Earthquake and types

Earthquake - tremors and vibrations of the earth's surface. According to modern views, earthquakes
reflect the process of the geological transformation of the planet. Earthquakes are believed to be caused
by global geological and tectonic forces, but their nature is currently not entirely clear. The appearance
of these forces is associated with temperature fluctuations in the bowels of the Earth. Most earthquakes
occur at the edges of tectonic plates.

Volcanic

Volcanic earthquakes are a type of earthquake in which tremors are caused by high stresses in the
bowels of a volcano. The reason for such earthquakes is lava, volcanic gas that presses from below on
the surface of the Earth. Earthquakes of this type are weak, but last for a long time, many times - weeks
and months. However, this type of earthquake does not pose a danger to people. In addition, volcanic
earthquakes are usually the forerunners of a volcanic eruption, which threatens with more serious
consequences.

Tectonic

Tectonic earthquakes occur when mountain plates are displaced or as a result of collisions between
oceanic and continental platforms. During such collisions, mountains or depressions are formed and the
surface oscillates.

Earthquakes can be caused by human activities. So, for example, in areas of flooding during the
construction of large reservoirs, tectonic activity intensifies - the frequency of earthquakes and their
magnitude increase.

Collapse

Earthquakes can also be triggered by rockfalls and large landslides. Such earthquakes are called collapse,
they have a local character and a small force.

Associated with the formation of underground voids that occur under the influence of groundwater or
underground rivers.

Explosion

An earthquake can also be caused artificially: for example, by the explosion of a large amount of
explosives or by an underground nuclear explosion (tectonic weapons). Such earthquakes depend on
the amount of explosive material. For example, when the USSR tested a thermonuclear bomb on
October 30, 1961, an earthquake of such magnitude occurred that a seismic wave in the earth's crust,
generated by the shock wave of the explosion, circled the globe three times
Friction

Before an earthquake, static friction helps hold the two sides of a fault immobile and pressed against
each other. During the passage of an earthquake rupture, that friction becomes dynamic as the two
sides of the fault grind past one another. Dynamic friction evolves throughout an earthquake, affecting
how much and how fast the ground will shake and thus, most importantly, the destructiveness of the
earthquake. "Friction plays a key role in how ruptures unzip faults in the earth's crust," says Vito Rubino,
research scientist at Caltech's Division of Engineering and Applied Science (EAS). "Assumptions about
dynamic friction affect a wide range of earthquake science predictions, including how fast ruptures will
occur, the nature of ground shaking, and residual stress levels on faults. Yet the precise nature of
dynamic friction remains one of the biggest unknowns in earthquake science. Previously, it commonly
had been believed that the evolution of dynamic friction was mainly governed by how far the fault
slipped at each point as a rupture went by—that is, by the relative distance one side of a fault slides past
the other during dynamic sliding. Analyzing earthquakes that were simulated in a lab, the team instead
found that sliding history is important, but the key long-term factor is the slip velocity—not just how far
the fault slips, but how fast.

Waves

When an earthquake occurs, the shockwaves of released energy that shake the Earth and temporarily
turn soft deposits, such as clay, into jelly (liquefaction) are called seismic waves, from the Greek
‘seismos’ meaning ‘earthquake’. Seismic waves are usually generated by movements of the Earth’s
tectonic plates but may also be caused by explosions, volcanoes and landslides.

Seismic waves generated by earthquakes propagate in all directions from the source like sound waves.
The point at which the movement of rocks begins is called the focus, focus, or hypocenter, and the point
on the earth's surface above the focus is called the epicenter of the earthquake. Shock waves propagate
in all directions from the source, as they move away from it, their intensity decreases.
Seismic wave velocities can reach 10 km/s.

Seismographs are used to detect and record all types of seismic waves.

There are three basic types of seismic waves – P-waves, S-waves and surface waves. P-waves and S-
waves are sometimes collectively called body waves.

P-waves

P-waves, also known as primary waves or pressure waves, travel at the greatest velocity through the
Earth. When they travel through air, they take the form of sound waves – they travel at the speed of
sound (330 ms-1) through air but may travel at 5000 ms-1 in granite. Because of their speed, they are
the first waves to be recorded by a seismograph during an earthquake.

They differ from S-waves in that they propagate through a material by alternately compressing and
expanding the medium, where particle motion is parallel to the direction of wave propagation – this is
rather like a slinky that is partially stretched and laid flat and its coils are compressed at one end and
then released.

S-waves

S-waves, also known as secondary waves, shear waves or shaking waves, are transverse waves that
travel slower than P-waves. In this case, particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation. Again, imagine a slinky partially stretched, except this time, lift a section and then release
it, a transverse wave will travel along the length of the slinky. S-waves cannot travel through air or water
but are more destructive than P-waves because of their larger amplitudes

Surface waves

Surface waves are similar in nature to water waves and travel just under the Earth’s surface. They are
typically generated when the source of the earthquake is close to the Earth’s surface. Although surface
waves travel more slowly than S-waves, they can be much larger in amplitude and can be the most
destructive type of seismic wave. There are two basic kinds of surface waves:

Rayleigh waves, also called ground roll, travel as ripples similar to those on the surface of water. People
have claimed to have observed Rayleigh waves during an earthquake in open spaces, such as parking
lots where the cars move up and down with the waves.

Love waves cause horizontal shearing of the ground. They usually travel slightly faster than Rayleigh
waves
Methods against earthquakes

Lead-Rubber Bearings

The seismic waves caused by earthquakes weaken the stability of buildings. To withstand an earthquake,
buildings need to be designed with seismic control—especially taller buildings, as their collapse could
cause significant damage. One inexpensive method of achieving seismic control is base isolation. This
passive method isolates the base of a structure from its foundation using a set of lead-rubber bearings
within the structure’s foundation that can effectively deflect or absorb the vibrations caused by seismic
waves.
Lead-rubber bearings are comprised of a lead core set within a rubber housing, which is then encased
between two thick steel plates and fixed at the base of a building’s foundation. The flexibility of this
design aids in deflecting seismic waves, while the plasticity of the rubber components absorbs energy
from vibrations that would otherwise cause significant damage. Finally, the solid lead core dissipates
residual energy that has not already been absorbed or deflected by the outer layers. Studies on the
effectiveness of lead-rubber bearing systems have shown that the presence of this form of isolator
effectively reduces a frame’s response to vibrations, compared with a structural frame that does not
utilize a lead-rubber bearing. As the science supporting lead-rubber bearings continues to advance, civil
engineers are tasked with discovering new materials with which to enhance the performance of these
isolators.

Steel Plate Shear Walls

Steel plate shear wall systems have been used to reinforce buildings since the 1970s, particularly in
Japan and North America, and are considered a promising alternative to conventional earthquake-
resistant systems that are being used in many high-risk seismic regions. These walls are designed to limit
lateral force in buildings by using steel shear walls that absorb stress and bend but do not entirely
buckle under pressure. The walls are also significantly thinner than concrete shear walls, offering similar
levels of resistance and stability, reducing construction costs and lowering total building weight—all
without compromising public safety. In addition, steel walls don’t need to be cured, allowing a much
faster and fluid erection process.
Controlled Rocking

Controlled rocking systems prevent damage by minimizing the drifts that occur in a structure during an
earthquake. These high-performance systems utilize braced steel frames that have elastic properties;
this allows the steel frames to rock upon their foundation. The elastic element creates a self-centering,
restoring force that dissipates seismic vibrations throughout the structure and allows the frame of a
structure to rock in a controlled fashion within a gap that has been intentionally placed in the
foundation.

Another major component of engineering effective controlled rocking systems is the implementation of
replaceable energy-dissipating devices that produce high initial system stiffness. These devices function
similarly to an electric fuse, yielding under the stress of sudden significant loads and quickly being
replaced once they have failed.
Tuned Mass Dampers

Traditional mass dampers are designed to control the movement of high-rise buildings. To create a mass
damper, civil engineers suspend large metal pendulums attached to cables at the top of a tall building;
these pendulums act as an inertial counterweight that keeps the building as centered as possible. These
dampers effectively lower the speed at which a building is allowed to oscillate, as well as the total
distance of each oscillation.

In circumstances where the use of a traditional mass damper has been deemed unsafe or unreasonable
because of excessive amounts of sway, tuned mass dampers may be utilized instead. Tuned mass
dampers work similarly to traditional mass dampers but include the use of an additional control system,
such as an electromagnet, to limit the motion of the damper’s pendulum element.

An example of tuned mass dampers can be found in China’s Shanghai Tower, the world’s second-tallest
building, standing at 2,073 feet. Because of the building’s massive size, traditional dampers were not a
realistic option. Therefore, the engineers paired the weighted pendulums with a magnetic system that
would safely limit their range of motion. As the building sways, the 1,000-ton iron weights swing above
the magnets, inducing an electrical current in the copper plate mounted beneath the damper and
immediately creating an opposing magnetic field capable of counteracting the motion of the weight.
This maximizes the damping effect of the system while hydraulic shock absorbers keep the weight from
swinging too quickly during seismic events or other occurrences that have the potential to cause
increased structural sway.

Seismic Cloaking

Described as a completely new approach to earthquake resistance, seismic cloaks are currently being
tested as a means of creating protective barriers capable of rerouting seismic energy away from
aboveground structures. Seismic cloaking involves the modification of soil and other ground materials
surrounding a building to deflect or redirect the force created by an earthquake. This innovation
revolves around the theory that seismic waves pass energy between the potential energy stored in the
planet’s crust and the kinetic energy within the seismic wave itself. Armed with this theoretical
knowledge, earthquake engineers are tasked with creating a cloaking structure that can control these
destructive seismic waves.

Tests have shown that under the correct circumstances, the oscillations of seismic vibrations can be
stopped using modified soil. The application of seismic cloaking is far-reaching, and public and private
firms are currently exploring the use the technology to defend high-priority structures, such as nuclear
reactors. The downside to this process is the significant space required for a seismic cloak: roughly equal
to the size of the structure being protected. There’s also the potential damage to neighboring structures
when seismic vibrations are reflected away from the cloaked structure and into these surrounding areas.
Researchers are currently developing seismic cloaks that can control the flow of seismic waves while
also leaving nearby structures unaffected.

Earthquakes can result in devastating loss of life and property damage if not properly prepared for, and
earthquake engineers are vital to the effort of designing buildings and innovative solutions that can
defend the force of a potentially deadly earthquake. A keen understanding of engineering principles
coupled with an in-depth knowledge of earthquake engineering theory and practice is necessary in
order to safely plan and implement these crucial safeguards.