EN112 - Functions and Limits 1

Department of Mathematics and Computer Science

The Papua New Guinea University of Technology

Dr Dunstan
Room MCS213 Mathematics and Computer Science Building
- PNG Unitech, Lae

Semester 1, 2023

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 EN112 Engineering Mathematics I - Functions

Functions

(ABD 2012)
A function f is a rule that associates a unique output with each input.
If the input is denoted by x, then the output is denoted by f (x) (read
“ f of x”).
We can describe numerically by tables, geometrically by graphs or
algebraically by formulas.
The rule gives concept of independent and dependent variables. Or
input and output.
eg. if y = 1x , what is done to 1
x to get y, is a function.

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The vertical line test for f

(ABD 2012) Fig 1.2.3 pg 18

A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of some function f if and only if
(iff) no vertical line intersects the curve more than once.
So in the figure below x is no longer independent of y hence y ̸= f (x)

A demonstration of this is in a circle. eg. say x2 + y2 = 25

The equation does not define y as a function of x because the right
side is a multiple valued, in the sense that the values of x in the
interval (-5,5) (also written as −5 < x < 5) produces two corresponding
values of y. However
√ we can regard the √ circle as a union of two
semi-circles; y = 25 − x2 and y = − 25 − x2

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Domain and range

(Stroud 5th Ed, 2001)

All the input numbers x that a function can process are collectively
called a function domain.
The complete collection of numbers y that correspond to the numbers
in the domain is called the range (or co-domain), of the function.
√
eg. y = 1 − x2 where x and y are real numbers. The domain is
−1 ≤ x ≤ 1, and the range is 0 ≤ y ≤ 1.

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Composition - function of function

(Stroud 5th Ed, 2001)

Chains of functions can be built up where the output from one function
forms the input to the next function in the chain.
f ◦ g ◦ h = f (g(h(x)))
eg.
√
x, g(x) = 1x , h(x) = x3
find ( f ◦ g ◦ h)(x) if f (x) =

q
Soln : (f ◦g ◦ h)(x) = f (g(h(x))) = f (g(x3 )) = f x13 = x13 = 1
x3/2

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Inverse of functions and related function forms

(Stroud 5th Ed, 2001)

The process of generating the output of a function is assumed to be
reversible so that what has been constructed can be deconstructed. Or
a reverse operation can be done.
This is called an inverse function.
Sometimes denoted f −1 (x) - just reverses the sequence of operations.
So an inverse function goes from the range back to the domain.
The function f (x) = kx is a (linearly) proportional relation, and
f (x) = kx is an inversely proportional relation.
Where k is the constant of proportionality.
eg. Boyles law P = Vk or Newtonian viscosity τx = µ ∂∂ uy . Which is which?

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Polynomial functions

Should be familiar with simple polynomial functions, such as

y = f (x) = mx + c for the straight line. The quadratic functions, of the
form y = f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, and the cubic function x3 . Respectively
these are called 1st , 2nd and 3rd degree polynomial functions.
Algebraic functions are functions that can be constructed from
polynomials by applying finitely many algebraic operations (addition,
subtraction, division and root extraction.
For 2nd order polynomials recall the quadratic formula where roots are:
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
where the radial term is called the discriminant.

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Completing the square

Recall how to get the completed square form of the quadratic function:
(x + d)2 = x2 + 2dx + d 2
eg.
f (x) = x2 + 6x − 3
⇒ (x + 3)2 = x2 + 6x + 9
∴ (x + 3)2 − 9 = x2 + 6x
∴ f (x) = x2 + 6x − 3 = (x + 3)2 − 9 − 3
= (x + 3)3 − 12 ⇒ completed square form

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Other function features/ examples

Cubic function examples are f (x) = x3 , f (x) = x3 + 3x2 − 4x − 2,

f (x) = (x − 3)3 , f (x) = (x − 3)3 , and f (x) = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 3)

Other functions encountered in past or future are, absolute functions,

square root functions, trigonometric functions - recall SOH CAH T OA.
Index laws
am × an = am+n
am ÷ an = am−n
(am )n = amn

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Exponential and logarithmic functions

You would have covered index laws earlier (if not see above & read
textbooks):
When multiplying power terms with the same base, you add the indices.
When dividing power terms with the same base, you subtract indices.
Be clear about distinguishing between:
polynomial functions of the form, f (x) = xm , and
exponential functions, which are of the form f (x) = mx - this difference
is important in calculation time in computing, hence the rush to
develop “quantum computing”.
The Euler number is a standard base for exponential functions.
Originally derived for compound interest

n by family friend Jacob
Bernoulli (1705), e = limn→∞ 1 + n1 = 2.17182818....
∴ f (x) = ex = (2.17...)x , is the natural exponential function.

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Logarithmic function

The inverse of the exponential function is called a logarithmic function.

Denoted log which is usually to base 10, alternatively ln is to base e.
So log 100 usually means to base 10 ie. = 2.
& ln 1 means to base e, ie. = 0
(ABD 2012 pg 458)
It is possible to express a logarithm with any base in terms of
logarithms with any other base.
(a) Derive the general change of base formula:
ln x
If logb x = ln b .
Let X = logb x & Y = loga x ∴ bX = x & aY = x ∴ aY = bX
Y loga x loga x
or aY /X = b ∴ loga b = X = logb x ∴ logb x = loga b

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Change of logarithmic base

Use the result in (a) to find the exact value of (log2 81)(log3 32),
without using a calculating device.
Solution: Let the variable x be a, so x = a,
loga a 1
∴ logb a = = ∴ (logb a)(loga b) = 1
loga b loga b
We have thus formed an identity where a and b are LCM’s. Now,
(log2 81)(log3 32) = (log2 34 )(log3 25 )
= 4(log2 3) × 5(log3 2)
= 20(log2 3)(log3 2) = 20 × 1 = 20.
→(See Stroud’s rules of logarithms)

Logarithmic identities: 1. ln a + ln b = ln ab, 2. ln a − ln b = ln ba , 3.

ln ab = b ln a

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Change of base exercise

Now use the calculator giving figures to at least four decimal places

log10 81 log10 32
log2 81 = & log3 32 =
log10 2 log10 3
1.908485 1.50515
= =
0.30103 0.47712
= 6.33958 = 3.154648
∴ 6.33958 × 3.154648 = 20

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Radian measure of angles

Recall the radian measure of angles. It is essentially from the definition

of π i.e. the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter (or
twice radius). So if we equate the angle over a sector of the
circumference of arc-length s which is equal to a radius, we call the
angle swept θ = 1 radian.

Since 2π radians = 360◦ , then π radian = 180◦

◦
Then, 1 radian = 180 ◦ π
π and 1 = 180◦
and generally x radians = 180
π × x◦

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 EN112 Engineering Mathematics I - Functions

Trigonometric functions

Recall SOH CAH T OA for trigonometric functions: sin, cos and tan.
Also their reciprocals sec, csc and cot. Note these are different from
the trig inverse functions. sin−1 , cos−1 and tan−1 ,
which are sometimes respectively called: “arcsin”, “arccos” and
“arctan” - these give you angle values from the trig ratios (independent
variable).
Note that with inverse trig functions, the range is restricted. See
examples in ABD pg 490.
Plotting each f (x) vs x you get the continuous curves of sin and cos
and the discontinuous curves of tan, sec, csc and cot.
Homework: identify all the plots of these graphs in your textbooks.
All these curves are periodic. Or repetitive. Also called oscillatory.
Hence they have a period.

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Sinusoidal functions

The continuous sin and cos functions can generally be written:

y = f (x) = A sin Bx and f (x) = A cos Bx.
2π
Where the A is the amplitude, the period T = |B| and frequency
f = T1 = |B|
2π
Altering A obviously changes the amplitude, and B the period and
frequency. You can see the functional relation: increasing B, decreases
T and increases f . See example in ABD pg 73 Fig 1.6.18

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Generalised sinusoidal functions

Generalising sines and cosines even further gives:

y = A sin(Bx −C) and y = A cos(Bx −C),
or y = A sin B x − CB and y = A cos B x − CB

 


C
C 
B gives the phase shift. If < 0 translate left by  
B
C 
If > 0 translate right by  B 
This elementary information describes waves, so for applied physicists
will help in the study of radio waves, electromagnetic spectra.
Can Google cost of frequency bandwidth, and the 5G arguments about
being too close to microwave frequency, etc.

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Trigonometric identities

These are useful recurring trigonometric functions which state equality

of the angle functions on both sides of the equation.
are very useful in carrying out mathematical operations. Some common
examples are:
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ
1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ ...
There are many more. Like everything else in this course, they can be
derived, and importantly mathematically proven. Can refer to
textbooks (we are using).

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Hyperbolic functions
(ABD 2012) pg 509
There are certain combinations of ex and e−x called hyperbolic
functions. The relationship with trigonometric functions exist within
the context of the complex numbers (covered later this semester). for
now we accept that they have many properties in common with
trigonometric functions. This includes identities.
firstly ex can be expressed as,
ex + e−x ex − e−x
ex = +
2 2
This can be seen as a sum of even (first term) and odd (second term)
functions
From this we get:
ex + e−x ex − e−x sinh x
cosh x = ; sinh x = ; tanh x =
2 2 cosh x
2 2 ex + e−x
sechx = x ; cschx = ; coth x =
e + e−x ex − e−x ex − e−x
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Inverse hyperbolic functions

(ABD 2012) pg 515

Since hyperbolic functions are expressible in terms of ex , the inverse
hyperbolic functions, are expressible in terms of the natural logarithm
ln.
p p
sinh−1 x = ln(x + x2 + 1); cosh−1 x = ln(x + x2 − 1)
   
−1 1 1+x −1 1 1−x
tanh x = ln ; coth x = ln
2 1−x 2 1+x
√ ! √ !
1 + 1 − x 2 1 1 + x 2
sech−1 x = ln ; csch−1 x = ln +
x x |x|

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Parametric equations

It is often useful to express functions in terms of a parameter.

In physics and engineering in many cases this would be time
For instance in Dynamics, a trajectory of a particle that moves in the
xy-plane as a function of time, can be given as, x = f (t) and y = f (t).
A common alternative example using angle θ is x = cos θ and y = sin θ .
therefore the graph is a unit circle where x2 + y2 = sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1.
Recall the vertical line test, where here neither x nor y is independent.
Only θ .

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Parameterisation in hyperbolic functions

(ABD 2012) pg 512

With cosh and sinh, the parametric equations x = cosht and
y = sinht(−∞ < t < ∞) represents the curve,
x2 − y2 = cosh2 t − sinh2 t = 1
which is a unit hyperbola.

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