T--~--i;-----------·--~--
Lead 1---J;'o---I~l':I)-=
Acetic acid
Acetone. . :
1)7"
l). 7
'li\lc'-]lvlcdoiJol
II lofJ{.'tlZellC
22.0
4 '1 ~J 20 46~
Anili lle . • . 12.lJ oil . (lSOC) 11 ~ 454
Benzene . I
. ~ (I () II Mercury ~()O 436
Butvric ;:cid . 27 .! II 300 10.5
C,\stOf oil. . .13b 1(I,S-'C) I ,or \ 1 :354 394

~~~~,~~c~~~~ I~L~ :o~t;)::_~'~

_ _: ..._..~17~: ~ SodhI'" 100
250

:300
400
206.4
199.5

Tin
500
 71
TABLES
70 CH. II. HEAT AND MOLECULAR PHYSICS
Table 47
Table 46 Coefficients of Pressure Change at Constant Volume
_________~T_h_ermal Conduct iV_i~ti_e_s, _ for Various Gases

!V\Olsttlre Thermal condue- "g "'" "'"

Subsi;J 11('C' contt'nl. tivit y. ~O o~s '" " 2
tn
tJJ
2
"'"
b.O
wciL~ht keal.'m hr degree Gas ;,U E >-.

8~,
(1,'0 ()f
x
h~
E 2 .:::- 1'• 0
:<g ..-:c::

Metals
180 Coef !leien! of
Aluminium
Brass . .
7:J.5 Eh=~;~uerX 10' 3.G74 3.802 3.72G 3.GGO 3.6G2 3.G74 3.G74
54
Cast iron ~)3;)
Copper • 2G9
Gold •. G4 Table 48
Iron 25
Mercury 3GO Thermal Conductivities of Liqnids at Various Temperatures
Silver . .

=
Steel
39 (in kcalm hr degree)

T-----,~~T;;,":":,~;" "T---,,,,,
InS11lafillg iHa1erials
O. 135
Ail~ dry '''b'''''''' -

- n_n~; :::--r: !h I ~ f-
Asbestos c"rdbocrd 0.045·0.08
Asbestos felt . 0.152-0.115
Asbestos parer 0.103-0.275
Foam concrete
Foam g1a.ss . .
Foam resin . .
Furnace slag .
O. ()(j3-0. 092
11.1137-0.05
0.211-0.32
t::,:r::;.
l\\ipor (microror()l1~ fuLLer) 0.033 Castor oi I . .
Pressboard (mack of rcc'u:s) 0.09 Ethyl alcohol O. 1 fi~ O. 152 0.248
0.04 G Iyecri ne II .24:3
Woo.! felt .
Metbyl alcohol 11.18·\ 11.178 (). 102
Various other materiels Toluene. 11.122 0.111 0.102
0.25 VaselIne oil 0.108 11.105 0.587
Bakelite varnish . . 0.58-0.70 \V a ter • . . . O. 474 O. 5~) 7
Brick mD~ollr)1 . • • <-liT "dry
0.12-0.30
Cardboard .
ClaY . 15-20 0_ G-O. 8 Table 49
8 1.33
Concrete, rcinio:--rcc1 1. I
Concrete with crushed rock 8 Thermal Conductivities of Some Gases at Standard
Corkboard o 0.036-0.046
Atmospheric Pressure
0.05
Fluoplastic-3 . 0.2 ---------------; ---------
Fluoplastic-4 . 0.G4 Tcmperature, \ Thermal conrl"."cliVit y •
Glass,ordinarv 1.89 'c i. X 10' kcalm hr
Granite Substance degree
air dry 0.31 \
Gravel
lee air drv
1. D
0.12-0. 14
~~-.--.---'---'~:\---~0-1----'------2-2-1----
Leather . (,-8 • O. 17-11.18
Oak. across grnin Argon. . . . . ., 1 (j 1
(j·8 O. :J-O. 37 Carbon dioxide :)() 1:,9
Oak. a long grain . 0.12
air dry Helium 4.3 I , :,·1 0
Paper. ordinary .
pine. across grain 8
8
0.12-0.14
0.30·0.35
Hydrogen
Methane
1"0 1,508
2 (j4

~
Pine. along gr;'in
Plaster . . . G-8 0.G8 Nitrogen 1;) ~ 1G
13 O. GO Oxygen. 20 225
Slag concrete. 0.108
Vinyl ploslie . \
 72 Cli. II. HEAT A1\D MOLECULAR PHYSICS
TABLES 73
Table 50
Dependence of the Lifetime of the Planetary Atmospheres Table .;3
on the Escape V c10city Heats of Ccrnhustion of Some Filels

----I~--------
Age of eiJrih Jxl0 9 -4xIO" years The amOUl1t of ileat evolved :he uf unit Jn~L;S (or

.~ ;;~~~:e- 4.5 I 5
unit volume) of a fL:.cl is called
---~-------,------
[wat

Fuel

Lifetime (ycars) __I uc ~_I-~~-:--I--2-5-X-.-l0-'-

So!id

Antbraci te (grade An) 7,2-10 k, alkg

Table M
Standard Atmosphere Cbarcoal . • . . • . . 7. 100
Coal (grade Al . 4,900
Height. m
Dynamite (75%) 1,290
o Gunpowder 720-750
I 1
1,000 lI.kR7 15
2,11011 0.CJ1I7 Peat (i n IUl1J[s)
;J,IIIIII
o . 7 r: 4 O.S22 2
8.S :l.560
(J • C\;'2 0.742
Ll,()(J() -4.5 Shales (Eslhon,an) 2,300
1I.1;llk (). (j(>D
fJ,(JI)O ().5:-;;) -11
(i,O(IO O. liO I -17.5 Wood • • • • . . .
(). ,1 Cl;) ().5:JB
7.CIIII O. ,1 II;) -24
~;, (lU\) (). 4 BI -30.5
n. ::;S 1 O. '12:, Uijuid
9,111111 O.:lO:3 -37
10,0011 (J. :381
0.2111 -43
0.337 -50 Benzi ne 10. GOO
Black oil 9.4110
Table 52 Etbyl alcohol 6,470
DiJmders of Molecules
K.erosene 10,300

~ubstanre-----I OJ!); 10' em II

I)
Substance I D~l~k~~el~s~i
__ .~~
Ligroin .

Cas
10,500

Argon . Carbon monoxide 3,100

Carbon dioxide. I! I<:ryplon 3. 14
I J\\c'rcury
I.iIOxygen
C8.rLOllrnol~(jxi de 3. 0 Coke oven gas
Xi trogon 3.2 3, bIl0·4, 500
]-Jplillnl .•.
Hydro:{l'i1 . . . 2.9 Hydrogen 2.5kO
II:\cnon . 4.0
Illuminating gas 4,200-5,000
Note. Tbe diameters of
the reslllis of rJJPasuremcllts mokcules have been comnuted from Natural gas S.5IJO
llic Viscosity of g<lSl'S. .

---------------
 74 CH. II. HEAT A"t\D MOLECULAR PHYSICS

CIlAPTERlII
o MECHANICAL OSCILLATIONS
2
4 AND WAVE MonON
Ii
~ 7
10 14 4
12 20 I I FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AN D LA ''liS
14 2,5 17 9
IG 30 22 15
I ~ I. Harmonic Motion
34 2G 20
20 37 :HJ 24
22 40 34 28 Motions (or chanC(es of state) which h a certain extent
2·1 43 37 31 repeat themselves ilt regular inten'ab of time are called
45 40 34 in physics and enC(ineering vibratiollal or oo,cillulory flwtlOllS
4k 42 37
50 44 39 (vibrat iOlls or oscillat ions).
For example, in the oscillations of a smali ball attached
,\',,{c. The r"LII of ;l pSl/chro· to a string the displacement of ~he [Jall from t!Ie \er\;cal
meia (\\'ct :lod drY two ljWfIJ104 position is continualiy repeated.
i"lll'ters. wi (II" ;1 cClycrecl l:y
a pic\'(' If the oscillations involve a cllanC(e enly of llwchanical
htl111idily
fro Tn column ""r1'l.,,,n,,,1 ng 10 quantities (displacement, velocity, density, acceleration,
the TTl I""" 1'l',1 rcading-s of the and'dry etc'.) , then we speak of mcchani'lll ovillat ions.
bulb lI",'Clllorn"ter', the reading of the.
dry Periodic oscillation, an: oscillations in \'.llich each value
of the variahle quantity is repcace:d an endless llLnnJ-er of
times at regular time inten'als. The sma lies! time ;nierval
Table 55
Density, Prcs<;urc ~nd. Free; Path of Nitrogen Molecules in T which elapses between two successi\'e repetitions of some
_________ tne Earth s Atmosphere value of the variable quantity is called the period of
.-~-~~-_.-.

oscillation
lIeight,
km I
PreCSllrC
Hd
I Demity, I Free path, The reciprocal of the period \' ==';r is called the fre-
g"::~--~-~I-~--=-,~--
tllt1l
_____ ~_. 1_ _- __
quency. The unit of frequency i, the herlz, or cycle per
second (cycle 'sec). The hertz is the frequency of periodic
II I 71,11 I l'-4°~Q (;.5X10-:J oscillation whose period i, 1 sec.
10 :.!! U I 1,:lXIO'"
20 I 'L~ii 5 I
.U

112 ~. GX Iii -" Harmonic motion is defined as periodic variaiicm of a

;w i In 4.2X 10-4 quantity which can be expressed as a sine or cosine
:J~'
4 I}
4.3 1.8XIO-' function:
5U 7.5> ! 1 1.3 n.IXIII-'
+ en,
II II n
~: 0 I . (I~" 1 (I -
121) ,). II)
10- 2
5.10-,
3.2XI0"
1.5x10'
x == A sin (wt (3, I)
IliO 2 III - i I 1.5XI0- 0 5XI0 1
quantity A in (3,1) is called the amplitude
I
.-"----- -------'----- at
The posil!ve
harmonic mot iOIl, (Wi +
q) - the phasc (or pllase angle),
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 77

16 CH. III. MECHANICAL OSCILLATIONS AND WAVE MOTION
IF -- the epoch angle. w - the cyclic (or (ngular) frequency;
w ~= -:r
2n:
= 2n:v. (3,2)
The phase of harmonic motion determines the value of
the variable quantity at any given moment of time. The
phase is expressed in units of am;ular me,Lmre (radians or
degrees). The angular frequency is' measured in radians per
second (rad ians/sec).
Ail example of harmonic motion is the projection onto
the x (or If) axis of the motion of a particle which is in
uniiorm cIrcular motion with an angula~ velocity (J) (Fig. 19),
For particles 1 and L the displi:eernents of the projections
are, respectively,
x, = R sin a = R sin wt,
Any kind of periodic motion can be represented to any
degree of approximation by a sum of simple harmonic
ITlo[icns *.
2. The Pendulum
A physico! pendulum is 0 ri!;id body which is supported
at some point abo'/e its centre of ;.(ra\'ity. A body thus
sUDDerted can perf()~m osciilations. The pendulum is calld
o simple (or maLhelJ1atical) pendulum if the entire ma~, of
the' body can be regarded as cOEcentrated in one point. A
sufficiently close approximat.ion of a simple pendulum is a
~,mcl1 ball (called a penduluI:l lnb) attached to an inexlen-
sible string, if the friction of the oil' ond the pendulum
support arc neGligible, ond the dimensions of the ball are
small compared with the length of the strin!,. For smoll
angular displacements the escillations of a simple pendulum
1l1a\' be considered hannonic.

x 2 = R Siii (a +
q:) = R sin (wt Qj). + TlIe pcriod of th2 si I1Ip Ie penciu IUIll is :.;i\en by ille
formula:
Oscillations with the same frequency Lut different phase
angles are said to be out of phase (or to have a phase
di(!<-rcncc). .
T=2:rt l/~-~'
g
(3,4)
'I':I~ dUierenc2 between the epoch an.gles is called the where I is the length of the penduluril, and g is the accel-
p!w.,e diljaenu' The phase difference behveen two oscilla- eration of gravi t.y.
_--..... tions of the same ..J equency Tie oscillaFons of a hob suspended frolll a sprin'~ CiOn
is independent of the choice be considered harmonic if the ar,lp i ilude of oscillcitiOI1 Ee,

~
f of the zero of time. For exam-
()'·~wt pie, the phase difference be-
IX I
! "\~ / :
Z t·.\een the projections of par-
/): ticles 1 and 2 (Fig. 19) is Ip
-----..,,£-'-/-.J--L'-i---X for any arb! trary zero of
C \ __i.~.~ ; tine.
Hormonic motion is pro-
d uced bv t he action of are-
stering force. A restor in/!. force
is a force which is propor-
tionol in magnitude to the
displaceillen( of tile body
Fig- 19. Harmonic lllotionof pro·
jectiOlls of bedls desni bing uni· from tbe equilibrium position
form circulJr lnntiOI1. and is always directed tc-
wards the equilibrium posi-
tion. The mathematical express;on of a restoring force Is
F = - in:, (3,3)
where k is a coefficient of proportionality called th2 restor-
ing force constant. x is the r]i<:p lacemcnt, and the minus
si!~n denotes that the force IS always directed towards the.
equilibrium position.
within the limits of volid:!y of Hooke's law (see p. 41) and
frictional forces ore ne..;lic:ib1c.
The period of the bob is
!/;~!~
T ~= 2:, ~ k' (3,5)
where m is the moss d the be:) and Ii is the coeflicient of
elasti1jty of the snrin:;, equal numerically to the force
required to stretch the spring by 1 (';11 ",,:'
:\ forsional penddwll i" a hody \\hich pCi'lorms [Dtary-
oscillatory motion un,le,' the action of a sprill:'. (for example,
the balance wheel in v"'itches ,]l1d clucks). Under cedoin
conditions (when the :In:plitude of oscillation is sufliciently
small a;',d frictional furl','s arc ne~;li:':ib Ie) such n:otion can
that ~1l1}" pCj'iodic moti on
lI;trt1J()[!i C lliOU on"" cdlcd
to tlle of a In:i '-';l1'-!'l'n:kd
(~L\..:,::i lor \vhich tll~; fclat;o:l (J,J)
 78 CH. 111. MECHANICAL OSCILLATIONS AKD WAVE MOTION
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 79
also be considered harmonic. The period of a torsional
pendulum is given by the formula: where r is the frictional force constant, m - the mass of
the body, and k - the restoring force constant.
Damped oscillations are depicted graphically by tlIe curve
T=')n
-
liZ
J D' (3,6) in Fig. 20.
The oscillations of a body under the action of periodic
where J is (he moment of ineriia of the body about the driving force are called toned os- !!
axis of rotation, and D is the forsiol7al rigidlll!, equal nu- c illat ions.
merically to the torque required to turn tbe body through When the period of the sinu-
uni tangle. soidal driving force approaches
The period of a physical pendulum is the formula:

where J is the mOi'lent of ineriia of the body about an

axis passin'; through tbe point of support, a - the distance
from the cenlre of gravi ty to this axis, m - the mass of
the !Jou)', (Eld g ---~ the clcce!eration of gravity.
Fig. 20. Damp~;d oscillaliul1s Pi g. :21. l;:l_'<Cll~illl-l'
3. Flee and Forced Oscillations 1 -- weJ!": d:llllpi J1g". l ~ :,LfUllg
dalll!-"iiig.
The oscillations \vhich a body performs when it is in the period of natural oscillations of the bodv', the aI11plitu-
some lVay displ<1cecl from equili!Jriull1 and then released, de of the forced oscillalions increases sh,lrply (Fig: 21).
are called free (or natllral) osciILlliC)[1s.
This phenomenon is ca lIed resonance. "
If tbe free osci Ilations of a arc caused only by a If the fridional forces arc large (strong dall'jllng), [den
restorini; force, thell they wi 11 be harmonic. the resonance is weak (see Fig. 21).
The oscillations of a hodv dt'e to the simultaneous action
of a rostoritl," force and :1 fricliunal force (which is propor- 4. Sound
tional to ti~o inslantanecu'; v<'loci ty, F = -- rv *, where Sound is produced by the mechanical vibrations of elas-
v is the velocity) iire called dcltlipal . The equa- tic media and bodies (solid, liquid and r;aseous) \\'llh fre-
tion of da:lIped osci llatiolls has the form quencies ranging from 17-20 to 20,000 viiJ'ec. Within tl~is
x .• ~ Ae- Siil (lM (p). +- range of frequencies 111echal1ical vibr:1Loni call proJuc~ tne
The posilive ql1dnlity A is .called th" initial umpiitude, sen~ation of sound in the human ear. Mechanical vibrations
() - the d(l!l'jJ:ng consU'l1t, ile-·· l - the lIlsfal1tancolls vutuc of of frequency below 17 viIJisec are calleel illfrawnic (or sub-
the amplitude, IJJ -- the frequency, e - the base of sonic), vibrations of frequency above 20,000 vlb,see are
the natural system o! called ultrasonic.
Everv musical sound is characterised by loudileos and
i)
r pitch. the loudness of a sound depends on the alllpiitude
2'11 ' (3, Sa)
of vibrati on, the pitch -- on the frequency.
(I) 5. Wave Motion
(3,8 b)
W'ave motion is the propagation of a dislurbance of some
*" T!~(' lt~jJ11h S:'g!l kind. For example, if we strike one end of il netal bar, a
dello!c, lilal lil'e velocity and tlJe [or,c arc
opp()si~.:ly dil(;cteq. local compression arises at that end and pa~"lS alung the
bar with a definite velocity.
80 CH. III. MECHANICAL OSCILLATIONS AND WAVE MOTION FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 81

The velocitv with which the disturbance advances is We distinguidl between longiludinal and transverse
called the wai'e velocity. The velocity of mechanical waves waves, dependin.g on how the p8rticles ,of the, m~dlUm are
depends on tl]e properties of the medium, and in some cases displaced with respect to the clirectlOn 01 propdgatlOn of tbe
on the frequer,cy. The dependence of the wa" e velocity on
the frequency is c81kd disp?fsiO!l of the [-,elucity. wa(;'a longitudinal W8ve the particles. of the medium os-
Wilen mechanical waves are propagated in a medium the cillate in the direction of propagation: In a transverse wa\e
particles of the JiiC'diuJ1l vihrate about equilibrium positions. they osci \late perpendicll lar to the. directIOn of propagatIOn
The velocitv of [he particles of the mediun; i'i c811ed the of the wave. Mecbanical waves m lrqnlJs and gases are
velocity of vibration.
If, when waves are propagated in a mediul11, the para- longitudinaL t d' I I'n a rod is ciiven by
The velocIty of longi u ma waves b
meters characteri,inr; the medium (for example, density,
the formula:
particle displacement, pressure, etc.) vary at any ariJitrary
pJinl in space accordinr; to a sine function, the V(,."ves are
ca lied sine wave'". "
An important characteristic of sin2 waves is the wave-
VI C~ Y~ , (3, lOa)

where E is Young's modnl'ls and Q is !11e density.

length. The ['JCwc!cngth (A) is defined as the distance tra- The velocity of longitudinal waves In a sohd, the trans-
velled by the wave in on2 peried: verse di mens ions of which are much greater than the
'Ie o=c vT, (3,9a) wavelength, is
V ('3, lOb)
VI =
III '
where v is the wave velocity, v - the frequency, and T- where Q is the c1ensitv of the medium, E - Young's mo-
the period. dulus, and [J. -- Poisson's ratio (see Tal?le 17).
The mathematical expression The velocity of longitudinal waves m fluids is given by
the formula:
x = f1 sin 0) (t -- ~), (3,11)

which describes the variation of some parameter of tIle where I'll

p
is the isothermal compressibility *, V = Cz..
cv
medium through which sine W8\'es are passing is called the
cquat inn of sin(' [.2)(I'Uf,';;;:. The ve loci ty of tr8nsverse waves is given by
In this exprc:"c;io!1 A is the: amplitude of the ,;;:a 1.'(' , 0 ) - -
fhe cyclic freqnency, r - the distance from the source ini-
tiating the \'.ale to the point of interest in the medium,
VI = V f' C
(3,12)
where G is the modulus of shear.
v - the ve locity of the wave; the expression 0) (t - ~ ) The velocity of sound waves in gases is expressed by
is ca lIed the phuse of the wove.
the formula:
'-
The surface, obtained by connecting all points which have
a common phase, is called a waue front.
Accord-ing to the si:8pe of the wave front we distinguisb
Vsotlll d = VY'Q'P
- (3,13a)

between plane, (ljli ndrical and sphaiml wa\"es, where V = ~!'.. , and p is the pressure.
cv
'" JiL're ck':}otc', ;lIJ~,' p,lfdll1ctcr dlaracterising the state of tile-
UH.:Ji U111 f:XJ.lLlph:, iJrL:ssure. tCi111'~i'ature, cleo). * For compre;si bi lily sec p.41. Isolhertllal compre3sibility -- com-
pression takes place at constant temperature,
82 CH.U!. MECHANICAL OSCILLATIONS AND WAVE MOTION
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 83
Formula (3,13) app lies to ideal gases, in which case it
can be written in the form: positions (if the waves are of small amplitude and the rne-

vsound = V y:r. (3,13b)

dium is non-viscous).
The quantity of er]('r~y trnnsmitted per "econd ncross
1 square centimeter perpendiculiJr to tire direction of prupa-
gation of the wave is c?olled the illiemily of the wave
Waves on the surface of a liquid are neither transverse,
fiGr longitudinal. The particles of a liquid descljbe more Intensity is expressed in watts/ern' or ergs/cm' sec.
complex motions in surface waves (Fig. 22). '>
When mechanical waves travel through a medium the ve·
locity and acceleration of the particles of the medium vary
(J according to the same sine tawas does the displacement.
tiJ oj
If the amplitude of displacement of the particles is x when

fa o II sine wave of cyclic frequency w passes through the medium,

then the amplitude of vibration of the particles will be
u J =(0X,p (3,16)
o tile amplitude of acceleral;on of the parlicles
a<J == (1).'?XO ' (3,17)
and the intensity of the wave
1 •
1=2 '.wu~, (318)

Fig. 22. Trajectories of particles of water in surface waves:
a) shallow water. b) very deep water (very large ratio
2~h 2"h
T)' c) very shallow water (very small raHaT)'
The velocity of surface waves * is given by
... / gA 2rtCl
V sur = JI 2rt+1Q' (:3,14)
where g is the acceleration of gravity, 'A - the wavelength,
a - the surface tension, and Q - the density.
Formula (3,14) applie" when the depth of the liquid is
Hot less than 0.51".
When the depth of the liquid h is less than 0.51", the
velocity is expressed by the formula:
Vsur= -V gh. (3,15)
Wave motion is accompanied by the transfer of energy;
the particles of the medium, however, are not carried along
with the wave but only osci Ilate about their equi librium
• Formula (3. I 4) appli es to waves on a Ii qui d-gas interface, when
the density of tne liquid is much greater than that of the gao.
where Q is the density of the medium, v -_. the '.'.ave
\"elocrty, and U o - the maxImum \eiocity of vilJrah;11 of
the particles.
The maximum increase in pressure in the medium (t'1p,,)
due to the propagation of sound waves is ca \led the sound
pressure. The following relation exists belween the sound
pressure and the maximum ve loci ty of vibration of the part·
icles:
t'1PJ=Qvu o' (3,19)
The intensity of sound corresponds to the subjective sen-
s3tion of loudness. Below a certain minimum intelbitv,
Galled the threshold of audibility, sound is no longer audible
to the human ear. The threshold of audibility is different
for sounds of different frequencies. Sound of g~reat intensity
produces only a painful sensation in the ear. The smallest
intensity of sound causing such a sensation is called the
threshold of feeling.
A change in intensity (intensity level) is expressed in
decibels (db).
The intensity level B of a sound is deflned as
1
B=\O 10gT.
o
6*
 .1
TABLES AND GRAPHS 85
8" cH. III. MECHANICAL OSCILLATIONS'vD WAVE MOTION
" Table 57
As a rule, in acoustics 10 is taken equal to 1O-g erg jcm 2scc, Velocity of Sound in Solids at 20 e C
which is approximately equal to the threshold of audio Velocity of Veloc; ly of
Veloci ty of
bility at I,()OO c!sec. longitudi - long! tudinal transverse
Mechanical waves. like electromagnetic waves (see Chap- nfll waves waves in infi- waves
Material in infiui te
ter V: Optics) undergo reflection, refraction, diffraction ans in rods, nite medium,
m:,sec m/sec medium, m,isec
mterference.

Aluminium 5,080 o,2GO 3,080

Brass 3,490 4,430 2,123
TABLES AND GRAPHS Caoutchouc 1 ,479
Table 56 Coal (briquelles) 3,700 2,000
Copper 3,710 4,700 :2,:! GO
Velocity of Sound in Pure Liquids and Oils
Cork 500

Liquid
Tempera-I
ture, we
Veloci ty.
m/sec
I
Temperature
coeffi ci en t.
Ebon! te
Glass. crown
l ,570
5,300
2,40.5
5,660 3,420
I m/sec degree heavy crown 4,710 5,260 2,060
2,220
heavy flint 3,490 3,760
Pure liquids light Hint 4,.550 4,800 2,950
Acetone 20 1,192 -5.5 silica 5,370 5,570 3,513
Allilinc 20 1,65G -4.6
20 I ,326 -5.2 Hematite. lJrown 1,830
BCllZ('I1C
Ethyl alcohol 20 1,180 -3.6 Ice 3,280 3,980 1, D90
Glycerine 20 1,923 -1.8
Iron. .5, 170 5,850 3,230
I-lcavy waie~ 25 1,399 2.8
Mercury 20 1,451 -0.41> Lea'd 2,640 3,600 1,5DO
Methyl alc~l;oj 20 1,123 -3.3
6, l30 3,200
Ordi nary watee 25 I ,497 2.5 Limestone
Sea water 17 1,510-1,550 Marble 6,150 3,260
Oils Mica 7,760 2, l60
29 1,406 Nickel 4,785 5,630 2,%0
Cedar nut
Eucalyptus 29.5 1,276 Plaster of Pari s 4,970 2,370
Gasoline 34 1,250
31.5 1,772 Plexiglas 2,670 1,121
Hemp seed
Kerosene 34 1,295 Polystyrene 2,350 1,120
Olive 32.5 1,381
31.5 1,562 Porcelain. 4,884 5,340 3,120
Peanut
Rapeseed 30.8 1,450 ~ubber . 46 1,040 27
Spindle 32 1,342
Transfor;11~r 32.5 1,425 Sandstone 3,700-4,900
Slate 5.870 2,ROO
Steel. carbon 5,050 6,100 3,300
Nole. The velocity of sound in liquids decreases with a rise In Tin 2,730 3,320 1,670
temperature (with the exception 01 water). The velocity at tempera- Tungsten 4,310 5,460 ~? , C,2 U
tures other than those given in the table can be computed from the
lormula: Vt=vo [1 +~ (I-tol]. where Va is the velocity given in the Zinc 3, ~) l0 1, 170 :.i,110
table. ~ - the temperature coelficient given in the last column of the
table for pure liquids, t- the temperature lor which the vel.ocity is - ---_._---
sought, and to - the temperature i ndi cated in the table.
86 CH. III, lVIECHA:'!ICAL OSCILLATIONS AND WAVE lVIono:'!
TABLES AND GRAPHS 8•.

Table 58
Velocity of Seismic Waves Sound Velocity Versus Pressure
in Air and Nitrogen I
Mcch;mi cal \V<1ves travelling in the earth's crust arc
called seismic waves.
Seismic waves can be longitudinal (compressional waves) The curves of Fig. 23 refer to 25°C '5 IV/lro n
or transverse (shear waves). and arp valid in the frequency range
from 200 !\cjsee to 500 !\cjsec.
Velocity of jongi Veloci ty of
Depth, km tudi 11a1 waves. ir ans verse waves.
kl11,.:'sec
I km'sec Sound Frequency Spectrum

0-20 Fig. 24 gives the spectrum of sound

20-4" frequencies di vi ded into octaves as ; s 4/1'

1,300 customary in music. The piano key-

2,400 board is de pi cted alongsi de the
spectrum; it covers practically all the
frequencies used in musiC. The ratio
of the frequenci es of two mus; cal
tones is called an interval. An octave 345
is an interval with a frequency
I) JQ 50 !!!
Table 59 ..
ratio ~ =2.
f±R~~~aflf!
Fig. 23.
Velocity of Sound in Gases at t atm

. Tempcra-! Veloci ty, Temperature

Gas hue, a C misec coefficient.
m/sec degree 8.i56%-1

AIr . o 331 0.59

;:=:.-- 4I?8"l's 1
Ammonia
Benzene (vapOllr) 97
o 415
202 0.3 TrOmOolll' ~ 20,f9% }
Carlvl11 dioxic!t:
DCl!1criuTTl " o
o 259
890
0.4
1.6 ~
~-
b:: /0445%
}
Eti -:1 alcO~101 ~17 269 0.4
HcU um . o 965 0.1\ " ~c· }
Hydrogen . o 1,284 2.2 :::: ~ Trombone ~ 522.2% '

~ ~}
Methyl alcollOl 97 335 0.46
Ncon . o 435 0.8 Ir'EII/e i- HOS',
Nitro,c;cll
Oxygen
. o
o
334
31 G
0.6
0.56
1:~i£7~=:d ~ drum - 3 2my. }
Water vapour 134 494 IbY' woman YOlce rtllldomel1lallrt'!1v{'!J
CIt'S of Yowe/s prOIJOUf/
------=~ IJO 5 %
cetlQymans vOIce t
65?8'/.r r
Not~s .. 1.. The v~locity of 5,ound i II gases ;It constant pressure jncre~ Fig. 24. Spectrum of sound frequen- ~ }'
cies, divided into octaves.
ases \\1t11 lllcrease In tbe tcmp<:r'liure. The temperature coefficient of
the velocity is therefore give'I1 ill till' table, so that the velocity can On the left of the figure arc Or7t711 ~r-_--,l"2",.5,,,4-,%-,,-
be computed for other tc;nj)l.':';ttllrf..":;. shown the runge of the strongest }
2. 1\t high frcqw:Ilcies (or 10\\ Df,c"'ures) the velocity of sound de- frequencies of some musical instru- /6J!Y:s
pends Oil the frequency. TIle v::1uC's ~"ivcll the taule are for frequcn- ments and the loudest frequencies
cies and pressures at \\"hich tl1e \'clocitv is praeti cally independent of of men's and women's voices in
the frequency. • pronouncing vowels. The frcquClldes
are plOl ted lo~ari thmi cally.
 ~,
t
88 CH. III. MECHANICAL OSCILLATIONS AND WAVE MOTION TABLES AND GRAPHS 89
I
j
I .,•
II
Frequency Emi ltcr Ficid of application N at ural occurrence
_ _ _ _ _-,-_7-- . __ , - - - - - - - ,._.:' _
o 5 cycles 'sec- I u
Low-frequency vi b- Vi brati OIlS of \Vat cr in natural re·
I cycles,'sec- ~ rations of bodies scrvoirs and vibrations of bodies
(frequencies bela,,· IG cycles seq.
~

I
Sound of heart beals
20 eycles,sec- C

too cyc1es!sec-
Voices of Iltlman be-
I
i
COlllITlunic8tion and Sl 1::11 ali s3- Voices of human beings, animals,
1 Kc,sec- ~nimals, etc. tion; 11leaSUrClTlcnt of distance bi rds. insects. Sounds of v3ri nus na-
cal inslruments, by means 01 sound t ura! phenomena (wi Bd, thund...:r,
~;\1cs ,ifens loud [lo\Vlllg water. elc.)
S] l'akcr~: ~tc. '
10 Kc sec-

------------,---
20 Kc,see-

lJltrasonic sirens Sonar Emitted by bats, crickels, locusts

I Mc/sec- and \\'lJistks, magnc- UHra::-;onic cIc-ani ng- of
tostrictivc ;lI1d niezo· rarL'<; <lppliGJtion in nit>
I electric o::cil1ators,ctc. eli c; nc and bi ology
I
10 Me scc-

9-----'1
"
.~ U1tra~"'~HJic f<lult detection ill
10 2 Mcsec- PiezoC'lectric cs(i 11;:~
tors (quartz, b,lriurn
I mCUds. concrete, etc. Ultrasonic
mi croscope
ti tanate. loufIllaIine,
et c.)

Scientific re:o;carch

10' Me/sec-
Thef1:Jal vibr3tions Sed 11 t i fi c research
t 0' Me'sec-- Iof molecules
to Mc.scc-
I
90 CII. III. MECHANICAL OSCILLA TIONS AND WAVE MOTION TABLES AND GRAPHS 91

Velocity of Water Surface Waves Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration of Water Particles
At small wavelengths (less than 2 em) the decisIve Iactor is the
due to Passage of Sound Waves of Various Intensities.
surface tension: such waves are called cGpillarlj waves. Figs. 28, 29, 30 give the amplitudes of the displacement velocity
At greater wavelengths the decisive factor is gravity, and the waves and acceleratIon, computed from forl1lulas (3,lli), (3,17) al;d (3.18).
are called gravity waves. The velocity of surface waves depends on The computations have been carried out for ',V-::::::::. 1. 5 X 10 5 g.'cm 2 sec
the wavelengih (see (3,14», if the depth of the liquid is sufficienHy 'Ihe scales on both axes arc logari thmic.' " •
great (h.> O. G' ).

1000 r-=:+=rrQ;2':I:;:2'l::E'lJ
1\ 8M"
ooe r---t--t-J-1
1\
'\ ,--.,... l-- -- l--l-- 400

C<7jJ. i C,<71/e
I .? 3 4 5 1 8
W<7velellflll.,C1Q
Fig. 26. Dispersion of surface waves
(!z> 0.5).).

Loudness of Audibly Perceived Sounds

Fig. 27 gives the curves of intensity of sounds of equal loudness.
The upper curve corresponds to the threshold of feeli ng, the lower-to
the threshold of audibi lily. The frequencies are plotted on a logarith-
mi c scale.

(}
O.
1-' 1JirPSlJo/d ofief'l!lifj
120
/.!;J!E'llS/!jI
jpW'ls 7
I 10 -.... t--.. ~
- Fig. 28. Displacement of partic-
10/}
1 100 r-- ---"/, les OJ water in propagation of
Fig. 29. Acceleration of ~articles
of water in propavatiOIl of sound
- 90 - r-- :- :-/. sound waves. waves.
/} ~ 6'0 ---t- 'L/ 1011
8Jf- r::=:j==r-=T+1=:::J=:=r:::-fI
.;
1-- 7IJ F:t- V, ,,60 I-~'f--:--~-I 1----
t-----.---- t-- Ico t- L/ ~. 1<71---+---:-
/}
~"'-...... ---t- L/
/}
" I ."-..:: 1'--...1'--
5IJ
IJO
I-
- L/
t 201--1----'---1
~
f'.....~ -I ~:±=-:::t::P11--=-=
-I-
I "1" ~
"'1091--
I ""'"-"' 20 r--1- -I ~~
o ! """ / '<: 4

-II. . -i 10 t---f-

£1[-:- ! 1
i
! 'I
0 -1'--1-
-...... I'--
, - ,
?IJ jIJ 100 ,,00 /(}(JO fJOb/) 10000
Fig.3() \· . . ' 1ch'itv of p:trljl,'l· (If
h"7UeJ1CIj, '/3
water in propagation of soulld
waves~
hg. ").7,
92 CH. Ill. MECHANICAL OSCILLATIONS AND WAVE MOTION
TABLES AND GRAPHS 93
Table 60
Tobie 51
Sound Intensity and Sound Pressure Corresponding to the Reflection Coefficient of Sound Waves for Various
Main Frequencies of the Decibel Scale Interfaces (at normal incidence), 0/,)
The reflection coefficient is defined as the ratio of the intensities of
Sound Sound the rellected and incident sound waves.
Decibel i ntensi ty. pressure. Sounds of the given intensl\y
scale 2 dynes/em'
\ \}..·'att,fcm \

Material
o 10 -10 0.0002 Threshold of audibility of the
human ear.

10 10- 's 0.000G5 Rustle of leaves. Low whi sper at

a distance of I m. Aluminium o 18 2 24 21 74 72
Q;>pper o 10 0.8 0.3 88 (',]

10- " 0.002 Quiet garden. Glass . o 34 31 67 t.);")

20 Mercury 10 16 76 75
10 -" 0.00G5 Quiet room. Average sound level Nickel o 0.2 90 So
30 Steel . . . o b!) bb
in an auditorium. Violin play- Transformer oi I o 0.6
ing pianissimo. Water u
Notes. I. The reflection coefficient is the same for sOllnd passing
40 10 -'2 0.02 Low music. Noise in a living
kom mercury i nta steel and vi ce versa.
room.- 2. Upon rellection from a plate the reflection coefficient depends
on the ratio of the thl ckness of the plate to the wavelength.
50 10-" 0.OG5 Loudspeaker at low volume.
Noise in a restaurant or olii ce
with open windows.
Table 62
Absorption Coefficient of Sound in Di Iferent Materials
GO 10-'0 0.2 !(adio turned on lOUd. Noise in (upon R.eflection)
a store. Average level of speech
The absorption coefficient of sound (upon reflecUon) is defined as the
at a distance of 1 m. ratio of the energy absorbed to the energy i nci deut on the reflecti ng
:Koise of a truck motor. Noiseln· surface.
70 10- 9 0.G45

~
si de a tramcar. requel1eY,
c/sec
80 10 -R 2.04 Noisy street. Typists' room. 125 250 500 1,000 2,000 1,000

90 10- 7 6.45 Automobile horn. Large sympho- Material

ny orchestra playi ng fortissi mo.
Bri ck wall (unplaste.
10- 9 20.4 Riveting machi ne. Automobile red) . . • • . . 0.024 0.025 0.032 O.Oell 0.049 0.07
100
siren. Cotton materi al
Glass. sheet
0.03
0.03
0.04 I 0.027
0.11 0.17 0.24
0.02
0.35
-
10- 5 64.5 Pneu mati c ha m mer. Glass wool (9 em
110 thick, . 0.32 0.40 0.51 O.GO 0.65 0.60
10- 1 200 Jet engine at a distance of 5 m. Hair felt (25 mm
120 thick) . 0.18 0.36 0.71 0.79 0.820.85
Loud thunderclaps. Marble . . . . . 0.01 0.01 0.015 -
Threshold of feeling, sound is no Plaster. gypsum 0.013 0.015 0.020 o. on 0.04 0.05
130 10- 3 645 Plaster, Ii me . . 0.025 0.045 0.06 O.OS5 0.043 11.058
longer audible. Rug with nap . 0.09 0.08 0.21 0.27 0.27 0.37
Wooden planking 0, 10 0.11 O. II 0.08 0.082\ 0.11
I
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 95

The magnitude of any electric charge is alwavs a multinle

CHAPTER IV
ELECTRICITY
A. THE ELECTROSTATIC FIELD
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS
There are two hinds of electric charges - posi live and neg-
ative. Positive charges are the ~;ind which are generated on
a glass rod which has been rub bed wi th si lk, and a Iso
charges which are repelled by them. Negative charges are the
kind which are generated on an ebonite rod when rubbed
with fur, and also the charges which arc repelled by them.
Like charges repel each other, unlike charges attract each
other.
Interaction of charges. Electric field. The law of intera-
ction of point charges was established experimentally by
Coulomb:
of a certain m~nimurr~ ,charse, called the elementary ch(l~ge
(e); e=4.8xIO IUCGSE unds.
A region in which electric forces act is called an electric
field. Electrically charged bodies are always surrounded bv
an electric field. The field due to fixed charges is called an
electrostatic {ield. :rhe force. acting on unit positive
charge placed at a gIven pomt 15 called the intensity of the
electric field at that point:
E=!- . (4,3)
q
lhe intensity is a vector quanlity. The direclion of the in-
tensity coincides with that of the force acting on a positive
«harge. The field intensities due to two separate eleclric
t:harges are added according to the parallelogram law, i.e.,
by vector methods.
The electrostatic field intensity of a point charge is
E=!L
Br 2 '
(4,4)
where r is the distance from the point for which the inten-
sity is sought to the charge.
The electric field intensity of a uniformly charged sur-
face is

(4,1~ (4,5)

where F is the force of interaction, ql and q2 - the magni- where (J is the charge per unit surface.
tudes of the charges, r - the distance between them, and . The electric field intensity of a uniformly charged sphere
e - a quantity called the dielectric constant at the medium. IS
In the case of vacuum the dielectric constant is denoted by q
e u' and formula (4,1) takes the form E=2' (4,6)
er
(4,2) where r is the distance from the point for which the inten-
sHy is sought to the center of the sphere.
The electric field intensity of a charged cylinder is
In the CGSE system of units eo=l; in the MKSA system
80=1/9 X 10 9 farad/m. . . E=2q'
The CGSE unit of charge IS defined as that charge which £r ' (4.,7)
when p laced I cm from an eq ua 1 charge in vacuum exerts
upon it a force of I dyne. The practical unit of charge where q' is the charge per unit length along the axis of the
(MKSA system) is the coulomb: cylinder, and r is 111(' distance trom the po(nt of interes: to
the axis of the cy Hnder.
1 couJomb=2.99793x 10 9 CGSE units~3 X 10' CGSE units.
 96 ClI. IV. ELECTRICITY
FUNDAME)/T AL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 97
The lines of fora' of an electric field are defined as cun'c e •
the tangents 10 which at each point coincide in direc- by the. electric forces in moving unit positive charge from
one pOint to another is defined as the potential difJerence
between the two points (U). The potential at a point is de-

~
fined as the potentia~ difference between that point and an
arbItr~f1ly. chosen pomt of zero potential. The point of zero
potentIal IS frequently taken at infinitv. The work of dis-
placement of a charge q in an electrostatic field is

A=qU. (4,8)
0) f;)

Fig, 31. Lines of force of point c1J<1rg-cs: The unit of potential in the MKSA system is the volt (v),
posi ti ve. IJ) negative,
(1) defl11ed as the po~entlal dIfference between two points when
work ~qual to I Joule must be performed to bring I coulomb
of posItive charge from one point to the other. A surface
all points of which are at the same potential, is called a~
equipotential surface.
The lines of force of the field are perpendicular to the
~quipotential surfaces. No work is done by the electric forces
m mO~lng a charge from one point to another on an equi-
potentIal surface. Let A and 13 be two points of the field'
then the following approximate relation exists between th~
intensity of the Held at the point A and the potential dif-

I, 0.)
Fig. 32. Lines of force: (1) field of two unlike point charges.
ference between these points:

I1U
l b) field of two lil,e poi nt.charges. E A =-i5.T' (4,9)

I w~ere I1U is the potential difference between the close-lying

Fig. 33. Electric field of parallel plate con-
denser.
lion with the intensity vector. The lines of force of variou>
electric fields are illustrated in P'igs. 31, 32 and 33.
Work and potential. When a charge is disp laced under
the influence of an electric field work is performed. In an
electrostatic field the magnitude of the work performed is
independent of the path of the charge. The work p8rformed
pomts A and B. and 111 IS the distance along the line of
torce between the equipotential surfaces passing through
fhese points .
. If the electric fiel.d is homogeneous, i.e., if the intensity
IS constant In magmtude and direction at all points of the
field (for example, in a parallel plate capacitor), then
E=-!!..
I '
where I is t.he length. of the line of force. In the MKSA
~ystem the Inter:s!ty 1S expressed in voltsjmeter (Vim). 1 vim
IS equal to the l?tenslty of a homogeneous tield in which
the potenhal difference between the ends of c line of force
I m long is equal to I v. The potential difference per unit
7 3a1{. 46
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 99
98 CH. IV. ELECTRICITY

where a and b are the radii of the inner and outer spheres.
length of a line of force in a homogeneous field is called The capacitance of a two-wire line is
the potential gradient. . .
Capacitance. Two conductors with an electnc field between C=_e_l_
them whose lines of force emanate from one conductor and (4,14)
4In.i£'
terminate on the other form a capacztor; the conductors a
themselves are called the capacitor plates.
In a simple capacitor the two plates carry opposite charges where d is the distance between the axes of the wires, a-
of equal magnitude. their radius. and I - the length.
The capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of The capacitance of a multiple capacitor is
the charge on one of the plates to the potential difference C O.088eS (n - I)
between the plates, i.e., d (4,15)
q where S is the area of one plate, n - the number of plates,
C=U' (4.10) d - the distance between two adjacent plates.
If capaci tors of separate capacitances C" C2 , C, ... , Cn
The lv\KSA unit of capacitance is the farad. I farad is are connected in parallel the capacitance of the whole
equal to the capacitance of a capacitor. the potential dif. system is
ference between whose plates is equal to I v when the charge
(on one of the plates) is I coulomb. The CGSE unit of ca.
Cpar=C 1 + C + C, + '.. + C'l'
2 (4,16)
pacitance is the CPI1t;lIv"tcr (cm). . for a system of capacitors connected in series the capaci-
According to the shape of the conductln,£( surfaces capac. tance is
itors are called paraLLel plate. cylindrical and spherical. I 1 I I I
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is C=C+C+C+",
5er 1 2 3
+ C'
II
(4,17)
The energy stored in a charged capacito'r is given by the
C eS
(4,11) formula
4nd '
<=

W'=; CU
2
, (4,18)
where S is the surface mea of one plate (the smaller one in
The spac€ in which an electric field exists contains stored
case they are unequal), d - the distance between the plates,
energy. The energy in unit volume of a homogeneous field
I'; - the dielect~ic constant. (energy density) can be computed by the formula
The capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor and of a coaxial
cable is eE2
w=8Jt ' (4,19)
el
C=--b-' (4,12) where E is the field intensi ty *.
21n -
a
• In the case of an inhomogeneous fi eld one deli nes the "energy den-
where b is the radius of the outer cylinder, a - the radius sity at a point":
of the inner cvlindH. and l - the length of the capacitor. w= lim ~U:::.
The capaci tance of a spherical capacitor is ,lV..,.O t>V

I'; Here ,l\V is the energy concentrated in the volume ,lV when the latter
C·- ---lO- (4,13) ·contracts" to a point. If we define E as the intensity at this point,
then formula (4,19) is valid for an arbitrary field.
a b
 I.
t
100 CH IV. ELECTRICITY TABLES AND GRANtS 101

Conductors and insulators in an electric field. When
a conductor is placed in an electric field charges of unlike
sign are induced on it (charging by induction). These charges
are distributed over the surface of the conductor in such
manner that the intensitv of the electrostatic field inside
the conductor is zero, an"d the surface of the conductor is an
equipotential surface.
Insulators (dielectrics), when placed in an electric field,
become polarised, i.e., the charges of the molecules are
displaced in such manner that their external electric field
q
b:q;:j) l/
resemb les the field of two un-
like point charges of equal
intensity of the electric field. A substance exhibits lerro-
electric properties at temperatures which do not exceed
a certain temperature called the Curie point (Te).
The piezoelectric eU'ed. Upon the mechanical deformation
of some crystals along given directions electric charges of
opposite sign appear on different faces of the crystal, while
inside the crystal an electric field arises. !I. change in the
direction of the deformation causes a change in the sign of
the charges. This phenomenon is ca lied the piezoelectric
effect. The piezoelectric dIect is reversible, i.e., when
a crystal is placed in an electric field its linear dimensions
change. The inverse piezoelectric elTect is uti lised to generate

ct=
magnitude (see Fig. 32, a). ultrasonic frequencies. The Illagni tude of the charge which
- .. + In general, a system of charges arises in the piezoelectric effect is given by the relation
whose external fteld resem-
{ b les the fte ld of two un]i ke
point charges of equal magnitude
Fig. 34. Electric dipole. is called an electric dipole (Fig.
34).
The dipole is characterised by a vector quantity called the where F x is the force causing deformation, and d'l is a con-
stant for the given crystal called the piezoelectric constan:.
electric dipole moment (Pi):
pi,=ql, (4,20)

where I is the distance between the charges.

The direction of the vector Pi is taken from - q to q. + TABLES AND GRAPHS
The vector sum of all the moments of the elementary dipo-
les in a unit volume is called the polarisation of the di-
electric: Table 63

P=~Pi (4,21) Electric Field in the Earth's Atmosphere

The molecules of some dielectrics are dipoles even in the

absence of an electric field. In the case of such substances Alti tude. km ()

polarisation consists in an alignment of the elementary

dipoles in the direction of the field. .,
Ferroelectrics (seignette-eleetrics). S~me dlelec~ncs even Intensity, vim 130
in the absence of an electric Held contam small (microscopIC)
rei~ions which are polarised in d iHerent dir:ections. Suc.h
dielectrics are called l'erroel2ctrics. The magmtude of theIr
polarisation is characterised by the v:ctor of intrinsic Notes. 1. The charge of ;:) tht111rlerC'1o!1d is equal to I O-~'" coulomhs
(spontaneous) polarisation Ps. The properties of a ferroelectrIC (in some cases it may be as much as 300 coulombs).
2 The mean surface dClIsit"y of charg-e of the earth Is 3.45 CGSE
(e.!!., ils dielectric constant, etc.) depend on the magmtude units'cm:l • The total charge of the c:lrth i~ O.5? X 10 1) (ouloI111)5.
of the vector Ps. The dielectric constants, of ferroelectncs
are usually large aIlLI depend to a cOllslderaule degree on the ----------------
102 TABLES AND GRAPHS 103
CH. IV. ELECTRICITY

Table 65
Table 64
Insulat ing Materials Dielectric Constants of Some Pure Liquids (CGSE
System of Units)
])ie1eelri c
constant, Di eleelri c Densi ty,
Material strength, ResistiVity. Temperature
(CGSE gem' ohm em
uni tS) kv/rnm
Substance
OOC

Asbestos 2 2.3-2. G 2XI05

I
10°C
I 20 C C
I
2GoC
I
I
30°C
I
,10°C I 50°C

Bakelite 4-4. G 10-40 1.2

Beeswax 2.8-2.9 20-35 0.9G 2XIOlO_2X1015 Acetone 23.3[22.5 21 .4 20.9 20.:>
Birch, dry 3-4 19.5 18.7
40-00 0.7 Benzene - 2.30 2.2D ~.27 2.20 2.25 2.22
Bitumen 2.0-3.3 0-15 1 2 Carbon tetrachlo-
Carboli te (P) 10-14.5 I. 2-1.3 ride 2.24 ~.23 ~.OO ~. 18
Celluloi d 3-4 30 2X I 0 1 • Elhyl alCOhol 27.8H 213.41 25.00 :2·1.2;:} 23.52 :22.1(1 2U.87
Ebonitc (RP) 4-4.5 25 1.3 I X lOla Ethyl etIter 4.80 4.58 '1.38
Eskapoll (p) 4.27 4.15
2.7-3 30 Glycerine 5G.2
Fibre board, dry 2.5-8 Kerosene 2.0
Fluoplastic-3 . . . 2.5-2.7 2-0 I . I-I .94 5XIO' Water 87.8:1 83.86 80.UR 78.25 713. ·17 7:3.02 G9.73
Getillax (lami- 2.14 1.2XI0"
nated insula-
tion) (P) 5-G.5 10-30 1.3 Note. Small quantities of impurities have a neg-Ugi tde effect on
Glass 4-10 20-30 2.2-4. a 10 II_lOt< the vallie of the di eledri c constant.
Gulla pcrrha 4 15 0.95 2X I 0'
Marble 8-10 G-IO 2.7 I X I 0 10
Mica, fIluscovi te 4.5-R 50-200 2.8-:3.2
Mica, phlogopite 4-5.5 00-125 2.5-2.7 10"_10 17
Para ifi n 2.2-2.3 20-30 a . 4-0.9 3 X I A"
Plexiglas 3.0-3. G 18. '> 1.2
Pol yst vrene 2.2-2.8 25-50 I. 05-1. G5 5X I OIC-5X I 017
Polyvinyl chlo- Table (i6
ri de resi n 3.1-3.5 50 1.38
Porcelain, elec- Dielectric Constants of Gases at 18°C
trical G.5 20 2.4 3X lat<·
Pressboard 3·4 9-12 0.9-1. I I X la'
and Normal Pressure
Radioporcel~i~ (C) 6.0 15-20 2.5-2. G
Rosin 3.5 1.1 5X 10 15
Rubber, soft 2.6-3 15-25 1.7 -2. a 4x10 13
Shellac . 3.5 50 1.02 Substance E (CGSE) Substance E (CGSE)
IxlOto
Silk, natural 4-5
Slate 6-7 5-14 2.6-2.9 10'
Textoli te 7 2-8 I. 3-1.4
Ticond (C) 25-80 15-20 3.8-3.9 Air . 1.00059 Ki trag-en ..• I. (J0061
Ultra porcelai n (C) 6.3-7.5 15-30 2.6-2.9 3X 10"
Vinyl plasti c (I') 4. I 15
Carbon dioxide I. 00097 I Oxyg-en . . . . I. OUOGS
Helium . . 1. (J0007
I. 00026
I Water vapollr 1 . (J078
H"drogen
Notes. I. The dielectric strength characterises the maximum poten-
tial difference which can be applied to a dielectric without destroying
its insulating properties.
2. The lellers i II the pare'ltheses denote: (P) - plastic, (C) - ceo Note. The dielectric constants of gl.';~0:; decrease wi tIl an increase
ramie, (RP) - rubber plastic. In the temperature, and increase with an increase in the pressure.
3. The values of :he dielectric constant are given for temperatures
18 to 20°C. The dielectric conste n !3 of solids vary but slightly with
the temperature, with the exceptio!, of ferroelectrics (see Figs. 35. 36).
4. Fo'r resistivity refer to p. 108.
t04 Cll. IV. ELECTRICITY TABLES A:\'D GRAPHS 105

Table 67 Dependence ?f Dielectric Constant of Some Ferroelcetrics

on tne Temperature and Field Intensity

Some Properties of Ferroelectric Crystals

;;;-
~ c~
~ o.~·c u
.-
~::

Crystal
"
'0
0.
o C)"'->::l
em :5c;:j
o.::·e~
()~l.:-l
"=:·"';;;ifJ
'" C;E~O ",,0
3~ ,<l.l c.,0u
"""'<J)c.._ o2~
UO

NaK (C,Il,0,).4I1 2 0 (Rochelle 297 (upper) 800 200

salt) ~55 (lower)
NaK (C,H,D 2 O,,)·4D 2 O 308 (upper)
249 (lower)
LiNH, (C,H,O,)· H 2 O 106 630
F.i~. 3S: Tetllperature dCI'Cllc1cIL"('
~1,le,eetnc COllst,1I1L of f.~ociJclle
KH 2 PO, (potassium di hydro-
16,000 45 l}lC two curves correspolu:! jo 1\\"~
phosphate) 123 dlHcrcllt \"ulucsoflhc ficld intellOily.
RbI-:,PO, 147
KI-!,AsO, 90.5
I'H,Il 2 PO, (ammoni um di- 58
bydropliosphate)

391 i8,OOO !. 000-1,700

Ba TiO (barium titanate)
KNbO, 708
!\aNbOe, 913
UTlO, 70.000
~,

Notes. 1. Ferroelectri cs are divided into three I':rOllps according to

their cbemical formulas.

r±
2. Some ferroelectrics exhibit their spcci ric properties withi n
a given range of temperaturcs. For these the table indicates the
upper and 100\"er Curi c points. ,j /I ! 4 5 S 10
IhI':;J!'!'a!vrc,·nc
3. The values of the dielectric constants are g-iven Jor weak fields. /id:'/li7/;",7S//;",e::
4. The symLol [) dcnotes hcavy hydrogcn (dl'l1terium).
Fig' ..3fl. Tl-:mprr:ltllfc depcnd('llCC
of dl~:lc;_·tf1(, constant of It'lTO-
electncs of the barium titauale
group.
106 tIl. IV. ELECTRICITY fUNDIlMENTAL CONCEPTS AKD LAWS 107

Table 68 of current in the MGSA system is the ampere, defined as a

Piezoelectric Cor,stants of Some Crystals rate of flow of one coulomb per second.
The current density (j) is defined as the current passing
through a unit cross-sectional area of lhe cO'ld'lctor. The
Piezoelectric constant,
Crystal CGSE units (d ll Xl 0 8 ) practical unit of current density is the ampere,em', i,e., a
current of one ampere through an area of I crn 2 perpendicu-
lar to the direction of flow.
The current density is
Ammonium phospholc (A:U') . . . 148
Polarised burium titanate ceramic 750 j=neu, (423)
Potassium phosphate (K,UP) 70
Quartz . . . 6.9 where n is the number of charge carriers in unit volume,
Rochelle salt 7,000
Tourmaline 5.78 e - the charge of a carrier, and v - the mean veloci ty of
Zinc blende 9.8 the carriers.
If there are charges of different sign and magnitude pres-
Notes. 1. Some crys!als have di Herent cOI"lants for di!lerenl ent, the total current density will be equal to the sum of
directions of deformation; in sueh caSE'5 the greiltc';t values a~c gl~ven. the densities due to lhe difIerent kinds of charges
2. III order to convert the value of the cOllstant from CGSE to
MKSA units militiply the fig-lire g-iven in the tahle by 3X I 0'. The
COtIstalli \\'ill 1llt'll be cxprcsseq i 11 coulombs'newton. j=~nev. (4,24)
The following relation also holds
(. aE, (4,2:))

B. TlfE ELECTRIC CURRENT. DIRECT-CURRENT where E is the electric field intensily in,ide the conductor,
ond a is the conductivity of tlte condclctor (see beIO\\).
CIRCUITS The current is a scalar quantity, lhe current density -- a
vector quanli ty.
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS For an electric current to flow in a closed circuit there
must be forces other than electroslalic forces acting on the
1. Electric Current in Metals charge carriers. Any device wllich gives
t: rise to such forces is called a current
The orderlv motion of charge carriers constitutes an source or electric generator.
electric current. In metals the charge carriers are electrons- An electric circuit is composed of a
negatively charged particles whose charge is equal .to t.he
e:ementary charge. The direction of the c~rrent.ls arlJltranly
ti current source, connecting wires and in-
struments (or other deVices) in which the
defined as the direction opposite to that 1TI whIch the neg-
current performs work (Fig. 38). Work in
ative charges move. an electric circuit is performed by forces
If a charge !'.. q passes through a cross-section of a conduc-
tor in a time from to to to +
M then the current at. t~e
Fig. 3K. Simple
of a non-electrostatic nature which keep
Up a constanl potential differ:Ollce across
instant to (or thit instantaneous current) IS defined as the I1mlt eleelric circuit. the terminals of lhe source.
The electromotive force (e.m.f.) of a
i1o = lim ~q . (4,22) source of electric energy is detined as the work done in car-
M -7 0 t
ryins unit electric charge around a closed circuit in whi h
no current is flolVing. The electromotive fcrce is measured n
In a <tcadlj current equal charges pass through a cross- the ,;ame units as the potential diiIerence ([or examp!e, n
section uf the' conductor in equ1l time intervals. The unit volts).
 108 CH. IV. ELECTRICITY
FUNDAMENT AL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 109

Ohm's law for a section of a circuit which does not by 1°C to the initial resistivity. The resistivity of some me-
contai n electromotive forces was es tab I ished by experi menta I tals at very low temperatures drops suddenly and becomes
observation: the current in a conductor is proportional to the practically zero. This phenomenon is called superconductivity.
potellt ia/ diljerence uetu.!een ils ends, i.e.,
When resistors are connected in series the equivalent re-
. U sistance RI:. is equal to the sum of the separate resistances
1= IT' (4,26)
R l , R2 , R., ... R n :
I
The enn:";:)'lt of proportionality in this law R is called (4,29)
the conductance. The quantity R is called the resistance; it
depends on the "fricUon" which the charge carriers must For resistors connected in parallel:
overcome in their motion throL1[;h the medium. Conductors
in which current is due to the Illotion of free electrons are 1 1 1 1 1
called e/3ctronic conductors. ~=--+-+-+"'+-R . (4,30)
R~ Rl R2 R. n
The unit of resistance is the ohm. 1 ohm is the resist-
ance of a conductor having a difference of potential between Ohm's law ,for a section ot a circuit containing e.m.[. For
its ends equal to 1 vol! \vhen a current of 1 ampere flows a section of a circuit containing an e.m.1. the following
through it. relation, called Ohm's law, holds:
The resistance of a wire conductor (of constant cross-
section) is . U+~
t=-R--' (4,31)
I
R==c-- , (4,27)
'5
\vnere R is the resistance of the section, U - the potential
where p is the resistivity, defined as the res;st3nce of a con- difference oetween the ends of the section, and ~ - the e.m.L
ductor of unit length and unit cross-sectional area. I is the It should be borne in mind that both 10 and U may ue
length of the conductor, and 5 - the cross-sectional area. posi tive or negative. The e.m.1. is. considered positive if it

. The quantity a=+ is called the conductivity. The unit of increases the potential III the dIrectIon of
current flow (the current flows from the .solUce
resistivity in the MKSA system is the ohm m. In electrical negative terminal to the positive terminal itli + J OJ -
engineering I is expressed in m, the cross-sectional area
5 - in mm 2 ; hence p is expressed in ohm mm 2 jm considered poslhve if the current l11slde t
E.
of the ..source):. the p.otential differe.~.ce is I II
mm 2 the source flows in the direction of de- Ii - 1 / 8
1 ohm - - = lOG ohm m. creasin a potential (from the positive to
m the ne.gative terminal). For .exa~p;e, in
The resistivity of most metals increases with the temper. charging an accumulator (FIg. 09) the I
ature. The dependence of the resistiVity on the temperature can charging current I
+
be represented approximately by the relation U @ ~
l') oee ~cr{!i'e biJllerp
+ at)
-

Pt=Po (1 (4.28) Race

where Pt is the resistivity at the temperature t, 20- the
resistivity at uoe, and a - the temperature coefficient of re-
sistivitlJ; this coefficient is numerical1y equal to the ratio of
the change in resistivity caused by heating the conductor
Fig. ~-)~). l\rCUnlU-
where U is the potential difference across lator charging cir·
the terminals of the source, ~acc - the t..'ui t.
e.m.1. of the accnmulator being charged,
Race - the resistance of the accumulator (the reSIstance of
the connecting wires is neglected).
110 CH. IV. ELECTRICITY
FUNDAMENTAL CO"CEPTS j\ND Lj\WS III

For the section of the circuit ADB we have in the same First law: the algebraic sum of the currents flowing into
case
a junction (or branch point) is zero. For example (Fig. 40),
. ~ ~our('e - U
tCh=·7~s~.~ i, +i +i 2 3 - i.,=0
Second law: the algebraic sum of the products of the cur-
where &3curce is the e.m.f. of the source, and RSOUL'C - its rents by the respective resistances around a closed loop is
internal resistance. equal to the algebraic sum of the e.m.f.'s in the loop.
For a closed unbranc:hed circuit the relation (4,31) takes To apply this law to a loop we consider those currents as
on the form (in this case U=O) positive whose direction coincides with an arbitrary direction
. $ around the loop. An e.mJ. is considered positive if the
t=R' (4,32) arbitrary direction around
the loop coincides with the 'llirec/iollolrderellce

;:.~
direction of the e.m.f. of tLe
where R is the sum of the resistance of the external circuit current source (the e.mJ. uf
and the internal resistance of the source. a current source is directed

',
Work of electric current. The work performed by an electric from the negative terminal to
current in a section of a circui t is

X
A=iUI, (4,33)
. '?
where I is the time of flow of the current, U - the potential
difference across the section, and i -- the current. IJ I •. EJ J
The work performed by a current which appears as a
change in the internal energy of the conductor (heat) in the Fig. 40. Currcnt Fig ..\ I. Currcnl Lop.
absence of an e.m.!. in the section of the circuit is junction.
U2
A=7[t. (4,34) the positive). For example (Fig. 41),

The work performed by a current which appe3rs as a

i,R, +i R 2 2 - i3 R,=G>1 + $2 - $3'
For simi lar sources connected in series
change in the internal energy of the conductor (regard less
of whether the section of the circuit includes an e.m.f. or
not) is
i (nr" + R)=ny/;, (4,36)
where n is the number of sources, r ll - the internal resist-
A=i"Rt. (4,35) ance of a source, R - the external resistance, i9 - the
e.mJ. of a source.
The unit of work (or energy) in electrical engineering is For n similar sources connected in parallel
the walt·second, or joule, defined as the work performed
when a direct current of 1 amp Ilows through a potential
difference of 1 v in I sec. Another practical unit of work i ( R + ~~ )=;;1. (4,37)
is the kilowatt-hour (kw-hr).
2. Current in Electrolytes
1 kw-hr=3.6x 10 6 watt-sec.
Solutions of acids. bases and salts in water or in ether
Kirchhoff's laws. The calculation of currents, potential solvents are called electrolytes. Molten salts are also char-
difierences and e.m.f.'s in complex circuits is carried out On acterised by electrolytic conductivity. The current in electro-
the basis of Kirchhoff's laws_
lytes is carried by ions which are formed when the substance

112 CH. IV. ELECTRICITY
passes into solution. Ions are positively or negatively
char[',ed parts of molecules.
The current density due to ions of both signs is
(4,38)
where n+ is the concentration of positive ions, e - the
~harge of an ion, V+ - the drift velocity of the positive
Ions, n_, v _ - the concentration and drift velocity of the
negative ions.
the mobility of the ions is defined as the average drift
velocity which an ion attains in a field of intensity 1 v/cm.
The current density can be expressed in terms of the ion
mobilities u+ and u_:
(4,30)
Ohm's law holds for electrolytes. The decomposition of an
electrolyte by an electric currcnt is called electrclysis.
Faraday's 1irst law. The mass of any substance liberated
at the electrode in electrolysis is proportional to the total
quantity of charge Q passing through the electrolyte:
m=KQ. (4,40)
The coefficient of proportionality K is called the electroche-
mical equivalent and is equal numerically to the mass of
a given substance liberated when unit quantity of chilrge
passes through the electrolyte. . This process is called ionisatio/l. The energy reqUired to
Faraday's second law. The electrochemical equivalent of
a given substance is proportional to its chemical eqUivalent:
(4,41)
WRei'e yA - the chemical eqUivalent is defined as the ratio
of the atomic weight of an element to its valence. The
constant C is the same for all substances and has the di-
mensions g/g-equiv.
The faraday. The same quantity of electric charge, equal
to 96,500 coulombs, when p:,ssed throu<;(h a solution of au
electrolyte, will liberate a mass of substance equal to the
chemica I cquivalent of that substance. This quantity of
electric charge is C<llled the faraday:
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 113
F =96,500 coul/g-equiv;
C=ljF g-equiv/coul. (4,42)
Electrochemical cells. When a metal electrOde is immersed
in an electrolyte a potential difference is set up between the
electrode and the solution. This potential difference is called
the electrochemical potential of the given electrode in the
given solution.
The absolute normal potential is called the value of the
electrochemical potential of a m21al in a solution with
a normal concentration of ions (i.e., with a concentration
of one gram-equivalent of ions per liter). Under such con-
ditions the electrochemical potential depends only on the
nature of the metal.
When. two. c:lectrodes are immersed in an electrolyte
a.potentIal dltterence is set up between them, equal to the
dl.Herence of. their electrochemical potentials. An electrolyte
with tWD dl()erent electrodes immersed in it is called an
electrochemical cell (for example, a solution of sulfuric acid
with a copper and a zinc plate immersed in it is called
a Volt alc cell). .
3. Current in Gases
The passage of electric current through a gas is due to
the presence of ions and free electrons. Electrons may be-
come detached from neutral gas molecules and some of them
may attach themselves to olher neu tra 1 molecu les and atoms.
remove an elec! ron from d molecule or atom is called the
ionisation potentia! and is expressed in electron-volts (ev).
An elecl:,1l1-volt IS equal to the energy acqUired by an
electron 111 fallIng through a potential difference of 1 volt.
. The cur.rent density in gases., as in metals and liquids,
IS determ1l1ed by the concenlralion of the charge carriers
(ions), their mobility and charge. However in view of the
fact that. the ion concentration depends on the Held intensity
and vanes throughout the volume of gas, Ohm's law does
not apply, as a rule, to gaseous conductors.
Two kinds of conductivity are distingUished in gases:
induced conductiVity, when ioni:;alion is caused by agents
other than an electric 1ield (for example, X-rays, heating,
etc.); and tntrtnsic conductivity, when ionisation is due to
the action of an electric field applied between the electrodes.

114 CH. IV. ELECTRICITY
An electric current in vacuum (101: example, in thermionic
tubes) is due to the motion of electrons or ions which
escape from electrodes placed in a vacuum.
In order to remove an electron from a metal work must
be performed; this is known as the work function.
When a metal is heated it begins to emit electrons. This
phenomenon is called thermionic emission. An electron
can escape from the metal if the following condition is
fulfilled:
1 2 (4,43)
"2 mv ll ?,: <p,
where m is the mass of the electron, v ll - the projection of
the thermal velocity of the electron on to the normal to the
surface, and <p - the work function.
The maximum value of the thermionic current is called
the saturation current. The density of the saturation current
in thermionic emission is:
(4,44)
where A' is a constant which is different for different met·
als, T - the absolute temperature, k -' Boltzmann's con·
., stant (see p. 58) and e ~ 2.72 is the base of the natural loga·
rithms. The quantities A' and <p are sometimes cal1ed the
emission constants.
According to the theory, A' should he the same for all
pure metals (60.2 amp/cm" degree"). Actually, however, it
varies with different metals.
The so-called oxide cathodes have found wide application
in practice. These cathodes are prepared by coating a metal
base with barium oxide or an oxide of some other metal,
which considerably decreases the work function.
Dielectric breakdown. When a large potential difference
is applied to unheated electrodes placed in a gas, a dis-
charge in the form of a spark m~y take place. This pheno-
menon is called breakdown. The potential difference reqUired
to cause breakdown depends on the material, shape and di-
mensions of the electrodes, 011 the distance between them,
and also on the nature and pressure of the gas.
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 115
l' It f thea ca~e
of large flat electrodes the breakdown pot en-
t~a or d given gas and ele~trode material depends only un
• e pro uTt pd (where p IS the pressure of the gas. and
~ - the d.stance b~tween the electrodes). In other words
1 p ~nd d are vaned in such manner that their prcdwt
remalIlS . constant, the breakdown potential will not chana;
The distance between. the. e.lectrodes at which breakdu~~
~~curl at a given potential dlfterence is called the spark crap
d'ffe ength tof the spark gap is a measure of the pote;tiai
J erence b e ween the electrodes.
4. Semiconductors
is SJ:i~on~~ctor\~re substances whme electrical conductivity
. . 0 e mo Ion of bou~d electrons and whose resist-
~VI\~. at room teJ.llperature lIes within the range from 10- 2
to °r
ms cm. 1he resistiVity of semiconductors is stroncrly
e~~~r~ ure-dependent. In contradistinction to metals the
f~~ISt~vlty of semiconduc~ors. decreases with an incre2~e in
stronglyperattuhre. The reslst!vlty of semiconductors depends
on e presence of Impurities.
Fig.. 42. Electron energy level
dIagram of scrniconduetor.
Electrons in matter are distributed about the atomic
nuc~ei in such manner that any atom may po 1
a dls.crete s~t of energy values. Every electron c~~e~c~uIl~Y
certam defiIllte energy levels, which are different from- t~l~
enen5Y levels of other electrons. These energy levels dre
called c:llowed levels. The allowed energy levels fall . I
two .reglOns, or band~, .which are separated by the s~.ca\?:~~
forb~dden gap contalIllng the values of elll'rgv which a;c
forbidden to t.he electron. At the temperature"(PK :ill th,'
electrons are !n the band ~f lowest cuclgil':i. and all (h~
energy: levels 1Il thiS iJ:l1ld will he occupied (Fig. 42). This
band IS called the valencG band The .ecoml baud (the con-
8*
116 CH. IV. ELECTRICITY
TABLES AND GRAPHS 117
duction band) of the non-metallic elements does not contain
a single electron at O"K. In metals the conduction and the for light ra~n - 10-" to 10-:-' CGSE units of current'cm'
valence bands overlap. renftorre
thunde!
m storms :
and !
hail
, - UI'
' to , C'GSE'
3x 10-'. ,·'t
tll11 S 0
[ cur-
The energy required for an electron to pass from the
The current in a lightning stroke mo,' I . .
valence band to the conduction band is called the width of (the most common values are '[rom 20 "<)0 let .1.S1 high <lS 200,000 amp
the forbidden gap PEn). Semiconductors possess either The potcntial in 1" ." 0 '11.OOIl amp).
discharge lasis abouta](\!O!1t~~~lgi~tr~l~c,7;a y bc as high "sIO" v: the
electron (n-type) or hole (p-type) conductivity. Electronic the diameter of the channel- up t~' 23nZm~ cau be about 10 km, and
conductivity is due to the motion of the electrons in the
conduction band; hole conductivity is due to electrons in the
valence band moving from one atom to another which has
"lost" an electron to the conduction band. The motion of an
electron in the valence band is eqUivalent to the motion of Table 69
a positive charge in the opposite direction. Such a positive Resistivity and Tempe ra t ure Coe ftl·
clent of ResistiVity
charge is termed a "hole". of Metals
I(csistivity Temperature
Metal at :!(PC coefficient
5. Thermoelectricity ohm mm;jm at ~occ

If a closed circuit is composed of two dissimi lar metals

and the junctions of the metals are maintained at different Aluminium 00210 0,0049
temperatures, a current will flow in the circuit. This current Brass . . • 0.025·0.00 0.OCi2·0.00 7
may be attributed to a thermal e.m.f. developed at the Chromi um 0.027
junctions, and the phenomenon itself is called the thermoe- Copper 0.0 i 75 (J.()039
lectric e(Ject. Iron . . . 0.098 0.0002
Within a certain temperature range the magnitude of the Lead " 0.221 () ,0011
thermal emf. is approximately proportional to the tempera- Mercury O. ~)58 (1.0009
ture difference. In this case Molybdenum 0.057 0.0033
Nickel .. 0.100 0.0050
ET=a (T 1 - T 2 )· Phosphor bronze 0.015 0.0040
Silver . . . 0.0 I 0 0.003G
The quantity a is called the di(Jerential thermal e.m.f. (or
the coefficient of the thermal e.m.!.); it is numerically
Tantalum. o .155 0.0031
Tin . . . . 0.115 0.0012
equal to the thermal e.m.!. developed per degree centigrade.
Tungsten . 0.055 0.0045
Zinc . • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . O.05~ 0.0035

TABLES AND GRAPHS

Electric Currents and the Earth's Atmosphere

The experimentally measurad density of the vertical currentJverI.• Note. The valucs given in the table are average values' for cliffe
~~~t samples they depend on the degree of purity. the;rnal' treatment:
(due to the motion of positive and negative ions in the atmosphere) is
jvert:.--:..:2~<10-t(j amp/cm
2 to nke7~~6erat,!re coefficient of resistivity of pme metals is cl05e
exp,;nsi 0-;;- 0'log2le:: I.e.. to t he val ue of the ceJefli ci ent of t herma]
•

The density of lie ('mrents due to tbe Illotion 01 charged rain-

drops, snowflakes and bail is:
 TABLES AND dRAPES j! \)
118 CH. IV. ELECTRICITY
Table 71
Table 70
Alloys of High Ohmic Resistance
Transition Temperatures to the Supercondueting
state for Some Metals

I Temperature Maximum
Resi sti vity coefficient operating
Transi lion Alloys at 20°C,
temperatu- II
ITranSitiOn (in the range temperature,
Substance Substance temperatu- ohm mm 2 /rn 0-100°C) °C
re, 0 K. re, oK

1>1 etals Sn - Hg. 4.2 Constantan (58.8%

Zirconi um 0.3 Pb -J\.g. 5.8-7.3 Cu, 40% Ni, 1.2%
Mn) 0.44-0.52 0.00001 500
Cadmium 0.6 Pb -Sb. 6.6
Fechral (80% Fe, 14 'It,
Zinc 0.8 Pb -Ca 7.0 Cr, 6% AI) . . . . . 1.1-1.3 0.0001 900
Aluminium 1.2 COIl/pounds German silver (65%
Uranium 1.3 Ki Hi 4.2 CU.20%Zn,15%Ni) 0.28-0.35 0.00004 150-200
Tin 3.7 PbSe 5.0 Mangani n (85% Cu,
12% Mn, 3% Ni) 0.42-0.48 0.00003 100
Mercury 4.1 SrDi, 5.5
Tantalum 4.4 KbB 6 Nickeline (54% Cu,
20% Zn. 26% Ni) 0.39-0.45 0.00002 150-200
Lead 7.3 MoC 7.6-8.3
Nichrome (67.5% Ni,
Niobium 9.2 Nb 2 C 9.2 15% Cr, 16% Fe.
A!lo!J s NbC. 10.1-10.5 1.5% Mn) I. 0-1. I 0.0002 1,000
Bi -pt 0.16 J\bN 15-16 Rheostan (84% Cu,
12% Mn, 4% Zn) • 0.45.0.52 0.0004 150-200
Pb·- Au 2.0-7.3 V,Si. 17.1
Sn _. Zn 3.7 J\b,Sn. 18
Pb -Eg. 4.1-7.3 Note. The value ot the temperature coefficient of resistance of con-
stantan varies from --0.00004 to +0.00001 depending on the sample.
The minus sign before the temperature coefficient denotes that the
, , resistance decreases with increasing temperature.

Notes. 1. There are a number "f ,uperconducling alloys containing

a greater number of components: I(ose's metal (8.5°K), Newton's Table 72
metal (8.5 C K), Wood's metal (8.2°K), Pb - As - Bi (90 0 K), Pb - As- Allowed Current-Carrying Capacity of Insulated Wires
- Bi -Sb (9.6°K)· for Prolonged Operation (amp)
2. Upon transition to the superconducling state the resistivity of

~.
compounds and alloys varies throughout a wide range of temperatures
(sometimes as wide as 2°K). In addition the transition tempera- area, mm 2
ture depends on the heat treatment of the alloy or compound. In 1 1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25
such cases the table indicates the bounds within which the transition Material
temperat ure Ii es,

Copper . , 11 i4 20 25 31 43 75 100
Aluminium
Iron. -
8 \1
-
16
8
20
10
24
12
34
17 II 60
30
80
-
120 CH. IV. ELECTRICITY TABLES AND GRAPHS 121

Table 73
~esistivity of Electrolytes at 18°C and Different
Concentrations (see Fig. 43) ~~l~

~t\
Concenlra- !<csistiv!ty, Tem perature
Solute tion. ohm em coefficient.
% x (degree-I)

o~
5 10.9 0.0198
Ammon! um chloride, 10 5.6 0.0186
NH.Cl 20 3.8 0.0161 t
/C 20 YO 40 50';;-·---=jC;;O......,7.t: O.......,gf:.O,...
O.......,gf:. ...
5 52.D 0.0216 COllce;;/;-c//oJ1, % ,
Copper sulfate, CuSO, 10 31.5 0.0218
17.5 23.8 0.0236
Fig. 43. ConcenLr<.iUoll dependence
of resistivity qf aqueous 0olutioll
5 2.0 0.0158 of H,SO,.
Hydrochloric acid, HCI 20 1.3 0.0154
40 I.D

10 2. I 0.0145
20 1.5 0.0137
Nitric acid, HN03 30 1.3 0.0139 Table 74
40 1.1 0.0150
Thermal Electromotive Force of Some Metal Couples
5 14.D 0.0217 in Millivolts
Sodium clilori de, NaCI 10 8.3 0.0214
(com man sall) 20 5.1 0.0716
Junction tem-l Plati num, platinum
perature, °C with 10% rhodi LIm
I Iron,
constantan
Copper.
constantan
5 ;).1 0.0201
10 3.2 0.0217.
Sodium hydroxide. NaOH 20 3.0 o .0299
10 8.3 0.0648 -200 R 5.5
lOa O.li! 5 I
5 4.8 0.0121 200 1.44 11 9
20 1.5 0.0145 300 2.32 16 15
Sulfuric acid, H,SO, 30 1.1 0.0162 40 a :1.25 2:2 21
40 1.5 0.0178 500 4.22 27

52.4 0.0225
- (jO 0
700
ROO
5.22
G.2li
7.33
33
~j9
Iii
Zinc sulfate, ZnSO, 10 31.2 0.0223 1,000 9.57 58
20 21.2 0.0243 1,500 15.50

Note. The resistivity of electrolyle falls off with increasing tem-

perature (as distinct from metals): The resistivity for other lempera-
tures Pt can be computed from the formula (compare with (4,25)): Note. The temperature of the 1'o[or,,,,,'o junction is kept at O'c.
P =?IR[I -x (t-18)]. where x is the temperature coefiieient given
i~ the table, 0,< - the resistivity at 18°C, t - the temperature for
which the resistivitY!t is sought.
122 CH. IV. ELECTRICITY TABLES AND GRAPHS 123

Table 75 Table 76
Differential Thermal e.m.f. (:1) with Respect
to Platinum at oDe Electrochemical Equivalents

Metal p.v/degree
", Metal -,
p.v/degree Ion
Gram
chemical
K,
I
Ion
Gram
chemical
K,
mg/coul mg/coul
equivalent equivalent

Antimony 47.0 Copper 7.4

I
Bismuth . -65.0 Iron 16.0
Constantan -34.4 Nickel -16.4 H+ 1.008 0.0104 CO;- 30.0 0.3108
0-- 8.0 0.0829 Cu++ 31.8 0.3297
Al++ + 9.0 0.0936 Zn++ 32.7 0.3387
Note. The minus signs indicate that the current In the hot junc- OH- 17.0 0.1762 Cl- 35.5 o .3672
tion flows from the metal with the smaller algebraic value of ...
For example, in the thermocouple copper·constantan (Fig. 44) the Fe++ + 18.6 0.1930 SO 4 - - 48.0 0.4975
current in the hot junction flows !rom constantan to copper.
20.1 0.2077 NO; 62.0 0.642
23.0 0.2388 Cu+ 63.6 0.l\590
27.8 0.2895 Ag+ 107.9 1.118

Note. The number of pIllS or minus signs In the superscript denotes

the number of elementary charges carried by one ion.

Table 77
/0
Absolute Normal Potentials of Some Metals
'\
o lOO .iOO ';'00 1100 tot. ,I

Fig. 44. Temperature dependence of difjerential

thermal e.m.f. of copper·constantan thermocouple.
Metal I
Normal poten·11
hal, v Metal INormal paten-
tial, v

Cadmium -0.13 Manganese -1.28

Chromium -0.29 Mercury I. 13
Copper 0.61 Nickel 0.04
Iron -0.17 Silver I. 07
Lead 0.15 Zinc ·-0.50
 TABLES AND GRAPHS 125
124 CH. IV. ELECTRICITY
Charging and Discharging Accumulators
Table 78
e.m.f. of Electrochemical Cells

Name of Negative Posi ti ve

cell clec t rode eleel rode Solution e.m.f.. v
a) leM O'CCI/l7lI//iJ/or
Daniell Zinc Copper Di fferent solu- 1.1 2.8
tions at electrodes:
zinc immersed in Z5
solution of slIlfu- 2.4
ri c acid (5-10%);
copper immersed "'2.2.
in saturated solu-
tion of copper sul- ~
~2..0
fate CuSO, ~
::;;: 1.8
Edison Powdered J'\ickcl 20(% solution of 1.4-1.1
i rOll (or dioxide potassium hydro- f.O
cadmium xide (KOH) I
mixed /.4
{} 0.5 I 1.5 2. i ..' J .1.5 " 't.5 5
\vi th i rOil
oxide:;) T/.r;;..D,J

Grenet Zinc Carbon 12 parts K,Cr,O,. 2.01

25 parts I-IzSO h
1
100 parts If,O
Lead Spongy Lead 27 - 2K % solution I 2.0-1.9
accumu- lead peroxide of H,SO" free at 15°C
lator PbO, from chlori nc,
density 1.20
1

Lec1anche Zinc Carbon Solu ti on of sal- 1.46

ammoniac, man-
ganese peraxi de
wi th powdered
carbon

Lec1anche Zinc Carbon 1 part ZnO. 1.3

(dry) 1 part KH,CI.
3 parts gypsum.
2 parts ZnC!, and
water until a
paste is formed

SI lver-zi nc
accumu-
Zinc
oxi de
Silver Sollltion of
si urn
POLlS-\
hydroxi de
1.5
lator (KOll)
I
Weston, Cadmium Mercury Saturated solution 1. 0183
normal amalgam of CdSO,. pas te of
Ilg,SO, and CdSO,
126 CH. IV. ELECTRICITY
TABLES AND GRAPHS 127

Table 79 Table 81
Mobility of Ions in Aqueous Solutions at 18°e Mobility of Ions in Gases at 760 mm Hg and
zooe (in cm 2 jsec v)
Mobility, Mobility,
Cations cm 2 ,'sec v Anions cm 2 /sec v
Posi ti ve ion Negative ion
Gas mobility mobility
H+ 0.003263 OH- 0.00180
K+ 0.000669 Ci- 0.00068
Na+ 0.000450 NO.- 0.00062 Air, dry . 1. 36 I. 87
Ag+ 0.00056 0.00068 Air. saturated wi th water va-
S04 pour 1. 37 l. 51
2n++ 0.00048 CO;- 0.00062 Argon 1. 37 I. 70
Ca rbon di oxi de 0.76 0.81
Fa+++ 0.00046 Helium. 5.09 6.31
Hydrogen . 6.3 8.1
Oxygen . 1. 36 1.8
Notes. I. Cations are positively charged. anions - negatively
charged ions.
2. The ionic mobility increases approximately 2% per 1°C Increase Notes. I. The values of the mobili ty are given for the case of
In temperature. Ionisation by X·rays.
3. The number of plus or minus signs in the superscripts Indicates 2. The mobility of ions in gases decreases with a rise in pressure
the number of elementary charges carried by one ion. and increases wi th the temperature.

Table 82
Table 80
Ionisation Potentials (in Electron-Volts)
Mobility of Electrons in Metals (in cmz/sec v)

Ionisation Ionisation Ionisation Ionisation

process potential process potential

He -> He+ 24.5 H -> H+ 13.5

MObility·····I 56/48144135130) 19/ 10 1 7 . 9 [5.8 Ne -> Ne+ 21.5 0->0+ 13.5
N2 -> N+2 15.8 H"O -> H 2 O+ 13.2
Ar -> Ar+ 15.7 Xc -> Xe+ 12.8
Note. The field intensity inside metals actually does not exceed
0.001 v!cm; hence, the electron velocities will be numerically much If, -> If; 15.4 0, -> 0; 12.5
smaller than the values of the mobility given in the table. This can N --+N+ 14.5 Hg -> Hg+ 10.4
easily be verified by means of the relation (4,23) by inserting thl! 14.4 5.1
permissible values of the current density given in Table 72. CO 2 -> CO; Na->Na+
Kr -> Kr+
I 13.9
I
K -> K+ 4.3
~
128 CH. IV. ELECTRICITY TABLES AND GRAPHS 129

Table 83 Table 86
Emission Constants of Some Metals and Semiconductors Properties of Most Important Semiconductors
(see a Iso Figs. 46-49)
Element ~, amp
N, II Element
ev
N,
amp -
ev
iC1ll2 dCg'rec2
I cm:l degree
Substance
Melti ng Width of Electron Hole
poi nt, forbidden mobility, mobility,
Aluminium 3.74 I"ickcl .. 4.84 30 °C gap. ev cm:!/sec V cm 2/sec V
Antimony .:2.35 iPlatinum'. 5.29 32
Barium 2.29 'Seleuium. 4.72
Cesium.. 1.89 lCiO iSilicon . . 4.10
Chromium 4.51 48 !Tcllurium 1.12 B 2,300 I. \ 10
70 10
Copper . . 4.47 iT1JOri urn
iTin...
3.41 C -graphite - 0.1 - -
Germanium 4.5() 4.11 C - diamond - G-7 1,800 J ,200
Iroll 4. ~H) jTungsten 4.50 60-100 Si 1 ,4 I 4 1.12 1,90IJ
MolylH1cnul11 4.27 GO IUrallium ~L74 Ge 500
958 0.75 3,900 1,900
Sn. gray - 0.IJ8 3,000 -
Note. The work function depends markedly on the cJeanli ness of
the surface and
sped mens.
011 impurities. The figures in the table are for pure
S
Se, gray
Te
I 13
220
452
2.4
2.3
0.:3(;
I -
-
1,700
--
I 1,200
1 1:3 . .5 1.3 :!5 -
Table 84 Ag,Te Do;) O. 17 4,00IJ -
HgTe li70 0.2 10,000 100
Emission Constants of films on Metals B~Tc~ 585 0.25 600 150
Mg2Sn 778 0.3Ci 200 150
PbSe 1,OGS U.S
N, ZnTe I ,240
1,400 1,400
amp O.G IIJ() -
Element Film I', ev PbS 1,1 14 1.2 I
650
cm 2 degree 2 AgBr 800
4 :JO 1 .35 35 -
CdTe I 1045 J .45 450 \00
Cu.,O 1,2:J2 1.5-1. 8 .- 100
Tuuf(sten Barium 1 .56 1.5 AI;O,I
Thari u m 2.63 3.0 2,050 2.5 - -
3.2
ZnO 1,975 3.2 200 -
Uranium 2.84
Cesium 1.36 3.2
Lircollium :J. 14 5.0
Molybdenum TllOrlUm 2.58 1.5
Tantalum 2.52 0.5
Notes. I. The values of the mobilities are given for room tempe-
-----------------'-------------- rature and field intensities less than the critical field.
Table 85 Deviations from Ohm's law may occur, due to the field-depen_
Emission Constants of Oxide-Coated Cathodes dence of the mobility. The least intensity for which such deviations
are Observed is called the critical field (Ecr)' At i=20°C the critical
N, field in
cv amp
Cathode ~,
n-type germanium
cm:.l degree 2 E cr =900 v/cm
p-type germanium E cr =I,400 v,cm
I. I 0 0.3 n- type si Ii con E cr =2,500 v!cm
Barium on nxidisccl tungsten
Nickcl- jJ"O - Sr 0 1.20 0.96 p- type si Ii con E cr =7,500 v:cm
Barium -- -- tt~Jl;:_C-;l(~11 I. :31 0.18
PI-Ni; --:->1'0 . . . . 1 . :,7 2.45
BaO O!l iJ Jlil"kc} :J1loy 1 ';)1).\ .8:J 0.OS7-2.18 The critical field decreases wfth decreasing temperature.
Thori um oxi de~coa ted (';\ t h- 2. The wi dth 01 tbe forbi dden gap ill metals is of the order
ade (meall value) 2.59 4.35 of 0.1 ev; ill dielectrics _ over 10 ev.
---~-----'------
9 ~1aK. 4,1)
130 CH. IV. ELEClRICITY FUNDAMENTAL COXCEPTS AKD LAWS 131

SF!'e
PHe
~ __~ ..--.J

tl
]0 't--+-J-~J

1001L--~'---I!---l

100 200 JOO T'K j&"O--2Ju' - ~-JJO TO/(

~ N
FiiT. 49. Differential thermal e.m.f. versus lCll1!'C'ratlllc: a) Iced lel-
luride (upper C'urve--concentration of impuril"y <lIOl1l~ 3.5 X lOl"cm-\
lower curve- 0.5 X lOlf'cm- s). b) ~~n[if.noIlY telluride (upper clIrvc-
concentration 01 impurity atoms G.S lOl"(m-:~, lower curve-
JO'~:---::o.oJ..'O-f--O-lOO-Z--Ij--!" 'g 3.5 X lU'H CIll

Fig. 46. Dependence of Fig. 47. Temperature dependellce

resistivity p on 1iT for in- of resistivi tv 01 g,,-'11Il<Hli1IlTl. T! e
trinsic semiconductor, the values of the resistivity are plot- Table 87
\&alues of p are plotted .on ted on the ordinate axi:-: en a lo~ Spark Gaps for Air at 760 mm Hg (in mm)
the ordinate axi s on a 10- g-aritlllnic scale. the recipnJcal of
garithmic scale. the absolute temperature - on
the axis of abscissae A'Ge- ~ Form of
Two Two spheres
number of germ ani urn atoms, ~. ~clectrodes Two
\,oi Iltcd of di<.ll1lciL'r plates
N - r.um 1.:ET of antimony Potenti ill _______________ wires 5 ('Ill
Su atoms. di fference, v _______________

L.l 20,000
40.000
1 S. 5
,I;) . .5 1J
;). G.1
1:l. 7
, II-Ip~;;::: ~jJ-llfjJe !OO,1I01l 4S 3G.7
2110,000 41 2li2 75.3
~ 301l,OIJO GOO 530 It4

2
"~ ~
"<:::~
"\ ".~ t\. Fig'. 48. De.
pendence of re-
~ ELECTROMAGNETISM
sistivity of
"\ ~ ~ germani um (10· FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS
wer curves)
/I-Ip)/~~~ 0- and 5i Ii con
1. The Magnetic Field. Magnetic Induction
(upper Curves)
'P-I)jJ~ '\ ~ 011 concen tra.
Ii on of i m purl ty If a freely pivoted magnetic needle is placed near a wire
,
~" ~
"::: atoms. Tem-
pe'rat ure--aboul carrying current, the needle will be deflected (will Le orient-
10
]e 02
10."
'I. 20°C. ed in a certain direction). The forces causing this deflection
I(J 10 " are called magnetic forces.
1It/lllbor OI/1l7;Jl/l'Ily 010117$ jJl?r CIlI J
132 CP. IV. ELECTRICITY FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 133

A region of space in which magnetic forces act is called fingers point in the direction of the current, then the thumb
a magnetic field. . will indicate the direction of the force actin:.; on the con-
A magnetic J1eld docs not act upon electric charges at ductor (Fig. 50).
res t. Two sufficiently long straight parallel conductors of the
The direC"iiol1 of the magnelic field is defined as the dire~­ same length I carrying currents i, and i 2 , respectively,
tion of the force actin;:; on the north pole of a magnetic interact with a force
needle placed at the given point of the field.
The force act ing on a wire carrying current in a magnetic F - 2ftiJ2 1
- a ' (4,46)
field is determined by Ampere's law:
F = ilB sin ~, (4,45) where a is the distance hetween the conductors and It is the
permeabi Ii ty of the medi Lim.
where I is the 1cn,~th of the wire, ~ - the angle between Currents flowing in the same direction attract, currents
the direction of the magnetic fie Id and the current in the flowing in opposite directions repel each other.
wire; i, and 13 are expressed in the same system of units. The force acting on a moving charge in a magnetic Held
The quantity n in equation (4,45) characterises the mag- (called Lorentz' force) is
nitude and direction of the magnetic field and is called the
magnetic induction.
(4,4.7)
The magnetic induction is numerically equal to the force
which the fnagnclic field exerts up'in unit length of a straight where e is the charge, v-the velocity and a-the angle between
wire carryin7, unit current when the wire is perpendi- the direction of the velocitv and the indtlction 13.1 he Lorentz
cular to t he field. force is directed perpend(cu lar to the p lane determined by
The li1agnetic induction is a vector quantity. Its direction the vectors B and v.
coincides with the direction of the magnetic field. The mag-
netic induction depends on the properties of the medium.
The magnetic field surrounding a current-carrying wire 2. CGSM and 1VI/(5A Systems cf Units
can also be characterised by another quantity, called the
field intensitl! (Ii). In the CGS electromagnetic (CGSM) system t:Je fundamen-
The field intensity i" independent of the properties of the tal units are the centimetre, [f,mm (mass), second, and for
medium; it is determined by' electric quantities -- the pl'rmeal:ility. The permeability of
the current and the shape of the vacLium (flo = I) is taken as the l111it of permeability. The
conductor. unit of current in this system is derived [rom the law of
. B interaction of currents (4,46).
The quanhty l-"=H charac- The unit of curren tin the CGS,'Vl svs tern is defined as
such a direct current which, when fJo\\'in~g throl.gh t\\'o infi-
terises the magnetic properties nitely long parallel wires placed in vacuum I cm apart,
of the medium and is called causes them to interact with a force of 2 dynes per em of
the permeability ot the medium. their length. It is assumed that both \1 ires have a suffici-
The direction of the force ently small cross-sectional area.
acting on a current-carrying The fundamental units of the MKSA svste!l~ are the meter,
conductor is determined by kilowam (mass), second and the unit o'r current ---a:ilpere.
means of the left-hand rule: if the
An ampere j,; defined as sl!ch a direct cllrJl'nt wllich when
open palm at the left hand is flOWing tlIrollgh two inl1nitely IOllg pilralil'l wires placed in
placed so that the lines of force
vacuum at a distance of one meier caLl:"~, thelll to Interact
of the magnetic field enter the
with a force of 2X 10- 7 M.l\SA units of force per meter of
Fi~. ;;u. LcH-.!land rule. palm, while the outstretched their length.
 FUNDAMEJ\TAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 135
134 CH. IV. ELECTR ICfTY

In this system the permeability is a derived quantity. by an element of conductor of length I1l carrying a current
For vacuum i is (Flg. 53)
fto= 10- 7 henry/meter. !J.H_i!J.1 sin a
The unit of magnetic field intensity in the CGSl\1. system
- ,2 , (4,48)

is the oersted; in the 1'v1KSA system - the ampere per meter,
(amp/m).
An oersted is defined as the intensity of a magnetic field
which acts on 1 cm of a straight conductor carrying 1 CGSM
unit of current with a force of 1 dyne.
1 amp/m = 10- 3 oersted.
The unit of magnetic induction in the CGSl\1. svstem is the
gauss; in the MKSA system - the u.'eber per square meter
(weber/ m 2).
3. I ntensity of the Magnetic Fields of Currents
The lines of force of a magnetic field are defined as
curves, the iangents to which coincide in directlon with the
intensity at each point. The ma~netic lines of force are
closed curves (as distinct
from the lines of force of
an electrostatic field);
such fields are called vor-
tical iields. The lines of
force of a straight current-
carrying conductor are
concentric circles lying in
a p lane perpendicular to
the current (Fig. 51). The
direction of the magnetic
Fig. 51. Magneli c Ii nes of force of a
line" of force is determined
straig-ht \Vi re carrying current, pat~
tern formed by iron fili ngs. by the right -hand rule.
If the thumb of the right
hand is p laced a long the
wire pointing in the direc-
lion of the current, the
curled fingers of the right
hand will point in the
direction of the magnetic
lines of force. (Figs. 51,
52 and 53).
Fig. 52. fr\:\gnctic field flue to cur-
rent in a solenoid, pattern formed The intensity of the
by iron Ii lings, magnetic field generated
where r is the distance from the eleme,;.t !J.I to the point
for which the intensity is
sought, a - the angle between
!J.I and r. This relation is
called Biot and Savart's law.
The magnetic field intensi-
ty of a long straight current-
carrying wire is
H=2i,
a (44 Q
' ~)
where a is the distance from
the wire to the point at which
the intensity is sought.
The magnetic field inten-
sity at the centre of a cir-
cu lar loop of current-carry-
ing wire is
H =2Jti , (4,50)
R
Fig. 53. Illustration of
where R is the radius of the Biot and Savart's law.
loop.
The magnetic field intensity inside a toroid (Fig. 54) is
H - 2Ni (4,51)
- r '
where N is the total number of turns of wire, r - the
radius of the toroid.
The field intensity inside a straight solenoid, whose length
considerab Iy exceeds the diameter of a turn is
If=4Jtlli, (4,52)
where n is the number of turns per cm of the length of the
solenoid. In such a solenoid the field intensity is the same
in magnitude and direction at all points, i.e" the field is
homogeneous.
 CH. IV. ELECTEIClTY FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 137
136

In electrical engineering the product ni for a solenoid is The uni.t of magnetic flux in the CGSM system is the
called the number'of ampere-turns per centimeter. . maxwell, 111 the MKSA system - the weber
I oersted = I}GAn ampere-turns}cm = I ar!lpere-t.ur~/CtJ?' \Vh~n the ma~n~tic fl L1X through a circ~it is changed an
The field intensity of a moving charged particle (FIg 05) IS ~leetf1c current IS mduced !ll the curcuit. This phenomenon
IS called. electromagnetic induction, and the current thus ge-
(4,53) nera ted IS called an induced current.

where v is the velocity of the particle, r -'- the distance

Fig. 56. Magr.letic flux through surf<lcc S.

Fig. field of
,'J:-). I\\agrldi:
The direc.tio~ ,of the induced current i,; alway,; ,uch that
Fig. 54. Toroi d. moving cllargc. the magnetIc flej(l of the current opposes the chiJIwe jl] fluX
which camed the induced curren' (Lenz' law). c-.·
from the particle to the pnint of interest, {f - the anEOe [he magnItude of the Induced electromotive force is g;ven
between the direction of the velocity ,111d the line drawn by the formula
tram the particle to the gi ven point of the fIeld. !'ltD
g;=--.
At
(4,56)
4 Work Performed in the Motion of a Current· Carrying
. Wire in a Magnetic field. Electromagnetic Induction In other words, the induced e.m.!. is equal to the time rate
When a current-carrying wire moves through a magnetic o.f change .of ~he magneti~ flux through the loop. The nega'
lIye slgnwdlcates the c1neetlOll of the e.m.!. (in accGrdance
field work is performed: WIth Lenz' law).
A = i (tD 2 - tD.), (4,54)
where !D is the magnetic fiux through the current lo?p 5. Self-Induction
prior to "displacement and !D2 - ti1e ma:~nehc flux after dIS-
Any change in the current in a conduetor lead' to the
placement. . appearance ~:r a'1 Indl,cecl e.m.f., which ca,lse:; a current
The magnetic flux through a loop ('n a homogeneous field)
is defined as the prodUct of the magnetic induction by the llJ~' rement. ] [;1'; phenumenon is cailed .Iel f- illduction.
area of the loop and the cosine of the angle behveen the [he ,elf-lli'lUCcd c.m f. CQ/J be cumputed by the fornw!a:
direction of the field and the normal to the area of the
loop (Fig. 56) l£s=-- 1 ~ (4,57)
!D := 13& cos a. (4.55) - - 6.t '
138 CH. IV. ELECTRICITY FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 139

where L is the self-inductance, ~: - the mean rate of change

The region of space in which a magnetic field exists con-
tains stored energy. The energy density of a homogeneous
of the current in the time interval !1t. L depends on the magnetic field (the energy per unit volume) can be computed
geometrical shape and dimensions of the conductor and on by the formula:
the properties of the medium. ft H2 *
The unit of inductance in the MKSA system is the henry, W=--
8rt • (4,62)
in the CGSM system - the centimeter.
A henry is clefined as the inductance of a conductor in
which a change of current of 1 ampere per second induces The lifting power of an electromagnet is given by
an c.m.I. of 1 volt,

1 henry=lG 9 em. (4,63)

The inductance of a solenoid v,;ith a core is where S is the cross-sectional area of the pole-piece of the
magnet, and ftll - the permeability of air.
(4,58) Eddy carrents are induced currents in massive conductors
placed in a variable magnetic field.

where [I is the permeability, S - the cross-~'ectional area 6. Magnetic Properties of Matter

of the solenoid, 1- the ]en[~th of the wire, k - a coefficient
depending on the ratio of the length of the wire to the dia- Magnetic materials are materials in which a state of ma-
meter of the coil (lid). Table 96 gives values of k. It should gne!isa!ion can be induced. When such materials are magne-
be observed that when L is computed Using formula (4,58), tised they create a magnetic lield in the surrounding space.
the quantity ft for ferromagnetic materials will depend on The degree of magnetisa!ion of a magnetic material is
the shape of the core. characterised by the magneti,rztion vectO" I which is propor-
The inductance of a coaxial cable of length I is tional to the field intensity generateel by the material.
The magnetic inductiun Ii is a vector quantity which is
equal to the average value of the induction inside the ma-
L=2,lllln ~~ , (4,59) terial. This quantity is composcd of the induction due to the
field of the magnetising current (~L"H) and the induction due
to the Held of the magnciic materi al (4;t/):
where R2 and R 1 are the radii of the external and internal
cylinders. (4,64)
The inductance of a two-wire line of length I and radius
of the wires r (for r ~ a) is where fto is the permeability of vacuum.
a The magnetisation vector and the intensity of the magne-
L=4ftlln - , (4,60) !ising field are connected by the formula:
r
I=XH, (4,65)
where a is the distance between the axes of the wires.
The energy of the ma:.;netic field of a conductor carrying where the quantity X, called the magnetic susceptibility,
current is depends on the nature of the magnetic material and 011 its
state (temperature, etc.).
w=J..
2
Li2. (4,61)
~ See footnote on p. 99.
140 CH. IV. ELIi:CTRICITY
Since B=ltH, then
/-t=/-to +41tX. (4,66)
Materials for which /-t> 1 (but smal!!) are called paramag-
net ic; if /-t< 1 the material is called diamagnetic. Materials
for which /-t is much greater than unity are called ferromag-
net ic. Ferromagnetic materi a Is are crysta Iline.
Ferromagnetic and paramagnetic materials differ in a num-
ber of thei I' properties.
a) The magnet isation curve, which expresses the relation
between Hand B, is a straight line for paramagnetic mate-
rials, but it is an intricate curve for ferromagnetic materials.
This means that /-t is a constant for paramagnetic materials,
while for ferromagnetic materials it depends on the field
intensity.
b) The magnetic susceptibility of ferromagnetic materials
varies with the temperature in a more complicated manner;
at a certain temperature Tc called the Curie temperature
(Cur ie point) the ferromagnetic properties disappear: the
ferromagnetic substance becomes paramagnetic.
. c) The magnetisation of a ferromagnetic material depends.
!Il addition to the field intensity, on the magnetic history
fa the sample: the value of the induction lags behind that of
a field the domain boundaries are displaced (in weak fields)
ft.
Fig. 57. Hysteresis 100P:Ol-
curve of magneU sati on from
unmagnctised state. 123-demag-
netisati on curve.
the field intensity. This phenumenon is called hysteresis and
the curve ,Iepicting the depel1dence of B on H in the p;ocess
of remagnetisalion (fIg. fi/) is called a hysteri'ois loop
The nlue 01 the lesldllal magnetic induction IIf the
ferromagnetic materi al aftel' the magl1etising field has been
reduced to zero (H=O) is called the relentivity (B ).
r
TABLES AND GRAPHS J 41
The coercive force (H r) is the value of the magnetic field
intensity needed to reduce the residual induction to zero (the
direction of this field must be opposite to that of the retent-
iVity). .
The saturation value (Is) is the greatest value of the mag-
netisation I. When a ferromagnetic material has been magne-
tised to the saturation value, further increase of the field
intensity will have practically no effect on the magnetisation.
The magnetic saturation is measured in gausses.
The initial permeability (/-to) is the limiting value of the
permeabi lity, when the intensity and the induction tend to
zero, I.e.,
/-to= lim /-t.
H ->0
The properties of ferromagnetic materials are explained by
means of the domain theory of magnetisation. According to
this theory, in the absence of an external magnetic field a
ferromagnetic material is composed of many small regions or
domains each magnetised to saturation. In the absence of 2n
external field the directions of magnetisation of these domains
are distributed in such a way that the total magnetisation of
the specimen is zero.
When a ferromagnetic material is placed in a magnetic
and the direction of magnetisation of the domains rotates
towards the direction of the magnetising field, a. a result of
which the material becomes magnetised.
TABLES AND GRAPHS
Magnetic Field of the Earth
The earth is surrounded by a magnetic field, The curve drawn
through the points of the earth's surface at which the intensity is
directed hori zan tally is called the magnetic equator.
The points of the earth at which the intensity is directed verti-
cally are called the magnetic poles. There are two such points: the
north magnetic pole (i n the southern hernispl1erC) and the south ma-
gnetic pole (i n the northern hemisphere).
The magnetic field intensity at the magneti c equa tor is about 0,34
oersted; at the magnetic poles it is about 0.66 oersted. In some places
(the regions of the so called magnetic anomali es) the i lItensity
increases sharply. In the region of the K.ursk magnetic anomaly it is
2 oersteds.
142 CH. IV. ELI'!CTRlCI1"Y TABLES AND GRAPHS 143

Table 88 Table 90
Properties of Some Steels Used in Electrical Engineering Properties of Some Magnetically Refractive Materials
These materials ~lfC c1Jaracteri~cd hy <:1 high coerci ve force, :lnd
are used in the lnanufactufc of permanent magnets. The maximum
Initial
permeabi-
!Y1axi1l1ut11
permeabi- Cocrci ve
IInduction
at 25 oer-
Eleelri c
resi sti vi ty. value of the quantitv HB is an Important characteristic. This quan-
Steel lity. lity, force, - 8",
steds, ohm tity is proportional to the maximum energy of the magnetic field
'gauss,ocr· gauss oer- oersted ~ra uss mm 21 m
sted sted I surroundi ng the ferromagnetic rna teri a1.

'" 31 250 5,500 0.55 15,200 0.52 1\'\J.xi111um

'" 41 300 0,000 0.45 14,900 0.0 Coercive Rctcnti~ value of
'" 42 400 7,500 0.4 14,'100 0.0 Magnet materi al force, viiy, gauss quantity
'" 45 GO 0 10,000 0.25 14, GOO 0.02 oersted lIB'8""
'" 310 1,000 30.000 0.12 17,800 0.5 erg/em:1

Alioys: alni s,son 52,000

It alnico 7,()!I() G1,000
<:dnisi 4 , () Oil 5G,OOO
magnico . . J 2 ,() 00 IDO,OOO
Chromium s(Pel 9F X3i\ [I,O()O 11,000
Cohalt stecl ,)F 1<:30 . 2:'() ~I , 000 37,000
Molvbdenum steel . . 65 In.ono
PlatinulTl alloys . . . 1 ,500-~, 700 -1,5006,800
Table 89 Tungsten steei 9FBA liO 10,000 12.000

Properties of Some Iron-Nickel Alloys

These alloys have a high rermcabi lity, which decreases sharply
at high Ii cld intensi ti es and hi gh frequenc ies. a nd in addi ti on, de-
pends strongly 011 mcclElni (';}! str<1i ns.

Table 51
Ini tial l\laximum
pcrrncalJi- pcrmc<:llJi - Cocrcive SatufJtion
lily, lily, force. value of , Properties of Magneto-Dielectrics
Alloy
gauss ocr- gauss oer.stcd maf:!'net isa- Magneto·dielectrics (and ferriles) are materials possessing both a
sted tion, gauss
relatively high magnetic permeability and a high electric resistivity,

Chromi um-permailoy
(HBOXC) 3,000 Isn,OOO 0.015 6,500 [1., lvlC1ximum ope·
Giperonl :J 0 3,400 ,,8,O(}O o .(I(i Material g-auss'ocrsted [ rati ng frequ-
ency. l\1c;sec
Giperom 766 . . . . . 14,000 '15,0 ()() 0.0·\
iron, icchni cally rJtHC 200 5,000 1.0 21,500
Molybden um-permal·
loy (4% Mo) . 2,000 i 20, O()O 0.02 8,500 Alsifer pq·6 . 5-G tiD
Permcndur 800 A ,;) ()() 2.0 21.000 pq·9 . 9-10 2-3
Sili can iron 4 C, 0 8,000 0.4-0. G 20,000 <.1>11 25 20-2·[ I
Superperrn al ioy Carbonvl iron II 30·50
(5% \
Mo) 100.000
. __ __sno,ooo
. ..
0.0:11 7,500 Magneli te G-D 5·10
 TABLES AND GRAPHS 145
144 CH. IV. ELECTRICITY

Table <;2 Table 94

Principal Properties o[ Ferrites Curie Points of Metals

Ferrites are mixtures 0\ metals (nickel, zinc. iron) sn1Jjecled to
special heat treatment, as a result of which they acquire a high reo
sistivity. Substance I Te, °C I Substance Te , °C

M(lximum
1'-, opera li ng B max' gauss
Ferri te gauss/oer- tempera- Gadolinium 20 Magnetite... . 585
sted ture, °C Permalloy, 30% 70 Iron, electrolytic 769
HellS ler alloy 200 Iron, resmelted In
Nickel . . . . . 35 R hydrogen 774
Permalloy. 78% 550 Cobalt 1,140
2,000 55 2,500
Ferrocart-2 , 000-1 711 2,500
Ferrocart-2, 000-1 I 2,000
1,000 1111 3,200
Ferrocart-I ,000 120 3, I 00
Ferrocart-600 liOO
f)GO LliJl 2,800
Ferrocart-500 400 1"1I 2, ;,00
Ferrocart-400 1211 1,800
Ferroeart-200 200
200 250 4,200
Ferrocart 11-4 360 4,800
Ferroeart H-5 1511
15 400 1,8S0
Ferrocart P4 -15 400 1,400
Ferracar t P4 -10 10

Table 95
Specific Magnetic Susceptibility (per gram) of Some
Metals at 18° C in CGSM Units
Table 93 The specific susceptibility 'sp is eqllal to the ratio o[ the suscep-

Permeability (~t) of Paramagr.etic and Diamagnetic Materials tibility x to the density o[ the material p: 'sp=.x.. .
:'
in CGSM Units
Metal 'sp X 10' Metal 'sp X 10'
Paramagnetic \ Diamagnetic \ 1 10'
_ _m_a_te_r_ia_l_ _-'-_(I_'_-_I_)_X_l_O_;,;- m_a_t_e_l"l_·'_11 ( - p.) X
Aluminium 0.58 /vlanganese 7.5
Antimony -0.87 /Vlerc-ufY . -0.19
0.38 Benzene 7.5 Cadmium. -0.18 Scleni um . -0.32
Air . . . • . • Bismuth 17G Calci um 0.5 511ver -0.20
Aluminil.lm 23 10.3 3 6 Sadi urn o G
14 Copper . Chromium
Eboni te 12.6 Copper -0:086 Tclluriurn -0' 31
Li qui d oxygen 3,400 Glass . . 0.,\
0.013 Hydrogen 0.063 Germani lllll -0,12 Tin. .
Ni trogen . Quartz . 15. I Indium. -0.11 Tungsten . 0.28
Oxygen. 1.9 1.4
3GO Rock salt . 12.G Lead . . -0.12 Vanadi urn
Platinum Water . . . 9.0 Lithium 1I.5 Zinc -0.157
Tungsten. 176
--_._----=-------_._-_--!...----
10 ").1J'. 16
 146 CH. IV. ELECTRICITY FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 147

Dependence of Magnetic Permeability and Induction Ta/)Ie 96

on the Magnetic Field Intensity
Values of Coefficient k for Calculating Inductance

/! I I I Ratio of length of
10000 B.iflPSSP!
-\ I I ;COOO to di ameter (if d)
/
II
?DilDO .L. l/?~

- -
50000
i\
Permo//a>, 15000
If; \,/:f k
10000 r--
I---
0
1\
1><1-.; Ar!1lCo/rOll SOJO
V Note. For lrd~ lO" is dose to llnit~y.

1/ 1/
10000
~ I I o 20 40 00 SO 100 /20 H,oers/e{$
, O.l 0.9 o.p 0.8 H,oers/e&

Fig. 58. Dependence of permea· Fig. 5~)' Dependence of i ndllC~i,().n o~ D. ALTERNATING CURRENTS
bility of iron and permalloy all intensity (curve]- electrolytic tron,
the intensity in weak helds. curve 2 - Iow- carbon steel,. curve
3 - cast steel; curve 4 - cast !fan). FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS
An alternating current is one which periodically reverse,;
its direction.
13,91111SStS
A current which varies periodically only in magnitude is
J\l iTOn_ 10-
Sw called a pulsating direct current.

-
/BOOO
In practice most frequent use is made of alternating cur-
~ V rents which vary sinusoidally (Fig. 61). Periodic currents
/2000 ,,- 1/ which vary otherwise than sinusoidally can be repre',ented
E to any degree of approximation
8000 by a sU1110f sinusoidal alterna-
/ ~ tim; currents (see p. 77).
~ ~
fOO0 ~~ - -' The instantaneous values of a
sinusoidal alternating current
Il,0ers!etl$ and voltage are given by the
'-120 -80 40 40 80 120
formulas:
t
i=! m sin wt, (4,67)
II u=U m sin (wt qJ), +
(4,68)
-8000 w=2rtf, (4,69)
1/ where! m and U m are the maxi-
"12000 Fig. G 1. Graph of alternati ng
V l-- ~ mum values (amplitudes) of the
e.m.f. and current (sine law,
'./ ?=O). current and the voltage, w is the
-1600.'U I ... j:::" angular (cyclic) frequency of the
current, t - the time, qJ - the phase shift between the cur-
Fig. 60. Hysteresis loop for soft irull Jlld tem- rent and the voltage (see p. 76), f - the frequency of the
pered steel. current. 10*

\
 TABLES AND GRAPHS 149
148 CH. IV. ELECTRICITY

For Rr=R c the impedance is a minimum (see formula

The rfJcctive value of an alternating current (1) is defi-
(4,74», a~d the current has its maximum value. This phe-
ned as the direct current which would develop the same
nomenon IS called series resonance.
power in an active resistance as the given alternating cur- The phase difference between the current and the voltage
rent. is determined fl'om the relations:
In most cases (but not always!) ammeters and voltmeters

wL-~
show the effective values of the current or voltage.
For sinusoidal currents wC }
t an qJ R ' (4,75)
(4,70)
cos qJ= i.
(4,71)
The power developed by an alternating current in the
circuit is
An inductor L (a device possessing inductance) in an alter- P=UI cos qJ. (1,76)
nating-current circuit acts like a resistance RL in the cir-
cui t, 1. e., it red uces the current. The factor cos qJ is called the pOiL'llr factor.
The quantity RL which describes the behavior of an in- . When an ~lternating current passes through a conductor
ductor is called the induct ive reactance: It,generates mduced currents; as a result the current density
wI.ll be greater. at the surface of the conductor than in the
(4,72) rmddle. The dlff~rence will b.e the greater, the greater the
frequency (at high frequencies the current in the middle
and is due to the appearance of an e.mJ. of self-induction of the conductor may be practically zero), The active resis-
~ance of a conductor will therefore be greater to alternat-
in the coi 1.
An alternating current in an inductor lags behind the 1I1g current, than to direct current. This phenomenon is
voltage by 90 0 • called the surface effect (or skin eOect).
A capacitor in an alternating-current circuit conducts
current (as distinct from direct current!). The quantity
which describes the behavior of a capacitor in an alternat-
ing-current circuit is called the capacitive reactance:
TABLES AND GRAPHS
I (4,73)
Rc=wC'
Change in Resistance upon Transition from Direct to
Alternating Current
The current in a capaci tor leads the voltage by 90°.
In a circuit containing resistance, inductive reactance The change in resistance depends on a parameter ;:
and capacitive reactance connected in series the quantity
t=0.14 d~VI p.!
p ,
(4,74)
where d -!s ~h~ diameter ot the wire (cm), f - the frequency (clsec)
c. - the resl stl VI ty (ohm cm). fJ. - tlle permeabi Ii (Y. R·,c -- t he resis~
ca \led the impedance, is analogous to the resistance of a di- tance 0: the wi.re to atternating current, Rdc - the rcsi;tance 01 the
same WIre to dIrect current.
rect-current circuit.

\
 CH. IV. ELECTRICITY FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT~ AND LAWS lSI
150

j/ue. Table 97
lilTC
7 f-- 1-- Derlh of Penetration (a) of High frequency Currents (for a
6
. . . ., v Straight Copper Wire with Circular Cross-Section)
V
5
4
/'
./
Frequency \ 10 kC!SCCllOO kcisec II Me'sec \10 MC'seC/IOO MC,'sec

3
V
j,/"
2 Dept h of pene· O.G5 0.21 O.OG5 0.021 0.006
tration. mm
V
o Z 4 6 8 /0 IZ 14 /0 18 to i
t=D,!4d~
Notes. I. Calculations can be made for other frequencies and other
materials by means of the formula
Fig. '.,2. Graph of Rac/Rdc
Versus ;. 0=50.33 -{p~ .
\ariation of In([uct;ve Reactance,. Capacitive Reactance and
Impedance with frequency
where p is the resistivity (ohm mm'!m). I'- - the permeability of the
1/00 malerial, f - the frequency (c. sec).
2. The dcpth of penetration is the distance from the surface of
tOOO , . i//
the wire at which the current density is e times less than at the
surface. where e is the base of natural logarithms Ie"" 2.72).
$00
'~z
.sOO
t'~
/
1\
C)
700
1\ ",~V E. ELECTRIC OSCILLATIONS AND
~ 600 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
<S

~
\\ VV
~
.~ 400
500
z\ 1\ V /z fUNDAMENTAL COI':CEPTS AND LAWS
/
1\\
"'" 300
\ \ V'...... Osci lIatory variations of the charge, current or voltage
V K .\ . in an electric circuit are called electric oscillations. An al-
a ~t1
~O0

JOO
1/ \ / Jl ternating electric current is an example of electric oscilla-
tions. High·frequency electric oscillations are generated as
1/ I

tuNS 500' /QOP

a rule by means of an oscillating circuit. An oscillating
circuit is a closed circuit containing inductance Land ca-
t}ciic (refjllellCf, (rQ'ftilllls/seC) paci tance C.
The period ot natural oscillations of a circuit is
l<i2"o 6~,. Graphs of R
L
, R
c' and Z versus It) for
L=l licnry. C=IO p.fd. Ra=IOO ohms (it is as-
sumed that R a is independent of the frequency). (4,77)

152 CH. IV. ELECTRICITY
! Electromagnetic waves represent a process of simultaneous
t E
Fig. 64. Graph of current in circuit with
damped ooci !lations.
This relation is called Thomson's formula; it is valid in
the abspnce of energy losses. In the case of energy losses
in the circuit (when an oh-
1m mic resistance is present) the
natural oscillations of the
circuit are damped:
2Jt
T
-./~ _(ll)2' (4,78)
V LC 2L
The term UR is usualIy
very small. Fig. 64 represents
l.-.----.L- 11 a graph of damped asci lla-
Yres tions in a circui t.
When an alternatinge.m.f.
Fig. 6;). l<csonanCe curves for is applied to the circuit,
different values of the circuit re-
si stance. The ordi nates are the forced asci llations arise in it.
maxi mum values of the current The amplitude of the forced
1m , the absci ssae - tbe frequen·
cies of the e.m.L asci llations wi 11 be greatest
when the natural frequency
of the circuit coincides with the frequency of the sinusoidal
e.m.!. (Fig. 65). This phenomenon, which finds wide appli-
cation in radio engineering, is called electric resonance.
The amplitudes of the charge and the voltage in forced
oscillations are greatest when the frequency 01 the imposed
e.m.!. differs slightly from the natura! frequency of the
cir'Cuit.
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 153
propagation of variations of electric and magnetic fields.
The vectors of the electric and magnetic field intensities
(E and H) in an electromagnetic wave are perpendicular to
Fig. 66. Vectors F. H, ond ,J in eleetrot11a:;-
netic wave.
each other and to the direction of propagation of the \\'JH'S
(Fig. 66). This is true for the propagation of e!cdroma;;nctic
waves in vacuum.
The velocity of electromagnetic waves in \'acuum is inde-
pendent of the wavelength and equals
co=(2.99776 ='= 0.00004) X 10 '0 em/sec.
The velocity of electromagnctic \Vans in diITcrcnt media
is less than in vacuum:
c,
C=n' (4,7J)
where n is the index of refraction (sec p. 15e:).
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
The wavelengths are plotted logarithmically,
The fir~t horizontal row gives the wavelengths (upper va-
lues III dIfferent nni ts of length, lower values in em).
The second row gives the frequencies in eycles'sec, the
third and fourth rows - the names of the wavelength and
frequency ranf~es.
I~ows 5 and 6 show the types of electromagnetic radiators
rOIlS 7 ami 8 --- the principal methods of generatin Cf electro:
lIlagneiic oscillaiiol1s. "
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'"
156 CH. IV. ELECTRICITY

Low-frequency and radio waves have the lowest frequen-

cies; such waves are generated by various artificia I osci lIa·
tors.
Infrared radiation is emitted mainly by oscillating parts
of molecules or groups of atoms.
Light waves are emitted by atoms and molecules when
electrons in the outer shell pass from one stable orbit to CHAPTER V
another (see p. 188)_
Ultraviolet rays have the same origin as light waves. OPTICS
X -rays are emitted when electrons in the inner shells of
atoms pass from one orbit to another. FUN DAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS
Gamma-rays are emitted in the radioactive decay of ato-
mic nuclei. Light is electromagnetic radiation of wavelength conside-
Further information on the properties of various types of rably shorter than that of radio waves (see the electromag-
waves will be found in Chapter V; Optics. netic spectrum). Such radiation is emitted by atoms when
their electrons jump from one orbit to another (see p. 188).

1. Photometry
The energy radiated by a body per second is called the
intensity of radiation. The energy transmitted by a light
wave per second to a surface is called the flux of radiation
through the surface <D. The flux of radiation as estimated
visually is called the luminous flux. Since the sensitivity
of the eye varies for different wavelengths. the ratio of the
flux of radiation to the luminous flux will also depend on
the wavelength. As a rule, in daytilJle vision the eye is
most sensitive to radiation of 5,550 A. The ratio of the in-
tensity of radiation of 5,550 A to the intensity of radiation
of wavelength')., which causes the same visual sensation is
called the relative brightness sensitivity of the eye (K)). The
curve of K A versus')., is called the curve of relative bright-
ness sensitivity.
The luminous intensity (I) is defined as the luminous
flux emitted by a point source of light into unit solid angle.

(5,1)

where <D is the luminous flux, and Q - the solid angle.

The unit of luminous intensity is called the candela. '"

• The present standard of luminous intensity is constructed in

the form of a black body radiator (Fig 68; see also p. 168) kept at
the temperature of molten platinum, at 2,042.6°K·
 IS8 CH. V. OPTICS FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 159

The unit of luminous flux is the lumen. One lumen is
equal to the luminous flux contilined in a solid angle of
one steradian when the luminous intf'll:ii ty is one candela.
Prior to the introduction of the new standard candela.
the international candle in the form of electric hulbs of spe~
cial design was used as the stan-
dard of luminous intensity.
I internationill candle=1.005
cande las.
0:.. The illuminance (E) is the
luminous flex incident on unit
area of a surface:
2. Principal Laws of Geometrical Optics
Geometrical optics deals with thosc phenomena which can
be explained on the assumption thilt \j';ht travels through
a homogeneous medium in a strai~ht line.
The angle of incidenc~ is the angle between the incident
ray and the normal to the interface between two media at
the point of incidence. The angle of reflection is the angle
between this normal and the reflected ray. The angle of
refraction is the angle between the normal and the refrilct-
ed ray.
I. When a ray is incident on the interfilce between two
media the angle' of incidence is equal t~ the angle of reflec-

.::t>IB}~~!ilEt2]__ 2
tion. The incident ray, the normal, and the reflected ray
'.:. E=S'
cD (5,2) all lie in the same plilne.
3 The magnitude of reflection is characterised hy the reflec-
\\here S is the surface area re- tion coefficient p, which is equal to the ratio of the energy
ceiving the luminous flux. flux in the reflected wave to that in the incident wave.
5 The units of illuminance are (The reflection c02fflcient is frequently expressed in per
the lux and the phot: cent.)
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the
I lux=1 lumenjm 2 ,
sine of the am,le of refraction is a constant (for a gi\'en
I phot=1 lumen j cm 2 • wavelength). The incident ray, the normal, and the refract-
The brightness of an extended ed ray are in the same plane.
l',h1 source (or surface seen by
sin i
reiJected light) is referred to -.--.,=n. (5,4)
technically as its luminance (B): SIll I
Fig. G8. liSSR Slale stan-
dard light source: 1 - plati- J The quantity n is called the relative index of refraction of
num. 2 -fused tho.rium oxide
B=5' (5,3) .. the second medium with respect to the first medium. and
tube. 3 -fused thorium oxide
cup. 4 - thorium oxide pow- is equal to the ratio of the velocities of light in the two
der, 5 - silica container. where S is the visible area of
media: n=S- .
the surface (the area of the c,
projection of the surface on to a plane perpendicular to The inde£ of refraction with respect to vacuum is called
the line of vision), and J is the luminous intensity. the absolute index of refraction of the medium. The index
Luminance is expressed in units of luminous intensity of refraction n depends on the wave length.
per unit area, as cande las, m 2 • A ray passing from a medium with a greater index of
An old unit of luminance is the stilb. refraction to a medium with a smaller index of refraction
A stilb is equal to the luminance of a source which radi- can undergo total reflection. The least angle of incidence
ates a luminous intensity of I candela per em" of luminous i er at which all the energy of the light is reflected from
surface. the interface is called the critical angle. The magnitude of
1 stilb=lO' candelasJm 2 • the critical angle i er is determined from the formula
Photometry deals with luminous intensity, luminance and .. I
iJlumimnce, as determined by visual perception and from SIll1er=n'
measurements of the luminous llux.
160 CH. V. OPTICS FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 161

where n is the relative index of refraction of the medium

in which total reflection takes place.
Rough surfaces reflect light rays in all directions (di[fuse
reflection), as a result of which they are visible to the eye.
When light passes through thin metal plates its intemity
is reduced. The change in the luminous intensity (for nor·
mal incidence on the plate) is given by the relation

- 4~n :::- k
/ x=/oe I.
Fig. 0~. Path of rays io thin cOllvcrging lens.
where /0 is the incident light intensity, / x - the inte nsity
of the light after passage through a plate of thickness x,
A - the wavelength, e ~ the base of natural logarithms. n
and k - optical constants of the metal which are determined
from the relations

n 2 k= ~ , n 2 (1 - k 2 )=e.

Here a is the conductivity of the metal, v - the frequ"nc'

of the light wave, and e - the dielectric constant.

3. Optical Instruments
The formula of a thin lens (Fig. 69) is

-~+J,=(n--I)(~-~i=~,
a a r r ) f
(5,5).
l 2 Fig. 70. Path oi cro'Co'H'. 0 1 .1nd ( ) ! - krhe''' '''1 1I iva..
lent to microscope L'yepi l'CC. 0: --- lens cqU\ v:d~nt
/1. 2 Liz, - i l1lJge 01 . .-'dJ ull reU na
where a is the distance from the lens to the object, a'- to optical system
eye.
the distance from the lens to the image, f - the focal length
of the lens, r l and r2 - the radii of curvature of the sphe-
rical surfaces of the lens, n - the relative refractive index l,
of the material of the lens.
In formula (5,5) the quantities a, d, r l , and r 2 are con-
sidered positive when their directions, as measured from the
lens, coincide with the direction of the light rays; otherwise
they are considered negative.
The magnification of a magnifying glass is
M=250 (5,6)
f '
Fig. 71. PaUl 01 ray,-'; III tc1cscop-:. I - r;ly:; l·lllL~rgi jIg from a
where f i~ the focal length in mi Iii meters. single point of the object. :2 - rays emcrgi llg troiU <lllothcr point
01 tile object.

- - - __ n _
162 CH. V. OPTICS
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 163
The overall magnification of a microscope is
Daylight consists of electromagnetic radi:dion of various
M --~t1 X 250
t2 '
(5,7) wavelengths (corresponding to colours from red to violet).
1 he colours of thin films arc due to the interference of w~ves
where t1 and t2 are the focal lengths of the objective and reflected from the upper and lo,ver surfaces of the film
(when observed in reflecteJ
the eyepiece in millimeters, ~ is the distance from th~ upp~r
focus of the objective to the lower focus of the eyepiece In light). When observed in
millimeters (Fig 70). transmi tted ligh t in terference
The magnification of a telescope is takes place between the trans·
mitted w~ves and the waves
M=0,
t2
(5,8)
refiected from the upper ::nd
lower surfaces of the HIm. aJ
Diffraction. The defleclion
where tl and 12 are the focal lengths of the objective and of light from a rectilinear
the eyepiece (Fig. 7i). path otherwise than by rellec-
The reciprocal of the focal length is called the power of tion or refraction is called
the lens: D=+. The unit of pO\ler of a lens is the diop. diflraction. Fig. 72 depicts
schematically a lon~ narrow
ter (D), equal to the PO\\ cr of a lens \\ith a focal length slit, by me:ms of which it is
of I m. possible to observe the phe.
nomenon of diffraction. Light
4. Wave Prcperties of Light falls perpendicularly on the
;urface containin,!': the sli!.
Interference. When two waves travel simultaneouslY Upon passing through the
through a medium there will be a resultant vibration of ;lit the jif(ht rays 3re deflect-
the particles of the medium at edeh point (in the case of 2d from a' strail(11t path, and
mechanical waves), or a resultant oscillation of the electric as a result of the sLibsequent
and magnetic field intensities (in the case of electr0magne- superposition (interference) _ _ _-:I- ,;.,
tic waves). The resultant 0scillations will be determined by of the ligh t waves one wi 11
the amplitude and tlie pl,ase uf each of the waves. observe light and dark fringes
The superposition in space of two (or more) waves of the Fig. 72. Dilfradion of pare_dIel
on the screen. rays by :l si ngle -"Ii t. n) Schema-
same period leading to a reinforcement of the resultant The positions of the dark iie-diagram ofslii. b) <I possible
amplitude at some points and to a diminution of the am- frin,ges are determined by direction of the diffr<lcied rays.
pli tude at others is ca lied interterence. jl1; - Icn:~, (J - - op{i GI.! centre of
the condition lens, S - 5crCC'l1 in focal plune of
Interference of waves of any kind (including light waves) lens.
takes place only if the superposed waves have the same b sin ~=nA, (5,9)
period and a constant phase difference at each point. Sources
which generate such waves are called coherent. For \lv'here ~ is the angle between the normal and the given
polarised waves (see p. 166) to di5play interferen.ce it isneces- direction, n - an integer, and b - the width of the sli t.
sary in addition, that their planes of polansatlOn ~ol~clde. A series of furrow" p:lrallcl equi-distant slits of equal
Coherent sources of lif:ht can only be obtall1ed artIfiCially. width is called a di/Jraction waling. The width of a slit
In a homogeneous medium every colour corresponds to a plus the distance between h\o adjacent slits i.t; called the
definite frequency "f the w'lve. When a wave passes lI1to grating interv!!l.
another mediU1l1, the w;;"elength changes, but the frequency Fig. 73 gives a schematic dcpiction d ~ difTi"ilclion grat.
remains the same. ing. The positions of the fringes 01" 11laX;mU1Tl iiPcn',ity on
the screen are determined from the condition (for normal

1I*
 T
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AKO LAWS iii£;
164 Cll. V. OPTICS
the cxlrl'l11e rays from a painton lhe oIJjeet which cnier the
incidence of light on the graling): oi'je"live and rc,lch lhc ()b~erl'er's eve).
DispcIsion of lirzhL The velocily of light in a given me-
d sin a~cn'k, (5,10)
1 dium depend.i 011 the wavelenglh. Tids phenomenon is called
disperSion of light velocity.
where d is the gralinl( interval. I
Due to the c1iiIraciion of light waves there is a limit to !
the alJilitv uf optical instruments to shol'! increasinl;11' greater
detail on the "urface of an o';ject at higher ma:inificalions. I

aJ
i Fig. 74. Palh of rays in

The index of refraction al o o varies with

f;l~;ss prism.

the wavelcncth
i (dispersion of the index of refraction).
Due to (hper,ion while lif~hl (\\'hieh consist, of radialion
j
;
of differenl wavelenl(lhs) is lJro!;cn IIp by a giS'" prism into
iis components. Rays of shorter wavelength are IJent towards
b} the base of the prism more siron,~ly than waves of grealer
1 wavelength (F;g. 74). -
I Polarisation of light. In lhe lighl waves emilled IJ'. difTe-
I rent 'ources the vectors E (and, hence. If) are o'rien',ed
randomly. Such Ught is called natl/ral Ught.

j Co
---J

·-----~:..-----------&'11.'el1
!
j
Fig. 73. Di!fr"clion of parallel
ing. II) Schelllcdic diagTam oi
Sibil' direction of the diffraclcd
ti cal center of lCll~~. b ~ screen

The srnalle,[ di-iance IJellleen tllO points at which their

image" do nol overlap is called the least separation for re-
solution of an optical inslrument (0). Fir;. 7G. Rotation of plane of poLtrisation of polarised ray in
For a microicope the least separation for re:,o!ution is: quartz plate.

I)~ O~~l}" ('i,ll)

SLlli It is possib1" (for example, by passing natural light
hrough a plate of tOlIflnalinc) to obtain waves in which
wllere u b the "pertur, ang Ie (hall ille angle suutcndcd by
 166 CH. V. OPTICS
the If vectors will have a sin:J,Jc diredion al a1l points in
space. Such wave; are called lillearly polarised (or plane
polariscd).
In linearly poIMi,''<:d lir,ht each of [he vectors E and If
lies in a given plane. The plane of the vector of magnetic
T FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS ANI:> LAWS
field intensity H is called ,he plane of polarisation. Some
substances (for example, quartz, aqueous colutions of sugar)
have the ab:lIty to .turn the plane of polarisation of linearly
polansed hghl pa'3s!nC( through them. This phenomenon is
called rotation of the plane of polarisation (Fig. 75).
Light can be pari ially polarised by reflection from a di-
electric. At a certain angle of incidence the reiiected lioht
is completely polarised .. This angle is called the polarising
angle. It can lle de;erlllilled from a relation called Brews-
ter's law:
tan ip,c~n, (5,12)
where n is the index of refraction.
Pressure of light. When elec!romar;netic waves strike the
surface of a bodv theY exert mechanical pressure upon it
(ca lIed the rodit:t iOIl pressure).
The magnitude of the radiation pressure is given by
lV'
pc~c (I + pl, (5,13)
where lV' is the quantity of radiation energy incident nor-
mally on 1 cm" of surface per sec, c -- the velocity of light,
P ~ the relJer·tion coefficient.
The pressure exerted by the sun ',; rays on a bright day
is equal apprOXimately to 0.4 dyne,m' (4 X 10- 5 dyne;cm 2).
5. Quanlum Properties of Light
The energy of any form of electromagnetic radiation
including light, always exists in the form of discrete portions:
These. portIons of energy, "'hlch possess the properties of
matenal corpu<'lcs, ilre called radiution quanta or photons.
The energy of a photon depends on the frequency of the
radiation v.
The energy of a photon E=hv, where h=6.623 X 10- 27 erg sec.
The constant h is called Planck's colis/ant.
. According t? the, fundamental priIriple'; of modern phy-
SIC:; (theory c, lelallVJt)), wh"nelt:r (he energy of a system
changes by an amount £ there is an equivalent change in the
mass of the system equal to';;2 (c is the velocity of light).
Hence, for every photon emi !ted by a body i is mass
167
dec-
hv
reases by an amount t'J.m= c2 •
Those properties of light which are due to the discrete
nature of radiation are called quuntum (or corpuscular) prop-
erties.
Light, like all other forms of electromagnetic radiation,
possesses both wave and corpuscular properties.
The photoelectric etJect is one of the l1lanifestatio'ls of lhe
corpuscular nature of light. The ell1i~;sion of electrllns from
the surface of an illuminated body is called the external
photoelectric ef}ect.
Laws of the exterrwl photoelectric effect. 1. The number
of electrons released per second (or the saturation current)
is directly proportional 10 the light lIux.
2. The velocily of the emitted electrons is independent
of the light intensity, and is determined by the frequency
of the incident light. The velocity n;ay be determined from
the equation
(5,14)
where hv is the energy of a photon, If - the work function
(see p. 114), m - the mass of the electron, and v - its velocity.
Equation (5,14) is called rills/ein's .
3. For every substance there a frequency below
which the photoelectric eiTed is not observed. This critical
frequency is called the photoelectric threshold (vcr)' It is
determined from the relation
hvcr=rf· (5,15)
When semiconductors and dielectrics are illuminated,
some of their atoms may lose electrons, which, however,
(in contradistinction to the external photoelectric effect)
do not escape through the surface or the body, but remain
inside the body. This p[;eno:llenO!1 is called the internaL
photoelectric etJect. 1\s a re,lllt of ti1e internal photoelectric
effect the resistance of sC!ilicol1 :uclur·; an, dielectric; decrea;es
upon illumination.
 168 CH. V. OPTICS
When the interface between a metal and a semiconductor
is illuminated, an electromotive force arises. This phenome-
non is called the harrier-layer e{ject.
Photoelectric cells, photoconductive cells, barrier-laver
cells and solar batteries are based on the photoelectric phe-
nomena.
The photoelectric cell is ba",ed on the external photoelect-
ric effect. It consists of a sealed glass bulb containing a
light-sensitive cathode and an anode. The cathode is a thin
film deposited on the inner surface of the bulb; the anode
is a ring (or disc:) placed in (he centre of the bulb. The two
electrodes are connected throUGh an external batterv.
When the cathode is illuminated a galvanometer' in the
circuit registers a photoelectric current:
i'l =v rD -t- io'
where t1J is the flux, of radiant energy, y - the integral
senszllVzly of the photoe lect rIC ce II, i o - the darll current,
i.e., the current in the phoioelectric cell in complete
darkness.
Photoelectric cells which arc Lased on the in1ernal pho-
toelectric eHect are called photocond'ic/ive cells. The sensi-
tivity of photoconductive cells is characterised b v the
specifiC sensitivity (/(). This quantity is equal (0 (he' ralio
of the integral sensi'.ivity to the applied potential difTe-
renee U, i.e.,
7
i ,j>
/
\ ."'" {jeD
Photoconductive cells are ;]iso characterised by the magni-
tude of the ratio R d where Rd is the resistance in the
R---;:'
dark and R,j, is the resistance upon illumination.
6. Thermal Radiation
Heated bodies emit invisible waves (so-called ultraviolet
and infrared rays) in addition to visible light. The radiation
of heated bodies is called thermal (or heal) radiation.
A body which completely absorbs all the radiation
incident on it is. called a hlach /:ody (or perfect absorber).
A hollow box with a small hole in it is a black body.
The rate at which a body radiales energy of a' given
wavelength from unil surface of the body is called the
FUND.~ME:t\TAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS
emissive po,cer or emissivity :-It the given temperature (F)).
169
The fraction of the incident radiation of a given wavelength 'A
1
which i" absorbed bv a body is called the ah.'orptive po,~'er
or at)sorptivity (A)J. 'The emissivity at a given temperature
is proportional to the absorptivity at the same temperature
(Kirchhoff's law):
(5,16)
where f\ at a given temperature is a constant for all bodies.
I
In the U.S.S.R. the quantity F ie . e)] is called the speet-
fA
ral emissivity,
For a black bocl\' A;c=l and, hence £;,=10;. for all \\3\'e·
1 lengt hs.
The rate of radintion of energy of all wavelengths from
• a biack body (E) is proportional to the fourth po\\cr of the
absolute lellipera(ure (Slefan,BoUZllJann's lim):
1'=-01", (5,17)
where ihe coefl1cicnt of proportionality a=5.G7x 10-"
waH/I'm' degree'.
7. Types of Spectra
The dependence of the intensity of radi:-ltion of :-I
on the wavelength (or frequency) is called the spectmm
radiation. This dep2ndenc-e is usual'y depicted in graph forlll,
For example, Fig. 76 gives the spectrulll of thermal radia-
tion of carbon for different temperatures. This spectrum
closely resembles that of a black body.
It is evident from the figure that at any given tempera.
ture there is a certain wavelength (f'max) for which the
energy of radiation IS a maxirnwn. For a b lack body the
wavelength corresponding to the maximum energy of radia-
tion is inver-;el.y proponional to the absolute temperature T
(Wien's law of displacement):
AmJ,T=C, (5,18)
where C is a constant, equal 10 O.28~)8 em degree-I
The coioured band obtained when light i, broken up b v 3
prism (or other device) i,; sometimes cidled a spectrum '( i"
the nanow sense 0/ the word).
 l
170 CH. V. OPTIC~

Heated solids emU a continuous spectrum in which all the

spectral colours are present, one colour merging gradually
'nto the next
1 TABLES AND GRAPHS

The spectra of heated gases and solids are called emission

spectra.
If the radiation emitted by a heated solid is pacsed
171
I

I
through a vapour, then in the continuous spectrum of the body
dark Jines appear, at wavelengths corresponding to the lines
of the emission spectrum of the given vapour. Such a spect-
rum is called an absorption spectrum.
Gases absorb radiation of the same wavelength as they
themselves emit (law of Kirchhoff and Bunsen).
The so-called Fraunhofer lines in the solar spectrum
(see Fig. 78) are absorption lines due to the absorption of
definite wavelengths of the continuous solar ,peetrum by
vapours present in ,he atmosphere.

TABLES AND GRAPHS

Table 98
Relative Brightness Sensitivity (K)J for Daytime Vision
(see Fig. 79)

Wavelength,
.1/'//ruwiJlet 1\ :-
/"LweI? LI?/I'orett A
1'6'9/{J/7
"

Fig. 7G. Energy distribution in spectrum of inc':Hldcscent carbon at

di ffcrent temperatures.
4,000
4,200
4,400
0,00041
0.0040'
0.023
5,200
5,400
5,600
.noll
oO . .1,)·1 : 6,400
6.600
6,800
0.175
0.061
g:~i31
0.017
4,600 0.060 5,800 7,000 0.0041
4,800 0.I:J9 6,000 0.631 I 7,200 0.00105
.In line <pectra the intensity of. radiation is high only
wlth1l1 very narrow reg!Ons coniIguoCls to definite wave.
5,000 0.323
II
6,200
0.381 I 7.400
7,600
0,00025
0.00006
lengths, whi Ie at other wavelengths it is practically zero.
Une spectra are emitted by gases of low density. If such
a spectrum is dispersed by a prism (or other instrument)
narrow lines of different colours are obtained (Fig. 77). The Note. The values of the relative brightness sensitivity are different
for different people. They do not vary. however, too widely for
number of these lines and their wavelengths are characteris- people with normal vision. The tahle gives average values of 1\)",
tic for each element. An analysis of the lines in the spe~trum
thus allows us to identify the elements which are present
in the given substance.
 8/lOIIUIIOl1iW6,5/kJ MW ~ ,~ ,=
, SlkIillllJ

, lilJllllf/

, IiIIIlSSIVllJ

, Illrrillm

,
I ,
,
-,
/If$t;pu

H/!rupt't/

, :'*l'CIIl'j'

, &tvm

• "'~

or emiuion or some ~.,.,>: j"O IlC"''' on top ore the vovol,nl/lh.

in anI/strom unHo( ) .

, , • ,If
F;I/. 78. Sol_, 'p«trum with I'r.unltorer li_.
172 CH. V. OPTICS
TABLES AND GRAPHS 173
...
I,: :~
.

1';1 :lol
~: :~ Table Wi
k~ U!1l'llno,0/: .~ I ~~ I
~ I ~ I ~I
~I
,I'M l{i
l~';;I~J~I~l ~I1<:$1 1"'2
/.0
0.8
I I I,: I
I 1
Illuminance in Some Typical Cases

0.5
I
1 I
I
II
II
I
~ : I

0.4 :I" 1

0.2
1 I
I 1
I
I ~
. I
I
)-
·I-V I
o i"- 0

,Jooo 4000 SOOD ~ooo 1000 ;"11 Sun's rays at noon (middle laU tudes) 1011,0011
During film shooLing- in studio . . 1II ,0 110
Fig". 79. Curve of relative brig-llillC'SS :;cllsitivity Open area all a cloudy day . . . . 1,11110
for dayli me vision. Light room (ncar \vi ndo\\') 1110
Work lable lor delicale operations 1110-2110
I II umi nati on necessary for re;;di ng 3 0- ~)O
Table 99 Cinema screen 211-~1I
Luminance of Some Illuminated Surfaces III umi nati on from fLl 11 moon . 0.2
Illumination from moonless night sky II,Oiill3

Lumin<ltlcc.
Illuminuted surfuce C<Jllde]as/m 2

Cinema screen " . 5-2

Sheet of \vhite paper (under illuminance 3050 lux) 10-15
Sno\\' in di feet sunli gh t . • . . . . . . . . . :lx 10 ' Table 102
Moon's surface 2. 5X 10'
Reflection Coefficient (,p) of Glass and Water for Different
Angles or Incidence (in 0/0)
Table 100
Luminance of Various Light Sources , -
~ngle o[ incl·

~
I
Source
Luminance,
c£lndc las,/m 2
0
Hoc ,\0 SO I GO
I
70 80 S(J 90

Substance . I

,I, ,1,,1;1,1"" 0""' +"

Surl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15X 10'
Caoillary of superhigh pressure mercury arc 12X 10'·15x 10 8
Carbon arc crater . . . . 15x 10' Glass 4.7 L
Metal fj lament of incandescent lamp 1.5X 10"-2X 10' Water 2 2"14.vl".Jj,j"T'O'O 3V 91 100
Kerosene lamp flame . . . 1.5X 10'
Steari 11C cand Ie flame 5x 10 3
Moonless night sky 10
Spa!k disch;lrge in xenon 1.IXI0I1 Note. For glass covered wi til a film of si Ii ca of index of refrac·
1.5Xl0 11
r (ni tru~;t'lJ) 2.lxl()11 tioll 1.5, ?~: 2.5 at 11orm£1} incidence, For gl:ISS \viP] :1 film 01 sIlica
helium . . 1 .;::, >< 10 12 of iJidex of refraction 1.0. I) 0.0 at llurnu! illcidcllce.
 174 C~l. V. OPTlCS TABLES AND GRAPHS 175

Table 103 Table 106

Reflection of Light by Metals
~eflectjon of Light Passing from Glass into Air
The figures in the table indicate the fraction of perpendicularly
incident light reflected from the surface (in %)
Angle of incidence 100 /10
0
/20+0°135°139+9030' , 40°1600
00<
.c EC
~

""§ OJ , C
~

Angie of refraction 10°115010'1320/51°163"1790/820/90°1- >- :::.:: E:" .c:" '";r: j'§0,_ u 8

oj

~ ~ <.:: 0 2 en
u c:
-
II III II
U N Vl
I
Fracti on of reflected
energy itl % ·1.7 4.7
I
15.0 G.8
II
12 36 47 100 100
Ultra- 1,880 25 23 22 35 17 G,1
Violet 2, 00 0 31 31 25 ,j.! 22 73
2,510 53 2b :n 38 3\1 75
3. nc,n (j\ ~ ~l \7 \8 'i ~\
~) 1 ~) III 7l) ",1
- ll; '\\\
.)
JI \Ill
Table 104
Wavelengths of Visible Region of Spectrum I I
Visible 5,000 11 55 90 (;\ 55 55 34
a,OOO 72 58 93
ol1n~ari cs,
fi,) 58 32
Bounqaries. 7,000
Colour
1< Colour
I
B
A I I 83 60 94 69 56 61

Infrared 8, 000 89 G2 95
II 10,000 74 90
70 1
Violet " 3,800-4,500 65 9G 72 57 69
62/ -
Dark blue cllowish-grcen
Y, 5,500-5,750 50, (JOO 9-1 98 02 97 94 RI
4,500 --1,800 Yellow . . _ . . \17
Light blue 5,750-5,850 100,000 97 93
Green
4,800-5,100
5,100-5,500 I Orange.
Red . __ . __
. 5,850-6,200
6,200-7,600
I
_-._------'--------'-----------'-----
Table 107
Critical Angles of Reflection
Table 105
Wavelengths of U1~~'~violet Region of Spectrum Substance Suhs tance
'cr

Name of range Boundaries,

A I Effect of R a : : : - Water
Glycerine. _
_ .
Glass (light crown)
.
49
43
40
I
I Carbon
IiI
disu][i de .
Glass (heavy fii 1: l)
38
34
Diamond . . . . . :24
Long wavelength ul travi old 3,150-3,800
Middle wave/engtil u](rilvio- Suntan
let _ . Note. The values of i cr (in degrees) given in the Llh]c <ire for an
2,800-3,150 Erythemogenic
Shod wavelengt Ir ultrav; old 2,000-2,800 i nterf.1C'c wi tll ai r (for tllC D linc of sodiulll).
Va . ~. ullm ultraVic.:!cL . . . . . Bactericidal
< 2,000 Ozonising'
176 CH. V. OPTICS TABLES AND GRAPHS
1
177

Table 108 TaMe 109

Wavelengths of Principal fraunhofer Lines
Index of Refraction for Wavelengths Corresponding to SomQ
I of the fraunhofer Lines
Line Element Iwave1cn g th, ;\
Fraunholer line B D F H
A Oxygen 7,621
Q 7,185 Wavelength, A j7,590!6,870!5,8DO/4,860/3,970
B 6,870
C I-Iyc:lroger; 6,562.8
'"
<J
Carbon dlsulIide 1. 610
IOxygen 6,278.1 ~"
Ethyl alcohol.
Glass (lIght cro~n') :
1,35D
I, 61 7
1.3GO
1.629
I . ~1(j3
1.654/ 1.702
1.3G7 1.374
D, ISodIum 5,8D5.9
.0
:1
en
Water.
1.510
I . 3~9
1. 512
1.331
1,515
1.333 1.521
1.337 I
1,531
1.344
D, 5,8DO.0

D, Helium 5,875.6

E Iron 5,269.6

b, Ma.gnesi urn 5,183.6

Fable 110
b, 5, I 72.7
Optical Constants of Metals and Semiconductors
b, Iron ~ . 5, I 6D. 0

b, Iron, -rnagncsi LIm 5, 167.4

Substance Substance 12
Iron '1,957.6

F Hydrogen 4,861,3

d Iron 4,668 Aluminium

Antimony •
1.28
3.4
3.66
1.63
IMercury
Nickel
.. I. 62 2.71
1.7D I. 86
4,383.6 Bismuth .• 1.78 1.57 Plati nilIn • 2.07 2. 12
Cesi urn . . • O. 3~1 3.70 Potd~sium o OG8 21 1
Hydrogen 4,340.5 Chromium . . ' 0 '
Cobalt (G,OOO A)
3.5D
2.21
1.26
1.83
Seleniulll .
Si Ii CO !I . ,
2:85
4.24
0:
221
0.114
0' Iron 4,325.8 Copper 0.62 4. I S;Ivor.,. 0.18 20.1i
Gold 0.42 6. G5 Tin . . '0' 1.12 ·1.03
G Iron, calci um '1,307.9 Iron . 2 36 1.3(; Tung-sten (5,780 A)
q Cal,::ium. 4,226.7
Lead • 2:01 1,73 Zinc . . • . . . . .
2.7G
2.12
O.D8
2.GO

h Hydrogen 'I, I 01.7

Notes. I. The values of the opti cal constants gi ven I n the table
11 I Calcium. ~) ,DG3. () refer to the wavelength ),=5,890 A. unless otherwise indicated.
I 2. The constants nand k are sOmetimes calIed the index of relrac.
f\ ~,S3;3. (; tion and the Index of absorption, respectively.
I

12 3m{.46
 178 ell. V. OPTIcS
TABLES AKD GRAPHS 179

Table 1n
Index of Refraction cf G"scs "',...,,...," 10
('-or-.. ~

i ~ ~:;< -'cT

l
inde'
Gas or vapouJ 1>1
il Index of ....."::) "c. "S:
ref r::cti (ij]
I refracti on
h
<::l

:-1'---- I IJ
J\ceiylcnc
Ai r
AmnJonia
I. OOOGOI;
I .
1. OUO:j77 Ii
II Mercurv
(H)(l~~):! II A\c(ll:l1lc'
~\Ji tro,;.',\'ll
I. U00933
I.OIi(H41
I .II002D7
~I
BCIlZL'lJe '" 1.()(J]SI:lIIJOx:>"F~\'IJ . . . I.OOOn2
Carbon dioxi de I. Ol)CH50 I, .sCICli! "
Carbon 1etraclJloridc I.OOJ 'IS.ulfur de 1.001565
1 . UU 0737
Chlorofurm . . . . 1. qu 1 '. II' T clluri 11!11 .
Helium. . . . • . 1. UOOIJJJ "V"ter VdI'CJllr
1.002495 i x
I 1.000257

l
Hydrogcn . . . . . I. 000 i J(j Zinc . . • .
Hydrogen disulUde I.IJOO GIl II 1. U02U50

I
C)

Note. The values of the indices of refraction "given in the tahle X

are for a v..'avC'1cng-th corresponding 10 the ycllo\'\! lilll' of sodium (D). -CO
and arc corrected for a density at 0° C and 7GO mrn Hg pressure by \ I
means of the formula n - 1 =const (fOf the given l:ras).
c;:::'.'::: IDM':"":'I'-'~ I
p --"--------- c:: Y:;..-< ........ ':'1---"'.:;1'- co
-I' ~;' ~ 1.0

Table 112 I L'":: ,') ,:": X

<c.,

rndex of Refraetio:1 of Some Solids and Liquids

(at 15° C fer the D-Iine of Sodium Relative to Air) • I ~--\--\~-~
I

I I ~~~
L,": '.;:

I I I :;~ \ I I I ;

I
_ _S_'l_II_)S_i_a_n_('_e_,_ _,_ _ r:~r~~:~ Ii
Index of III
SUl)st<lilce
I n<lex of -
rcl"r:lctiof1

Diamond
Solids
'''' -III---ro",- I I
C~'=2X)
"'"1'''-;-['_:-:'_
--< _ _ ~ -:'-) C0
I n I':: I':") I.() U')

"
Ice 1_------ _
1\11 ca i .:3 I , 1 ,17

.:I
Sugar I .51;-1 . (,0 I' 1: 33
Turaz I .51; !I 1. ,13 008 "1"'--!"'7'1
::s"-;< I,~

~
CC".C
:.OJ 1.47 O~'lC'
,-=' __ CD
1I

(")7:'1--<(>1

Liquids I 11 1,333 '=''1::;)"r ::'1-

CI

Oils
Aniline,
Benzene
Canad:]
I
. I
1.590 I
1. 5114:I, Cedar n LIt . I. 51 G ..c: ~
. 1. ;:)3 cj
CarLon , I. ';:32 J .fiOI
I. S3:l
t.o 'c
" 0
ChlorofoflTl
.: I
0 (",;
G! :.-~
Etll)'i ,Ilco]'ol 1.110 1.40 ,-:.; ~J "r.·.
-
],,'1
1 . 3(;:2
_ _ _ _ II
i .,11
"
;?;
" - ,-
;.J

J 2'

=-- - -~- -- -
 iI TABLES AND GRAPHS 181
18~ CH. V. OPTICS

Table 116
Table 114 I
Diffuse Reflection of Some Materials in White Light (in %)
~ Emission Spectra of Some Metals (in ft.)
Materi al Materi al I Reflection Aluminiuml copp.. er
c
(ar )
(arc 1 n
vacuum)
I Mercu ry
(mercury
lamp) I
I
Sodium
(i n flame)
I Cadmium
(arC)
Zinc
(;:1\'12 in
vacuum)
-'--_ _~
I
Cardboard. whi te 60- 70 Paper, blotting 70-80
• yellow 30 Paper, bro\\'tl . . . . . 13 3,083 3,248 3,126 5,889.970 3,261 3,036
Cheeseclot h. .. 1G " chocolate colour 4 ----
Fatty clay (yellow) . 2,1 light bllle _ .. 25
Materials coated wi th ordinary whi te . GO- 70 3,093 3,274 3,131 5,895.930 3,4 ()-\ 3,072
whi te pai nt . . 50 yellow . 25
Materials coated with Traci ng paper . • . . 22 3,345
yellow paint . 40 Velvet. black . . • . 0.4 3,944 v 4,023 v 3,650 3,466
Moist earth . 8
II Wood (pine) . • . . . 40
Oil-paper (I layer) . 22 4,680b
• (2 layers) 35 3,962 v 4,063 v 4,046 8 v 3,611
I
3,982 v 4,722 b
4,663b 5 , 105. 5 gl4 ,078 . I v
Table 115
4,811 b
Speciflz Rotation of the Plane of Polarisation for Different 5,057 g 5,153.3 g 4,358.3 v 4,413 b
Wavelengths at 20° C
- - - - - , - - ,",-\ <l)'~-----;;'t-'l----;' uO:--C--'O-'=-bJ) 5,696 y 5,218.2 g 4,916. ,I bg 4, G78 b 4,912 b

~cE ~~ t.o ~~~ ·u~E

-c E
.", .=~ 00
~c -E
Q)~
c~;:::
b.D I ::-:'~
:~~~~u--- .~EE
ro.':2.. 5,723 y 5,700 4,959.7 g 4,7~9.~)
4,925 gb

~§ ~~E-c :g E':?~ ~~ Q) E~ ~
Wavelength, A :J(])
O'i::
~~E
f-o __ u
V:J';:..
Z'=:;::
co .... ~
~.::b.D
~c~
r-o._bn I 5,782. I y 5,460.7 g 5,085.8
6, I 03 0

6,3620

~29. 51 ( 5,782.~ 5,769.6 ii, 5,333 g

I
5,790~ J
6,S63 17.3 -126 6.75
5,893 52.9
21.7 -37 -162
~¥: ~
8.86 5,379 g
5,351 2G.5 -45 -207.5 9.65

l
4,861 32.7 -253.5 100.3 9.37
-54.51
6,152 0 6,438.Sr

Notes. The rotation of the plane of polarisation is characterised

6,232.00
by the specific rotation ["]t. For solids ["]1=-"- . where" is the angle
to
of rotation of the plane of polarisation. t-t'he path length of the
ray in the solid. p - the density. For Ii 'lui ds and soluti ons ~"~t= Ipe
"-
'
J Notes. 1. The wavelengths are measured in air at 15°C and
where e is the angle of rotation of the plane of polarisation, 1- the 760 mm Hg pressure.
path length of the ray ill the liquid or solutioll. c- the concentratIon 2. The colours ot the visible li nes are denoted by the first letter
by weig-ht, equal to the Ilulllbcr of grams of solute per 100 g of so- the corresponding colour. .
lution. For pure liquids e= I_ of 3. The brightest lines are underli ned
2. The negalive sign indicates that the rotatioll is clockwise if one
looks at the liqUid from tIle si de of the source.

13 3aK.46
182 CH. V. OPTICS
1
I TABLES AND GRAPHS 183

Table 117 Table 119

Luminous Efflciency, Efficiency and Luminance of Some
Lig'ht Sources •
f Typical Characteristics of Photoelectric Cells

Luminance.
Type of
cell Cathode Filling
Integral
sensitivity,
I Dark
current,
Operati ng
voltag'e, v
'rype of Lamp ralldelas/m 2 p. amp/lumen I'- amp
I
UB-I Oxygen- Vacuum 20 O. I 240
50-watt, carhon fila- ·cesium
2.5 0.4 5XIO,'i UB-3
ment, vacuum UB-4
bO-watt. tungstcn Ii·
lament, vacuum 10 1.6 2,460 15X 1OS-20X f 0 5
50-watt gas-Ii lIed.
tung<.;ten Ii lament 10 1.6 2,685 5x I 0'
50 lJ·watt, gas-Ii Ilcd.
tungsten fi lament 17.5 2.8 2,900 10'
2,00 O-watt. gas-fi lied,
tungsten fi lament 21.2 3.5 3,020 I 3 X I 0"- 1" X 10' Uf-I ditto Inert 75 O. I 240
Voltaic arc 25 4 4,000 15X 10 gases
(crater)
'
Lu:ni nescent lamp 40 G.4 1.5XIO'

Note. The luminous effidenr!.' is the ratio of ihe total radiant flux
to the power ,oj" the currcnt in the light :"Otlfce. The effiriency'of a
light SOurce is t1:e ratio of the luminous flux to the current in ihe CUB-3 Antimony- Vacuum 80 0.01 240
source. -cesium
CUB·51
Table 118
Electron Worl, function and Photoelectric Threshold
of Varipus Substances

Work Photoelectric
Substance function. ev threshold. A
CUB-4 ditto . 80 O. I 240

Water G.13-G.09 2,025-2,040

Cuprous oxide • 5.15 2,500
Mica . . . .. 4.8 2,548
Sodium chloride 4.2 2,950
Silver bromide . . . 3.7-5.14 3,350·2,400 I
Thor;[;m on tUIlg".,ten 2.62 4, '130 Uf·3 Oxygen- Inert
Sodium on tunt-rs1cn 2. 10 5,900 wcesi urn 100 0.1 240
Cesi urn on tungsten • 1. 36 9,090 Uf·4 gases
Cesium on platinum. 1. 31 8,950
Barium on tungsten . . • . . . . I.l 11,300
Barium ox; de on ox; di sed tung-
sten . . . . . . 1.0-1.1 12,400-11,300
I

13B*
 .....
Table 120 en
,L-

Typical Characteristics of Photoconductive Cells

eU:::.:.. u
>.
'" E CD > a~ 8 E~~
Light-sensi ti ve ~E 'Vi
<J) -
•
u
~;j
>~, ::J t: • 'lIu,-2~1
material :;::E ~Q;'
~::: 0.>- ~.- ill --'C)°~OQ.)

E~~
C 1---, - - OJ
'Vi ro·
"2'g ~ ~
<J)
C. "'"
~~§
'" 2~~cUbD
»
I I
t:<J)

I-< "'~
V)ro 0;;0 C-Il> ~
{/) (j)::i..t:: <0> ~I~ :€ ;::·v ~o~

<1>C·A4
<1>C·AI I Lead sulfide ······1 4x7
I
10'·10' 500 15 1.2 0.015
<1>C-52 Bismuth sulfide •••. IIXII I 05·l 0 7 1,000 50 4 0.0\ 9
<1>C-K2 Polycrystalli ne cadmium I 3. 5X7. 2 I :<
<1>C-KI sulfide . • . • . . . . . 10' 2,50 0 300 35 0.0012 0
3.5X7.2 10' I 3,000 400 140 0.014 '"0
::!
<1>CK·MI I Single crystal cadmi um I I I I fh
sulfide . . . • . • . . . 28 I 10 12

Notes. I. In view of the non·linear relation between i<t> and the flux the table gives the value of <t> for
which the specific sensitiVity has been determined. The table gives the mean values (for a given current) of
the speci fic sensitivity at I lux.
2. The integral sensivi ty of the type <1>CK·MI photoconductive cell is 2 ampflumen at 10 lux and 60 v.
3. The current in the photoconductive cell depends on the temperature:
it =:!:.io (I +ot),
where i o is the current at O°C, it - the current at tOC, and ~_ the mean temperature coefficient of the current.

.~
-ot""

Table 121
Typical Characteristics of Barrier-layer Photoelectric Cells

Integral sensilivi ty,

p. amp/lumen Sensi·
live Iniernal E Wei·
TYre Llght·sensi tive material area, resist ,nce, ency,
typical best cm 2 ohms %

I
samples
I samples
...,
:.-
tll
K·5 Seleni um · .......... 250 500 5 I 0'-5X I O' -I t"
K·IO " · .......... 250 500 10 I 0'-5X I 0' -I tTl
[Jl
K·20 " · .......... 250 500 20 I 0'·5X 10' -I :.-
<1>3CC·Y2 Silver sulfi de . . . • . . • • . 4,000 1,000-8,000 2 I. 5X I 01-3X 10' -I z
c!)3CC·Y3 " ......... 4,000 7,000-R,000, 3 I X I 0'·2 X I A' -I t:I
'1':')CC-Y5 " 4,0 00 7,000-8,000 5 7XI02-1.4XI01 -I
(j)3CC·YIO " ". : : : : : : : : I 4, 000 7, 000·8, ADO 10 4XI0'-8xI0' Cl
Thallium sui [ide . . . . . . . i
Crystalli ne si licon (wi tb ad-
o,OOO-G,OOO 10,000 I 2 I ;>:l
:.-
I
"0
mi xlure 01 boron) ..... 15,000
,",000
1·8 1·10 11-13
u;

Notes. 1. The i nteg-ral sensitivity is gi ven lor the photocurrent in the short·ci rcuited cell.
2. The integral sensitiVity tor the silicon cell refers to an area of G.5 ern'.
3. A system of silicon photoelectric cells is called a solar b:lItery. It is believed that the efficiencY of a
'solar battery can be brought up to 22%.
00
<1\

':',..............~--- _......
 T
!

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 187

The motion of the electrons in the atom may be approxi-

mately described as motion in circular or elliptical orbits
around the nuc\pus (Fig. 80). The,e orbi ts are called stat io-
nary orbits. When an electron revolves about tlj.C nucleus in

-><---- - --- ~,
,,
~'
~
~
... ....
C HAP T E R VI ;' '" .... ,,
,.-
;'
,
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM AND ELEMENTARY
I
I
,,- ~
~ ----- -, ..... .... " \
PARTICLES I , \

I .- ;' \

,,
\ \
1 I ,..-- .... ..., \ I
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS
, I
I
I
I
I
'"
'"
f/=!
,"-,
\
\rd
\
•
:f/=J
\
,
I

,_ ....:
1. Units of Charge, Mass and Energy in Atomic physics I I I { If/=4.'
I I I
I I \
\ I I I
\
The unit of charge is the elementary charge: I
\ \
"... .... _-, ... / I
t
I
e = 1.60 X 10- 19 coul. ~
\
\ .-I I
o \
, I

-
\ /
.-
' ......... ----,,-" '"
\ (
The unit of mass is equal to 1/16 of the mass of the oxy-
gen isotope (see p. 188) with an atomic weight of 16:
!.
\
\
,, , .....
,.I
I atomic unit of mass=1.66xlO-2< g. .... .... r
The mass of the lightest atom - the hydrogen atom - is
equal to 1.008 in this scale.
... ...
... ....
..... _-----,--"...
.. .- '"
...
/'

The unit10f energy is the electron-volt (ev); it is equal to

the energy acquired by an electron in falling through a po- Fig. 80. Possible electronic orbits in hydrogen atom
tential difference of I volt. (tlie radii of the orbi ts are in the ratio of the squares
of the integers 1 :2 2 :3 2 :4 2 etc.).
1 ev = 1.6 X 10-19 joule = 1.6 x 10- 12 erg.

2. The Rutherford-Bohr Model of the Atom
The centre of th~ atom consists of a posi ti vely charged
nucleus around WhICh electrons revolve in definite orbits.
The mass of the atom is concentrated primarily in the nuc-
leus. The nucleus of the hydroi~en atom is cal1ed a proton.
The mass of the proton equa Is 1.67x 10- 24 g; that of the
eleetron-9.11xIO- 2'g(ljl,836th part of the proton mass).
o
~)
The charge of the electron is equal to the elementary charge.
The charge of the nucleus is equal to the number of the
element in the Mendeleyev periodic system. The number of
electrons in a neutral atom is equal to the charge of the
nucleus,
a stationary orbit it does not radiate. The radii of the sta-
tionary orbits are determined from the condition
h
mvrl/= 2:n: n, (6,1)
where m is the mass of the electron, v - its velocity, r l/ ~
the radius of the orbi t, h - Planck's constant, n = I, 2, 3, ....
Every stationary electron orbit (in other words, every
stationary <;tate of the atom) corresponds to a definite value
01 the energy (energy level),
The energlf {:!ue!s (V:',,) and the radii of the circular orbits
vl the hydrogc:n atom can be computed by the formulas;
 188 CH. VI. STRUCT. OF THE ATOM AND ELEMENT. PART. r FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 189

2Jf}me'
Wn = - fi2Ji2"" • Electrons in complex atoms are grouped in shell,. A shell
(6,2)
includes a certain number of eleelronic orbits. At most two
n 2 h2 electrons can move in the same orbit.
r ll = L[Jt2
me 2 • (6,3) The shell of least radius can contain at most two elcc-
trons (one orbit). This shell is called the K-shell. The next
An atom radiates or absorbs energy in the form of elec-
tromagnetic waves when an electron jumps from one statio-
nary orbit to another. The magnitude of the emitted or
absorbed quantum (portion) of energy hv is given by the
condition
hv = W 2 - Wt> (6,4)
where W, and W 2 are the energy levels of the electron in
the atom before and after the change of orbits.
According to contemporary views, the stationary orbits do
not actually represent the trajectories of electrons in the
atom. Modern physics has a somewhat different approach to
the prob lem of the struelure of the atom. However. the
concept of atomic energy levels remains valid.

3. The Atomic Nucleus and the Electron Shells

The nucleus of an atom of any element is made up of
protons and neutrons. The neutron is an electrical Iv neutral
particle whose mass is apprOXimately equal to the mass of
the proton. Nuclei of the same element may contain different
numbers of neutrons, and hence may have different masses.
Elements which differ only in the number of neutrons in the
nucleus are called isotopes. The mass number (M) of an
isotope is the whole number which is nearest to the atomic
mass of the isotope. The number of neutrons in the nucleus is
Fig. 81. Diagram of eleclron shells of
tbe atom.
shell !L-shell) can contain up to eight electrons. the follow-
ing shell (M-shell) - up to eighteen electrons. Th~ third
shell is subdivided into two subshells iVl] and M." which can
contain up to eight and ten electrons, respectively (Fig. 81).

N=M -Z, 4. Nuclear Transformations

where Z is the nuclear charge.
The proton and the neutron are collectivelv called nucle-
ons (nuclear particles); inside the nucleus these parttcles are
mutually transformed one into the other. The density of the
nuclear matter is extremely high (about 100,000,000 tons/cm').
A nucleus IS denoted by the symbol of the correspondin d
chemical element with the atomic number as a subscript and
the mass number as a superscript (for example. Alar 2'
2
13 AI ' stands for aluminium with atomic nUlmber 1313 nd
mass number 27). . a
When a nucleus s formed by bringing together a certain
number of protons and neutrons the rna,;s of the resulting
nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of the component
protons and neutrons. This dif1'erence is ca lIed the mass de-
ficit of the nucleus.
The energy reledlsed when neutrons and [Jrotons combine to
form a nucleus is called the binding enerfl:!J of the nucleus
(E). In computations one usually deals with the quantity
E;M, i.e., the blllding energy per nucleon. fhe average va-
lue of the quantity EjM for heavy nuc leI is taken equal to
8x106 ev,

.- ..... <1
 r
190 CH. VI. STRUCT. OF THE ATOM AND ELEMENT. PART.
TABLES AND GRAPHS 191

. Some heavy !1l1clei (uranium, thorium, radium) spontaneously

dlslntegrate with the formation of new nucle: and the emis- 5. Wave Properties of Matter
sion of a-particles, electrons and high-energy photons (v-rays-
see .the . e~ectromagnetic spectrum). This property is called
radlOactl vtt y.
The law of radioacti \'e decay is
i Every moving particle possesses wave properties. For
example, when an electron passes through. a me.tal film we
obtain a diffraction pattern similar to the dIffraction patterns
of X-rays and V-rays (Fig. 82).
t The wavelength of a particle is determined by the relation
-y (6,5)
. N=N o2
where No is the ori~inal number of nuclei present at time 'A=~. (6,6)
t =0, N ~ the number of nucl,:,i left at time t, T - the half mv
lite, equal to the period of time at the end of which half
of the atoills of the radioactive material will have disinteg- where m is the mass of the particle, v - its velocity, and h ~
rated. Planck's constant.

,
TABLES AND GRAPHS
t Energy Levels of the Hydrogen Atom
The energy levels are calculated by means of iormula 16.2) by sub-
stituting ior n the successive integers I, 2. 3, 4. etc. UtiliSing the
energy level diagram it is easy to calculate the irequenl'les of the
spectral Ii nes of the hydrogen
atom by means of formula [oerpv,ev
(6,4). 14
When electrons jump to
the level n= 1 the atom emi ts IJ
a series of Ii nes called the
Lyman series; the Ii nes of thi s .-/1
cj series lie in the ultraviolet
reg-ion of the spectrum. Upon II
transi tion to the level n=2
Fig. 82. Oi ffrJclioll oi 0.) X-rnys by a polycrystalli ne gold the ii nes of the Balmer series JfJ
fi 1m, uJ electrons by a polycrystalli ne gold fi 1m. iSu/mer
are emi tted (four. Ii nes of 9 !Jenes
this series lie in the visible
part of the spectrnm. the re- 8
Nuclear transformations may be ind uced arti ficla Ily by mainder-in the ultraviolet.)
bombarding elements with protons, neutrons, helium nuclei Upon transi lion to the level 7
,,=3 the lines of the Paschen
and v-rays. Such transformations are called nuclear reactions. series are emi tted Ii nirared 6
Nuclear reactions mav lead to the formation of new rad io- region). S
active isotopes, which cia !Jelt occllr naturally on the earth. The numbers near the
short arrows in each series
This phenomcnon is called artificial radioactivity.
Nuclc,ar transformatiom are utilised to relea-;e nuclear
energy by the fission (splitting) of heavy nuclei (for example,
length Ii I.
i ndi cate the o longest wave·
A) in the given
series (l A=IO-'cm).
J
23
2
U ,) or by the synthesis (fUSIOn) of light nuclei (for example.
hydrogen nuclei). The synthesis of Ii~"ht nuclei requires ex- o .L----l...L.'-- -=-n'(
tremely high temperature. (of the n,-der nf Illi I lions of deg-
Fig. 83. Energy level diag- L?mufJ
rees). Such reactions are ca! led I her fllunur.:!t;ar. ff(fe~:,
ram of hydrogen atom.
 '.~

CH. VI. STRUCT. OF THE ATOM AND ELEMENT. PARr. T TABLES AND GRAPHS 103

- oI MEtfOHEV'EV'S PERloblc t Table 122

PERIODS SERIES
,
I II
"' IV
ELEMENT
V t TABLE or ELEMENTS
H 1) - GROUPS
1- I 1.0080 I VI VII

lH) He
VIII

2 II Li
6.940
~
'. 1 Be
9.013
4
23
22
5
10,82
B
I
1
v"".
6
C
12.010 !
7
14.008
N
8 0 9 F
4-003
Ne 10
1

11 12 13 14
3 III Na l Mg 23 AI I , SI5
15
P •
1 16
1
1 19.00 20.183
8
1
22.997 2 24.32 "
21 26.98 : 28.09 I 30.975 16 S 17 CI
"
18
- I
19
l Ca
20 2 21 2 22 23
6. I
I
Ar ,
8
"
IV K
39.100 I 40.08
: Sc
44.96
: TI I: 50.95
1
V 11
•
2 8
1 n066 35.457 39.944 1,

4 , 29 30
1 2 47.90 2 1
Cr
24
I)
1
Mn
25 2
13 Fe
26
t. Co
27 1
15 NI
28 1
,
16
1 3 31 I 32 5 33
V I'• Cu 18 Zn
"• Ga I: Ge ~8 As
52.01 : 54.93
8
1 55.85 I 58.94 ! 58.69 2
1
37
63.54
II 65.38
2
2 69.72 1 72.60 1 74.91
I
6

"•1
34
Se "
1 35
Br Kr
36
"
8

VI Rb •I: Sr 38 "8 Y
39 1
1'8 Zr
40 1

:~ Nb
41 11
18
'78.96 : 79.916
, 8380
8
2

5 I85.4847 2 87.63 I 88.92 . I 91.22 I 92,91 8 42 I

43 1 44 I 45 46 0

""•
13 11
1
Mo li Tc Ru il Rh
"• 101.7 " Pd
~
1 48 3 49 I 50 5 51
18
I:
18 18
1: I [99] I
VII II
•
1 107.880
Ag
1
Cd
1I2.41
',8
1
In ::
114.76 I
~" Sn
I
Sb
95.95
6
18
52 1 53
1 : 102.91 106.7 1
54 ,.,
55 , 56 2 57 2 72
118.70
1 73
121.76
", Te :: , I Xe 18
8

VIII CS
8
18
18 Ba •
:: La •
9
:: Hf'
10
:: Ta
2
11
31
1
74
127.61
1
1
75
126.91
1 76 1 77 1 78 I
131.3 1

18 II 13 15 II
6 132.91 8
1 137.36 I 138.92 I 178.6 I 180.88 I
W 31 Re " Os "
31 Ir , Ii 31

18
I 79 • 1
18
80 3 81 I 82 5 83
2
183.92 "•2 186.31 18
• 190.2
1
18
• 193.1 !
PI
19U3
'·i·
"
8
1
n,
1
IX Ii"
18

. Ii
31
18 Au Hg + TI Ii
" i Pb BI 6 84 7 85 86 8
8
1 197.2 I 200.61 I 204.39 I 207.21 ! ",
31
Po ",
18
31
209.00 , 31 AI Rn 18
87
•
I

18
88 2
•
18
89 1
, "
1 210
'8
1 [210] 222
8
1
7 X Fr !" nRa nAc •• Ii lTh}
18
(Pa)
(223] I 226.05 : 227 8
1 lU)
'lANTHA
08 i 59 l 60 61 2 62 l 64 ; '
i~ Nd
• 2
• 63 tilDES
,
Ce :: Pr ~; Sm
, ii :i 65 1 66 1 67 1 68 1 69 1 70 71 1

• 140.92 • 144.27 :i•• Vb 31"• Lu "

:: Eu Gd 8 8 8 8 9

• 156.9 • i: Ho
140.13

90
1

1 91 ,
1

1 92 ,
1 93 1
1 150,43

94 1
: 152,0

95
1

1
.. ACTI
96
1

,
1
Te
159.2
,
:: Dy
2 162.46 • 164.94 , 16/.2
1
:: Er
1
:3
• 169.4
1
Tu
, 173-04 174.99 • 8
1
31

"
18
"~~ U 11
8
13
8
11 15
8
15
N 1 DES
,
2 ATOMIC
Th Ii Pa Ii Np :~ Pu 31
18 Am 11 Cm 31 (l7
11
98 1
8 99 100 1 101 I
102 I NUMBER
232.12 I 231 ~ 238-07 : [237) ~ [242J •
1 243 : (243] "
1
8
Bk Ii Cf "iij En Fm
I
IMd
I
t No
I
t
SYMBOL
I AT 0M I C ......=:.:-~"--'-'
[245) ! [246]
1 253 255 I 256 • I
253' WflGHT
ElECTRON
NUMBERS OF STABLEST ISOTOPES SHEl.\,.--S..
tal ns the symbol of an element; above i t ~the atomic number. below
most Widespread isotopes). The columns oHligures gIve the number
J94 CH. VI. STRUCT. OF THE ATOM AND ELEMENT. PART.

Table 123
T
, TABLES AND GRAPHS

Table 124
195

Atomic Weight, Relative Abundance and Activity of Sonie

Relative Abundance and Activity of Isotopes of ___~ ~_L_i-"g~h~t_lsDtopes. --, _
Some Metals ~

~ ~Il
(J :::

Ele-
ment
Atomic
weight ~.g* Half
Ii Ie
Ty!'e
ot

~~E;. activity
:0 ~
EJe- Number Number Relative "'0 c'
ment of of abundance. Half Type of
protons neutrons life activity
% I 0
H 1.00~t 99.98 stahle
D 1 1 2.01H 0.02
T I 3.0170 2 12.5years r...-
Fe 26 26 He 2 1 3.0t70 I. 3 -, stable v
- 7.8 hr 0+ 2 4.0039 ~lOO
27
28
- 8.9 min I'
~+
3 5.0 t:17 10"~~o sec a n
6.04 stable 4 Ii. 0209 . 8 sec
29 - C 6 4 to. 0.8 sec , 1
4 years 5 11.01
30 21 min
91. 57 stable Ii 12.0039 9 ~. ()

i
31
32
2. II
0.28
. 7
R
13.007 Ii
H.OOn
1.1
stobIe
10'-t years
" o 8 7 loS. ()n 7,~ l~ec
Co I 27
33 - 47 days
- B 1 G. ()()(I() D~.76 . stable
28 - 18. I hr 7. ~ 9 17.0045 0.04
:!9 - 7, ~+ 10 18.0048 0.20
8 days II 31 "sec
30 - 270 7. ~+ 13 13 25.99-14
" Al 7 sec
.31 - 72 7. ~+ 14 26.9~J07 tOo stable
32 100 " ~+ 1S 27.990~ 2.;) min - 1
s(able 7· 16 28.9892 (i.7
-
eu 29
33
34 -
5.3 years
1.75 hr 7, ~
-
- /Vote. ~ - - electron.
nucleus. n -neutron.
? + - posi tron. "( - gamma-rays. cr. ~ helium
29 - 7.9 min ij
~+ Table 125
31 - 8.1 sec I'
8+ Some Artificially Produced Elements
32 - 3.4 hr
33 - ij+ Atomici Name of
l\1ass numbers
9.92 min .,+ number element
34 09.48 stable .'
3'"
3G
-
30.52
12.8 l1r
stable 7. (4- :3 - 61
85
87
Promethium (Pm)
Astatine (At)
145.1
21Hi.
H7,148.1'19,1;;0.IGI
209,~IU.2tl
30 vears
~.3·hr
Francium (Ff) 212. 221, 222, 223 2 I min
37 - 5 min ~- 93 Neptunium (Np) 231,232, 234,235,236, 2.15XIO'
237.238, Years
94 Plutoni urn (PU) 2:32,23-1. 2:Jli. 237, 239,240, 5'XIO'years
241 24 ') 'l.l ')
Note. See note to the follOWing table. 95 Americium (Am) 2:J~:2:19~~-1(J·.241.242.243,244 10' years
96 Curium (em) 2:l8,240,241.242.243.2H,2~5 GOO years
97 Berkelium (Uk) 243. 245. 24ii, 247 5 days
98 Californium IU) 244, 241i. 248 2,IOOyears
99 Einsteinium (En) 2[)3
100 Fermium (Pm) 255
101 Mendelevium (Mv) 2,)(;
102 Nohelium (No) 2G3
jVotf? Tbe mass numher of thE' i .c:olo;~c \Vi tll the grC';:ltest half life
is given in boldface type.
 Inti CII. VI. STI'<UCT. OF T1-IE ATOM AND ELEMENT. PART.
TABLES AND GRAPHS 197
Tahle 126
Elementary and Non-Elementary Particles Table 127
Particles which, according to present-day notions, are not Energies of Some Particles
cornpcsed of lJlore fundamental particles are called elementary. Particle Energy. Mev
Mass
Maxi mum energy of i3 - (Th C -> Th C') 2.25
Name Symbol Average • " ij- (Th C" -> Pb) I. 79
lifetime, Energy of cr-parti cle (Th C' -> Pb) 8.95
sec • • a-particle (Th C' -> Th C") G.20
• photon of "(-radiation . 3.20
" cosmic ray mesons (secondary radiation) 10-- 3 -10'
Particles produced in accelerators
Elementary
particles Protons . . GO 0-700
Photon j', h'l 0 0 0 stable Neutrons . 500-G50
Kcutri no v 0 <0.001 1t+~mesons
0 I GO-360
tt- -mesons
Anti neutri no v 0 <0.001 0 300-400
p.+-mesons
Electron
Posi tron
P-,
e+,
;+ '5.4 10- 3 I -I -mesons . . . . "
IJ.- '" .
90
15. 0- 3 J +1 stable in 25
Photon of 7-radiation (i 11 dc','ay of ;-:o-lllc:;ons) la-GOO
vacuum • r-radi'ation (in decay of deuterolls)
L-mesons 11.+ n. 1 155 210 +1 2.22XIO-' • • r-radiation (in decay of cr-particles)
up to 30Q
IJ-- O. I 155 210 -I 2.22XIO-' 500-GOO
~+ 0.151 275
.
_0
O.IDI 275
+1
-I
2.53XIO-·
2.53XIO-· Notes. J. The nuclear reactions in which particles of the given
O. 1GD 300 0 IXIO-'·;- energy are produced are gi ven in parentheses.
K+ -5XIO->5
K-mesons 9GG +1 1.27XIo-a 2. The i ndi cated energi es of particles produced in accelerators
K- 9GG -I l.27XIO-' were obtained in the USSR in the G-meter proton synchrotron (as of
1'UclCOllS:
!(~, 1{2
0
965 0 1.3XIO-'o July 1957). More recently protons of energy 10' Mev were produced
pro Ion 1.007GO In the high-energy proton synchrotron in Dubna. The maximum par..
P. II'I 1,83G +1 stahle
neutron n, tl
1
u
1.00899 J,839 0 7XIO'
I ticle energy obtained to date is about 3X10' Mev (proton synch-
rotron in Geneva).
Antiproton p 1,836 -I stable in
vacuum
Anti neutron n 1,839 0
Hyperons 1\0 2,181.5 0 3.7XIO-IO
Table 128
1:+
,,- 2,327 +1 3.4XIO-u Energy of a Quantllm of Radiation of Different Types
Non-elementary 2,327 -I 3.4XIO-u
particles
Deuteron d, 1f2
2.014 Wavelength Energy, ev \Vavclength Energy, ev
1 +1 stable
Triton t, 1'3
'I 3.016 +1 17.G9X
X3,GOO
Alpha-particle d, IJc~ 4.003 +2 stable
I ~
1 mm
300 I"
I I"
1.22XIO-3
4. I Xl 0- 3
1 22
I,OOO/,..
100 0 A
J.22XIO
J.22XIO'
100A
Notes. I. Mesons and hyperons are produced in the collisions o[
high-energy particles (for example. protons and cr-particles in the
8,OOOA o
7,000 oA
I: 52
1.75
I A 0
J. 22;<1 0'
J.22XIO'
O. I A o 1.22;<10 5
<osmic radiation) These particles disintegrate rapidly to form new G,200 A o 1.% 0.01 Ao I. 22)<i 0'
particles (electrons, posi trons,. photops, nucleo,:,s, etc.) 5. oon 0 A 2.44 0.001 Ao l. 22><10 7
2. The antIproton and antlneutnno were discovered recently by 4, 000 A o 3 OG 0.0001 A 1.22XI0 8
m~ans OJ a high·energy particle accelerator. 3,000 A 4. 10
 .,...
198 CH. VI. STRUCT. OF THE ATOM AND ELEMENT. PAHT.

Binding Energy I 'TABLES AND GRAPHS

Synthesis of Helium from Hydrogen

199

On the abscissa axis (Fig'. 84) arc plotted the mass numbers, on
the ordinate axis - the binding' energy ElM per nucleon in electron ~ Tbe production of helium nuclei by the synthesis (fusion) of hyd.
rogen nuclei is of immellse thc(lrctical <Ind practical significance.

I
volts. Knelear encrg'V can be released either by the fission of heavy si nce in 1hi s process a large a lllOll nt of energy is released.
The followi ng arc some of the })ussi ble reactions. The energy re..
leased is expressed in Mev.
~ !le/illm(7!lIfV),_ _-_~
I
8 8.8111er
7
{/;'i11l1i/1Ii(:;:J11Ievj 1
8
5
Reactions of Nuclear Synthesis

J Reactions of nuclear synthesis can take place ci ther at hig'h tem-

peratures (millions of degrees) or at high field intensities (millions
C of voltS). The follOWing are some examples of such reactions.
!Jeli/edu/ll (1. IJ.9mfvJ
ll-_ _-I-,--_ _........ - _ _+ - _ ~ . . _ . . _ .

50 {OO 150 2CO 250 11

Fig. 84. Curve of binding energy.

Iwclei or by the synthesis of light nuclei. In both cases new nuclei

are produced with a binding energy ElM greater than that of the
original nuclei.
~ /Jnits of Radioactivity and Radiation

Examples of Nuclear Reactions

Nuclear reactions are accompanied by the rclci1sc or absorption of

I The unit of radioactivity is the curie. I curie corresponds to the
Intensitv of radiation of radon in a state of radioactive equilibrium
with I gram of radium. The curie is also a measure of the quantity
of a radioactive substance. A curie is a quantity of any radioactive
substance which decays at the rate of 3.7XiO'o atoms per second.

[
energy.
The roentgen is the unit of X· and ,-radiation.
In the re:lclions g'iven below the nnmbers on the left·hand side of A roent[!.en is a: quantity of radiation which produces in I em:' of
the equations indic;:te the energ'V absorbed, on tbe right·hand side dry air at O°C and 760 nltn Hg a number of ions carrying a total of
of the equations - the energy released. in Mev. one electrostatic unit of charge of each kind (2XI 0" pairs of ions).

Notes. 1. The arrows in N]ll:l/ioll G indicate th.1t 1I1C reaction ('on~

tinues spontnnco~lsly.
2. The fis:sioil of one uranium 11llc]ell~_; ]c;lds to the release oi about
200 Mev ?f encr.l':Y· The energy released by I gram of uranium equals
22X I OJ kiiowatt·bours.
 a:;:w..
20:
APPENDICES
APPENDICES 13
The deviation L'.Ai= I Amean - Ai I is called the absolu!e
en'or of a single measurement. The quantity
L.l
-+
'A -_ ---~-------~---
L'.A I L'./1 2 + ... +
!\/l" •
:::
n
I. I;ome Frequently Encountered Numbers is called the mean absolute error of the measurement. Usuall'Y
n=3.1~1593 Vn=1.77245 1°=0.017453 radia it is considered that
4n=12.L16637 e=2.718282 1'=0.000291 n Arrean - L'.A < A < Amean L'.A. +
2 I" 0 "
n =0.63662 V2= 1.41421 = .0000048 The ratio AL'.A is called th·c mean relative error and is
mean
n 2 = 9.86960 13 = 1.73205 usually expressed in per cent.
The result sought by the experimenter is rarely found by
measuring only one quantity. It is generally necessary to
II. Formulas for Approximate Calculations measme several quantities and to calculate the desired
result from a formula. The following table gives expres-
I - 0.031 < x < 0.031 sions for finding the absolute ane! relative errors of cal-
l+x=l-x - 0.085 < x < 0.093 culations carried out by some frequently encountered for-
--- I - 0.052 < x < 0.052
YI+x=I+-x
2 - 0.077 < x < 0.077
mulas.

I I - 0.045 < x < ' .045 Formula Absolut~ error

Relative erro:
Vl+x=I-Z-X
sinx=x
e"'=I+x A+B
IlA+IlB l ~\A+B
IlA+t>B
\A-BI
The inequalities indicate tho
whIch the error of the
r1
t
t ran,e of values of x for
A~13
t>A 1113
formulas does not exceedcgn l?,L1 a IOns by the approXimate A13
IAIlB+B1AI iA\+iB1
. l 10' AA 113
I B IlA -f-A1B I
A
13'
m+1BT
73 AA
III. Elements of the Theor\l of Errors
n\ A
n_ 1
nm
perfor~edJ
An \ AA
All measurements can be l-n
d egree of precision. only up to a certain
'd - -
Precision is determined b' tl1 I .. n1 j A
n
1..1£1
the measurement. In order fo e : I.. ~st slgnIfkant Ilgure of
are always possible the .. c " e chance errors which
several times and 'th measur.ement should be repeated Example. To determine the density of a solid one measures
results taken. e mean arIthmetic value of all the its volume and its mass. Assume that HIe volume has been
measured with an accuracy of 1.5 % , and the mass with an
If a quantity A has been measured n t' accuracy of 1"/0' Then the relative error of the determined
As, ... , An are the results of th . d' . lmes and A" A 2 ,
then the mean arithmetic value eislO IVldual measurements, value of the density is 2.5)/0' Hence, we may write:

A = At + A +... + An
2 1 (!!!-)
V mean
(1 _ 0.025) < }11_
V
< (!!!-)
V mean
(I + 0.025).
mean
fl
14 3aK.46
 202 APPENDICES
, 4._._.5 c;::::e.,

APPENDICES 203

mega (M)
IV. Prefixes to the Basic Units of Measure I Thermal Conductivity
10" milli (m) 10- 3
kilo (k) 10 3 micro (~) 10-' 1 kilocal/m hour degree = 2.778 X 10- 3 caljcm sec degree =
deci (d) 10-' nano (n) 10-· = 1.162X 10- 2 watt/em degree.
centi (c) . 10- 2 pico (p) . IO- IZ Work and energy
The figures in the right-hand column indicate the watt-hour = 3,600 watt-sec.
number of multiples 2nd sub-multiples of the basic unit joule = 1 watt-sec = 107 ergs . 0.239 cal (calorie),
which are formed by attaching the prefJxes. For example, kg m (kilogram meter) = 981 Joules.
1 Mc/s = 10' cis; 1 mm = 10-' m. j'ilocal (kilocalorie) = 1.16 watt-hours,
~v (electron volt) = 1.6019 X 10- 12 erg=1.6019XlO- 1O
V. Uoits of Measure of Some Physical Quantities joule.
Mass Power
ton = 10 centners = 1,000 kilograms. watt = 10 7 erg/sec.
carat = 2 X 10-' ki logram kilowatt = 102 kg mlsec = 1.36 hp (horsepower).
pood = 16.38050 kilograms.
Capacitance
Length
1 micron = 10- 0 m. 1 em = 1.11 picofarad = 1.11 X 10 - '2 farad.
1 yard = 0.91440 m.
1 A(Angstrorn unit)=IO-8 cm .
1 X=--= 10- 11 cm. I mile (English) = 1,609 m. VI. Universal Physical Constants
1 inch =--= 25.40 rnm. I mile (nautical) = 1,852 m.
I light year = 9463XI012 km. Gravitational constant y . . 6.67x 10- 8 g-I cm 3 sec-2
1 foot = 0.30480 m. 6.67x 10- 11 kg- I m' sec- 2
Volume of one grammolecular
weight of an ideal gas under
Time standard conditions Vu. • • 22.4207 Ii ters
year=31,.5,56,925.975 sec. Universai gas constant'R 8.31696 joule degree- I mole-I
day=24 hours = 1,440 min =86,400 sec. Faraday's number F . . 96.521 couljg-equiv
hour = 60 min = 3,600 sec. Avogadro's number N . 6.02497 x 10 23 mole - I
Boltzmann's constant k 1.38041 X 10-'6 erg degree- 1
Pressure Mass of hydrogen atom m H 1.67339 X 10- 24 g
1 atmosphere (technical) = 1 kg/cm 2= 735.66 mm Hg. Mass of proton m" 1.67239 X 10- 2• g
1 mm Hg = 0.001316 atm = 1,33~ dynes/cm 2= 1333 nt/m!. Mass of electron me . . . . 9.1083 X 10- 28 g
1 atmosphere 6 (standard) = 760 mm Hg = 1.033 kg/cm 2 = Charge of electron e . . . . 4.80274 X 10- 10 CGSE
= 1.013 X 10 dynes/cm 2= 1.013 X 10' nt/m 2. 1.60202 X 10- 20 CGSM
Velocity of light in vacuum Co 2.99793x 10'" cm sec-I
Temperatwe Planck's constant h . . . . 6.62517XIO-27 erg sec
Rydberg's constant for hyd-
Number of degrees centigrade (DC) =--= 5/4 0 R = 5/9 CF _ 32) = rogen R H • . • . • . . • 109,677,576 cm- 1
=(OK - 273).
Here oR denotes the number of degrees on the Reaumur Rydberg's constant for deute-
scale, of - the number of degrees Fahrenheit, oK _ the rium R o 109,707.419 cm- 1
number of degrees Kelvin. Rydberg's conshnt for he-
lium R He 109,722.267 cm- 1

11
 ......

MKSA System of Units '"...

o

The following table gives the names, designations and dimensions of the most frequently
used units of the MKSA system.
The last two columns give the conversion factors for the CGSE and CGSM systems.
For mechanical units the CGSE and CGSM systems coincide fully; the fundamental units
of these systems are: the centimeter, gram (mass) and second.
The two systems differ for electrical quantities. This is due to the circumstance that the
fourth fundamental unit in the CGSE system is the permittivity of vacuum (8 0 = 1), and in
the CGSM system - the permeability of vacuum (fto= 1).
Conversion factors rela ting :0-
MKSA units to '"0
'"0
Quantity Unit Dimensions m
CGSE CGSM Z
o
n
m
J. Fundamenta: units (.IJ

Length m lO' em 10' cm

l
· \ meter, m kg 10' g 10' g
Mass . · tilogram, kg
Time. · second. sec sec I sec 1 sec
Current • ampere, amp 1amp 3 X 10 0 / 10- 1

2. Mechanical units
Velocity •. meter per second, mlsec \ mlsec 10' cm'sec' 10 2 em/sec
Acceleration meter per second per mlsec' 102 em/sec 2 10' cm'sec'
second. mj sec'
Energy and work joule or watt per second, kg m'jsec'=joule 10' ergs 10' ergs
joule
Force. newton, nt kg m/sec 2 =joulelm 1105 dynes 10' dynes
Power watt, W kg m'jsec 3 ;;o:joulejsec 10' 10'

"""*'
, . . ... Ji. . . . ~: .....'
----- ------~---- ~-... ""!!!II

.1. Electrical units

Charge . . . . . • •. coulomb, coul amp sec=coul 13 X 10' 10 1
Potential, e.m.!. . . . volt, v kg m'/amp sec'=v 1/300 lOs
Electric field inten- 1 -
sity . . . . vol/ per meter, vim kg mJamp sec 3 =vjm 1/3 X 10-' 10'
Capaci tance . . . . farad, fd amp'/sec'/kg m'=
=amp'/sec'/v=
=sec!ohm 9 X 10 11 cm 10-0
Resist ance ohm,- ohm kg m'Jamp' sec3 = 1 '9 X 10 - 11 10'
=::: v/amp
Resistivity ohm meter, ohm m kg m 3/amp' sec 3 = li9XIO-ll 10"
=ohm m
Permittivity farad per meter, fd!m amp' sec'ikg m 3 =fd'm 9 X 10' 10- 11
:0-
4. Magnetic units 'tl
'tl
Magnetic !lux . . . weber, \Vb kg m"amp sec' 1300 lOS maxwells trl
Magnetic induction weber per square meter. kg'amp sec' L3XI0-' 10< gauss Z
wb/m' SZ
Magnet isalion ampere per meter, amp/m 3 X 10' 10- 3 gauss ()
amp/m' 1 m
(J)
Magnetic field inten- ampere per meter, amp/m 3 X 10' 10- 3 oersted
sity . _ . . amp/m
Inductance . henry, henry kg m 'amp'2 sec
2 2 = 1/9 X 10- 11 10-' em
= ohm sec
Permeability henry per meter, henry/tn 1/9 X 10'3 10'
henry/m

5. Optical units
Radiant flux . [ lumen. lumen candela steradian
Luminance. . candela per square candela/m::
Jliuminance
meter, candelajm 2
. lux, lux Ilumen-lrn:!
Note. The conversion factors given In the table tefer to the unrationaliseJ systems. o""
00

.JJ
f
SUBJECT INDEX
Absorptive power (or absor-
ptivity) of a body 169
Acceleration of free fall
(tabulated data) 32
_ - uniform rotation, to-
tal 19
_ - uniformly accelerat-
ed rotation 16
___ - angular 18
___ - centri-
petal 19
- , tangential
18
Allowed current-carrying
capacity of insulated
wires 119
_ energy levels 115
Alloys of high ohmic resist-
ance 119
Ampere 107, 133
Ampere-turns 136
Amplitude of wave 80
Angle, aperture 164
of incidence 159
- reflection 159
_ - , critical 175
- refraction 159
_ total reflection 159
_, polarisation 166
Artificially produced ele-
ments 195
Atomic unit of mass 186
Band, conduction 115
_, valence 115
Barriel-Iayer effect 168
Black body 168
Breakdown 114
Breaking stress (or ultimatE::
stress) 41, 42
Bulk elasticity 45
Caloric 52
Cal ori metrv 52
Candela 158
Candle, international 158
Capacitance 98
Ca paci tor 98
- , cylindrical 98
_, parallel plate 98
-, spherical 98
Centimeter (unit of capaci-
tance) 98
Centre of gravity 36, 39
Change of vol ume upon mel t-
ing 62
Charge, elementary 95, 186
-, negative 94
- , positive 94
Circuit, oscillating 151
Coefficient of friction 27, 34
internal friction 47
light, reflection 159
linear expansion 55,
68
_ _ pressure change at
constant volume 57, 71
_ - resistivity, tempera-
ture 108
sound, absorption 93
- waves, reflectioll
93
r 208 SUBJECT INDEX
surface tension 56
- - volume expansion 55,
57, 67
Coerci ve force 141
Compressibility, isother-
mal 81
- of matter 41, 44
Conduction 56
- of a steady flow of liquid
46
Conductivity 108
-, electronic 146
, hole 116
-, induced 113
- , intrinsic 113
-, thermal 56, 70, 71
c.onstant of gravitation 27
- , Planck's 18
-, restoring force 76
Constants, emission 128
-, optical 160, 176
-, universal physical 203
Convection 55
Coulomb 94
Current, alternating 147
-, direct !06
-, induced !37
- of photoelectric cell,
dark 168
- , pulsating direct 147
- , saturation 114
Currents, vortical fie! d of
134
- , eddy 139
Curve, magnetisation 140
of brightness sensi-
tivity 157
Deficit of nucleus, mass 189
Deformation 40
- by tension (by cOIJ;pres-
sion) 40
-, elastic 40
Density 24
- . critical 54
SUBJECT INDEX 209
- , current 107
Emissive power (or emissi- First law, Newton's 22
- , energy 99 vity) of a body 169 Fluid, ideal 46
- of liquid and vapour,
Energy of elastic deforma- Flux, luminous 157
equilibrium 65, 66 tion, potential 42 - of radiation 157
- - substance 24, 29-32
- level 187 Focal length of the lens 160
- - various substances 32 - levels of the hydrogen Force 22
Depth of penetration of high
atom 187, 191 . centripetal 26
frequency currents 151 - of motion (kinetic ener· - , Lorentz' 133
Diamagnetics 140
gy) 24 - , magnetic 131
Diameters of molecules 72 -- - nucleous, binding 189 - of a magnetic field, line
Dielectric constant 103
- - position (potential of 134
- of medi um 94 energy) 24 - - friction 27
Difference, potential 97
- - system 24 Formula of thin lens 160
Diffraction 163 Epoch angle 76 - , Stokes' 47
- grating 163
Equation of adiabat 58 - , Thomson's 152
Diopter 162 - , Bernoulli's 47
Frequency, cyclic 76
Dipole, electric 100 - , C!apeyron-Mendeleyev's Friction, dry 27
-, moment of electric 100
57 - , rolling '27
Dispersion of the index of - , Einstein's 167 - , sliding 27
refraction 165
- of sine waves 80
- - light velocity 165 Equilibrium, dynamic 54 Gap, forbidden 115
- - velocity 80
- , neutral 36 Gas laws 57
Domain 141 - on an inclined plane 36
Dynamics 22 Gauss 134
- , stable 36 Grating interval 163
- of fluids and gases 45 , unstable 36
- - rotation 25
Equipotential surface 97 Half life 190
Error of measurement, abso- Heat 51
Effective val ue of al terna- lute 201
ting current 148 - of fusion 53, 61
- - - , mean absolute 201 - - vaporisation 53, 65
Elastic I·imit 41 - - - , relative 201
Electric circuit 107 Heats of combustion of fuels
- field 94 73
Factor, power 19 Henry 138
- -, intensity of 95 Fall of bodies, free 17
Electrochemical cell 113 Humidity, absolute 60
Farad 96 - , maximum 60
- equivalent 112, 123 Ferroelectric crystals 104
Electrolysis 112 - , relative 60, 74
Ferroelectrics (seignette- Hysteresis 140
Electrol ytes III electrics) 100
Electromagnetic waves 153 Ferromagnetics 140
El ectrol11agnetism 131 Illuminance 158, 173
Field, direction of magne- Impedance 148
Electromotive force of elec- tic 132
trochemical cells 124 I m pulse 2:3
- intensity, magnetic 132, Index of refraction 177, 178
--- - - a source 107 134
Electron-volt 113, 186 - -- - , absolute 159
- , magnetic 132 - - - , relative 159
Electrostatic field 95
- of the earth, wagnetic 1ndudioll, electromagnetic
Emission constants 114 141 137

IiIWiii-_
iiin IIIIIiI .....iiiiiiiii;;;;;;;;;;;;;;:===---- J5l


210 SUBJECT INDEX
-, magnetic 132
Inertia 22, 23
Infrasonic vibrations 79
Instrument, the least sepa-
ration for resolution of
optical 164
-, ootical 160
Insulating materials 102
Intensity, luminous 157
- of radiation 157
-, sound 83, 92
Interaction of charges 94
Interference 162
Ionisation of gases 113
- potential 113, 127
Ions 112
Isotopes 188, 194, 195
Joule 110
Kilocalorie 52
Kinematics 15
Kinetic theory of gases 58
Law, Biot-Savart's 135
, Boyle's 157
_, Brewster's 166
-, Charles' 57
_, Gay-Lussac's (the equa-
tion of an isobaric pro-
cess) 57
, Hooke's 40
- , Kirchhoff's, 169
-, Lenz' 137
-, Ohm's 108
_ of Kirchhoff and Bunsen
171
_ - universal gravitation
27
_, Stefan-Boltzmann's 169
Laws of the external photoe-
lectric effect 167
_, Faraday's 112
-, Kirchhofi's 110
Lever 36
11'_ _.-...
1"!
SUBJECT INDEX 211
Light, natural 165 Moment of force (or torque) - , electric lSI
- , free 78
- sources (tabulated data) 25
182 - - inertia 26 - , initial amplitude of
Line, Fraunhofer 171, 176, Moments of inertia of homo- damped 78
177 geneous bodies 33 - , instantaneous value of
- of force 96 Momentum 23 the amplitude of damped
78
Loop, hysteresis 140, 146 Motion, accelerated 17
- , amplitude of harmonic - , mechanical 75
Loudness of sound 79, 80
Lumen 156 75 -, periodic 75
- , phase difference of 76
Luminance 158 curvilinear 16
Oxide cathodes 114
- of illuminated surfaces , decelerated 17
-, harmonic 75
172
- - light sources 172 -, mechanical IS Para magnetics 140
-, non-uniform 16 Parameters, critical 66
Lux 158
- of bodies in the earth's Particles, elementary and
gravitational field 19 non-elementary 196
Magnetic equator 141
flux 136 - body, rotational 17 , energy of elementary
- ideal fluid 46 and non-elementary 197
- induction, residual 140
- materials 139 - - point, circular 17 Pendulum 77
- pole 141 - - viscouse fluid 47 -, mathematical 77
- saturation 141 phase of harmonic 75 -, physical 77
- susceptibility 139 rectilinear 16 - , torsional 77
- -, specific 145 rotational 17 Perfect absorber 168
Magnetisation vector 139 uniform 16 Period of natural oscilla-
Magnification of magnify- uniformly accelerated 16 tions lSI
, vibrational or oscilla- Permeability 144
ing glass 160
- -- microscope 162 tory 75 - , initial 141
- of medi um 132
- - telescope 162
Neutron 188 Phase of wave 80
Mass number 188
- of body 23 Nucleon 188 Phat 158
Number, Avogadro's 57 Photoconductive cell 168,
Maxwell 137
Mean free path 60 - , Faraday's 112 184
Photoelectric cell 168, 183,
Mechanics IS Oersted 134 185
Meter 15 Ohm 108 - effect 167
Mobility of electrons 126 - -, external 167
- - ions 112, 126, 127 Optics 157
- , geometrical 159 - - , internal 167
Model of atom, Rutherford- Orbit, stationary 187 Photometry 157
Bohr 186 Oscillation, period of 75 Photon 166
Moduli of elasticity (table) Oscillations, angular fre- Piezoelectric constant 101,
43 quency of dam ped 78 106
Modulus of volume elasti- , forced 79 - effect 101
city (or bulk modulus) 42 -, damped 78 Pitch of screw 38
- , shear 41 , damping constant of sound 79
-, Young's 40 damped 78 Plane of polarisation 166
Molecular physics 51
_
 SUBJECT INDEX 21S
212 SUBJECT INDEX

_, inductive 148 - , relative (shearing strain) - - elements, periodic

l?oint, boiling 53, 61 41 192-193
- maS5 ~5
Reaction, thermonuclear 190
_, nuclear 190, 198, 199 Shell, electron 189 Systems of units, CGSE
-, melting 52 Skin effect (or surface effect) CGSM and MKSA 133:
_, yield 41 Reflection, diffuse 160, 180
- of light 173, 174 149 204-205
poise 47 Sound 79
Polarisation 100 - , total 159
Relative brightness sensiti- - pressure 83, 92 Temperature of bod v 51
- of light 165 Source, current (electric ge- - coefficient of metals 117
P.ower 24 vity 171
Resistance (ohmic) 148 nerator) 107 - , cri tical 54
_, optical 162 Sources of waves, coherent - , Curie (Curie point) 140
Votential, absolute normal - of medium 47
Resistivity of electrolytes 162 145 '
113, 123 Spark gap 115, 131 Theorem, Torricelli's 47
_, electrochemical 113 120
_ - metals 117 Specific gravity 24 Theory of elasticity 40
_ gradient 98 - heat 61, 63, 64 Thermal electromotive force
Precision 200 Resonance 79
- , electric 52 at constant pressure 116, 121, 122, 131
Pressure 45 52 - expansion of solids and
-, critical 5'1 - , series 149
Restoring force 76 - - - - volume 52 liquids 54
_, partial 59 - - , mean (or average) The,"mionic emission 114
_, radiation 166 Roentgen 199
Rotation of the plane of 52, 62 Thermoelectricity 116
Principle, Archimedes' 46 - - , true 52, 62 Tbird law, Newton's 23
_, Pascal's 45 polarisation 166, 180
- , uniform 17 Spectral emissivity 169 Threshold of audibility 83
Properties of ferrites, prin- s.pectrum 169 - - feeling 83 •
cipal 144 _, uniformly accelerated 18
- ,absorption 171 - , photoelectric 167, 182
_ _ light, quantum (cor o
"
, continuous 170 Torque (or moment of force)
puscular) 167 Scale, centigrade (Celsius)
51 - , electromagnetic IE3 25
_ _ _ , wave 162
_, Fahrenheit 51 - , emission 171, 181 Torsional rigidity 78
_ _ materials, magnetic - , line 170 Trajectory 16
142, 143 - , Reaumur 51
Screw 38 - of mechanical vibrations Transfer of heat 55
_ _ saturated water va o

88, 89 Types of spectra 169

pour 67 Second 15
Second law, Newton's 23,
_ _ semiconductors 129
Pulley block 38 25
Self-inductance 138
-, fixed 37
_, movable 37 Self-induction 137
Semiconductors 115
Sensitivity of the eye, re-
Quantum 188
_, energy of 197 lative brightness 157
_ _ photoconductive cell,
_, radiation 166
s peci fie 168
_ _ photoelectric cell,
!Radiation, thermal 168
Radioactivity 190 integral 168
Series, the Balmer 191
_, artificial 190
Ratio of photoconductive - , - Lyman 191
_, - Paschen 191
cell 168
_, Poisson's 41, 43 Shear 41
- , absolute 41
Reactance, capacitive 148
- - radiation 169
-, sound frequency 87
Standard atmosphere 60, 72
Statics of liquids and gases
45
- - solid bodies 35
Stilb 156
Strain, longitudinal 40
- , transverse 41
Stress, allowed 45
- of deformation 40
Superconductivity 109
Superconductors, transition
temperature of 118
Surface tension 68, 69
System of bodies, closed 23
Ul timate stress (or breaking
stress) 41, 42
UI trasonic vibrations 79
Units of acceleration 17
- - measure of physica'
quantities 202, 203
- - velocity 16
Vapour, saturated 54
Velocity, average angular IS
- , esca pc 20, 22, 72
, instantaneous angular
18
- of electromagnetic waves
153
 214 SUBJECT INDEX

molecules, average 59 intensity of 83

- , the most probable linearly polarised 166
59 longitudinal 81
- , root mean square plane 80
58 sine 80
non-uniform motion, spherical 80
average 16 , transverse 81
- - rotational motion, Wavelength 80
linear 18 - of particle 191
- seismic waves 86 Wavelengths of ultraviolet
- - sound 84, 85, 86 region of spectrum 174
- - uniform motion 16 - - visible region of spe-
- - - rotation, angular ctrum 174
17 Weber 134, 137
- - vibration 80 Weight of body 36
- - waves 80, 90 Windlass 37
Viscosity 47, 48-50 Work 24
Volt 97 - function 114
- of current-carrying wire
Wave 79 in magnetic fielcj., 136
- . cylindrical 80