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Forensic Psychology & Law Enforcement

Technical Report · May 2015

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Running head: FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY 1

Forensic Psychology and Law Enforcement

Paul Rose

Police Psychology: FPSY-6521-2

Prof. J. Herndon

16 May 2015

Author Note

Any correspondence should be directed to the author at this email address:

paul.rose@waldenu.edu
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY 2

Forensic Psychology and Law Enforcement

While employed as a law enforcement officer, psychology and the field of criminology

have been intriguing points of study, and until now, most of the responsibilities attributed to the

police psychologist were elusive. From an officer’s standpoint the psychologist was a person

only seen when ordered to or when an officer was in the depths of a crisis and had to be taken off

the line. The days of animosity between law enforcement and police psychologists are not

history, but fortunately contemporary attitudes have embraced the benefits of psychological

services and the need for a forensic psychologist is on the rise and the role within a police

department is expanding. Bartol and Bartol (2012) have noted industry maturation, the

relationship between psychology and law enforcement has improved dramatically, in fact, the

field of forensic psychology has exploded over the past three decades and psychological

‘services’ have permeated many aspects of the criminal justice system. “More recently, as law

enforcement departments have become more professional and the public has demanded more

accountability, the role of psychological services in law enforcement has become more critical

and prevalent” (Bartol & Bartol, 2012, p. 34). The following pages will include an exploration

into the roles and responsibilities of a forensic, police psychologist, knowledge and skill

development, career longevity, and the impact as it applies to the author (a personal approach).

Police Psychologist

Forensic psychology, as Dalby (2014) points out, is not a new industry or practice; in

fact, it has been “[a] hundred years…since Hugo Münsterberg charted the choppy waters of the

law in an attempt to outline the benefits that psychology could bring to this realm” (p.32). Dalby

(2014) credits Münsterberg as being “responsible for not only planting the seeds of forensic

psychology, but also contributed to the beginnings of business psychology, clinical psychology,
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY 3

educational psychology, industrial psychology, and the psychology of cinema” (p. 27). This

heritage is marred only by its poor reception as a valid science and its usefulness within the legal

arena, which, according to Dalby (2014), is the reason why the industry had been moving so

slowly. Despite the hurdles, Varela and Conroy (2012) have been studying the field, it’s

progress and competencies of industry practitioners and they have noticed that the “field of

forensic psychology has grown immensely over the past three decades, with psychologists

involved in both the civil and criminal forensic arenas as well as other fields affiliated with the

justice system, including law enforcement and correctional agencies” (p. 410).

As the practice of forensic psychology has grown, specialties have developed across the

board and range from a psychologist practicing primarily in the civil or criminal side of the legal

system, to a criminal justice practitioner who focuses on the law enforcement entities and their

human capital. This area in particular is of great interest, and to have the ability to positively

impact an officer, agency, and the people they serve would be a great honor considering my

background within the field. Simply put, “police psychology is the research and application of

psychological principles and clinical skills to law enforcement and public safety” (Bartol &

Bartol, 2012, p. 22). This definition also has sub-set responsibilities, criminologist, a study and

application of victimology research, an application of psychological services were mental health

treatment is the focus, and other non-contact positions within the law enforcement machine

(Bartol & Bartol, 2012; Ainsworth, 2002).

A hands-on application of forensic psychology is needed, the police officer is faced with

the worst of humanity and at times, it is quite overwhelming and it would better serve the

employee, agency, and the community if the affected officer or emergency personnel received

immediate mental health attention. Outside of the military machine, I would agree with
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY 4

Levenson’s (2007) assertion that law enforcement (LE) is the most stressful of career paths a

person could take. Consider the environment, “[c]onstant exposure to horrific scenes of death,

tragedy, and human suffering may result in debilitating and, ultimately, life-threatening

psychological illnesses" (Levenson, 2007, p. 16). Levenson’s (2007) conclusion is exacerbated

by prolonged exposure to stressors or the intense, often unexpected mental trauma a crime victim

might experience, but the results are universal: “for many law enforcement personnel, the results

of severe or prolonged stress can be seen in poor job performance, disrupted relationships,

declining health, changes in personality, the development of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

(PTSD) and, in extreme cases, even suicide” (p. 17). A typical group of responsibilities within

the scope of a police psychologist would include; mental health counseling for the officer’s and

victims, crisis intervention (psychological first aid), hostage negotiations, the selection and

testing of candidates, and training to name a few. Akin to law enforcement in general, the

psychologist is “frequently shifting their roles to meet the crisis or problems that must be dealt

with on an ongoing basis” (p. 63-64).

Of the duties mentioned, training, psychological first aid, and victimology would be three

responsibilities I would like to focus on and enhance. The criminal justice system could be

improved quite dramatically if these areas were improved upon, in my opinion the officer’s

disposition would improve, thereby increasing productivity, and a positive outlook, providing

mental health first aid immediately on scene will also enhance this disposition, not to mention

that of the victim, whose voice will only provide the officer and the department with a positive

image and the rest would hopefully ‘snowball’ into greater community standing and support.

The importance of this work is easily understood, human resources within a law enforcement

agency is quite a financial investment, preserving these assets would be less costly than replacing
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY 5

them, victims remain victimized throughout the process regardless of the outcome, and training

is often lackadaisical due to budgetary concerns or a deficit of motivated trainers. Law

enforcement needs a change, being a part of that would be very exciting, and bottom line, too

often officers are overlooked or discarded because the department failed to take notice of the

underlying problems or failed to take advice from a professional. A brief discussion regarding

each aspect would be in order to understand the depth of services.

Training is not something which leaps to mind when thinking of psychology and its

myriad of applications within a police agency. However, adult learning theories and many

different field training programs, like the San Jose FTO model, are built upon research and

theories developed by psychologists (Bartol & Bartol, 2012). Ainsworth’s (2002) comments

regarding the elaborate training methods of the ‘modern’ police department that include role

playing, problem solving exercises etc., are just as true today as they were thirteen years ago.

Contemporary methods include involving the community in certain training classes and hosting a

citizen’s academy in order to familiarize those who are willing, with the duties and roles of a

police officer. Ride-a-longs, courtesy patrols, and other minor roles within the department have

been created in order to develop a tie or an anchor within the community.

Psychological first aid (PFA), as Young, Fuller, and Riley (2008) suggest, "is designed to

meet the immediate practical needs of survivors (which) has been proposed as the main

alternative to immediate individual crisis intervention in the hours and even days after a

traumatic event" (p. 348). This proposal can be equated to and given as much credence as

medical first aid, and without direct mediation, the psychological wound could become

infectious and destroy a healthy mind, just as gangrene destroys a healthy limb. Although the

role appears to be similar, the forensic psychologist must adopt drastically different methods of
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY 6

operation with each population and the services or solutions will be dramatically different in

most cases (Young et al., 2008; Levenson, 2007). The success of this program is reported

through surveys and firsthand accounts as collected by Young et al., (2008), and with minor

adjustments, mental health first-aid has a positive outcome prediction rate unpatrolled by the

traditional paradigm.

Victimology is the study of people who have suffered as the result of a criminal act,

Bartol and Bartol (2012) go on to explain secondary victimization which impact family and

friends, and further discusses long-term effects, “there is strong evidence that the effects of

criminal victimization-such as assault, robbery, and burglary-are both pervasive and persistent”

(p. 27). Children, depending upon the exposure to crime, may suffer a lifetime of emotional and

cognitive setbacks. The second piece to this choice is the victim advocate (VA) who is called to

the scene to assist a crime victim and to facilitate the exchange of information between the law

enforcement official (LE/LEO) and the victim. Typically, if the victim is non-responsive to the

officer, a VA can step in to assist by breaking down the barrier, offering comfort and

transitioning the victim from their current state and into one where s/he feels safe. At this point

the VA is questioning the victim while LE is taking notes. Both aspects, victimology and VAs,

are important, the forensic psychologist is developing theories and information to disseminate,

not only within the industry, but to LEOs and VA services in an effort to effectively impact the

victim’s recovery and to avoid victimization in the future.

Ainsworth’s (2002) work is a great reminder of how important victimology and VAs are:

“recent research that has focused upon victim or target selection suggests that whether or not one

becomes a victim is hardly a matter of chance…4% of the population suffer 44% of recorded

crime” (p. 136). These examples are only a few, Augustin and Fagan (2011) can account for
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY 7

numerous influences “[o]ver the past 30 years, response strategies utilized by law enforcement

personnel have been evolving and have been influenced by mental health professionals" (p. 166).

As imagined, the type of training and skill needed to effectively manage this workload is

formidable and necessary to improve the quality of services and thereby improving public

support.

Qualifications and Skills

The expectations enumerated by White and Escobar (2008), although unrealistic, are

standards in which LE are held to at times:

The citizen expects police officers to have the wisdom of Solomon, the courage of David,

the strength of Samson, the patience of Job, the leadership of Moses, the kindness of the

Good Samaritan, the strategical training of Alexander, the faith of Daniel, the diplomacy

of Lincoln, the tolerance of the Carpenter of Nazareth, and finally, an intimate knowledge

of every branch of the natural, biological, and social sciences. If he had all these, he

might be a good policeman August Vollmer (p. 119).

White and Escobar’s (2008) commentary underscores the need for quality training and qualified

psychologists to aid the LE leadership to a higher standard of practice. A common preparatory

framework needed to become a forensic (police) psychologist would be obtaining a bachelor’s

degree in clinical psychology, a masters in another form of psychology, maybe a concentration in

counseling, and finally, the terminal degree in forensic psychology.

Bartol and Bartol (2012) and Varela and Conroy (2012) recommend a varied education

background, one suited toward the path in which the recipient intends to follow. The following

is not a comprehensive list of qualifications or education, but certainly their suggestion’s, Varela

and Conroy (2012), is sage advice:

FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY 8

The effective delivery of forensic intervention services begins with basic competencies

common to all practitioners and taught in clinical and counseling graduate programs...The

National Council of Schools and Programs in Professional Psychology (NCSPP) has

identified seven core areas essential for entry-level practice in psychology-relationship,

assessment, intervention, diversity, research/evaluation, management/supervision, and

consultation/education-each with its own subset of domains (NCSPP, 2007). Further,

NCSPP has identified knowledge, skills, and attitudes associated with each of these

competency areas across three developmental achievement levels (DALs): begin

practicum, begin internship, and complete doctoral degree (p. 411-413).

In the State of Colorado (2012) the practicing psychologist must have attended a school

approved by the State Board of Psychologist Examiners, there are internship and practicum

requirements in hours of training under a certified psychologist. Once these tasks are complete,

the applicant may apply for and test to become a certified and licensed practicing psychologist.

Police officers often face a variety of incidents that either trigger a mental health concern

or an accumulation of incidents during their workday. “[C]onfrontations with irate, violent,

and/or mentally challenged individuals. While less frequent, law enforcement personnel also are

called in response to hostage incidents, barricaded subject incidents, and attempted

suicide/suicide by cop incidents" (Augustin & Fagan, 2011, p. 166). The skills a practitioner

brings to the job will translate to the recipients, and if the skill, say a coping technique, is

particularly effective, the officer or citizen will hold on to and use this new skill. “There is a

great need for quality stress management programs in law enforcement, and perhaps the most

important aspect of any program is an endorsement by a director, chief, or other administrative

commander” (Levenson, 2007, p. 19). Creating a buy in, as Levenson (2007) suggests as
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY 9

critical, is a sound strategy to employ within the ranks, and really, within the criminal justice

industry itself. Typically a closed off and unreachable group, even though contemporary officers

are far more receptive to psychological intervention than 20 years, ago, it is a tough group to

penetrate and even more so when discussing trust (Bartol & Bartol, 2012).

The modern psychologist must often operate as a contractor or entrepreneur would run

his business and would need skills associated with these positions. Managerial and

entrepreneurial acumen is “required for the day to day running of any organization:

competencies in the areas of communication, motivation, finance, workplace safety, dispute

resolution, the selection of job candidates, evaluation of employee performance, and decision

making regarding the termination of employees" (Varela & Conroy, 2012, p. 418). As a police

psychologist the ability to plan a training curriculum, the ability to instruct within a diverse

environment, to be versatile-switching from counselor to negotiator is essential, professionalism,

coping with moderate to high levels of stress, thoughtfulness, fair, unbiased, creative, physically

and mentally fit, a creative problem solver, and the capability to lead could also be used to

populate the list of desirable traits. Lastly, effective communication is high on the needs list as

well; the ability to convey thoughts or actions in oral and written form.

Communication

Internally, the police psychologist must rely heavily upon oral and written

communication styles. Reporting actions taken, evaluations and testing instruments administered

is helpful information the department would require of anyone involved in police related

activities; especially if the psychologist were operating in a negotiator role and certainly if an

evaluation or fitness for duty were conducted, a status report would be expected. External

stakeholders might be the courts, attorneys, judges, and a jury if the practitioner were called to
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY 10

court. This is where basic communication skills would need to be governed: body language,

facial expressions, outward appearance, and tone of voice. Human’s build and expand upon this

foundational skill set and other non-verbal’s to express more complex forms of communication.

These elements of communication (tone of voice, pace, pitch, modulation, body language,

clothing, and facial expressions) can be used to express confidence and trust, and if used

improperly, it can destroy the witnesses credibility and effectiveness with the trier of facts.

Boccaccini (2002) believes that “Linguistic power refers to the manner in which a speaker uses

language and paralinguistic cues to convey competence. A speaker who is linguistically powerful

speaks with confidence and assertiveness” (p. 170).

According to the book Writing and communicating for criminal justice (2007), listening

“means we attach a meaning to the sounds that have been transmitted to our brain. When we

listen, we go beyond the sound itself” (p. 97). As a forensic psychology practitioner, the skill of

listening should be developed and practiced with every opportunity in order to increase the value

of each encounter. Boccaccini (2002) studied the effects of certain communication styles within

the courtroom setting and their impact on jurors, the results were a combination of witnesses who

were practiced listeners with an assertive communication style. “[C]ourtroom testimony suggest

that effective witnesses use a powerful speaking style, express confidence in themselves when

asked to do so, provide descriptive answers to attorneys’ questions, and avoid hypercorrect

speech” (Boccaccini, 2002, p. 173-174). Building on his work, Boccaccini, Gordon, and

Brodsky (2005) found that "the most consistent predictors of credibility were high levels of gaze,

response quality, and voice quality, and low levels of poor posture, suggesting that these may be

the most important skills to improve during witness preparation" (p. 686).
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY 11

Briefly mentioned, report writing, a staple within any component of the criminal justice

system and it is imperative that the practitioner is familiar with the styles, manner of writing, and

documentation needed when the job is completed. The tenets of report writing span industries,

included in most reports are the considerations for content, the audience, professional jargon that

may become too cumbersome for the layperson, and a conclusion which ties every piece of

information and data together in a nice bow. Ackerman (2006) adds that a forensic psychologist

consider the Daubert standard when authoring a report which has the potential of being admitted

as evidence; which means that “[a]ll conclusions made in the report should be supported by

research literature, data, or collateral contacts and quoted if necessary” (p. 72). Daubert is a

federal standard when admitting evidence of this nature, so regardless of each states rules,

whether they adhere to Daubert or a facsimile, best practices would be writing it as if Daubert

were the standard (Ackerman, 2006). Ineffective communication would contain elements

opposing those characteristics mentioned above, however, it can also be something much deeper,

and the impact upon the audience far more damaging than expected. These techniques and

communication styles are useful and applicable to every encounter, whether professional or

casual, and within reason.

Ethical, Legal, & Diversity Considerations

When interacting with people whose values, beliefs, and cultural heritage differ, it can

cause problems, and at times, the business at hand becomes compromised. Forensic

psychologists, as with anyone working with the public, has to look inward to discover and deal

with any prejudice and bias that may interfere with the job. The American Psychological

Association’s (APA)(2010) preamble is a good place to start when examining the basic ethical

standards within the field of psychology: "Psychologists are committed to increasing scientific
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY 12

and professional knowledge of behavior and people’s understanding of themselves and others

and to the use of such knowledge to improve the condition of individuals, organizations, and

society" (p. 3). Specifically addressing the practitioner’s interaction with differing backgrounds

and culture, APAs (2013) specialty guideline number 2.08:

Forensic practitioners strive to understand how factors associated with age, gender,

gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation,

disability, language, socioeconomic status, or other relevant individual and cultural

differences may affect and be related to the basis for people’s contact and involvement

with the legal system. Forensic practitioners do not engage in unfair discrimination based

on such factors or on any basis proscribed by law. They strive to take steps to correct or

limit the effects of such factors on their work, decline participation in the matter, or limit

their participation in a manner that is consistent with professional obligations (p. 10).

Odds are, the general practitioner is not accustomed to interacting with a murderer or a child

abuser and these scenarios are something to consider and the feelings attached to this type of

crime should be dealt with prior to any contact. As Melton, Petrila, Poythress, and Slobogin

(2007) suggest, professionalism includes a strict adherence to accepted codes of conduct when

navigating the diversified population of the legal system.

Another pitfall, informed consent and a proper admonition acknowledgement. The

circumstances surrounding the service asked to perform, the subject’s condition, and his ability

to understand all of the ramifications is paramount to integrity (the service could be called into

question and taint the proceedings success). Considerations; is the person capable of making this

decision, is the person appropriately represented, has permission (if applicable) been granted

from legal authority, and finally, guarding the subject’s well-being and rights (APA, 2010). Due
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY 13

to the significant “rights, liberties, and properties…often at risk in forensic matters, and because

the methods and procedures of forensic practitioners are complex…forensic practitioners strive

to inform service recipients about the nature and parameters of the services to be provided”

(APA, 2013, p. 12). Anyone of the previous mentions could be grounds for legal action,

departmental sanctions, industry violations, licensure restrictions, and if egregious enough,

termination.

Risk Mitigation

A forensic psychologist working with or in a police department would fall victim to the

same stressors and the need to encourage eustress through organized activity or through the

psychologists every day responsibilities. Eustress, as defined by Dictionary.com (n.d.), is “stress

that is deemed healthful or giving one the feeling of fulfillment” (eustress, n.d.). Law

enforcement professionals deal with the mundane and at times, the peak of violence, and there

are instances where a police officer must take the life of another human being. These activities

can overload or tax a person’s ability to manage the incoming workload, the demand then

becomes a stressor which can manifest as indecision, freezing up, or making a rash decision

without the benefit of proper procedure or legal foundation. Unfortunately, this is a reality and

contemporary officers have a distinct advantage within this area of police psychology. So many

articles, research, and books have been written about stress, eustress, and the deterioration of a

person’s ability to effectively deal with the mounting stress combined with poor, and often,

destructive coping mechanisms (drinking, promiscuity, etc.). Ainsworth (2002) discusses the

benefits and pitfalls of stress and appropriate management of both, one such byproduct and

obstruction to any psychological first aid is that “[p]olice officers may cover up their true

feelings, especially when with colleagues. As a consequence, police officers may, at least on the
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY 14

surface, laugh off many incidents that would have ordinary members of the public reaching for

the tranquillisers” (p. 128).

The need for this type of research and intervention should be obvious, legal liability, and

our society’s proclivity toward a litigious solution should motivate an initiative to address this

issue. Kinnaird’s (2007) commentary on the subject derides our society’s inability to find a

resolution outside of the civil courts, and rightly so, if restitution has been made or the problem

addressed, moral and ethical compasses should be consulted as to whether or not further action is

needed. A naïve or utopian viewpoint, maybe, but the fact remains, albeit off topic, but why is

the lawsuit the only acceptable conclusion to any complaint? It should operate like the Better

Business Bureau, if the complaint has been addressed and reasonably handled, then the issue is

dead; this should be the same standard for lawsuits.

Fox (2007) has authored a paper regarding stress and stress related symptoms, but his

approach to addressing the issues of stress are compelling. "Stress is a force that necessitates

change. Neither good nor bad, it is simply the energy that presses upon us as we struggle to

survive. How we use this energy determines the quality of our life" (Fox, 2007, p. 352). For

example, Fox (2007) uses the following to emphasize the impact of negative stress and how an

officer ill-equipped to deal with the day to day stressors could lose control, develop a cynical

outlook, and feelings that "no one than other police officers can understand them; this creates an

"us against the" mentality. In short, they have become police officers who happen to be human

beings rather than human beings who happen to be police officers" (p. 353). The solutions

presented by Fox (2007) are not exclusive to police officers, as secondary victims to trauma,

police psychologists need to exercise these coping skills too.

FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY 15

Challenges

There are a multitude of challenges within this career field, however, several distinct and

personal challenges come to mind. The first issue would be the American Psychological

Association’s (APA) (2013) Specialty Guideline 1.02; Impartiality and Fairness, “When

conducting forensic examinations, forensic practitioners strive to be unbiased and impartial, and

avoid partisan presentation of unrepresentative, incomplete, or inaccurate evidence that might

mislead finders of fact" (p. 8-9). Having worked in the field and having experience with so

many of the issues, it would be easy for to give the affected officer too much leeway: for

example, an officer should be taken off the line based on his risk assessment scores and behavior,

I could see giving that officer too many chances and waiting too long for a positive therapeutic

response.

Knowing this, the necessary steps can be taken to fortify my principles and as a reminder,

keeping this thought in the forefront: courage is not an abstract idea, it is an action, to be

courageous is to be daring, unpopular, or to put yourself ahead of another, and of course, to place

yourself in harm’s way to protect another. A personal amalgamation, espoused to a multitude of

audiences when discussing courage, and it certainly would take courage to remove someone

from their position with the prospect they may never be able to return. However, a far better

choice than allowing this officer to continue working and risking senseless injuries.

Conclusion

A forensic police psychologist is involved in a great deal of departmental functions:

scheduling, mental health check-ups, debriefings, critical incident interventions, family support,

hiring, and educating the department regarding the assessment and appropriate reaction to a

mentally ill stakeholder (Bartol & Bartol, 2012). As with any profession within or associated
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY 16

with the criminal justice system, there is the potential of becoming a secondary victim, or as

Barnett (n.d.) has labeled it, vicarious traumatization; “(secondary traumatic stress, compassion

fatigue, co-victimization). Symptoms include intrusive thoughts and images related to the clients

disclosures, avoidant responses, physiologic arousal, somatic complaints, distressing emotions,

and addictive or compulsive behaviors that may adversely impact ones competence” (p. 6-7).

This condition is no different than an officers, if left untreated, all of it could ruin the life and

career of the sufferer. Barnett, Baker, Elman, and Schoener (2007) define the demands and

affects in this manner, “[t]he practice of psychology can be demanding, challenging, and

emotionally taxing. Failure to adequately attend to one’s own psychological wellness and self-

care can place the psychologist at risk for impaired professional functioning” (p. 603).

As a former member of the LE community, the very same edicts of good health, a sound

career, and avoiding injury are applicable. Follow the practices and procedures set forth by the

governing body and industry standards, remain true to the ethical precepts, refuse to compromise

when the subject is about integrity or honesty, do not allow greed or lust to motivate behaviors,

take time to unwind, and most important, eat right and exercise. This class has provided a sound

framework and has given me the knowledge, confidence, and inspiration to embark upon the

path to licensure. The original intent was to teach criminal justice and psychology course at the

bachelor’s level, this will remain true, however, licensure classes or internships will begin

shortly after graduation and I will also be applying to LE agencies and criminal justice related

positions.
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY 17

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FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY 18

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