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Vector Analysis
A TE XT-B O O K F O R T H E U SE O F S TU D E N T S
OF M ATH E M ATICS AN D P H YS ICS
F O UN D E D UP ON TH E L E C T UR E S OF
JWIL L A R D
. G IB B S, P H D . LL D. .
P rofe s s o r f M a th e m a tic a l
o P by s z c s i n Ya le Un ive rs ity
E D WI N B ID WE L L WIL SO N , PH D . .
N EW YO RK : C H ARLE S S CRI N ER ’ S S O N S B
LO N DO N : EDWARD ARN O LD
1 901
B Y YA L E U NIV E S I R TY .
P u bl i s h e d , De c e mb e r , 1 9 01 .
U
AN D
NIV ITY PCAM B IDJOG N IL ON
ERS
SO N
RESS
R
H
E,
W
U S A
.
S
. .
P RE FA CE B Y P R OFE SSOR G IB B S
in more than one quarter that the sub stance of that t rea,
A s however the
, , ears passed without my fi ndi ng the
leisure to meet this want which seemed a real one I was
, ,
JWILLARD
. GI BB S .
YALE U NI ER S ITY
V , Se p t e m be r
, 1 9 01 .
ENG INEERIHG l
G EN E RA L P REFA CE
( T e u b ner
, M y previous study of Q uaternio n s has
b e t t er enab led t o mak e prac t ical use of the book G rea t care .
for reference .
II treat of addi t ion su b trac t ion scalar mul t iplica t ion and
.
, , ,
al t hough they will doub tless cri t icise this portion of the b ook
adversely it has been deemed b est to give b u t li ttle attention
,
“
I am in hopes that the chapter whi ch I now fi ni sh may
xii G E N E R AL P R E FA C E
b e its prac t ical utility This I feel con fi dent was P rofessor
.
, ,
have t ried to present the sub ject from this prac t ical s t and
point and keep clearly before t h e reader s mind the ques
,
’
A nalysis and all such alge b ras are of little value for investi
,
assert ion shall prove true or not one may s t ill maintain that,
aging sign .
. . .
,
y
fi c ie n t to carr through the work .
ED WIN B ID WE LL WIL S O N .
YA L E U NI E S I
V R TY , O c to b e r , 1 901 .
TA B LE O F C O N TE N TS
G ENERA L REFAC E
P
CHA P TE R I
S CAUALALR SANDANDNULLECTORVECTOR
VS
P OINT OF VIEW OF T I S C AP TER
EQ S
TH
S CADDITION
E
A
S UAWB TRACTION . TH E R
V
C ENTERU S ES OFOF GRAVITY
V ARYC E NTRIC CO RDIN A T E S
E CTOR S TO DENOT E AREA S
. B
H
O
TH
S U MARY OFON CC AAPPTERT E R I I
M
E
E xE R CI SE S
H
H
CH AP TE R II
D IRE C T AN D S KE W P R OD U C TS OF VECTORS
A ND APPL ICATION S
, Two VE CTOR S 55
SS PRODUCT OF VECTOR S
2 9—3 0 TH E 58
3 1 —3 3
3 4—3 5
36
TH
TH
TH
E
E
DITRIS TRILEB UTIV
K
P
,
E L AW A ND A PPL ICATION S
P RODUCT
,
B A
°
C
Two 60
63
67
x vi
C ON TE N TS
TH E CA
VECTOR
S L AR TRI
TRI PLE P RODUCT
PL E P RODUCT
B B OR A°
x0 [ A B C]
TH E
P RODUCT
CATION S OF MORE T AN T REE VECTOR S WIT
RIGONOMETRY H H
A X ( X C)
H A P P LI
S OF A RI G ID B ODY
S Y
K
C ONDITION
ETLATION S FOR E UI L I B RIUM OF A RI G ID B ODY
S B ETWEEN
Q
OF
R
REE
ROUMMARY
H P ER P ENDICU L AR UNIT VECTOR S
T wo
P
S
E xE R C ISE S
OFONC C AAPTER
H
H
II
P ER IIT
. P O N
C H AP TER III
S OF A P ARTIC LE ODOGRA
V
H E
K
TH
NTE IN S TANTANEOU S
G RATION W T APPL IC A TION S
E OF ROTATION
A x rs
INEM
.P TH E H
A TIC S
H
I
S CALARECTORFUNCTION S OF PO S ITION IN S PACE
I H
DIFFERENTIATING O P ERATOR
To K
S CA L A O P ERATOR
TH E V
TH
ECTOR FUNCTIONS OF POSITIO PA E
E R A jz o
V N IN § Q
I NTER
NTER P RETATION OF T E
PR E TATION OF T E CUR L
H D IV E R G ENQ E V
I
L AWSPOFARTIAO PERATION OF
L A PPL ICATION OF
H
V V
Vx
VX
,
OF
o
A VEC
TH
TOR FUNCTION A NALOGOU S AYLOR S EOREM
E
V E x P A N SIO N
.
To T
’
TH .
Ex E R CISE S
As H
III
PT E R III
H
H
C ON TE N TS XVII
CH AP TE R IV
L
TH E INTEGRAL
H
P GE
G AU SS S EOREM
S
’
TH
C
T
ONVER S E OF TO E S S EOR E M WIT APPL ICATION S
RAN S FORMATION S OF LINE S URFACE AND VOL UM E
S K
’
TH H
IN
, ,
R EMAR
OTENTIA S ON M U L TI PL E VA L UED FUNCTION S
K
INTEGRATING O P ERATOR
-
OMMUTATIVE L
PRO P ERTY OF
TH
AND POT
“
P . E
C
R EMARINTES GURATIN
P ON T E FOREGOING
K
G O P ERATOR S
H
P OT V
TH
E LATION S B OETWEEN T E INTEGRATING AND DIFF ER
N E W, LA P , MAx
“ ” “ ” “
E
P ERATOR S
R H
P OTENTIA L A S O L UTION OF OI SS ON S
E N TIA T I N G
TH
UATION
’
P
”
E
“
POT Is
9 3 94 SOFUNCTION
L ENOIDA L AND IRROT A TIONA L P ART S OF A VECTOR
EQ
UMMARY OF C A P TER IV
H
E RCI S E S ON C A P TER IV
S H
EX H
CHA P TE R V
LINE AR VE C TO R F UN C TIONS
INE A R VECTOR FUNCTION S DEFIN E D
D YADIC S DEFINED
L
TH NONION
DYAD
E
ORFORM OF A DYADIC
INDETERMINATE
. P
P RODUCT OF VEC
TH
TOR
OF TS I S T E MO S T GENERA L
E
E UNCTIONA
S CA L AR AND VECTOR P RODUCT S
H L P RO P ERTY . F
Two
RODUCT S OF DYADIC S
H
D EGREE S OF NU LL IT OF DYADIC S
P
TH IDEMF ACTOR
E
Y
XVI II
0 0 .
C ON TE N TS
1 1 2 -1 1 4 A - - J . TH E
EDUCTION
UCT .
OF Q
DYADIC NORMA
D OU B L E MU L TI PL ICATION OF DYADIC S
R S L FORM
V E R SO R S
To
ONION
E
N
INVARIUATION
A NT S OF A DYADIC
.
H A MI L TON A Y LE Y
. TH E - C
SUMMARY
EX
EQ
OF C A P TER V
ERCI S E S ON C A PTER H
H v
CH AP TE R VI
ROTATION S AN D S TRAIN S
H OMOGENEOU
OTATION S S TRAIN RE PRE S ENTED B Y A DY A DIC
S A OUT A FI ED POINT
R
VECTOR
BIYCUADRANTA
TH E S EMI TANGENT OF VER S ION
B
L IC DYADIC S
Q L V E R SO R S H
C
R IGONICTS TENANDSOR S
H
T
R EDUCTION OF DYADIC S TO CANONICA L FORM S TONIC S
C Y C L O TO N I C S
S IM PL E AND S EARER S
, ,
UMMARY OF C A PTER VI
C Y C L O TO N I C S ,
S H
C o M P L Ex H
CH AP TE R VII
1 36 1 42 QUADRIC S URFACE S
P RO PAG ATION OF IG T IN CRY S TA L S
1 4 3 -1 4 6
1 4 7— 1 4 8 VARIA
TH E
B L E DYADIC S
URVATUR E OF S URFACE S
L H
n s la
Th e typ ic a l ve c to r is the disp la c emen t o f t ra tio n i n
L et
sp a c e .
L
.
,
F G 1I
but of all the points in space
. .
et all the .
to P P ’
.
for all vectors jus t as the ordinary positive and negative num
,
tude and di rection and nothing but t hese ; jus t as the mat he
m a ti c a l scalar pure numb er abstracts the magni t ude and
, ,
used for sett ing up vectors and ordinary type for scalars .
1 Th i s i
c o n ve n t o n , by n o e a n s i n va ria bl y fo llo we d In
h o we ve r, is . so e
in s t a n c e s it wo ul d p ro ve j us t a s u n d e s i ra bl e a s it is c o n ve n i e n t in o t h e rs . It is
c h i e fly va l ua bl e in t h e a ppl i c a t i o n o f ve c t o rs t o p h y s i c s .
A DDI TI ON A N D S CA LAR M UL TIP LI CA TI ON 5
equali t
Th e y of two vectors A and B is denoted by the
usual Sign Thus
A B .
Th e n
In y
this wa all vectors in space may b e replaced by directed
segments radiating from one fi x ed point 0. E qual vectors
in space will of course coincide when placed with their ter ,
b o th fall upon T 0T .
If r ,
0 b e polar co ordinates in Space any vector r drawn
wi t h its origin at th e origin of co ordinates may be represented ’
the vector S (
.
7 , q,
r - co r - r
, y y , z
A = O if A = 0 .
Sc a la r M u ltip lic a t io n
ward
r
.
is called s c a la r m u ltip lic a tio n and it follows the assoc iati ve law
,
y
as in or di nar algebra and arithmetic This statement is im
y
.
tude .
A A a
De fi negative Sign
n i tio n : Th epre fix ed to a vector ,
symboli cally
— A) .
Th e interpretation is ob vious .
carr P into P ”
the line P P b eing ’ ’ ”
s q y p
e uentl the oints P, P
’
and P lie at the ve tices of
,
P ”
,
’”
r
a parallelogram Hence .
P P”
is equal and par’ ”
allel to P P Hence S ’
.
whereas 8 followed b y T
FI G 3 . .
carries P into P thr ough ”
Th e fi nal result is in
either case the same . y
This ma be designated s mbolicall y y
b y writing
If two vecto s be drawn from the same origin and a parall elo
gram be constructed upon them as sides their sum will be that ,
note that in case the vectors lie along the same line vector
addi tion b ecomes equivalent to algebraic scalar addi tion Th e .
and so on until all the vectors have been combined into a sin
A DDI TION AND SC ALAR M P
UL TI LI CA TI ON 11
To show
L et
T hen
L et now B O = D ”
Then 6 B 0 1) ”
p r ll l r
is a a a e og am and
conse quently
.
0 D =C
’
. Hence
i
wh ch proves the statement Since an two adjacent vectors y
rr
.
an
y order by successive interchanges of adjacent vectors the ,
A B A B) .
By i r i
th s means subt act on is reduce d to ad di tion and needs
12 VECTOR ANA L YSIS
no special consideration There is however an interestin g and
.
O O = C is the sum A + B of t h e
two vectors N e x t complete the .
ence of two vectors whi ch are drawn from the same origin is
the vec t or drawn fro m the terminus of the vecto r to be s u b
tracte d to t h e te rminus of the vector from which it is s u b
tracted Thus the two diagonals of the parallelogram which
.
,
ference of A and B .
laws are
I : m (n A)
I,
II
Il l a
III , ’
m (A + B ) m A + m B,
III, °
— A — B .
ADDI TI ON A ND S CALAR M P
UL TI L I CA TI ON 13
cation .
in the statement
Th e l a ws wh ic h go ve rn a ddi tio n , s u btra c ti o n , a nd sc a la r
0
is precisely thi s identity of formal laws which justi fi es
It
the e x tension of the use of the familiar signs and
of ari t hmetic to the alge b ra of vectors and it is also this
which ensures the correctn ess of results ob ta ined b y operat
ing with t hose signs in t h e usual manner On e caution only .
instance
then A , B , C, or D y
ma be e xpressed in terms
t hree
1
—
as —
Cl
and 2 A+ 3 B =F
A= 3 E — 4 F
B = 3 E ~
Z E .
Co mp o n e n ts o f Ve c to rs
Defin itio n : Vectors
are said to be collinear when
they are parallel to the same line ; coplanar when parallel ,
et O B b Th e vector b is surely
.
from O to R is
0R = OB + B R
r =b + x a
r x a yb
y
is a typical form for an vector 00plan ar with a and b If
r
.
t = 0 . 3
y
vector r in space ma be resolved into three
An y
components para llel to any t hree given non -coplanar vec t o rs
L
.
et the vectors b e a b , ,
and c Th e resoluti on .
may then b e a c c o m
p li s h e d b y constructing
the parallelopiped ( Fig .
7 ) of which t h e edges
are parallel to a b and , ,
\
c and of which the di
a l l e l o p ip e d m a y b e
a >
F c 7 r . .
drawn easily b y pass i ng
three planes parallel re
s p e c t ive l y to a and b b and c c and a through the origin 0
, ,
9: cc
'
, g z
y
’
, z z
’
.
’ ’
—
w b fl z - z
w .
x — cc z O, y
—
y z O, z
sc a + yb + z c
’ ’ "
n a + y b + z c b,
’ ’
r [( x ) m z
( r
c a,
[a w e —
(m i ss b = 0
i r i i
.
H
.
ence x + m z m + m e ’ ’
B ut y
this b no means necessitates cc y z to be equa re s p e c , , l
t ive ly to x y z In a similar manner if a and b were col
’ ' '
, , .
Th e Th re e Un i t Ve c to rs i, j , k .
axis point toward the observer and the Y-ax is to the right
d ill
,
L ft h e - a nde d
FIG 8
l y
. .
wise 2
It is easy to see that the Y ax is li es upon that side of
.
-
pl a ne m i ig d d y m
B y th X Y
1
t h pl
Z — x i t h p it iv h lf ft h t x i i
wh i hea ns
e
t i th X e d Y- x i i
or
a ne
t
t h pl
Th X Y
a
c 0
s e
con a ns
os e
e
a o
an
a
a
a
s,
s
.
s
c .
,
ea n
e
.
a ne 2
e
A
m b fi fi g d g
i
ig
l y il bl
m
h t-h a n i wh wa
3 c o n ve n e n t r st e a nd o ne h is e c o ns s t s
e s c a s a va a
fig f m p l m p di l
o fthe thu ,
rs t nd b
e r, a n d se c o n fin e r o ft he r h t ha n . Ift h e t h u a nd
dfi g p lm ig g fi fi g ig
fi rs t n d er be s t re t c he o ut ifro t he a pe r en cu a r to e a c h o t h e r, a n d the
d d y m f m d b fig k m b fi fi g
se c o n b n d er be l
e n t o ve r t o wa r the a a t r ht an es to rs t n e r, a r ht
dfi g
han e s s te is dor e y th e n e rs ta en in t h e o r e r th u , rs t n e r,
se c o n n er .
20 VEC TOR A NAL YSIS
the YZ -plane on which rotation from the Y axis to the Z -
or clockwise 1
.
i
counterc lock wise system will be invariab ly employed .
o ne
A
m
wa s fo r e d b y t h e ri
mg
le ft-h a n d e d s ys t e ma y b e
ht .
m
fo r e d by t h e l e ft ha n d j us t a s a r i g h t -ha n d e d
ADDI TI ON A ND S CALAR MU L TI P LI CA TI ON 21
( )
6
a t y fi z k .
Ap p lic a tio n s
m h mid dl e point
’
r fi t t
’
g a e n s e c s
onal (Fig
L
.
A O Ch o o s e A as origin A B and A D as t h e
.
F G 9 I . .
,
. .
An d R= y ( S T),
’
where y r
is the scalar atio of A g to AO to be sho wn e ua q l
to
Hence ; T+ n
(S
From which
Inasmuch i
as a: s also 1 the line E B must be t r secte d a s i
well as the diagon al A O
y
.
< Eaea mp le
‘
? D If through
a
an
fl
po int within a triangle lines
/
an d T et .
( ) a
i y
A
— S) .
d i y
, ,
on A C T
fl flu
a or Ann 3
L
. ,
c p c w 4
R AR m S n T,
Then — n
)T
,
P =A P =A K+ x KM
LM = ( I
P = A P = A L + y LM
E quat ng i c o e fii c ie n t s ,
l — n
n + se
( )
n
By soluti on , so -r
m + n — 1
m
m + n — 1
m + n
— B
)
O = 1 + k2 (l
x
2
= k 2 m,
y2 = k n .
Henc e k,
1 l
P B ’
kr — l
’
B B a
In i y
the same wa y t ma be shown tha t
’
'
D
P C
c o " ” d DD F
‘
Addi ng t h e ri
four at os the res ul t s i
1
An y po int P o fA B y
ma be expresse as d
— A)
An y po int Q of CD i
may likew se be written
— O) .
et
Then P = A + ze ( B — A)
Henc e l — x zy l,
ac z m
y ,
H enc e a :
m
l + m
9
rati o m n .
Fro . 10 .
m
P = 0P = 0A + A B =A+
m +
That is ,
28 VE C TOR ANA L YSIS
Th e component s of P parallel to A and B a re in inve se ratio r
t o the segm ents A P and P B into which the line A B is
di vided b y t h e point P If it should so happen t hat P divided
.
t riangle . et OA A O B B and O C G , et , C .
’
(B —
A)
2
(C — B )
2
eleu t s ma be e uated .
x = l — y,
Hence
Hence 5 (A B C) .
A DDI TI ON AND SC ALAR M P
UL TI LI CA TI ON 29
This y
is t pical of a whole class of problems soluble b vector y
methods In fact a n y p u re ly ge o m e tri c relati on b etween t h e
.
then becomes
That
thi s condition is ful fi lled in the two e xamples cited
is obvious .
If
and in direction .
Firs t l e t a A+ bB = O
and a + b z 0
.
t h e fi rs t .
Hence A B .
A DDI TI ON AN D SC ALA R M UL TIP LI CA TI ON 31
Secon dl y if A d B q
are e ual in magni tude and d recti on i
q
an
th e e uati on
A B 0
E mH % a A + bB + c C= 0
md a + b + c =fi
c (C — B )
.
i
Hence the vector wh ch jo ns the e xtremiti es of C an A is i d
i
collinear w th that which joins the e x tremities of A and B .
the same origin 0 termin ate in a stra ight line Then the
r
.
vecto s
A B =B — A a nd A O= C— A
Th e necessar and su f
fi cient condition that an e uati on
i
,
in which the sum of the scalar coe ffi cients s z ero subs ist
mm igi mi
,
mV e c t o rs wh i c h ha ve a c o lin e ll e d by
1
on o r n a nd te r na te in o ne a re c a
Ha ilt o n l a min a c o lline a r
“ - ”
.
32 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
between four vectors is that if drawn from a common
,
Firs t l e t
and
L et dbe a non-van ishi ng coe ffi cient Sub sti t u te . t he
d (D —
C) .
Then A D = D — A an d A B B — A a re c c ,
z
l — A) -
0,
(B
where and n are certain scalars Th e sum of the c o e ffi
l, m ,
i
.
c ie n t s in th s equation is z ero .
differences
E _ A, E _B, E _ C, E — D.
70 ( 13 — 11 ) + l (n — B)+ m (E
Th e sum of the coeffi cients of th is e uation s z ero q i .
by m
Ve c t o rs wh ic h ha ve a c o
H a ilto n te rmin o — c o mp la
mm i gi
n a r.
on or
"
n a nd m
te r in a t e in o ne p la n e a re ca lle d
34 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
However the points E C and A lie upon the same st aight
, ,
r
line Hence the equation which connects the vectors E C
.
,
and A must be such that the sum of its coe ffi cient s is z ero .
This determines x as 1 n .
Hence E — n C= D— n B = (1 — n
)A .
Hence
B + C
Hence 2
a A + bB + p P = 0
a + b +
p = Q
Therefo r
e
a A + bB
a b
A DDI TI ON AN D SC ALA R M UL TIP LI CA I T ON 35
Fo r i
d fferent point s P the scalars a a n d b have different
y
values They ma be replaced by x and y which are used
y
.
,
x A+ yB
x + y
P C
vecto rs P t rmi ate in one p lane Hence
n . o .
Th e A, B , C, an d e n .
a A + bB + c C
a + b + c
As b, y
var for di fferent point s of the plane it s more i
ry
a , c, ,
x A+ yB + z C
x + y + z
be four vertices
A , B , O, D
of a quadrilat ral L et meet
e . AB
CD in a fi fth verte x E and A D ,
such that the lines A B and CD are divi ded inte rnall at y
E and E in the same ratio as they are d vided e xte rna y
”
i ll
y i
'
—
(A B ( OD E E
’ ”
EE ) o
) r .
36 VE C TOR A NAL YS S
Choos ethe or g n at random ii . Th e r
fou vecto s A B r , ,
C, D
drawn from it to t h e points A, B , O D terminate in
, o ne
plane Henc e
.
Separate q i
the e uat ons b transpos ing two terms y
d A+ c C=
a + c
a A+ c C bB + dD
Di vi de
b + d
d A + dD bB + c C
In lik e m a n n e r F
a + d b + c
( a + )Ge c C — dD
( a + c > ( a + c )
( a + )G c c C — dD
c — d c — d
Separate q
the e uations again and d vide i
a A + bB c C + dD
a + b c + d
Hence i
d vides A B in the ratio a : b and CD in
q i
E
d B u t e uation ( a ) shows that E ”
divides CD n the
y
c .
ii
.
inte rnal and which ex ternal depends upon the relat ve signs
y
of c and d If the have the same sign the internal point
i y
.
i
.
,
and
which subsist be tween the fo u r vectors drawn from an unde
t e rm in e d origin to the fo u r given points From these t is i
i
.
by li
sp tting the equations into tw o parts and dividin g N ext
y q
.
This would be
By i q
treating th s e uati on as ( c ) wa s t reated ne w p int may
o s
be obtained .
38 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
—d A + dD
9
_ a + d 2 a + b + c
b d + e +d
dD+ (a + b) E
c a + b + d
and
a A + bB c C + dD + e E
a + b c + d + e
a A+ c C bB + dD + e E
a + b b + d + e
are two of the poin t s and others may be found in the same
wa y N ets in sp a ce are als o s cus sed by Hami lton lo c c it
. di , . .
ADDI TI ON AND S CA LAR M UL TI L I CA TI ON P 39
Ce n te rs f
O G r a vi ty
a A+ bB
9
a + b
Then G (a
a + b + c
a A+ bB + c C
Hence
a b c
40 VE C TOR ANAL YSIS
E videntl y th e y
cente r of gravit of any number of masse s
d, si tuated at the points A B C D
r
a , b, c, , , , ,
p o s it e vertices ( Fig et A B C . L , ,
Fro 1 3
ter of gravi t Join A B C t o G and .
, ,
the areas
AB C A A ’
A C CA ’
b + c
’ + ’
CB C G A ’
G A CA a
Henc e
AB C
G B C
a + b+
a
c
B CA a + b + c
In a s i mi lar man ner
G CA 6
CA B a + b + c
GAB c
r
Hence the p oportion is proved
i y
.
from the other two if the point P lies outs ide of the triangle
AB C Inasmuch as only the ratios of a b and c are im
.
, ,
A B C = B CA = C A B .
A CB = B A C = CB A — AB C .
IfP be an
y point withi n the triangle the equation
P A B + P B C + P CA = A B C
A C B D = C B A D = B A C D = D B CA
= A D CB = A B D C = — A B CD
'
CA D B — C A B D = + A CB D — A B CD
If P the tetrahedron A B CD t h e
quat on
s
e i
A R OP — B CD P + C D A P — DA B P z A B CD
ill i
holds good It st s true f P be w thout the tetrahed on
. i i r
provi ded the signs of the volumes be taken into considera
y
tion Th e equation ma b e put into a form more s y m m e t ri
y y
.
A B CD + B CD P +
a A + bB + c C
a + b + c
o P
with respect to the tri angle
r
like ma er from AB C In
e q uation
. nn
x A+ yB + z C+ wD
x + y + z + w
y
which expresses an vector P awn from an indete m nate dr ri
origin in term s of four given vectors A B C D drawn from
y y i
, , ,
a A+ bB + c C+ dD
a + b + c + d
r i
tha t the fou quantit es x y z w a e pre cis el the bar , , , r y y
centri c co ordi nate s of P the terminus of P with respect to
i
, ,
x A + yB + z C + wD
The Us e Of Ve c to rs to de n o t e A re a s
De fi n i t io n An y
area l ing in one plane M N and
b ounded b y a continuous curve P QR which nowhere cuts
itself is said to appear positive from the point 0 when the
lett ers P QR follow each
other in the counterclockwise
or positive order negative
y
N ; ,
y
opposite to O A circle l ing in the X Y-plane and desc ri b ed
y
.
other negative That side of the plane upon whi ch the area
,
.
seems positive is cal led the positive side ; the side upon
which it appears negative the negative side This idea is
y
.
,
P QR S cos x.
FIG . 15 .
r r
,
i r ll l d
series of l ines n M N pa a e an perpend c u la r to the lin e I i .
50 VE C TOR ANA L YSIS
The o re m 2 Th e vector which represen t s a c lo s e d pol hedra l y
surface is z ero .
surface moves neither one way nor the o t her Upon each face
fl
.
z ero .
f i rs
mg
i d t o a ll pra c t ic a l p u rp o se s in t h e c a s e o f a
m
1 Suc h t e o fa f a
a s ta is re a l z e
po lyh e dro n s us pe n d e d in t h e a t o s ph e re a n d c o n s e q u e n t ly s u bj e c te d t o a t o s
p h e ric p re s s u re .
in t h e s us pe n din st ri n g g
Th e fo rc e o f ra vi t y a c t s b ut is c o un t e rba la n c e d by t h e t e n s i o n
.
A DDI TI ON A N D S CA LA R M P
UL TI L I CA TI ON 51
A q
vector is a uantity considered as possessing magnitude
and di rection E qual vecto s possess the same magnitude
. r
and the same direction A vector is not altered by shi fting it
p
.
t he
1 Th i s m
li i t e xi s ts a n d is u n iqu e .
x i + y j+ z k . 6
( )
Applications . Th e point which divides a l ine in a given
ratio m :n is given by the form ul a
n A+ m B
m + n
(D
Th e y
necessar and su ffi cient con di tion that a ve c tor equati on
represent a rel ation independent of the origin is that the sum
of the scalar c o e fli c ie n t s in the equation be z ero B etween .
given b y t h e formul a
1 D emonstrate
the laws stated in Art 1 2
r l
. . .
p l e t e quadr a ngle 1
meet the pairs of opp o site sid e s lie three
g A m pl q
f p i
t h ro u h
co
o ur
ete ua
o n ts n o
g
d ra n l e i
c o n s st s o f t h e s ix s t ra
t h re e o fwhic h a re colli n e a r
i
.
g ht
g
li n e s wh i c h m a y b e pa ss e d
Th e di a o na l s a re t h e l in e s
i j i
wh c h p i o n the i i
o n t s o f n t e rs e c t o n o fpa i rs o f s id es .
54 VE C TOR A NAL YSIS
point E and that this point is such that P E passes
y
and is b isected by the center of gravit of the t e tra h
10 Show tha t wi tho u t e xc ep tio n there e x ists 0
y
.
P ro du c ts o
f Two Ve c to rs
TH E operati ons of a ddition subtraction and scalar
, ,
mul tipli cation have been de fi ned for vec t ors in the way
y
suggested by ph sics and have been employed in a few
applications It now becomes necessar to introduce two
. y
new comb inati ons of vectors These wil l be called p r o du c ts
y
.
dis tri bu tive law which states that the product of A into the
q
sum of B and C is e ual to the sum of the products of A into
B and A into 0
fi
.
A B B A .
56 VECTOR A NA L YSIS
Ifei t her vector be multiplied by a scalar the pr duct s o i
mult iplied b y that scalar That is .
( x A) -
B) .
In case the two vectors A and B are colli near the angle b e
tween the mbecomes z ero or one hundr ed and eighty degrees
and its cosine is therefore equal to unity with the pos itive or
negat ive sign H
ence the scalar product of two parallel
.
cos (A B ) 0 A B , .
c o n di t io n fo r th e p e rp e n dic u la ri ty f two
o vec t o rs , n e ithe r o f
wh ic h va n is he s , is A B 0
d
.
( A + R ) -C = A -
C + R -C 6
( )
L
.
This
may be proved b y means of projections et C be equal
y
.
(A + B ) -( C c )
-
c + B -
c .
( A B ) c that of
, A B upon 0 B u t the projection of the .
( A + B + r + A - a +
+ B - P + B (1 +
B : B r i + s + B s ky
_ A B
1 1
i o i + A1 B 2
i -
j+ A1 B a
i -
k
+ A2 B l j i + A2 B
o
2 j j+ A 2 B
o
3 jk o
+ A3 B l
k o
j+ A 3 B 2
k .
j+ A 3 B n k
i
a ,
By means of ( 4) th s reduces to
A (7)
If in
particular A and B are unit vecto s the components r ,
ir
A 1 A 2 A 3 and B 1 B 2 B 3 are the dire cti on cosines of t h e
i d r rr d
, , , ,
l nes A an B efe e t o X Y Z , , .
DIRECT AND SKE W R OD UC TS OF VECTOR S P 59
B 1
cos (B X) , , B 2
cos (B ,
Y) , B 3
c os (B Z) , .
o i
Moreover A B s the cosine of the included an gle . Henc e
the equation becomes
c os ( A, B ) cos (A X ) cos, (B , X) cos ( A Y) cos ( B Y)
, ,
cos (A Z ) cos ( B Z )
, , .
0= cos ( A X ) cos ( B X)
, , cos ( A Y) cos ( B
, , Y)
cos ( A Z ) c o s ( B
, ,
Z)
-
A— 2A-
B c os
0 = A + B
2 2 2 — 2 A B c os (AB ) .
D-
D = (A — B ) o
(A — B ) =A-
A — 2 A-
B + B o
B,
-A + B -
B) .
60 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
That is the sum of the squares of the di agona s of a para e o l ll l
r
,
C — D-
C- D= 4 A o
B
0 2 —
D = 4 A B
2
c os
vecto rs a b c as, ,
A= a a + bb + c a
o h
+ 2 b c b -
c + 2 c a c o
s
2 c a cos ( c, a ) .
2 1
2 ( x2 x ) (3
1 12 19 0 003 ( X Y) ,
2 (h (z z
a
l ) cos ( Y Z ) ’
2 ( z
2
— z
1 ) ( x2 x l ) cos ( Z X) , .
C= A X E
uc t ,
owing to the fact that it is a vector quantity and in con
tra st with the direct or scalar product whos e value is scalar
y i
.
( 9)
r
when A and B a e the magnit u des of A a n d B respec t ively and
where c is a unit vector in the di rection of C In case A and .
( xA ) D= A>
< ( xB ) = xC .
denoted by the two common signs of mul tip cation the dot ,
and the cross In vector an alysis they o ccupy the place held
.
be cited .
Th e vector produc s x
and B x A are not the t A B
same They are in fact the negatives of each other Fo r if
. .
Hence
A x B B x A ( 1 0)
Th e fa c to rs in a ve c to r p ro du c t ca n be i n te rc h a n ge d f
i a nd o n l
y
if the s ign O f the p ro du c t be re ve rse d.
sin ( y — x) — sin ( x y ) ,
although the sign is not required for the case of the cosine .
cos ( y — x) c o s ( x — y) .
AB C — A CB
0
(1 1 )
A very simple proof ma y be given by making use of the ideas
developed in Art 26 Suppose that C
L
. .
B the sum of all the faces of the prism is z ero ; for the
ut
l
-
2
(1 1 )
relation is therefore proved in case 0 s non-coplanar
Th e i
with A and B Shou ld C be coplanar with A and B choose D
i
.
, ,
Ax B AI A, A3
i + s in x j
'
a cos x ,
— x
a
) ,
cos (y — x ) c os y c os x + s in y s in x .
b = ’
cos y i — s in y j ,
Hence cos ( y + x ) c os y c os x — s in y s in x.
— x
) ,
s in x c o s y)
—
.
Hence sin (y — x) s in y c os x — s in x c o s y .
Hence sin ( y + x ) s in y c os x + s in x c o s y .
cos ( a ,
be found .
DI RECT AN D S KE W R OD U CTS P OF VECTOR S 67
a x a
’
sin ( a a ) ,
’
e = ( m n
’
( n l ’
l ’ - l m ) k,’
( m
( a x a
’
) ( a x a) ’
sin ( a a ) 2
,
’
e e sin ( a 2
,
sin 2
(m n
’
m ’
u
)
z
+ ( n l
'
n
’
l) 2
+(l m
' ’
l m) 2
m 2
n
?
) (l
’2
m ’2
n
’2
) ( W mm ’
n n
’
)
2
.
P ro du c ts f
O M o re th a n Two Vec t o rs
A B and A>
o
<B the triple products are the most important .
e x pression A R0 0
1 La t e r ( Ch a p V )
p ro du c t B C wh e re n o s i n e i t h e r do t o r c ro s s o c c u rs
. . th e ,
g ,
will b e d e fi n e d
a n d c o n se qu e n t l y n o a
.
mg
B u t it wi l l b e s e e n t h e re t h a t (A B ) C a n d A ( B C) a re id e n t i c a l
bi u i t y c a n a ris e fro t h e o is s i o n o f t h e pa re n t h e s is m m o o
.
68 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
second triple product is the scalar product of
Th e
two vec t ors of which one is itself a vector product as
, ,
A- ( B X C ) or ( AX B )-C .
FI G 2 0
Then B x C is t he a re a __o f the par
. .
__
A-
8 03 1“
( B x C) v
( 1 4)
r
will therefo e be the volume of t h e parallelopiped of whi ch
B><C is the base and A the slant height or edge Se e A rt 2 8 . . .
is negative .
c ie n t c o n di tio n
f th e c o p la n a ri ty O f th re e ve c to rs A, B , 0
y
or n one
y
Thi s equalit may b e state d as a rule of Operation Th e . do t
a nd th e c r o ss in a sca la r trip le p ro du c t m a y be i n t e rc h a n
ge d
wi tho u t a l te ri n g the va lu e f th e
O p ro du c t .
A-
( B x C) B -
( Cx A ) C ( )
1 5
A-
( B x C) 1
( )6
H ence
.
: A sc a la r l t e re d by i n te rc h a n gi n g
trip le p r o duc t is n ot a
th e do t o r the c ro s s o r by p e rm u ti ng c y c li c ly t h e o rde r of th e
y
.
Ao C
y
can have onl the one interpretation
A
Fo r the e xpression ( A-
B ) x C s meaningless It is im p o s i .
symbol
[A B C]
[ A B C] A-
B xc B-
Cx A C AxBo
AxB -
C B x C-
A CxA-
B
[ A B C] [A C B ] .
vectors .
[i k
j ] = 1 7
( )
Hence if three vectors A, B , C be ex pressed in terms of i, j , k
as
B = a i + a j+ a n
then [ A B C] = A I
B ,
C3 + B 1
C, A 3 + 01 A , B 3
— A1 B ,
C, — B 1 C, A , — CI A 3 B ,
.
Al A 2 A3
[A B C] B ,
B ,
B ,
01 02 03
1 Th i s is t h e
t e t ra h e d ro n o n e of
fo r m l gi i
u a
wh o s e
ve n
ve rt c e s
in
is
so
at
lid
the
a na
o ri i ng g
ly t i c m m g
y
.
eo
Fo r
e tr
a
fo r t h e
o re
l e
vo u
e n e ra l f o r
mm l o fa
u a
see e x e rc i se s
.
DIRECT AN D S KE W PR OD UCT S OF VECTOR S 71
vectors ,
A= a
I
a + a
2
b + a
3
0
C= C
I
a + C
2
b + C
3
0
where a
l , a
,,
a
s ; b l , b, , b, ; and c
l , c
,,
c
3
a re certain con
s ta n t s , then
[ A B C] c
,
a
3 + c
1
“
a
bs
— a
1
ba c
,
— b1 0
3
a
,
— c
l
a
3
b ,) [ a b c
] .
“ “ “ 3
I 2
[A B C] b 1 b, b8 [a b c
]
c 0 o
y
1 2 s
and
Th e vector is pe rpendi cular to A and to (B x C) .
=mA n B
et A ( Fig 2 1 ) be a give n ve c t o r .
~
i
. .
”
c B ,
Now sin (A B ) b
‘
= 34 B 2
,
”
but — c B ” — c in (A, B) b ”
,
”
i
if b be a un t vector in the direction of B ”
Hence c A2 A-
A .
Hence
A-
A
Hence Ax ( B x C) n A-
( CB AB C),
Mult iply by B .
n (A c B B o
AB 0o
cross Hence
.
A-
( B x C)xB — A
A-
[B x ( Dx C) ] A-
[ B -
C B BB 0]
— B C Ao B
o B-
B AC o
.
Hence n 1 and A-
C B J
ADC ( 24 )
y
.
From t h e
three letters A B C b difi e re n t arrangements
, , ,
C-
B A C-
A B .
and A-
C B 0-
3 A
These
reduction formul ae are of such constant occurrence and
y
great import ance that the should b e com m i t ted to memory .
re m o te r t e rm in t h e p a r e n th e s is to fo rm a s c a l a r c o efii c ie n t fo r
t e rm i n t he th e s is fo rm la fi c ie n t f t he
fi
pa re n to a sc a r c oe or
re mo te r o n e , a n d s u btr a c t th is res u l t f ro m th e rs t .
(AxB )
L et this be regarded as a scalar t ri ple product of the th ee r
vecto rs and
A, B , thus <D
C> -
AxB 4 Cx D)
B B 0 B-
C D .
Hence ( Ax B -
) ( Cx D) A-
C B-
D A-
D B C 2
( 5)
y
.
A-
D
( AxB )( OX D
3 4)
Let <D
C> E . Th e product becomes
A-
E B B EA .
By q
equating these two e ui valent results and transposing
all the terms to one side of the e uation q ,
[B C D] A ( 7)
2
c .
( AxB ) A0 B-
D B e An ( 2 5)
[A CD] B [B e n] A
[AB D] c [ AB C] 2
( 6)
i
wh ch are now to be inte rpr eted
L i L
.
A and C ,
etc Th e points A B C D determine a quadrilateral
. , , ,
A-
C B D o
AB B C
sin ( A B ) CxD sin ( 0 D) AxB , , , .
Fu r 22
angle
.
b e t ween the normals to the AB
.
by x Then .
Th e angles ( A , B ) (
, C , D) y
ma b e replaced by the great
circular arcs A B , CD which measure them Then .
A-
C B D — A-
D B-
C o
cos A C cos B D cos A D cos B O .
Hence
s in AB s in CD c o s cc c os A C o os B D — cos AD cos B C .
Interpret t h e formula
AC B A
o o
C A-
B- A .
sin ( A B )
, s in c ,
( Cx A)sin (0 A) , sin b .
Hence
sin 0 sin b cos ( 1 80 A ) °
cos a c o s b c o s c — s in b s in c c o s A
cos b cos c cos a sin e sin a cos B
cos c cos a cos b s rn a s i n b cos 0 .
y
.
[ A B C] A
Ax B = c s in c , Ax C — b s in b
c sin 0 sin b A sin 0 sin b sin A
xb
[ A B C] -
C c C sin 0 cos ( 9 0 -p ) sin c
~
°
[ A B C] A = Sin c s in p;
80 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
By q
e uatin g the results and cancelling the common factor ,
siu p e
sin b sin A
sin p a
sin 0 sin B
sin p , sin a sin
Th e last two may b e obtained b y c clic permutation y
le t t ers Th e formul a give t h e sines of the altitudes of the
.
wri te
[ A B C] A
[ B C A] B
[0A B ] 0
.
[ A B C]
sin a s in c s in B :
[ C A]
B
sin b sin a sin 0 :
[C A B ] .
Th e i
express ons [ A B C] [ B CA] [ C AB ] are e ua
, , q l .
as
vectors is z ero for the triangle is a clos ed polygon .
M ultiply b y b xc .
t)
-
b xc
r a a o
b xc b b-
b xc c c -
b xc
[ r h o ] a
[a b c ] .
[ ] = b b
re a
[ c a
]
[r a b ] = c
[ c a b]
Hence [r b c ] a
c
[ a b c
] [ b c a] a
[ b] c
.
r ~ b >
< c r
'
-
c >
< a r o a x b
b c
[a b c ] [ a b c
] [a b c ]
b x c c >
< a x b
r .
a
[a b c
] [ a b c
] [ a b c
]
DIRECT A ND SKE PV PR OD UCT S OF VECTOR S 83
c x a a x b of t hree n o n -
,
c op la n a r vectors a b c b
y the scalar , ,
product [ a b c ] is called t h e re c ip ro c a l s y s te m to a b c , , .
b x c c x a a x b
[ a b c ] [ a b c
] [ a b c ]
Th e e xp re s s io n fo r r reduces then to the very simple form
r r b b ( )
3 0 -
r a
’
a o
’ - ’
r c c .
or [ a b c
] r
y
Multipl successively b y o
a ,
o b, o
c . This gives
a
[ 0] N i
b x [ b c a] , 33 r a. -
[ a
] b c r
y = ro b
[a b c ] z [a b c ]
H ence
ro c , 2 re c
r -
r a a
’
r o b b ’
-
r c c
,
’
.
84 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
]
44 If a the s ’
y stem
,
reciprocal
b ’
to,
a b c the
c
’
be , ,
’ ’
a
’o
a b b o c o
c 1
’o ’o ’ ’o
a
’
o b a
’
o
c b a b c c o a c b 0 .
Hence a ’
'
’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
a a o
a a o b b a o
c c
b ’
b
’
o aa ’
b ’
o
bb ’
b
’
o
c c
’
o
’
c
’
o a a
’
c
’
o
b b
'
c
’
-
c c
’
.
Since a
’
,are non-coplanar the corresponding c o e ffi
b
’
, c
’
’o ’ ’
1 a a O a o b O a 0 .
b >
< c c -a [ b o a ]
[ a b c
] [ a b c ] [ a b c]
b >
< c b x c o h 0
[ a b c
] [ a b c ] [a b c ]
and so fort h .
Aa o =B h o
“
2 C-
c 1
A 0 3 A 0
0 B o
a B 0
0 z 03 0
Cb = Oo
86 VEC TOR A NA L YSIS
Th eo re m Ifa ’
, b ’
, c
’
and a ,
b, c reciprocal s stems
be y
the scalar triple products [ a ’
b ’
c
’
] an d [ a b c ] are numeric a l
reciprocals That is
.
’
b ’
] [
’
b ] 1
[
x
a c a 0
b x c c a a x b
[ a b c ] [ a b c ] [a b c
]
[b x c c xa a x b ] .
3
[ a b c ]
xb ]
[ b xc c>
<a a
[ a b c
]c .
2
[b xc c >
<a a xb ] [ a b c
] c o a xb [ a b c
] .
1 1
2
Hence 3 [ a b c
] _
[
a b c ] [ a b c
]
means of t his relation b etween [a b c ] and [ a
By
’ ’ ’
b c ] it
is possible to prove an i m portant reduc t ion formul a ,
P-
A P B o
P-
C
Q-
A Q B o
Q-
C
BA B B B -
C
e xpressed as
=P A A ’
P- ' ’
P ~ B B P C C
o
Q = Q-A A + Q-B B
’ ’
61-
0 0
'
B = B A A
’
B B B
.
o o
’
c
'
.
P-
A P B o
P-
C
[P e n ] :
Q-
A a s we
R-
A B -
B R-
C
J[A M T
I
1
[A
I I
B C
DIRECT AN D S KE W R OD UCTS P OF VE C TOR S 87
PA P-
B
Hence [P Q R ] [ A B C] Q-
A Q B o
B A B B
s y s te m o f t hre e u n it r e c t o r s i , j , k is r e c ip ro c a l
jx k i i xj k . 35
[ 1 1 ]
k 1 [1 1 k]
Fo r thi sreas on the primes i j k are not needed to denote ’ ’
j
,
Th e onl
y sy s te m s o fth re e ve c t o rs whi c h a re t h e ir o wn re c i
p ro c a ls
.
t he ri h t -h a de d a nd l eft -h a n de d ms f th r ee u n it
j j
a re n s y s te O
g
That is the system i k and the system i — k
Let
r e c to rs . , , , , .
Then b y ( )
32
AA B Bo
0-
0 1 .
AB o Ac e 0 .
B-
A B-
C 0 .
Hence B is perpendicular to A a nd C .
C-
A C-
B 0 .
a a -
b xr c fr o
cl O,
88 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
where a b c d e f are known vec t ors ; and a b c d known
y
, , , ,
, , , , ,
a a xb r b c fr o
d 0
{ a a xb b c f} -
r d
.
-
A
r a .
FIG 24
A b e a fi xed vector drawn fr om the same
. .
origin . Th e q
e uation then becomes
‘
7 A COS a ,
r cos ( r A) ,
3 ,
ro B = b
r -
C= c
I 'D =d
fourt h .
r
' ’ ’o
a A D o
bB o
D c C Dz d
a
[ B O D] b [ C A D] c
[ A B D] = d [ A B C] .
( 4 0)
vector equati on of the fi rst degree in an unknown
A
vector is an equat ion each term of which is a vector quantity
con t aining the unk n own vector not more than once Such .
an equation is
D E-
r n r F 0,
Aa o
r + B b-
r + C c ~ r
-
D,
t h e vectors .
Multiply the equation successively b y A B C ’ ’ ’
, ,
a r
o -
DA ’
b- - ’
r DB
'
c r
o
DC o
B ut r a a-
r
’
b ’
b-r c
’
c or .
Hence r -
DA a D- D-
’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
B b C c .
, , ,
terms as ,
Aa-
r B b-
r Cc o r.
b-
’ ’ ’
n r n a a r o
+ n b r + n c c or
’ ’
E xr Ex a a r
o
Exb b c or
q
.
Ap p lic a tio n s to Me c h a n ic s
and direction but which lie upon different lines in the bod
,
r
, , ,
the re su lta n t R .
( 41 )
n it u de
is as de fi n ed above Its direction is usually taken to
.
94 VECTOR ANALYSIS
T his is the magnitude of the moment M o f
{} Th e direction .
t h e relation is proved .
M O {f} d .
L
, , .
,
Mo {f1 , f2 , d1 >
<f1 d z x f2
M O {f1 , f2 ,
'
(l
l x
’
fl
(d1 ( d2
- n
c Ma {R0 }
H ence
o r .
M 01 {f1 , f2 , MO { p 2
f £ , Mo i
{ o
R i ( 44 )
Th e theorem is therefore proved .
£2 ,
Fo r R -
Mo r
§ f1 , f2 ,
=B -
M o {f1 , f2 , + R -M O {B 0 } , .
R Moo '
{R 0 } 0
parallelism is
B XM 0 { 1
f £2 , 0
x
' 0
,
E t ra ,
if“ £ 2 , = R>
<M o ( fl , £2 ,
+ R X MO '
zRo =
g O
96 VE C TOR ANA L YSI S
where O is any point chos en at random Replace . BI O {B
/
0 }
by its value and for b revity omit to wri t e the f 1
f 2 , , in the
b races Then
B xM o f B xM o 0 .
B xM o B B 0 B -
c R 0
.
RXM O RB
O 0
B XM O
R-
R
FOI ‘
M O § f1 , f2 ,
'
M 0 {f1 , £ 2 , OXR o
Ifc is parallel to B c
0O ’
vanishes and the moment
,
l
p e
rotating
.
et the magnitude of a . L
be a the angular velocity Th e vecto r a m a y be taken to
L i
.
,
a >
<r a r s in
( a, r )
is equal in magnitude and direction to the velocit v of t h e y
terminus of r Fo r its directi on is perpen di cular to a and r
.
v a >
<r .
( 4 5)
If the body be rotating simul taneous l about several ax es y
which pass through the same point as in t h e
y i
a 3 a
] , 2 3 ,
1 l 1
v2
v8 a xr
s 3
DIRECT A ND KE W PR OD UCT
S S OF VECTOR S 99
where r 1 r 2 t a , , , r
a e the radi i vectores drawn from points
on the ax is a l ea , to the same point of the body Le t
, .
intersect on of th e ax es Then .
o o
'
=r
ax is is not the same for all time but constantly changes its ,
v a xr 4
( )5
radi u s vector drawn from the fi xed point to any point of the
body .
v v a xr ( 46)
0 .
1 00 VECTOR A NALYSI S
Incase V is p arallel to a t h e b ody moves around a and
0 ,
a xr
Thi s y
ma be done as follows . M ul tipl y by xa .
vo x a
-
a a r At a vo x a .
v0
a a -
Th e point r thus determined has the propert that its ve l o c
, , y
ity is z ero If a line b e drawn through t hi s point parallel to
.
ab out t his n e w ax is .
v a xr
”
L
.
,
’ ’
v vo a xr .
a-
”
dxi a o dxf .
W a h xf
- ”
: t - ’
a dxf t
’
a -
dx ft .
W= ( a -d1 >
<f1 a d >
2 <f2 t o
a -
( l
d 1 (l
g xf2 t
a o
M o {fl , £ 2 , t
i q
.
M o { f1 , f2 , O
DIRE C T AN D S KE W PR OD U C S T OF VE C TOR S 1 03
y
necessar conditions that a rigid bod he in e q u ili b
Th e y
riu m under the action of a system of for ces is that the resul t
ant o f t hose forces and the total moment about any point in
spa ce sha ll vani sh
r y
.
DR=O o .
W= I) -
f1 D-
f, +
and the tota l work done is z ero when the bod suffe s any y r
i
,
an other point 0 ’
M O { i n fa
’
,
‘
h MO £29 MO ’
{ B O}
B ut y
by h p othes is R is also z ero . Hence
Henc e a o
MO :
{ p 2,
f £ 4t 0
y
where a is an vector whats oever B u t this e xpression is .
equal to the work done by the forces when the body is rotated
for a time t with an angular velocit a about the line a y
passing through the po in t O Th s work is z ero ’
i
y
. .
Ap p lic a t io n s t o G e o m e try
Relation s b e t ween
two right-handed systems of th ree
mutually perpen di cular uni t vectors Le t i k and i k .
,
j ,
’
, j ’
,
’
Hence
Tha t is
cos (i
’
i) cos (i ) ’
j cos ( i k ) ’
j
a a a
1 , 2 , 3 ,
b1 cos (j i )’
b2 cos (j ) ’
cos (j k ) ( 4 8 ) ’
j
, , b3 ,
c
1 cos ( k i)’
, 0
2
cos ( k ) ’
, 0
3
cos (k k) ’
, .
In t h e same manner
+ i-
jj - ’
i k k ’ ’
j j+
’
+ a
1
i + bl c k ’
l
’ ’
k k i ’ ’
s
’
o
a
, 0
2
k
- ’
k jj
’
k k k
o
’ ’
a i ’
ba j
’
o k
’
3 s
’ '
i i o
1 a
,
2
a
z
z
“ 2
3
l ,
jj '
1 61 2 “
i b2
“ 2
O3 2
u
k kl 1 r; 0
2
0
2
C
2
1 2 3
1 06 VE CTOR ANAL YSIS
the d rection but to lie wholly in the la an from j
kp
- d
j
i n e
i
it s form upon the left it is seen to lie in the k -plan e ’ ’
.
Its magnit u de is m or 1 /
m T h s gives the
scalar relation s
— a
— “ k 53
2 ( )
is the line of inte rsection of the k and jk-plan e s and j ’ ’
,
its magni tude is the sine of the angle be t ween the planes .
00 C Then
.
B C= C— B, C A = A — C, AB z B — A
y
.
By h po thesis
A (C B) O
and B-
(A C) 0 .
Subtra ct ; C-
(B A) 0,
Let 0 be
the origin and B the vector O B et B be the ra L
y
.
AX ( R — B =0
q q
.
A
Thi s is the desired e uation It is a vector e uati on in the
q
.
B ) 0
R C c
A>
<R A>
<B
<C
>
A-
CB C-
RA
A-
CB c A
c A
Hence
ti ons .
plane area but the entire plane itself just as a vector represents
i
,
t hen
t o
p 1
cos ( r p ) p
t o
p r , .
r = x i + y j+ z k
p = u i + v
f
j+ w k
Hence ro p = xu + y c + z w z l
ro p = 1
AXB = B XA
i>
<i j
><j k xk 0
i xj jx i k
j
xk <j= i
k>
k>
<i i Xk = j
AXB ( A2 B S As 8 2)
i A
( s B l A1 B 3 )j
( A1 B A2 3 1)
k
j
a
i k
AXB AI A2 A
B ] 3 2
B
[ A B C] A-
B xC B Cx A
o
C-
AxB
AxB -
C B xC-
A CxA-
B
[ A B C] [A CB ] .
DIRECT AN D S KE W PR ODU T
C S OF VE C TOR S 111
A-
A
A-
CB AB C
A-
CB C-
B A
A-
CB D o
A-
DB-
C
[A C D] B [B C D] A
[ A D D] 0 [ A B C] D .
( 26 )
Th e q
e uation which subs ists between four vectors A, B , C, D
is
[B C D] A [ D A] B
C [D A B ] 0 [ A B C] 1) = 0 .
( 27)
A ppl ication of formul of vector analysis to obt i the for a a n
Th e is said to be reciprocal to a
’
, b ’
, c
’
the
sys t em of three non-coplanar vectors a, b, c
b x c c x a a x b
when , ( )
2 9
[ a b c ] [a b C ] [a b
( 0)
’
r r a .
’
a r
. b b ’
r c . c 3
r ro a , a ,
’
r -
bb ’
r e ( 31 )
Th e y
necessar and su ffi cient conditions that the two s stems of y
r
non-c oplanar vecto s a b c and a b c be reciprocals is that , ,
’
,
’
,
’
l ’
a . a b b o 1
( )
3 2
a
’o
b a
’
o
c b ’o
c 2
“
Ma c
’
o b 0 .
Ifa ’
, b
form a s stem eciprocal to
’ ’
y r b, C ; then b, c w l il
y
, 0 a, a,
[
t l ’
a b c ]
11 2 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
P A o P-
B P-
C
Q-
A AB a c
BA AB B C
Th e ,
j
system i k is its own reciprocal and if conversely a
,
r -
A a .
( 36 )
Applications of the methods developed in Chapter IL to the ,
12 . Show y
b vecto r methods that the formu l a for the
ume of a tetrahedron whose four vertices are
( “
v y rs
2
1 ) ( x2 , 312 : z
z) ( x
3 , 75
3 ) ( “p 90 z
l )
“
I
’
I
ll z
,
1
H
2
8
N 3
5
z
2
1
6 a
s y3 z
8
1
“4 z
,
1
[ a b c ] = a bc n 1 l
m l 1
q y
.
, , , , ,
given in Art 4 6
q
. .
Dife r e n ti a tio n f
o Fun c tio ns f
O On e Sc a la r Va ri a ble
i
ment of r will be the d fference between r and r and will be ’
denoted as us u al b A r y .
Ar = r
r
where A must be a vector quantit If the variable T b e y .
Ar
A t
116 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
will b e a vector collinear with the chord P P b u t magnifi ed ’
the vector
03r
will approach
dt
j
.
r = r
1
i + r
2 j r k
3
the components r
1 , r
2,
r
3 will be functions of the scalar t .
( r
1
A r1 ) i + ( r2 A r2 ) j ( r3 A r3 ) k
Ar = r
’ —
r = A r i + Ar
1 2 j+ A r3 k
Ar A rl A r
2
A r
3
,
k
At A t A t A t
dr d rl d rg d r
3
, ,
k ( 2)
d t
'
d t d t
derivati ves .
d z
r
‘
i
d r
1
2
dt d t 2
d "
r d “
r
1
d t” d t "
In a s rmrla r
manner if r
non-coplanar vecto rs a b
be e xpressed in terms y
an three
, , c as
+ bb +
'
1 a a c c
118 VE C TOR A NAL YSIS
A(a o b) Ab Aa Aa -
Ab
+
At 3 7 At At
d db da
( a X b)= 8 X
( a o b x c ) a -b x
o b x c .
( a x
x[ x b c ] .
( 6)
r ly
the fi st is evident incorrect but the second correct In
i
, .
be e xpected .
o b + a o
o b + a o
( a o h) o b + a .
ri
second pa t al de ri vatives are formed in the same
2
9 as
a wa y 9x
1 20 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
O ft en it is more convenient to use not the derivatives but
t h e di f
feren t ials Thi s is part icularly true when dea ng wi th li
fi
.
rs t differentials Th e form u l a
.
(4 ) b ecome
d ( a o b) = da -b + a o db ,
e xample If r be a un i t vector
.
r o r z l .
( d r) o
r + r = 0 .
Hence r o dr z 0 .
s be t h e
lengt h of a re measured from some de fi nite point of
the curve as origin Th e incremen t A r is the chord of t h e
.
equal in magnitude
t o unity and
approaches unity as its limi t when A 3 becomes
in fi nites imal .
1 22 VE C TOR A NAL YSIS
t o t = e -c = n o n =1
and t o o C o n =n o t =0 .
ii
Different at ng the fi rst set
t dt =c - dc =n - dn =0
o ,
ll l i r
o o
n .
dt = o .
Hence dn - t = 0
i i
.
to c
y
.
Th e tortu osit T is
3 r
d d dr d 1
( t X " ) x
z
dc ds ds d s
d z
r d z
r 1 dr d 3 r 1
x + x
a s
?
a s h / m d s ds 3
Vc . c
2 r
dr d d 1
+ x
z
d s d s d s x/ c
therefore be given by — c T .
THE DIFFERENTIAL C AL C UL US OF VE C TOR S 1 23
3 r
dr d 1 dr d z
d
— c -
T x x
r
ds d s
3
m ds d s
z
ds
2
C d r 1
Hence T
d
d8
2
r
2
dr
d s
x d3 r
d 3
3
C C
1
dr d 2
r
2
ds d 3
d 2
r d z r
2 2
d 3 d 3
r iy y i
to tuos t ma be obta n ed b another metho wh ch
Th e y d i
i r q
s somewhat sho ter if not uite so st aightforward r .
t - C = c u n t = 0
H
o o
.
ence dt c — d c - t o
dc u — dn - c o
dn - t — dt n o
l H
.
T=t >
< 0
1 24 VECTOR A NA L YSIS
d C
t x c C-C— t x c -C x/ C -C
.
d s
t x c -C = 0
d C
t x c
C -C
2 3
dr dr d r
2 3
d s d s d s
2 2
d r d r
2 2
ds d s
ds ds ds
m a
2 2 2
d s ol s d s
3 3 3
d x d y d e
3 3 3
d s ds d s
‘
m a n n a l a G eo metri c In n ités i m a l e 1 b
fi y F E H B e xtreme
”
ly
1
Pa ri s , Ca rr-
é e t Na u d ,
1 89 9 .
1 26 VE C TOR A NAL YSIS
i
introduced b y N ewton It w ll als o be conve n ien t to enote d
q i
.
defi ni tion
LIM Av dv
M G At
"
i
dt
dv d dr
_ — — r
dt dt ll t
Dfi
ferentiate the expression v
dv
—
d ( v t) d
z
dt dt dt
dv d
i s
2
dt dt
dt dt d s
dt ds d t
a
7
a
.
A= t + v C 2
“ t”
é
s .
“
i
i
f
? i
Th e acceleration of a particle mov ng in a curve has there
fore been broken up into two components of which one is p a ra l
le l to the tan gent t and of which the other is pa allel to the r
curvat ure C that is p e rp e n dic u la r to th e tangent That thi s
, , .
indep e n de n t p f w
V ,
ha t sort t ll rve the p a rti cle s describing
“ q . . [
.
If r be e xpres sed in te r m s of i k as , ,
x i + y j+ z k,
A = v= r 515 1 + y j+ z k,
x x + y y + z z
A = v= s
F G 29
I
L et
the radi us vector r he
drawn to the particle Th e
. .
i v a >< r .
B as
ut a is perpendicular to the plane in whi ch r lies a r , 0
.
Hence -
i z A — a a r —a 2 r .
a rea is
1 1 1
r x A r.
£ 3:
'
LE I l l LIM
1
At r 02
’
- At Ac e s o z A , 4 5
A
B re ak up the vector l r r°
into t wo components one
r l
E i A t
pa alle and the other per end cu a to the p i lr a c c e l e ra t ro n ro
Af
_ x
A t l/ n?
y Th e q antity
qu tity
u 2: a
o.
p
r
p oac unit when A t approaches z ero
he s
Th e an
.
y
approaches z ero when A t approaches z ero .
TH E DIFFEREN TIAL C A L C UL US OF VE C TOR S 1 31
Hence
A
r x r — rO X ro
x i + y j+ z k,
d r x d i + y d j+ z dh
d r = (d r
d r z w
( i o di + y i o d j+ z i o d k) i
+ ( j x o d i + yj o d j+ z j o d k) j
+ (x k
B ut i - =
j j
H en ce i o d j+ j o di =0 or j-d i
j -d k + k -d j= 0 or k -d j
k -di + i -dk = 0 or i d k o
r di =
o
i -
d j= k -
dh =o .
1 32 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
u
S b st tu i i
t ng th e s e values in the e x pression for d r .
-
d r = (z i d k —
yj
- d i — z k ~ d i) i
— x i - k
+ (y k d j d )k o .
Th is is a vector product .
-
d k j+ j
dj di
=k
,
a o
" 3 k .
d t d t d t
d r
a >
<r .
d t
d2 r
Ifr be d splaced by
i a, it becomes
r + d1 r = r + a
l x r d t .
If it then be displaced b y a
z , it becomes
Hence
If the in fi n ite s im a ls ( d t ) of or er h ghe tha n the
2
d i r fi rt s be
neglected ,
d r = a
l <r d t +
> a 2 x r d t,
i
wh ch proves the theo em r . Ifboth sides be d v e b i id d y dt
1 2) x
a ' ‘
3 r.
1
1 34 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
r
whe e C is some co nstant vector To a ccomp is h th e nte g a l i r
y i y
.
Th e equat on of motion is s im l
r g,
r
which exp e s ses th e fact that the acce erat on s l i i l ys wa
y y
a ve r
f= g t + b ,
pr
.
d
r >
< r _ -
—
ci
d
H ence — 0
a nd r x T : C,
which proves th e t tement
s a .
TH E DIFFERENTIA L CA C L UL US OF VE C TOR S 1 35
Exa mp le 3 Integrate
the e u ati on of motion for a pa t cle q ri
moving with an accelerati on to ward the cent e and e ual to r q
a constant multiple of the in ve se s ua e Of the stan ce r q r di
from the centre .
G iven
Then 1
'
X r 0 .
Henc e rx i C .
rx( x ) r { r
- r
1
3
r r -}
r r r .
r
7
r o
H ence
Ea c h s id
e i q ality is a perfect
of th s e u difi e re n tia l .
In te grate . Then
r i
whe e e I s the vector constant of inte grati on e s its ma gni i
di iy q
.
t on b
r x i
2
C r r + e r o I .
0
1 36 VE C TOR A NA L YSIS
and cos it c os ( r
, I) .
p = r + e r c os u .
P
r :
1 + e c os u
This q i
is the e uat on of the ellips e of wh ch e IS the e c c e n tri i
cit y Th e vector I is drawn in the ect on of the major dir i
i
.
Th e length of th s ax is is
P
a
2
1 e
Sc a la r Fu n c tio n s o f P o s i t io n i n Sp a ce . Th e Op e ra tor V
a m p l e , is
x 2
+ y
2
+ z
2 = r
(x , y, 2
) from the origin
function V will be supposed to
. Th e
be in general continuous and single -valued In physics scalar .
tion
V ( x, y , z ) c .
( 2 0)
de fi nes a surface in space such that at every point of it the
function V ha s the same value 0 In case V b e the tem era . p
1 38 VE C TOR A NAL YSIS
vector sum which is the re s u l t a irt
Th e r t i cre s
a e of n a e
o f V is denoted b V V y .
9V 9V 9V
— 21
VV i "
o
9 x 9 g 9 z
_
-
9 i
9 x 9 31
V=i
a 9
i .
( 22 )
9 x 9g 9 z
Th is symbolic perator
was introduced b Sir W R V y
H y
O . .
y
, , ,
i
.
9 9
V i —
-
Ij
TE
C ay
1 Som e us e m Nd liki g f i i d mbl
th e te r a blai o wn t o its a nc e re s e a nc e to a n Ass yr a n
ha r
co ne i
p
.
d
Ot h e rs h a ve
the p i
no ne m by i i g
n o te
t o o e u h o n o us n ad l
q l
it s e n e ss
e A tle d
to an n ve rt e
n ve rt n
d Aand
t h e o r e r o ft h e
h a ve c o ns e ue n t
e t t e rs in
y
p i l ig i ymb l
t h e wo r dD e lta . T E
Flip p l in h is E infi h rung in die M a xwe ll ’s c h e h e o rie de r le o
i gd pi i g p i l
tric itcit a vo
‘
i ds a ny s f ec a O de s na t o n a n d re e rs t o the s o as
“
die p e ra t ion
i g m i g
V .
”
i
H o w th sd is t o b ed d re a is no t d vul e . In ee , fo r r nt n no a rt c u a r
na
q i d
u re
m e is
o ft e n re
—
p d
mso
ea
i g
te
l
n e c e s sa r
.
d
e th n
y p p
f
,
p k
i
b ut fo r i
to o t h a t
e c tu r n
oe s no t
a nd ur os e s o
c o n us e th e s e a
f n s t ru c t o n
er or
so
b e a re r
e th n
e ve n
rs re
wh e n
TH E DIFFERENTIA L C AL C UL US OF VECTOR S 1 39
y
.
, ,
s stem is
9 9 9
v
V I — ‘ + k ( 2 2)
r
e x
'
9g ’
9 z
’
i
B y mak ng use of the formul ae and Art 53 , page
from i j to j
1 04, for transformation of a x es k i ’ ’
k and b
’
y
ctually carr ing out the y y
, , , ,
V ’
V
r r
.
V ( x, y , z ) = c
and
V 0: et r denote the ra
.
g
the neighbo ring s u rface V
c d c may b e represente d c
by t h e radius vector r d r .
d 0
n ( )
23
From
this de fi nition V V is certai nl y the vector whi ch
,
V V-dr
dI
— fn o dr .
( 5)
2
d n
t h e s urfa ces .
1 42 VECTOR ANAL YSIS A?
q
Moreover thi s e uati on de fi nes dv dz In a s milar m anner . i
it is possib le to lay down the following defi nition
r
.
Let
9 x 9 3/ Oz
x y
Vr =i
V W H
V W
z
Hen ce
1
(1 x + jy kz )
Vr
V ( x, y, z )
1
( 23
2
y
a:
2
z
2
) i
j y
y
Z
z
k
2 ”
( 90
v
1
He n c e V — l w— Jy
— k z )
1
V
r
s ua re .
VT “
n r r
Th e r
p oof is left to the ea der r .
( cc , y, z
) of spa c e the fun cti on V m a y be wr t te n
, as
i x + =
jy r
r — kk o r
H e n 00
-
r o r— -
(k )
r 3
r — k kd
( r— k k-
r) -( r — k k r) o
1 44 VE C TOR A N AL YSIS
—
dr . dr VV o
Hence
v
L et V: r a, where a is a consta n t ve c to r
.
d V= dr o
a = dr V V o .
Hence V V= a .
Exa mp le 3 L et V: ( ) ( r xb ) , W here an d b
r
: rx s a
constant vecto s
-
.
V= ro r a o h — r a ro'b
(
.
A
r “
Ar m a da . -
r Ar a de a PN’ v w A
; fi "
dV 2 dr o
r a o h dr o
a ro b dr b a r a - dr V V
Henc e V V= 2 r a h o a ro b b r a -
V V= ( ra o
h a ro h ) ( ra o h b r a -)
a x ( rxb
) .
r i
,
t h e commutativ e l a w
9 9 9
a b =ba,
9 x 9v 9g
th e as s i
oc ati ve la w
9
—
92 9 9
a (b c )
3: 9y
i
z
hold for the differentia to s just as for sca ars r l Of cou rs such
formu a a s l . e
TH E DIFFERENTIA L CALC UL us OF VECTOR S 1 47
l
are not true sca ars It is a vector d fferentiator and of i
r y i
.
ns tan c e
V (n v =
) V n + V v,
V ( a v ) ( V ie ) v n ( V v) ,
e V n V ( e n ) ,
df
f
rep resent any vector the formal comb nati o
a re e .
If A i n
A V is
o
9 9
A V ° — Al + A2
am 9 3/
r i
p o v ded A = Al i + Ag j Aa k .
9 V 9 V 9 V
(A V.
) V = A1 + Az +4 ,
.
9 x ay 9 z
9 17 9 V 9 V
a-
( V) V= - ——
+ a
da 1
ag ; 3
az
1 48 VE C TOR A N ALYSIS
where l the di rection c sine of t h ne referred li
y
a o
“ r a s a re s e a
,
Th s is ofte n written
WM
Z
9 17
9V
S
9 17
9V
(”
W V—
197 :
”
my
if n , , a
be
” the di
2a
rection cosines of the normal
n .
( a o V) V = a ( V V) .
( 3 0)
Fo r i
th s re a son either operation may be denoted simpl b yy
a VV
a.
-0 n th a o t h e r ha nd a ( V V) is t ha n o mp o ne nt a f V V_in . .
V) V
.
( a .
9 3 9 s 9 s
.
( V) V V V
y
a a
wi thout parentheses . Fo r
a .
the mean ing of -the vector s mbol vs
Although
the operation V V has not been de fi n ed and
cannot be at present two formal combin ations of the vector
1
y
,
v i 3 i
9
9 56 9y 9 z
V o
V is re a d de l do t V; a nd V x V, de l c ro ss V .
9 9 9
Th e di fferenti a to m , b e m g s c a l a r o p e ra t o ra p a ss
9 x 9 3/ a z
9V 9V 9V
V XV= I X + k x
a: 9 y 9 z
DIFFERENTIA L CA C L UL US OF VE C TOR S 1 51
9 73
k,
9 x 9 x 9 x 9 x , y
av 9 17
a n W
J+
1 . .
,
k’
ar 9a ae 9v
9V 9 VI 9 V2 17
9 3
k‘
9 2 a z 9 z 9 z
H e nc e
More o ve r
H en ce VxV 1
9 z 9 x
9 V2 9 Vl
9 x 9 3;
Th is m a y be ri i
w tte n n the form of a determ nan t i
1 52 VE C TOR A NAL YSIS
It r
is to be unde stood that the operators are to be applied to
t h e func t ions V1 V2 V8 when e xpanding the determin ant
, , .
V-
V— x e 9V
gx
V x V= i >
< + k >
<
e z i a a
9 96 9g
as
a symbolic vector differentiator Th s symbo obeys the . i l
same laws as a vector just in so far as the difi e re n t ia t o rs
7
3
9
,
w
97
9
obe ,the
9
same y
laws as ordinar scalar uantities y q
x y
.
is simpl
9 V 9 VI
d a: d g d z .
9 a:
g
d x d g d z and k — d cc d g d z
3!
e
9 z
.
9 cc 9 g
This q
is the net uantit of uid whi ch leaves the cube per y fl
unit time Th e quotient of t his by the volume d x dg d z of
i y
.
V v= i
° o
av
o
av s
_
__
v 17
9 1 W , e V,
'
9 3: 9 g 9 z 9 x 9g 9 z
i
where V s the flu x of the uid This equation is often fl
y
.
V x V= cu e .
Se c o ri i a strai n w th thr e e i
translation with efi nite velocit ij
l l p
.
,
vo + V >
< ( a x r ) .
2 j+
a a
1
i + a a
8
k
+ z k
x x
e xpand V ( a r ) formally as if it were the vector tri ple
product of V a and r Then ,
x
, .
V v V ( V r a —
) ( V -a) r o
x i
.
9m 9y 9z
V ' r + +
55 é7l 5
As a is a constant vector it may be place d upon th e other side
of the differential operator , V a a V .
"
-
lV r “
9
+ a
9
1
9 75 2
7j
9
Hmm v =3 a — a = 2a
Therefo re in case of the motion -o f a igid body the curl
th e r
y
of the line a r vel o c it at an point is e ua to tw ce the y q l i
Ia n gu la r velocity in magn tude and n di ec t io n i i r .
1 58 VE C TOR A NAL YSIS
a ( V ie ) v
Vu -
v
Vu x v = ( V n) x v
.
fo m
To demonst rate V x
V x ( u v ) =
z i x
a
v + u
v + 2 1 x it
9 11. 9v
9;
Xv +
2 u 1 < —
>
9w
Hence
To demonstrate
V (n v) v -
Vu + u V
( X )
o
V .
THE DIFFERENTIAL CA C L UL US VE C TOR S
o v + u
1 = v >
<
In k ke m a n n e r
E u -
—
9
a
v
z
z
.
r u x (V x v) + r v
.
Henc e V (u-
v) = v -
Vn + u -
Vv
+ v x( V x u ) + u >
< ( V X V) .
Th e r
other formul a a e demonstrated in a simi ar manne l r.
7 ]
4 Th e nota tion 1
V 0 1 V ) n ( 44)
ill
w be us ed to denote that in appl ng th e Op e ra t o r V to the yi
product (11 v) the quantity u is to b e egarded as c on s ta n t
,
r .
1 Th is
m
ide a a n d n o ta
m km
p a rt ia l V s o t o s pe a m a y be a vo ide d by e a n s
ti o n o fa
m m
o f t h e fo r u la 4 1
v X (V X
.
u )
.
.
m m
B u t a c e rt a i n a o u n t o f c o p a c t n e s s a n d s i pli c i t y is
lo s t t h e re by Th e id e a o fV (n v) is s ure ly n o o re c o pli c a te d t h a n u V v o r
,
1 60 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
V (u -
v) v. 4
( )5
This
tion of difle re n t ia l s
i
formula correspon ds to the follow n g one in the nota
V V
V >
<
( 11 4
1 62 VE C TOR ANAL YSIS
l
form a l y a s if V , n, r
v we e all rea vecto s l r . Then
11 x ( x v)
V = r V — u
: V
- v z .
and — u -
V v .
a o =V ( a ( 7)
4
v = v
1
i + v2 j+ v3 k
d v = d v1 i + d v2 j+ d v3 k
y
.
B ut b d v1 = d r o 1
d v2 = d r o 2
d v8 = d r o 3
.
Hence dv=dr
Hence dv = dro .
By dv=V (dr
THE DIFFERENTIAL CAL C UL US OF VE C TOR S 1 63
y
,
”
f CC) +1 ( 500
) dx
Th e i
derivat ve of ( r v) when v is cons tant is e q ual to v .
Th a t is V ( r
Fo r V (r -
v) v v -
Vr
9 9
0
7
2
5 1,
r = 5c i + y j+ z k,
v~ Vr v
1
i + v
2 j+
v
3
k = v,
V x r = 0
Henc e
.
e V ( r v) v v .
V (d r
By ( 47) v = vo + V (d r
V (d r
-
v) - v .
1 1 1
d r r d c
2
.
At p i
each oint of th s sphere the velocit y is
v v, d r V v .
In r
the inc ement of t me i 8t the points of t h s s he e wi i p r ll
moved the distance
( vo + d r o ) St .
v,
8t .
d r = d r + d r-
’
Vv8t .
Th e fi rst y
equation ma be solved for d r b t h e method of y
Art 4 7 page 9 0 a n d the solution substitute d into t h e second
ill r
.
, , .
b ecomes sim m
Th e i
point whose coord nates referred to the c ente r of the
l
infi n itesima sphere are
d oc , d g, dz
Th e li y
tota t of the points upon the sphere
2 2
dr dg dz
li y
goes over into the tota t of points upon the e llipsoi d of
which the equation is
3 z
to z
9 v3
8
55
"
e x
r
, .
V °
V V, V x VV
THE DIFFERENTIA L C AL CUL US OF VE C TOR S 1 67
V x V V= cu e V . 5
( )2
9 x 9y 9 z
2 2 2
9 9 9
Sym b o h c a lly , V V o
2
+ 2
+ 2
9 x 9 y 9 z
ap ac e . aplace s E uation ’
9 V 2
9 V 2
9 V 2
2
+ 2
+ 2
9 x 9 y 9 z
i
bec omes n the notat on here emplo ed i y
V VV 0
i y d
.
derivative
L r y L
.
flo w f is
f= — c VT .
1 68 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
Th e i
rate at which heat is leav n g a point per un t volume i
i p e r
V fdto .
d T c
-V -
VT .
dt p k
If a L
vector functi on V satis fi es aplace s Equati on each of ’
,
Th e cur l x
V V ha s in i
turn a d vergence and a cur l ,
V -
v , V x V x V .
V -
V x V = di v cu e 5
( )6
V x V x V curl cu rl V . 5
( 7)
O f these expressions V V x V va n is h e s ide n tic a lly That is ,
y
.
Th at is let ,
= a o
“1 “2
“a
2
?
I
“
i d oc 2 —O
y
is e as il proved by Taylor s theorem ’
L
.
e xpression s
2 2 z
9 u 9 a a u
, ,
2
9 x
, d ,
, p
an a s two oints on k at the same d stance a from w i e
.
“1 + u
2 _ u o
TH E DIFFERENTIAL CA C L UL US OF VE C TOR S 1 71
2
1 9 7“
Lm
2 2
9 2 a i O
2 2
9 9
V-
u a
2
+ 2
+ Vu
9 x 9y
6
s
a
As V r p
and V a e inde endent of the pa t c ul ar ax es chosen ri
this expression m a y be evaluate for a different set of ax es d ,
ill
then for st a difle re n t one etc B y add ng together all , . i ,
thes e results
u
1 + u
2 + o u
6 n t e rm s
u o
V -V u
L et become infi nite and at the same time let the difle re n t
y i
n
LIM
v Vu .
-0 2
a . a
Th e the case n . In
of a flow the temperatu e at the center m st remain
vi dently therefore the condi tion for a steady
s te a dy r u
constant . E
flo w is
V O V ‘
tt z o .
If a i
vector r s a function of a scalar t the der vat ve of i i
i
r w th respect to t is a vector uantity who se direction is q
that of the tangent to the cu rve described b y the terminus
r
of and whose magnit ude is e ual to the rate of advance of q
that terminus along the curve p e r un it change of t Th e
p r
.
A r
combination of vecto s or of vecto s and sca a s ma b e r lr y
differentiated just as in ordinar scalar anal s s e xcept tha t y yi
th e difle re n tia t io n s must be performed i n si tu
'
.
1 74 VE CTOR A NAL YSIS
If r denote the position of a mov n g i p a rtic l e t the tim e
y
, ,
y
and depends upon the velocit of the a t c e a n d the cur va p ri l
t ure of the path .
A= s t + v 2
0 .
5
’
9 90 9 g
v=i
a
A 1 ,
9 a: 9 3/ 9 z
THE DIFFERENTIA L C AL C UL US OF VE C TOR S 1 75
VV d o r d .
( 2 5y
Computat ion of the derivative by two me ho ds depend VV t
ing upon e q uat ons ( ) and
i llu tration of the
21 I
currence of in mathe at cal physics
s oc
V m i .
di erentiator
f
f It
so far the scalar erentiato rs of /
. o
di f
f bey 9 9 9 9 y, 9 9
the fo rmal la s of scalar q uantities
as cc , z O
9V 9V 9V
Ifa be a un it vector a VV i
is the d re ctional deri va t ve of i V
i di i
n the rect on a .
a c V V= ( a o V) V = a ( V V) .
If V is i
a vector funct on a V V is the di rectiona l
i
o f th a t vector f u nct on in the d rection a i .
av
o
9 0: 9 g
9v
+ k >
<
9 2: 9 g
9 Vl 9 V2 9 V3
’
9 x 9 y 9 z
9 9 9 V3
v =i
1 76 VE C TOR A NA L YSIS
P roof tha t V V is the dive rge n c e of V an d x V V,
o fV.
V V = d1 V V,
°
V xV= cu e .
V ( u + )
v
V -u +V o v,
V o
( u v ) =V u -v + u V o v,
V ( n o v) v (q )
+ 11 x( v ) , 4
( )1
V -( u x v) v - q — u -
v ,
4
( )2
V x (u x v) =v -
Vu — v V o
u — u Vv + uV -
- v ( 43 ) .
u x( v ) = V ( u v ) u
-u o .
If a be i r
a un t vecto the direct onal derivative i
a -
V v = V (a 4
( )7
x dr . 50
( )
4 . If r, y
a s stem of polar coor inates in Spac e
0 be d ,
where r is the di sta nce of a point from the origin (1) the ,
a = (r r) r b = (r -
o
a) e c = r x f
, , ,
, .
1 1
7 . Compute V V t en Vis r
z
,
2
r 7
8 Compute V V V, V Vand V x V w h e n V is
o
V,
q l i
. o
9 . Expand V x V V a nd V o V x V in te rm s of i, j
, k and
,
j ,
k th at
V> <V = V V
<V > o
V— V -
VV .
11 .
Prove A V (V
o -
W) = V A V W+ o
WA -V V .
and
(W W) — V (v -
W) ,
H
C A P TER IV
space . C r i ,
thus 2 W dr .
Th e i
limit of th s sum when the elemen t s d be come n fi nite r i
in number each approac hi ng z ero is called the lin e in tegra l of
i
, ,
i d x + jd y + k d z ,
f e
w . 1
( )
i in
describe the curve during the integration the elements Fo r
ave opposite igns when the curve is described in opp
.
dr h s o
1 80 VE C TOR A NAL Y I SS
r
site di ection s If one method of descripti on be denote b d y
y
.
C and t h e other b 0 ,
W -d r .
If f denote t h e
force which ma be supposed to var from
point to point along the curve 0 the work done b the force y
i
,
f
r
f-dr : f-d r
.
xo
'
That is ,
VV dr V (r) V ( ro z V ( r y, z )
, V ( 900, yo , z o ) .
By de fi niti on dr -
V V= d V
V = V G) V Oo ) '
17 0 y )
6 . z V( xo r yo , z o ) ‘
( 2)
o dr
together .
W dr d V ( x, y , z ) .
B ut by defi n ition V V dr = dV
o
Hence W VV.
f — k
g .
r r
r 1?
H enc e w=
Th e i
force f s said to be derivable from a fo rc e -flen e tio n V
when there e xists a scalar func t ion of posit on V such that i
the force is equal at each point of the derivative V V .
Or more simply V
r
gz .
Th e fo c e is f VV
TH E INTEGRAL C AL CUL US OF VECTOR S 1 83
y
necessar and suffi cient cond ti on that a force-fun cti on
Th e i
V ( T y z ) e xist is that the work done by the force when its
i
, , ,
20 :
If i i l i
th s ntegra van shes when taken a ound ever clos e r y d
contour f= V V = V w
r y
.
An d conve sel if f VV
di f
f nl n .
V= w const .
Th s i
is the law of universal gravita t on as stated b y N ewt o n i
y
.
w: r -
dr .
r o dr z r d r,
w=— oM — 0 M
1 84 VE C TOR A NA L YSIS
r
a p oper choice of units the constant 0 ma be ma e y d
y r r
By
equal to unity Th e force -function V ma the efo e be
.
chosen as
where r 1 r 2 r 3
, , , are the distances of the attra cte un t d i
mass from the attracting masses M 1 M2 M 3
y
, ,
sp ace .
et S b e any surface Divide this surface into in
.
V o fd v f
.
y
Hence the ver important relation conn ecting a surfac e in
tegral o f a flu x taken over a c lo s e d surface and the volum e
l
integra of the divergence of the flu x taken over the spa c e '
y
encl osed b the surface
V -
fd v 7
a
f
.
a r
i
Wr tten out in the notation of the ord nar c a c ul u s this i y l
becomes
[ X d y d z d dx d dy ]
or 9 17 + o z
dx d y d z ( 8)
e x . 9 3, oz
ff d dy =
fff d x d y dz .
W here d o is l
the vo ume of that sphere or cube . H ence
1
f-da .
do
0
f a a .
( 1 0)
From y
thi s de fi nition which is evidentl indepe ndent of the
a x es a ll the properties of the divergence may be deduced In .
x W-d a W e a r.
( 1)
1
u f
f o .
1 88 VECTOR A N ALYSIS
First Proof : Considera small tri angle 1 2 3 upon the su rface
S ( g
Fi Let the value of W at the verte x 1 be W
y y
.
0.
w Sr
1 9 3 is
FIG 32
. .
l 1
x 8 r -
dr .
Th e fi rs t t e rm
f
A
w -d r o
i
van s hes be cause the integral of d r around a c osed fi gu e n l r i
i
th s case a small tri angle is z ero Th e second te rm
, .
,
L m v . 8 r) . dr
i y
va n sh e s b virtue of ( 3 ) p a ge 1 80 . Hen ce
1 90
Th e second member 2
8
\
VE C TOR A NAL YSIS
x
7 W da
r
is the su fa ce inte n of the cu of W rl .
E V x W-
da V x W o da .
Henc e W . da
s
f w . dr = W
01
o dr
f e w e r) fW- Sd r +
f
8 W-
dr .
d ( W -
8 r) = d W-8r + W-
d 8r
8dr = d 8r .
H ence o 8 dr
f W-d 8 r =
f d( W-
8 r) d W-
Sr .
Th e r
expression at ( W 8 ) is by its form a perfect di fferential .
W-8 r
Hence
f W -Sd r d ,
1 92 VE CTOR A NAL YSIS
Subs tituting these va lues
a w -
o dr i Br 8r io d
il r
sim a terms in y and z .
B ut y
b ( 25) page 111
CW
dr i-
9r a r i o dr .
3 x
9 ‘
Henc e
f
S W-d r = f a Z o
e dt
s imilar terms in y an d z
S
f W o dr =
f W
In Fig i
it w ll b e seen that d s the element of a c
. 33 ri r
along the curve C and 8 r is the distance from the curve C to
x
the curve C Hence 8 r d r is equal to the area of an ele
’
y
.
surface S That is .
B r x dr = da,
S
f W -d r
s x W-
da .
f O
W-
ol r
1 94 VE C TOR AN AL YSIS
area d a .
V x W da W dr o
( 1 3) o .
value of d a ,
w d r
Hence the curl of a vector function W has at each
<W
V >
point of space the direction of t h e normal to that plane in
which the line integral of W t aken about a small circle con
centric wit h t he point in ques t ion is a max imum Th e mag .
simple manner L
et E be the electric force B the magnetic
y
.
,
E-
dr .
TH E I NTEGRAL C AL CUL US OF VE C TOR S 1 95
Th e i
total magnetic induct on through the circuit is the sur
face inte gral o f the magnetic induction B taken over a surfa c e
y
bounded b the circuit That is .
B -d a
Ex pe m entri r
the efore shows that
Eu h
t fiL
B da
ro
m
a
H ence by t h e r
conve se of Stokes s theorem ’
V x E —
a w flE
It l
is a so a fact of e xperiment that t h e work done in carr y
ing a unit positive magneti c pole aroun d a closed circuit is
l
equal to 4 7: times th e to ta elec t ric flu x through the cir cuit
y
.
H o dn
Th e l
to ta flu x of elec tri cit through th e c rcui t s they i i
l
surfa ce in tegra of 0 taken over a s u face bo u n e d b t h e r d y
circ ui t That s
. i C da'
H o
dr = 4 7r Co da .
1 96 V ECTOR A NAL YSIS
B y th e con ve r
se of Stokes s theorem ’
V X H =4 7r C
.
p
With a pro er inte rpretation of c u rent 0 a s t h e dis th e r
placement current in addit on to the conduction current i ,
y r
h pothes e s this elation and the preced ng one are the fun da i
y y
,
Heaviside a n d H e rtz
d y d
.
V x V V = O,
- cu rl V V= 0 .
V-
V d v V x W-
da
’
Hence V-
V d '
o W o dr .
Apply i '
o nt ; a n d t h e integra around t to z e o , .
V V X Wd v
O '
W o
d r = 0,
V V X
O
W= 9 .
1 98 VE C TOR ANAL YSIS
those connected w th integra t ion b partsi n o rdinar
“
y i y
y
calculus The are obtained b y inte grating both s des of the
.
i
formul a page 1 61 for di fi e re n tia t in g
, ,
.
V ( u v
'
) -
d r u V v
' -
dr v u -
dr.
Hence I u V o -
dr :
[ u u
]
r
v u o dr .
( )
1 4
p res ion
r
Th e ex s [ u n
]
end of the path and the va lue at t the beginning of the path
, o, .
u V vo
'
dr v V u o dr .
Second
- - -
v x ( u v ) d a =
ff 8
u V Xv da + Vu xv da .
- - X v-
V u xv da
f O
n v dr—
fq S
da, 1
( 5)
THE INTEGRAL CAL C UL US OF VECTOR S 1 99
V x (q v ) -
d a V u X V u -
da .
Hence
V u x V v
' o d a u V v-
dr'
vV u -
d r ( 1 6)
,
Fourth -
v .
V o
( u v) d o u -
V vd v + '
V u -
vd v .
Hence
V- - -
vd v =
ff fff
da — vdv
u u v V u ,
S
- -d a
vdv
s fff v vdo,
—
V u '
u v u o
-
v
—
V u
v- -v
ff (V x v) d
fff
— dv
u v
f
V u f
.
-
ff fff
H —
ence v u x v da V u ( 1 8)
s
V ( v )
v = V u -
Vv+ «JV -
V
'
°u a .
- u V-
V v= -
V ( vV u ) — c -
v vu ,
ff -
V V e dv
u —
ffq o d v; f
V-(v u ) dv f
V-
va d o
Henc
.
V u o
v vd v
' '
:
q O -
da u V V v d o,
o ' '
fv u -
da —
ffv o V u d v
.
( 1 9)
By ,
s ubtractin g these e ualit es the formula q i ( 20)
-
( V V
u v — v
v o
v ) u dv
ff ( V u r— v v ) da
u o .
is i
obta ined B y expand ng the e xpression in terms of i i k
y y
.
, ,
r L
.
V u -
V v dv=
ff q vo da u V
jf v u -
fff
d V a — v
'
( )
2 1
where w is i
a th rd scalar function of po sition
i lr
.
r ,
y
ma shrink up to no t hin g without a break in its continui t y ;
b u t C can only shri nk do wn and fi t closer and closer ab out
the origin It canno t b e shrunk down to not hing It mus t
.
.
a c y c lic
. Al l other regions are c yc lic .
F G 84
I
ti on of the di aphragm it s no longer poss ible
. .
y y d
. .
’
7 Vr r
( x2 “3
0
2
( 31 2 90
2
(2 2 z
1)
2 '
F G 35 r . .
Th e element of m a ss d m at ( x 2 y2 z z ) is , ,
dm V ( n a , y2 , z
2)
d wa d yz d z 2 Vdv .
m hi
the densi y hi i deed ight seem the most nat ral
ar as
V is t T m
limit other h d the integral
. s n u
set of s . be
On t h e an I ma y
THE INTEGRAL CAL C UL US OF VECTOR S 2 07
practically determ ines the limits owing t o its vanis hing iden
ti cally at all points unoccupied b matter y .
Pot V
y” z ? ) e x d y, d z
,
.
z
Th e y r
s mbol is e ad the otential of V Th e otential
“
p .
”
p ,
( 1 yl l )
22, z,
which is fi x ed during the inte grati on T hese .
” x
” if” Z
2 ) dz ,
cry
,
dz ,
5 se ,
.
my
l
of any sca a r function V no matter what V represents that
, ,
i i pi
.
, ,
Pot V
y
.
,
r l i i i
, .
we a kly th a t the p ro du c t
Vr
re ma in s fi n i te wh e n r a pp ro a c h e s z e ro , th e n the in tegra l c o n ve r es
g
a s f a r a s regio n s n e a r to th e o rigin a re c o n c e rn e d. Fo r let
Vr < K
r =R r :
Vr s rn ddr a s a s <
jfd
r =0
r a s a s
r =R
Kdr a s a s : n KR .
r =0
Hence the t iple ntegral taken over all space inside a spher
i
of ra us ( where is now supposed to be a small quant ty )
r e
di R R i
is less than K and consequently converges as far as
4 7r R
regions near to the origin which is the poin t ( sol , yl , z
l ) are
concerned .
If y p o in t ( x 2 , y 2 , 2 2 ) n o t c o in c i de n t wi th th e o rigin
fi
a t a n ,
i e
. . t he p o in t ( x 1 , y l , z l ) , th e f u n c tio n V be c o m e s i n n i te so
we a kly th a t th e p ro du c t of t h e va lue o fV a t a
p o in t nea r to
( 2 , y2 , Z 2 ) by th e s q u a
x re f th e
O dis ta nce Of th a t p o in t fro m
(x2 y , 2 ) r e
2,
m a in s
Z
f in i t e a s th a t dis t a n c e a
pp ro a c h e s z e r o t h e n ,
th e in te gr a l c o n ve rge s a s fa r a s re gio n s n e a r to th e p o in t ( x 2 y 2 Z 2 ) , ,
y
theor of the in t egrating operator P o t Th e dis cussion of .
[ P Ot m
i l
a . 311 , a
( 2 5)
1 , ’
9 33 A x
1
i O A 93 1
1
( x
1 , y1 , z
l ) Fro . 36 .
where A x 2 A re ] .
21 2 VE C TOR A NA L YSIS
Henc e
P 015 V( x A x 2 ’ ga
[ P ot V A ‘n S
in 31 [ 2
z
e ” 21 . h o 31
H e nc e
[ P O t V J ”: A 3 1 9 Vi a 3; [ P O L Vs , y” 31
A 33 1
Aa l i O
L r i
.
M=M + m ,
V( a s
A x 29 y 2 9 2
2 )
Pot A 29 2 , d v2
r
12
17
6 73 1 ”
2
Axe , Se i z e )
"
12
V ac y” 2 )
Pot
:
2
V ( x2 , y a , e
a)
d v2
12
V ( 932 ya 2
2 ) V 03 2 9 2 2
2 )
do g
de g
i As
in di c e s
a ll t h e
ha ve be e n dro ppe d
g
fo llo wi n po t e n t ia ls
.
a re fo r t h e po in t x1 , y 1, z i the bra c k e t a nd
21 4 VECTOR A NA L YSIS
r
12 s
d vz Pot
V Pot V Pot V V
: 2
( )7
Th is statement follo ws
immediately from the former As .
VI Pot V = Pot V2 17 .
To demonstrate th s identi t i y y
ma be e xpa nde in d
j
V
i, ,
k .
9 Pot V
9 I
!1
f
—
i Pot + jPot +k Pot
THE IN TEGRAL CA L C UL US OF VECTOR S 21 5
As i, j
are consta nt vectors the may be pla ced under
k y
y
,
by means of ( 2 6)
V 1 P 0t V = P Ot V z V
The c u rl Vx a nd di ve rge n c e V o
f the p o te n tia l f
o a vec to r
f it/no t io n W a re e u a
q l r e sp e c ti ve ly to th e p o te n tia l f the
o c u rl a n d
dive rge n c e of th a t
fu n c t io n .
curl W P ot c u e
Pot :
V l P o t W Pot V2 W :
i
,
9
di v Pot w P o t d v w .
These i y
relat ons ma be proved in a mann er analogous to the
a bove It is even possible to go further and fo rm the de l s
i
.
o f h gher order
V 0
V Pot V : Pot V V V, ( 3 0)
V-V Pot W = P o t V -V W , (31 )
VV- Pot Wfi Pot V V - W ,
32
( )
V x V x P o t W= P o t V xW .
( 33)
Th e de ls pon the left might have a sub script 1 attached to
U
and y r
ma be e moved by ma k n g use of a su fa c e i r it l
i p g
n e ra .
LIM 1 V032 A x2 , ya , 5 2 )
A xe — O
A
s r
12
VG” ? y 2 ’ 2
2 )dU ‘
2
Le t d a b e i
a d re cted element of t h e surface S bo u nd ng t h e i
r l
egion M Th e e ement of volume d v z n t h e reg on m is '
i i
q l
.
there fore e ua to
d v2 = A x 2 i da .
He cn e
V023, A
7
32
x
2,
'
f
lz a z
s ) d v,
VO5 2 A 93 »
2
2
2 ) i 0 da .
7
12
Th e lmn
e e e t l i
of vo ume d v2 n th e eg on r i m is q l e ua to
A 23
2
i o da .
V( x2 ’ z
2 ) d ?) a
7
12
V03 2 » ya , z
a ) i day
Conse quently
9 Pot V
i o dS .
( )
34
21 8 VECTOR A NA L YSIS
9 Pot V .
1 . da .
9 x1
By ii i
the cond t ons mposed upon V
Vr < K
h da E de d¢ = 2 7r K .
y y
ma or ma not approach a li mit when R becomes sm ll
a er
and smaller H
ence the equation
.
9 Pot V
9 58
1
ha s y
not alwa s a de fi nite meaning at a point of the eg on r i
T at which V becomes in fi nite in such a manner th at t h e
r
product V r e m ain s fi n ite
q
.
i
where l s the distance of the point ( x2 ) f rom a po int
l y2 ,
, z
z
near to it Then the surface inte gra
.
i o da
d
nee not be come z ero and consequent ly the e quation
9 PotV OV
A
c oo
l
9 x
2
i gl , z
l
.
f V becomes in fi nite at gz , z
2
in such a mann er th at
Vl < K ,
i -
da
2 20 VE CTOR A NA L YSIS
9 Pot V 9V
9 x
1
9 a
s
c a nnot hold
y
.
Vl Pot V = Pot V, V ( 35 )
L et V hs any i
fun ction n spa c e and let it be gra n t e d th a t ,
over all these surfaces van shes when the adi of the sphe es
a b ove mentioned becom e nfi n i tesi m al then i ,
VI Pot V : Pot V2 V .
This fo rmul a
VI P o t V : Pot V, V:
wil l su re ly ho ld t p o in t ( ) if V re m a in s lwa ys
fi fi Yb
a a x 2 a
1 , 1
n i te be c o me s in n it e th a t th e
or a t a
p o i n t ( x) , Ya , 2
2)
so
p r o duc t VI re m a insfi n i te a , n d if V
n o su rfa c es of
o s
p se s ses
dis c o n t in u it y, a n d f u r th e rm o re t he
i f V 3
d m i fi/n i te
r p r o u c t r re a ns
i
x
Fo r e t e ns i o ns a nd m difi
o ca i i
t o ns o f t h s t h e o re m , se e e xe rc iws .
222 VEC TOR A NA L YSIS
Th e irregul i ies which may arise are th own into the inter
t
not into the analy tic appearance of the formul e
ar r
t a ti o n ,
meth d of treatment
p re a .
Th e fi rst
partial derivatives of the potential may also
be obtained by differentiating under the sign of in te gration 1 .
d x2 d y a d z z
( 36 )
doe 2 dy“dz “
V[<
w. —
a r]
9 Pot W 517
1)
W ( 2
x , y2 , z z )
9 x
1
9 Pot V 9 Pot V
V P ot V= i
9 a 1
wi l l, k (z 2
s 3
B — —
ut i ( :c
2 x1 ) + j( y g y 1) + k (z z
m
1 If a n
a n n e r,
a tt e
it wo u
mldp t we re
be se e n
md
a e to bta i n
o
t ha t t h e vo l u mi g
the
e
se c o nd
n te g
ra ls n o l o n e r c o n ve r e d g
pa rt i a l d e ri va t i ve s in t h e
.
sa m e
TH E IN TEGRAL CAL C UL U OF VE CTOR S S 22 3
Henc e V Pot V
III
Inlik e mann e r
V x Pot W
III
V o P ot W=
fff
These th ree integrals obtained from the potent a il
differentiating O perators are of great importance in mathe
m a t ic a l physics E ach has its own interpretation Co n s e
l
. .
et therefore
, ,
r
12 X W ( 39 2 g a , z
e ) d xg d y g d z z
L ap W 43
( )
1
'
12
°
w( (13
2, y 2a z
2 >d x = Ma x w
3 2
dy2 dz 2 .
( 44 )
V X P otW La p W
V-P o t W = Ma x W .
f at the point
ttra c tio n ( ) due to the bod Thi s
wi be proved later
o a x pl s
1 , , l .
ll second is written Th e La p W d
r ad Lap acian of W his integral was used to a
. an
“
th e l
”
T
c n iderable tent by L aplace is of fre quent occurrence
e .
It
in electricity and magnetism
o s ex .
0 f at the 0 m a gn e tic
i
orc e
point ( ) due
x ,
l
to the
pl c, rrent
z
l
th rd is w tten u . Th e ri
l It ,
represent the inten ity
x .
, u
r V
d v2 = Ne w V
12
7
4
31 ,
tl v
’
2
L ap W .
i X Q’ s i z) 0 )
7
W ( x2 , z
a ) z + j1 3
2, 19 2 , z
a
k Z ( z )
'
a
z , z
—
x
1 ) i + ( ya ( z
,
z
1 ) k .
Th e i, j ,
k components of ap L W are respectivel y
_ ) Y
(ya —
9 1 ) Z “
( z
2
z
1
-
j La p W
— x
) Y — (y 2 —
g1 ) X
k -
La p W
1
3
9 Po t X 9 F ot z
” La p W
9 a
1
9 x
1
9 Pot V 9 Pot X
k . La p W
9 50
,
To show that if
be the intensit of magnet z ation at the
I y i
point ( x 2 v2 z 2 ) that is if I be a vector whose magnitude is
i l d
, , , ,
therefore
d vz Ma x I .
1 0 0 ,
2 V 2,
z
a ) 11 4 02
0 , z
z) +j
B k 0 002 . 9 2a z
z )
A — z
( as
,
— x
1 ) ( V2 “
V1 ) B ( z
z 1 ) C .
i y
x ,y z , n
2 2 2 , ,
Ma x I A (g ’‘
1 Ma xwe ll : El e c t ri c it y and Ma gn e t is m , Vo l II . . p . 9 .
2 28 VECTOR A NA L YSIS
( 29 )
V V Pot V
o : V Pot V V= o Pot V o VV
B ut by ( 45) V Pot V : N e w V,
and V P o t V V = Ma x V V
o
Hence V o V Pot V= V o Ne w V = Ma x V V
Pot V-VV 4
( )6
B y ( 2 7 ) and ( 2 9) V V W= V P o t V W
Pot : P ot V V W .
B ut b y ( 4 5)
'
V Pot W Ma x W ,
E qu a tio n
’
P o is s o n s
P ot V
h a s in ge ne ra l a fi
de n ite va lu e . Th e n
V -V Pot V — 4 vr V,
9 2
P 0t V 92 P ot V 9 2
Pot V
2
4 qr V
9 33
1
2 9 z
1
V
Pot V
r
12
-
V 2
V
3
t ia t io n s are performed .
Vl o P o t Vl o Ne w V Vs v
z
.
and v, V v,
TH E IN TEGRA L A LCUL US OF VECTOR
C S 231
v, V v,
or v1 V2 V = V V 2 -V2 + v2 .
VV
Integrate
V2 V d v 2
That is to say i L
sat s fi es aplace s ’
E quation . An d y
b ( 8)
He e h s VI Vl P o t V V2 Vd v2 ( 5 3)
Th e l
surface integra is taken over the surfac e which boun ds
the region of integration of the volume integral This is .
1
23 2 VEC TOR A NA L YSIS
Hence the surface S must include not only the surfa ce of the
Sphere of radi us R but also the surface of a Sphere of ra dius
,
Vr a
K when
, r is large
Vr X, when r is small .
r
3
r
12
2 7r
da
Ff
Hence when R becomes infi nite the surface integra over the l
large sphere approaches z ero as its limit .
1
Vl o d a r
z
s in d db dd
)
’
.
P o is s o n s E qu a tio n ,
V V Pot V 5
( )2
V V Pot W
Th e modifi cations in thi s theorem w h ich are to be made at
points at which V and W become dis c o n tin u o u s will not be
taken up here .
V V P ot V : V o Ne s Ma x V V
V -Ne w V — 4 vr V
Ma x V V 4 vr V.
V- V P o t W = V Ma x W— V > < La p W
~
—
Ne w V - W
V Ma x W — V x La p W — 4 7r W , ( )
54
Ne o W — La p V x W — 4 7r W .
Lap x V W Ne w V -
W . 5
( )5
W WI W2 ,
V -W1 V La p V x W
o V-
V x La p WI .
1 1
< W2
V > -W2 V X V Ma s .
4 ”
Hence V xW 2
c u rl W2 O .
( 59)
Conse quently any vect r fu ction whi ch has a potential
o n W
may b e di vided into two parts of which one has no divergence
and of which the other has no curl This division of W into .
L et W La p V x W Ne w V -
W l—W3
— .
V -La p V x W Vo Pot W= 0
— 1
V x Ne o W —
V X V Pot V -
W= O .
4W
Th e i
d vergence of the fi rst part and the cur of the secon l d
part of W are the refore z ero .
23 6 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
V x La p V x W V x V x Pot W
VV -
P ot W V -
V Pot W .
VV o P ot W V Pot V o W= O ,
V -V x W= O .
Hence
Hence 1
4 '
71
Th e l q
cur of W is e ual to the curl of the fi r st part
4
1
7r
La
PV XW
1
4 7r
V Ne o W = V -W= V -
W1 .
i
into which W is d vided Hence as the fi rst part has no
q
.
divergence the third can have none Conse uently the thi rd .
statement
y
.
V o or i
dv a nd
4
1
7
a n d a lso Ma x a nd V
a re in ve rs e Op e r a to rs .
Ne w V : V
Ma x V V = V .
Wi th re sp e c t to a solenoidal fu n c tio n W1 th e Op e ra to rs
1
Pot a nd o r c url c url
4 7r
a re in ve rse op e ra to rs . That is
Pot W1 = W1 ( 64)
.
Wi th re sp ec t to a n l
irrotationa fu n c tio n W2 th e op e ra to rs
Pot a nd — V V
a re in ve rs e op e ra to rs . That is
1
—
4W
Pot V V w, — vv Pot w2 = W2
Wi th res e c t
p to a n
y scalar or vector fu n c tio n V, W the
O e ra
p to rs
TH E I NTEGRA L C AL CUL US OF VECTOR S 239
1
Pot V -
V V — V -V Pot V= V
4 71
"
1
— P ot V -
VW — v v o Pot W= W ( 66)
I7r
.
V V a nd V x V X
a re e qu i va le n t
( 67 )
Wi th r esp ec t to an irrotational fu n c tio n W2 the dife re n ti a t
i n g Op e ra to rs o f th e se c o n d o rde r
V -
V a nd V V
a re e u iva
q le n t . That is
V- V W2 = V V -WZ .
By i
integra t n g the e uat ons q i
4 WV V N ew V
and W W 4 7r = V x La p — V Ma x W
by means of the potent al i tegr i n al Pot
4 7r Pot V — Pot V -
Ne w V — Ma x N e w V 6
( )9
4 7r P ot W= P ot La p W — P o t V Ma x W
4 7r P o t W = ap L La p W — N e w M a x W ( 7 0) .
H enc e f sca
or a fu n c tio n s lr a nd irrotationa l ve c to r u n c tio ns
f
1
N ew Ma x
4 rr
fu n c tio n s th e
L ap Lap
op e ra to r
2 40 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
i ves t h e p o te n ti a l For any ve c t o r fu n c ti o n th e firs t Op e r a to r
g
.
o te n ti a l of th e solenoidal p a r t
p
.
integrals are all scalar quantities They are not scalar func.
y
.
Th e m u tu a l p o te n ti a l or p o te n ti a l p ro du c t as it ma be called, ,
Pot ( U V),
” Wd vl d v2 .
On e y
of the integrations ma be performed
71
fff P o t V d v,
ff V ( :c 2 , y, , z
, ) Pot U d v
z . 7
( )2
z
l)
° W I!
d vl d e g .
Th is l
is a so a scalar uantit q y . On e integrati on ma be car y
ried out
24 2 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
O n e integration yields
M a x (W, V) M a x Wat v l
7
( )8
By 5
( )3 Art 9 3 . .
4 7r UPot V= (V Ne w U) P o t V .
v .
[ Ne w U P o t V] = ( V o Ne w U) P o t V + ( Ne w U) -
V P ot V .
( V Noe w U) P o t V = — V [ N e w U P o t V ] + N ew U N e w V o
Inte grate
U P ot Vdv —
fff V o
[ N e w U P o t V] d v
+
ff Ne w U Ne d v
.
47 Pot ( U V) = ,
fff Ne w U Ne d v
_
ff S
P o t V Ne w U -d a . 7
( )9
Hence
( my
( 54) Art 9 3 .
,
4 n w ” o Pot W ’
V x Lap W ”
W
Pot ’
V Ma x W ”
Pot W ’
.
TH E I NTEGRAL CA L CUL US OF VECTOR S 24 3
V [ L ap W W] W V x Lap W
” ’ ’ ”
B ut X Pot Pot
L ap W ”
V x Pot W ’
,
and V [ M a x W ”
Pot W] ’
P otW ’
V Ma x W ”
Ma x W ”
V Pot W ’
.
H ence V x L ap W ”
Pot W ’
V [ L ap W x
”
Pot W]
’
Lap W Lap W ” ’
,
and V Ma x W ”
Pot W ’
V [ Ma x W
”
Pot W] ’
M a x W Ma x W
H ence substitut ng
” ’
4 7r W Pot W
” ’
Lap W L ap W ’ '
Ma x
[ L ap W x W]
”
V P ot ’
V [ M a x W ”
Pot
Integrating
4 7r Pot (W W )’
,
”
ff La p W ’o
La p W ”
dv
ff M a x W Ma x ’
W ”
dv ( 8 0)
Pot W x La p W
ff Ma x W P o t W d a
’ ” ” ’
da — o .
4 7: Pot =
fff La p W ’
L ap W ”
dv
ff Ma x W Ma x W ’ ”
dv .
There
are a number of useful theorems of a function
theo re tic nature whi ch may perhaps be mentioned here owing
244 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
to their intimate conn ection w t h the integra calcul us of i l
vecto rs Th e proofs of them will in some instances be given
.
V V= O .
V : cons t .
1 80
VV y , z ) V a l , ?/p z
1 )
f V V-dr =
f 0-dr = 0
Hence V ( v, y , z )
. V ( x1 , y 1 , s
l)
const .
1 Th e t e r m g
thro ugho ut a ny re io n of s a c e
g p us t b e
bo un da rie s o f t h e re i o n a s we ll a s t h e re gi o n i ts e lf
m .
re g
ar e d d as in c l u din g t he
24 6 VE CTOR ANAL YSIS
an e x tension of the reasoning V is seen to be constant
throughout the enti re region T .
func t ion V has the same constant value c and the derivative
V V vanishes .
r
2 vanishes where r denotes the distance measured
9 V/ 9 r ,
If V V U = V V V and
o f V U = V V in any fi n ite
o
L
a e
y
.
l
a ,
q
,
1 Th e ggi i
re on Tm ay h a ve t o b e mi d f y li by gi i
a e ac c c the i
n se rt o n o f dia ph ra gm s
gi
.
A re on wh i c h e n c l o se s wi t h n i ts e l a n o t h e r re on is sa id t o b e p e rip h ra c
ti c . If it l
e n c o se s n o re on it is a p e rip hra c t ic .
250 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
fff
ff X e + d d c + Z d wde l.
—
8
[ d y d
vec t or func t ion taken over any surface is equ al to the line
integral of the function taken around the line boun d ng the i
surface An d convers ely if the surface inte gra l of a vector
.
func t ion U taken over any surface is equal to the lin e integral
of a function W taken around the boundar then U is the y ,
curl of W .
V X W ‘ da W t dl '
,
a nd if
ff S
U -d a
s 0
( 1 2)
q v
v u -d r ,
ff S
V u X V o da u v -d r —
ff S
q v
ff s
Vu v -
da q -d r —
;
j vV u -
d r ( 1 6)
,
25 2 VECTOR A NA L YSIS
V -V P o t P ot V -V W , 31
( )
V V -P o t W = P o t VV -W , 3
( )2
3
( )3
Ne w V
Ma x W
If the i rl
potent al e xist s these integ a s are related to t as fol i
lows :
V Pot V: N e w V,
V x Pot W = La p W;
V P o t W = Ma x W .
and
V o N e w V = M a x V V,
V Ma x W = Ne w V -W ,
2 54 VE C TOR A NAL YSIS
1
Ne w V = V
4W
Ma x V V = V .
( )
6 4
P ot V V-
WZ — V -
V Pot W2 = W2 ( 65).
1
P ot V -V V — V -V P ot V
4 7r
1
P ot V -
VW — V -V -— - P o t W = W
;r
.
1
£
( 6 7)
V-
V W2 = VV -W2 ( 6 8)
4 7: Pot V M a x Ne w V ( 6 9)
4 7r Pot W L ap L ap W W ( ) Ne w M a x . 70
Vd r Vd a d a <VV
> .
d r
q
is a vector uantity It may be called the s ke w line integra l
.
( V
c -
W— c -V W) -d a d r,
we ll
’
Th e
s c he
fi fo u r e xe rc is e s a re
rs t
Th e o ri e de r El e c t ric ita t
ta k f ym
en
wh e re t h e
ro P o p pl
a re wo r
’
kd
s
e
Ein fu h run g in die M a x
o ut .
2 56 VECTOR A N ALYSIS
and H o c = c o V -
Wd a V (W o d a )
W [c e o
[ V-
Wd a — V (W
Show that the integral taken over a plane curve van shes i
when W is constant and conversely if the integral over an y
plane curve vanishes W must be constant .
Vd a .
V Vdv .
<w
da >
By e xercis e ( 3) V2 ( p 1 2 V) d v2 p 12 Vda .
y
when R b ecomes inde fi n itel great ; and R inde fi nitel ’
, y
small Hence .
P 12
V2 V d vz r
Ne w V : Pot VV
Ma x W= P o t V -
W .
V Ma x W= Ne w V -
W .
=
fff p 12 VV o
W d vz —
fff pl o
Vd z
V Ma s
fff p l V-d z
.
H enc e La p W— V Ma x W —
fff p 12
V V W d vz
° ’
Hence V >
< La p W— V Ma x W= 4 7r W .
7 . An integral us ed by H elmholt z is
r
12 V d vz ,
THE INTE GRAL CAL CUL U OF VECTOR S S 2 59
or if W be a vector function
7
12
W d vz . 9
( )0
Vr 5
K
VH V
( ) = H ( V V) = N w V)
'
e ,
V o H ( W) = H (V W) Ma x ( r Z
W) ,
V XH ( W) =H ( V W) = La p ( 7
2
W) ,
V VEo
( V) = H ( V o V V) = M a x ( T
Z
V V) = 2 P o t V
V-
V H ( W) =E (V
Pot Pot V
H ( W) Pot Pot W .
( 7)
9
9
( )8
G ive
a proof of G auss s Theorem which does not depe nd ’
8 .
s unique .
AFTER the
de fi ni tions of products h a d be en laid down
and applie d two paths of advance were open O n e was
,
.
( )
1
Let jk be a system of a es
n
ua ll y . i, , components of x . Th e
r a re
i -r , j o r, k -r .
0
1
i 0 r, C
z j ' r’ 08 k .
ro
2 62 VE C TOR A NA L YSIS
De fi vector r is said to be a linear vector fun c
n i tio n : A.
'
three non-c oplanar vectors are e xpressible lin early with scalar
coeffi cients in terms of the components of r along those same
vecto rs .
se a yb z c , where [ a b c ] 0,
a
l
w bl y e
l
z ,
“2 x ba y e
z
z ,
’
z a
g
x ba y c
a
z ,
f( r r ) fOi ) ( )
4
'
:
1 2
f Ca r) a
m) .
An d hence
f< 1 r l a a
z
r
z
“
a
r
e
‘
l
‘
a
z f ( 2)+
r a
3 f( r3 )
Th e proof of this theorem which appears more or less
obvious is a t rifle long It depends upon making repeate d .
Hence f ( 2 r) 2 f ( r) .
In like manner f ( n r) n f ( r)
where n is any positive integer
L y
.
Hence n
n
r
f( ) .
0 =
f( ) f( 0 0) = 2 f
‘
i d» o.
=
f( ) f <
0 r — r ) = f<
r — r
> f ( ) + f(
>= r — r)
f <>r —
fc e — .
f( a? r =
) f ( )
90 r
f( x r )
H ence f( )
wr a
f( ) r
264 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
( a: r
)
Hence r
f( ) a a f ( r)
which proves the theorem
i ly det r
.
l = f ( a ),
m f ( )’
b
I =f
y d
.
r = x a + yb + z a
Hence
In Art 9 7 . a particular case of a l inear funct on i wa s
d
r
e xp re s s e as
i o
l
i - i jz j
r -- c -r --
fk os k o
.
'
r a
l
b l
o r + a
2
bé o r + a
3
bg o r + u o
( 6)
is a linear vector function of r ; for owing to the distrib ut ive
c haracter of the scalar product this function of satis fi es r
relation Fo r the sake of brevity r may be written s m ’
y
b o lic a lly in the for m
'
r
266 VE C TOR A NAL YSIS
multipli ed into r by direct or scalar multiplication Th e .
product of r into O is
r O= r o
( a
1
b1 + a
2
b2 aa b a
_r -a
1
b1 + r -a 2 b 2 + r o a
3
b 3 + 9
( )
Evidentl y the vectors r M are in general difle re n t
Q;
fi
Q Q .
r O O is said to be a p o s tfa c to r to r
, .
A dy a dic O u s e d e i th e r a s a p refa c to r o r a s
”
a
p os t
/ c to r
a to a
ve c to r r de t e rm in e s a lin e a r ve c to r fu n c ti o n of r
two li near . Th e
vector functions thus ob t ained are in general different from
one another They are called c o nju ga te linear vector func
.
tions Th e t wo dyadics
.
¢ = a
1
b1 + a
z
bz '
l
'
a
g
bg
t o $0 0
12 ( 9)
fi
De n i tio n : An y two d a di cs y O and T are said to
be e
qu a l
or wh e n s o O -
r z s o T o r fo r a ll va l u e s o f s a n d r .
L INEA R VECTOR FUNCTI ONS 2 67
y
,
a: a zc
r yb ,
O- r = O- c ,
y
consequently two d adi cs O and T are equ a l provided equa
tions ( 1 0) hold for th re e non -coplanar vectors and th re e r
non-coplanar vectors 8 .
known ( page et
f O) = b.
'
f ( i) a, k
f( ) c .
O a i b j c k,
T:
to be us ed as a prefactor
r
.
fo ) r r
2 68 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
Th e y
stud of linear vector functions therefore s identical i
with the study of dyadics
fi l
.
' ”
a
( a b) ( a a
)b a (a b) (a a ) (a b) .
is written
a O or O a .
and
This y
follows immediatel from the e fi nition of e ualit of d q y
dyadi cs Fo r
( a c + b c ) o r
and
a b o r + a c o r
f th e fa c to rs i n the dy a ds m u s t be
m a i n t a in e d .
form the scalar coeffi cients of the correspondin g da ds be
q
,
e ual .
O -r = T - r
s -O o r s o T o r
i jk
, ,
Then
.
i- O j i T- j i O k = i o z o
,
o o o T k
j-O -i z
j T i,
o .
j-O -
k z -
j T k
k -O -
i z k o T-
i,
'
a
21
bl + a
gz
b m + a
23
b n
a 31 + a 0m + a o n
m
31 82 38
.
C
1 As
de pe n de n t
a c o ro
.
lla ry o f t h e
No n e o ft h e m xp
t h e o re
ma y be
it is
e
evid e n t t h a t t h e n i n e dya ds
re ss e d li n e a rly in t e r s o f t h e m 12)
o t h e rs .
a re ih
L INEAR VECTOR FUNCTI ONS 2 71
but not b oth may b e arb i t rarily chosen provided they be non
,
coplanar
L
.
Hence
c ( a
31
1 + a
az
m + “
32 0
1 ,
( 1 6)
In like manner if i t be required to e xpress O as the sum of
three dyads of whi ch the three non-COp l a n a r vectors 1 m n are
q , ,
where L a
ll
a a
21
b a
81
c ,
M= a
12
a + a
gg
b + a
32 0,
N = a
ls
a + a
23
b + a
33
m
cer t ain scalar the other a certain vector O n the other hand
,
.
’
a
( a b) ( a a ) b a ( a b) ( d a )
other words
Th e o re m : If the two indetermi nate products a b and a b ’ ’
i -i z
jj o z k o k z l,
and
Th e n ine vector products are not in dependent either ; for
and i xj jx k k xi
if a b z a
’
b ’
, a o h ( 7)
1
If
( 1 8)
In like manner a vector known as th e ve c to r of O may be
o b tain ed b y inserting a cross bet ween t h e antecedent and con
sequent of eac h dyad in O This vector will be denoted b y .
¢x 3
1
X b 1 + 3
2
X b2 + 3 8 X b3 + - 0
2
( )0
“
23 ) i + ( a 4
13 ) j ( a a ) k ( 21 )
-O j+ o
k o O-
k,
Ox = (j o O k k O o
j
) i + ( k o O i o — i c O k) j
+ (i -O - —
j j -O -
i) k .
In q
e uations ( 2 0) and ( 2 1 ) the scalar and vector of O are
e x pressed in terms of the coe ffi cients of O wh en ex panded
in the nonion form Hence if O and T are two equal
.
If O T, OE : T5 and Ox TX .
( 2 2)
From thi s it appears that O and O are functions of O , )(
a nd
A su
fre e m m
b s c ript do t i h t b e us e d fo r t h e s c a l a r o fQ if it we re
fro li a bilit y t o i s i n t e rp re ta t io n .
s uf
fi c e nt i ly dis t i n c t
276 VE C TOR A NAL YSIS
P ro du c ts o D
f y a dic s
lying p rinciple What is true for the dyad is true for the
d
.
dy a d c d is written
( a b ) ( c d)
and is by de fi nition equal to the dyad ( b c ) a ll
( a b) a c t l
2
( 3)
That is the antecedent of the fi rst a n d the consequent of the
,
( a b ) (c d)
are multiplied as they stand Th e other two are left to form .
1f
- u
)
T= ( 0
1
d1 + c
2
d2 + c a d3 + o u
)
O
(o l d1
_ a
1
b1 -
c
l
d1 + a
1
b l
o c
z
d2 + a
1 b 1
-c s d3 + - u
+ a
2
b2 °
°1 d1 + a
2
b 2
' c
2
d2
+ a
a b3 -c l d1 + a
3
b3
1 Th e p a re n t h e s e s ma y be o mi tte d in e a c h o ft h e s e t h re e e xp i
re s s o n s .
278 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
O o T
( + T+ O T ’
an d
Hence in genera the product l
9
( +
4 W4 .
a rr
+ qrf m
+ q +
tive Th a t is
.
( 26)
and conse uent q ly either product ma be wr tten y i without
parentheses as ,
(D g
p
‘
. g ,
d adi cs O T Q , , .
( a b c d
o
) -e f = ( b - c ) a d e f
: = (b o ) ( d e ) a i o o o
,
a h - - -
( c d e f) (d e ) a b e: t ( d e )
o
( b c) a f o z o .
Th e y
proof ma als o be given by conside ing r O, T, an d Q
as o p e ra t o rs
r -
{ < T> -r >-Q
< o- .
’
Q o r r
-
r = (O-T)
T o r
’
r
”
,
{( O T) -Q § .
-r = -
r]
r
.
( T o Q) -
r = T T o r
’ =
O-
[ T O o
r
”
{ ( d .
Th e y
theorem ma be e x tended b y mathematical induction
to the case of any numb er of dyadics Th e direct product .
( O -
r) T¢ O o
( r T) .
L et a b be a d ad of y O, and e d a dyad of T .
( a b -
r)
a h -
( r -
c d =
) ab
Henc e ( a b o
r) -c d a b -
( r -
c d) .
r x (a b) (r x a ) b .
Th e d
skew pro uct of a dyad and a vector at either end is a
r x
(e ) -T ,
( O-T) x r = O
(e ) o s r x ( O -
s) =e o s,
r r -O x s,
e x s,
O) ¢ T.
Degre e s o f N u l li ty oD
f y a dic s
O= a l + bm + c n
in te ms of the other t wo as
l = x m + yn .
Th e y i
d ad c has been reduced to two terms If 1 m n were
i
.
, ,
y
.
,
mx n
[ l m n
]
LINEA R VE C TOR FUNC TI ONS 2 83
Th e r
vec t o s l m n e xist and are non -coplanar be cause
' ’ ’
r
, ,
B ut l o l =m
’ e m ’
n o n
’
= 1,
a nd l -m m o u
’
m ’ o n n
Hence xa + yb + z c .
By i
g ving to r a suitab le value the vector O r may be made
y
equal to an vector in space .
B ut O
i
of wh ch the ante cedents a b c are known to be non-coplan a r
y i y
, , ,
O z dp .
T= a l x p + b m x p + c n x u
2 84 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
From the second equation it is evident that T us e d a
postfactor for any vecto r
where a
’
, b ’
, c
’
is the reciprocal system to a , b, 0 i
g ve s
t o
Hence
must be z ero for every value of r tha t is for ever va ue of , , y l cc ,
y z
, Hence
.
l x p z
m m s m n X p = u
been demonstrated .
case the plane of the antecedents and the plane of the con
sequents coincide when the dyadic is e xpressed as the sum of
two dyads t h e dyadi c is said to be u n ip la n a r A dyadic
, .
If O is a z e r o dy a dic th e ve c to rs 8 a n d t a re bo th z e ro n o
m a tte r wh a t th e va lu e of r m a y be
fi
.
L et O= a
1
b 1 a
2
b 2,
Q : O o T .
vector 8
’
O 3 takes on the values
s
’
= O o s
9 4 + { cc
(b 2 °
cl )
L INEAR VECTOR FUNCTI ONS 2 87
L et :c
’
a
1 y
’
a
2,
where a:
(b l 0
1 ) y (b l
and 9
,
a: “2 (3
1)
-
! (b z
Ff
’
determinant
bl °
1
bl °
2
b2 °
1
b2 °
2
B ut y
b Chap II , . . this is merely the product
( .
b x b .) <c l < c .)
> 0
.
Th e x
vector b 1 b 2 is perpendicular to the plane of the con
x
sequents of O ; and 01 02 to the plane of t h e antecedent s of
,
case .
1
Th e I de mfa c tor ; Re c ip ro c a ls a nd Conj
u a te s
g f Dy a dic s
o
De fi If a
dyadic applied as a prefactor or as
n i t io n :
3
( )3
“
21 j+
i a
22 jj “
23 jk
a
31
ki + a
82
kj a
as
kk .
or
1
g
In t h e t h e o ry
d in a ry a l e bra .
of
Th e
dya d ic s
n o ta t on i
the m
is in t e n de d t o s u gg
i d e fa c t o r I pla ys a mi le
e s t t h is
a na o
a na l o
l gg o us
y .
to un i t y in
290 VECTOR ANAL YSI S
the fi rst place since O is t h e idemfactor it is a comp ete l
d
In ,
r
By y
h pothesis r O r.
Then r
m =b ’
, n z c
’
.
Th eo re m IfO and T be
an two dyadics and f the pro uct y i d
q
: ,
r
when the facto s a re taken in the revers e d order is a so l ,
q
,
L et O o Tz I .
To show T o O= I .
r-( O T) = r -I = r ,
r-( O -T) -O = r -O ,
T o O= I .
1 Th is
m
n ec e ss
m
it a t e s bo t h t h e dya di c s 4» a n d 11! t o b e c o pl e t e Fo r t h e pro d u c t m
m
.
—1 I _1 I
T a nd T O
w O
Th e o re m : Reciprocals of the same or equal dyadics are
equal
L d
.
a : T,
n os —
1,
—
1 —
1 .
-1 -1
42 : 97
-1 — —1
O ( . 0 1 : T . 2 .
—l -l
a : T, O . O O . T ,
-
1 -l -l
O . O . o «H . O . T ,
O I O I,
‘
I O
‘
l — O
‘
l —
I T
‘
I = T “
l
Hence O
“
I T 4
.
O : bm o n,
its reciprocal is O
‘
I
l ’
a
’
m b ’ ’
n c
’ ’
. 3
( )6
Fo r
1 A i pl t dy di h
n nc o m
( fi i t ) ip l e e a c a s no n e re c ro c a .
292 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
are equal If the product of a dyadic O into two vecto s r
r
-
.
That is ,
if O o T= O-
Q, then T = O,
a nd if O a r = O o s, then r = s,
a nd if the n r s.
This y
ma be seen b multiplying each of y the q
e uation s
y
through b the reciprocal of O ,
-1
T
‘
l o T o T : T: T 0 T g a
O
'
1 -O
1
O
'
t -
I r = t I s x o
x ,
t o I 17 .
Henc e
As t y
is an vector is equal to 8 r
q l l
, .
means all .
( T : t ¢ ) C
= w e : l: T0 .
It ill
w be s u fli c ie n t to demonstrate t h e theorem in case
the product contains two factors To show .
m0
: wc wm '
(i n r -( T
r -O z Oo o r,
H ence
.
( O T) O = TC . O0
.
2b
Thi s y
is a corollar of the foregoing theorem Th e e xpression .
17 1
( 6
Fo r (T
A
R A To = ( T o Ia : I
.
I=i i + ji + k k
O0
H enc e ( ¢ C)
—l
$0 :
( W )
I
C
0 To .
Hence
Th e expression O0 may therefore be interprete d in either
"
1
to be s e lf-c o nj
uga te If it is equ al to the negative of its con
.
2 96 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
jugate it , is s i
a d to be a n ti -
se -
j
fc o n u ga te
l . Fo r fconjugate
se l -
dyadi cs .
Fo r anti-self-conjugate dyadics
r -O — O o r, O — OO .
— Oa ) .
$00 ¢ 0 + $2
¢a — Q
(O ¢ a) W
( O To ) O ”
.
T T ’
T ”
.
Whe e r
( O ’
O) ( O ’
9 0
Hence if ( O ’
Q) is self-conjugate ,
Q is self-conjugate .
( T "
Q) ( T H
Q)0 = $ "
o QO
‘ ‘ QU ‘
Hence if ( O ”
Q) is anti -self-conjugate Q is an ti -self
conjugate .
Q : 9 0, Q 9 0.
2 98 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
§( O — Oc ) o r O x r,
r X ¢ x
o
the vector of O
y
.
1
or symbolically 2
.
TX X .
( 45)
vector 0 used in vector m ul ti
An y plication de nes a fi
linear vector function Fo r .
y y
be found as foll ows
Ry ( )
3 1 I -I ,
(I x c ) o
r {(I x c -
) }
I -
r = {I -
r
I -( c x I) -r
( c x I ) -
r .
Hence -r ( c x I) -
r ,
and -( I x c )
r x c r
—
( I — c c
) ,
— I >
<c
— c c
,
c x I .
It x
thus appears that the dya di c I c or c x I ob eys the same
law as fa r as its powers are concerned as the scalar imaginary
1 in alge b ra
V
x x
‘
.
X 2 — I,
X 3 — X,
X = I,4
X =X 5
i
.
I >
< i i x I = k j— jk ,
— k i,
k =k >
<I = ji — ij
,
y
as ma be seen by multiplying the idemfacto r
I ii ii k 1:
into i j
and k successively These e x pressions represent
j y
, , .
—
(ji — ij),
j
x
Re du c t ion f Dy a dic s
o t o N o r ma l For m
r
’
= O-r
y
,
y
. .
’ ’ ’
O a i i b jj c k k .
r l
,
1 Th is m a y b e p ro ve d a s fo ll o ws
’
r z dn r r = ¢
-1 -1
r=1 - —l w -
mq
H e nc e r .
f ( Tc o
r
'
.
g
B y e x p re s s in g ‘
lfin i fo r qua t io n r d
'
t o b e o ft h e se c o n
’
non on , th e e a
? r z ] is se e n
d e re e . He n c e r
’
d es c rib e s a ua d ri c s urfa c e . Th e on ly c l o se d q ua dric f
s ur a c e
is t h e e llipso id .
L INEAR VECTOR FUNCTI ONS 3 03
function . O f these
values of r one mus t be at least as great '
j
.
O a i b j c k .
+ b j+ c k) -
r ,
+ b j+ c k) o d r,
r
’
o dr ’
r
’
o
a i -d r + r
’ o
b j-dr + r ’
o c k -d r .
i
When r s parallel to i r is a maximum and hence must be ’
i y
,
r
’
o b -
j dr + r
’ -
c k -d r = 0 .
j
.
,
( b j+ c k) -
r ,
r
’ o dr ’
r
’ o
b -
j dr + r
’ c
c k
di i
,
is perpendic ul ar to and ,
k -d r .
y
. ,
denoted b i ’
k ’
Then the dyadi c O takes t h e form
’
, , .
O= a i i ’ ’
b jj+ c k k,’
( )
’ ’
O : z iz ( a i i + b jj 5 3
O, O a
z
ii s j c
z
kk .
O O0,
O . O, = O 2
.
I = ii + jj kk = ’ ’
i i + jj
’
k k, ’ ’
2 2 ’ ’
O2 a
2
I (b a ) jj (c
2
a
2
)k
’
k ’
,
( O z —
a
z
l) o i = 0
’
O z z
I z 2 z — z
a :
( b a
) jj (o d
) k k,
( O Z —
a
z
l) o i = 0 .
(O
2 2
I) would therefore possess two degrees of nullit
i
a
j j
. .
O= a i i + bjj+ c kk
a b : c d= a -c b -
d .
( 56 )
This product evidentl obeys the commutative law y
a b z c dz c d z a b,
Th e
m Pro fe ss o r Gibbs po n D M ult ip lic a t ion
1 re s e a rc h e s of u o u bl e a re h e re
p rin te d fo r t h e fi rs t t i e .
L INEAR VECTOR FUNCTI ONS 3 07
and the distributive law both with regard to the dyads and
with regard to the vectors in the dyads Th e doub le dot .
T= c
1
d1 + c
2
d2 + 03 d3 +
a
2
h2 a
3
b 3 3 (°
1
d1 ez aa
c 3 d3 +
_ a
1
b1 :c l d1 a l bl z c 2 d2 + a
l
bi i c a ds i ' '
3
2
b2 261 d1 + a
2
b2 3 02 d2 + a , b, z c a d3 +
a gba z c l d1 a
a
bgz c z d2 a
a
ba i cs ds
b3 -
d2 + a 3 -
0
3
If
and
i ( 01 d1 + c 2 d2
+c 3
d3 +
d1 + -
+ a 3 b3 § c l a 3 u
b l x d1 + a 1 x c2
+ a2 >
<c l < d2
b2 > b z x d3 + m
+ a
8 < 03 11 3 >
> < d1 + a
3 > < d1
< c 2 b3 >
O T T O
O § T = T§ O
( O z m ww z wm .
y
theorem is su ffi cientl evident w thout demonstration i .
31 0 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
the factors is reversed each scalar triple product cha nges i
l x m + a >
< c l >
<n
+ b >
< a <b
m x l + b > m x m + b x c m x n
+ c >
<a n x m + c >
< c n x n .
m x n + c x a l x m) . 60
( )
If a , b , c and l , m, n are non —coplanar this ma y be written
2
( a l l ,
+ b m
’ ’
c
r
n
r
) ,
[ a b c
] [ l m n
]
product O 35O is a species of power of O It may be re
Th e .
(b x c mxn + c >
<a l x m) 6
( )1
2
O2 : O= (b x c l x m)
i
to rs two of wh ch are equal is z ero . Hence the product
reduces to three terms only
O2 O= [ b o a ] [ m n l] [c b] [ n l m] [
: a a b c ] [l m n ]
O2 : O : 3 [a b c ] [l m n]
[l m n
] .
p
triple roduct of a d ad ic b y itself twice repeated is
Th e y
equal to s ix times the scalar t riple product of its antecedents
multiplied by the scalar triple product of its consequents .
O O
g
i z
[
a b c ] [ I n n
] . 6
( )2
If O2 l
be ca led the se c o n d of O ; and O3 the third of ,
w
( a s
:
63
( )
$3
- - —
D 1 1
«0 9 « O Q2
.
2
—1 -1
( 2 ( fig $3
O 3 1 + bm o n
—1 _ l l l l 1 ]
l a m b + 11 0
’ ’
a l
[ a b c ] [ l m n
]
31 2 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
[ a b c ] [l m n ] ( l a mb n o )
l mb n o
( w )2
—1 a
l l
]
l l l l
[ a b c
] [ l m n
B ut [ a b c ] 1 and [ 1 ’
m
’
n
’
] [ l m n
] 1 .
Hence ( O2 )
—l
( O )2
“
1
O2 4
.
$8 [ a b c ] [ l m ]
n ,
1
,
[ a b 0 ] [ l m n
]
1 ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
( O )3 [a b ] [l m
‘
Henc e ( Og)
"
l
( O
‘
l
)a O3
"
1
.
(O o T) 2 = O 2
9 03 : $3 T3 ,
Choose y
an three non-coplanar vectors 1 m n as cons e uents q
d
, ,
( O e x f+ c >
< a fx d + a <b
> d x e,
< m,
l >
d x c .
Hence O2 e x f+ c >
<a fx d+ a <b
> dx e .
Henc e
( O o T) 3 = [ a b c ] [ d e f]
31 4 VE C TOR ANAL YSIS
O2 = b >
<c m x n + c >
<a < m,
l >
O3 [ a b c ] [ l m n
] .
Th e i i
van sh ng of the dyadic i t self is complete nu t lli y Th e
y
.
O3 0, O is complete .
O3 = O, O2 0, O is p la n a r .
O3 = O, O2 = O, O 0, O is lin e a r
y
.
N on io n Fo rm . D e te r mi n a n ts .
1
I n va ri a n ts o f a Dya dic
If O be ex pressed in nonion form
O= ul 1 ii + a
12
i j+ a
13
ik
“2 1 ji + “2 2 ll “
2s l k
a 31 ki “
32
kj a
33
kk .
O0 : a
11
ii a
21
i j+ a
31
i k,
“
12 ji “2 2 jj “
32 1 k,
a
la
ki a
23 jk a
33
kk .
These ter ms a re
“as kk “2 1 “3 34 1
0 0
x
o o
“3 1 k1 “ 3 1 “2 3 ”
m
Th e re s u l ts
de t e r in a n ts i h g
h o ld on
d i t h h M l t
mg
l y fo r de t e r i n a n t s o ft h e t h i rd o rde r
ipl e A l e bra g
. Th e e xt i
e ns o n to
of h e r o r e rs s ro u u .
31 6 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
Hence the term in i in j O2 is
“ 3 “
21
“
sa l i l
is is the rst minor of
2
Th fi a m the determi na n t
i
Th s i
minor is tak en w th the negative sign That s the i
j
.
,
a
rs the cofacto of a r
is the cofactor of a
“
“
21
is the cofactor of a
i i
With th s notat on the second of O becomes
A 2 1 ji + A 2 2 “4
.
“
Az s k k
Aal k i A 32 k j A3 3 k k
y ri i
.
2a j
“ “s a l0k
31 8 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Ifthe determinant be denote d by D
A A2 1 A31
_ 11 “
1 k
77 D 1)
A1 2 A2 2 0 '
A 82 °
’k
D D D
A1 3 A2 3 88
If T is y
a second d adic given in nonion form as
T = bu i i + bu i j bl s i k,
”2 3 311 ,
ba l k i b,, k j ba s k k ,
“
13
”3 2 ) 1 j ”1 3 “1 2 ”2 3 “
13
”3 3 >1 k
”1 1 “
22
”2 1 “2 3 ”3 1 >
l1 ”1 2 “2 2 ”2 2
1
“
“
23
”3 2 ) jj ”1 3 “2
2
”2 3 “ 3
2
”3 3” k
”1 1 1 ” “
“
32 ”2 1 “
33
”3 011 1 4 “
”1 2 “3
2
”2 2
“3 3 ”3 2 ) k l ”1 2 “
32
”2 3 “
33
”3 3 >k 11
$1 ? “
11
”1 1 “
12
”1 2 “1 3 ”1 3
“2 1 ”2 1 “
22
”2 2 “2 3 ”2 3
“3
1
”3 1 “3 2 ”3 2 “
33
”3 3 :
“
11
”1 1 “
12
”2 1 “
13
”3 1
“
21
”1 1 “
22
”2 1 “
23
”3 1
“
31
”1 1 “
32
”2 1 “3
3
”3 1
“
11 ”1 2 “
12
”22 “
13
”3 2 “
11
”1 3 1 " “
“
12
”2 3 “
13
”3 3 :
“
21
”1 2 “
22
”22 “
23
”3 2 “
21
”1 3 “ 2
2
”2 3 “ 3
2
”3 3 , ( )
7 6
“3 1 ”1 2 “
32
”2 2 “
33
”3 2 “
31
”1 3 “
32
”2 3 “
33
”3 3 °
If
O2 = b x e <m
l > .
Then
c x a a x b] [ m x n 11
Hence IO 2 ( 2 1 93 [ a b [ l m n]
2
O3 “.
Hence A A A
I O2 ! A A A
A A A 33
T3 , ”a ,
quantities are
3 20 VE C TOR A NAL YSIS
$8 “
11
“2 2 “
23
3 A1 1 A 22 A 33
“
12 13
“
22 23
“ 2 “
3 33
B y (6 8) ( O ( O A
DC :
( O
“
3 “ “
12 13
“ — 27 “
22 23
“ “ 9”
32 33
Hence ( O— c )3 = Os — cc Ow —
l-a ' 2 — az 3
( O — T I) 2 -( O — x l)0 = Os — x O2 5 + s S
— a s
That is
( O O -
l )a ( O -
O I)3 = I O3
o - 2
O Oz s i O OS O 3
.
is when
,
A n y li near y
vector function ma be represented b a dyad c y i
i
.
+ c l +
O 0
i i, ij
, i k,
13 ii 1k .
k i, k j
, k k,
O= a
u
ii + a
m i j+ a i lg
13
_ a ki + a k j+ a kk
32 33 .
uni que .
( a b) 0
( e d) (b o
c )
direct product of t wo dyadics is the formal e x pansion
i
Th e ,
c
a c ord ng to t h e di stri b utive law of the product into the
,
3 24 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
sum of products of dyads Direct multi p lication of dyadics
y
.
2
( )8
e xpressions
e -T , O o T x r, e o
s, r -O x s, e x s ( 29 )
i
may b e written w thout parentheses and parentheses ma b e y
inserted at pleasure without altering the value of the product .
Moreover
-O ,
O o
( r x T
.
y y i y
.
—1 - —l
( O . 51 0 T l
O .
( 3 8)
Th e conjugate of a dyadic is the dya di c o b tained b y in ter
changing the order of the an t ecedents and consequents Th e .
4
( )0
one way into the sum of two parts of which one is self
conjugate and the other anti self—conjugate - .
—
a >
.
( )
4 3
r $0) I X $10 4
( )4
( c x I) a
r,
-O .
Th e x
dya di c c x I or I c where c is a unit vec t or is a quad,
—
behave like t h e powers of t h e imaginary unit V l l as may ,
unit vectors i k , ,
I >
< i i x I = k j— jk , e tc .
( 49)
x
3
(a b) x I in direct multiplication .
— a b 5
( )0
( a x b) — a b) -r
r x ( a x b) r -(b a — a b) . 5
( )1
5
( )3
O2 l xm .
( 61 )
O8
é O; O : O= [ a b c ] [ l m n
] .
T
( o le $3 2
( 0 92
16 2
¢2
( r so .
r. a .
330 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
6 . Prove the statements made in Art 1 06 and t h e con .
y
7 . .
developed prior to A rt 1 09
fi
. .
from them b y addit ion sub traction and direct mul tiplication
, ,
o
,
and
11 . If are copl a nar use the ab ove relation to prove
a, b, c
the law of sines for the triangle and to ob t ain the relation
with sc a lar coeffi cients which e xists between three coplanar
vectors This may b e done b y multipl ing the e uation b a
. y q y
u nit normal to the plane of a b and c , , .
self-conjugate
13 Prove the statements made in Art 1 1 6 concerning the
. .
and
18 . Show that if the double dot product O O of a d adic y
by its elf vanishes the dyadi c vanishes Hence ob tain the
, .
1 9 Sh o w t h a t
.
-OZ -
f .
20 . Sh o w t h a t T)3 = O3 + (172 : T + O : T2 + T3 .
21 . Sho w
that the scalar of a product of dyadics is un
( O m a fi a ? O w a
r -
( r o s
C H AP TER VI
L
.
,
r
’
= O-
r .
r = b + x a
b e c o me s a p o int r
’ = O-
b + :c O-
a
.
3 34 VECTO R A NAL YSIS
It is important to notice t hat the vector 8 denoting a plane
area is not transformed into the same vector 3 as it woul d ’
O c
’
f .
Hence [a b ]
0 [ d e f] 3
O .
Ro ta tio n s a bou t a Fi xe d P o in t Ve rs o rs
y i
.
where i ’
j
and i ’
k’ , j , k are two right-han e dd rectan gular
systems of unit vectors
L
.
et xi + y j+ z k
’ ’ ’
x i yj z k .
R O TA TI ONS A ND S TRA INS 3 35
j
, ,
r
, , , , .
he i ’
, k
’
, Th e dyadic O may therefore be reduced to the
’
.
form
’
+k k .
De fi n i t i on : A y
d adi c which is reducible to the form
' ’ ’
i i jj k k
¢ C
= i l i l + jj + k k = 1 r l l r
—l —
O OC .
O o OC =
a a + b b + c c =L
336 VE C TOR A N AL YSIS
Hence ( Art 1 08) the antecedents a b c and t h e cons e uents
.
, , q
a b 0 must b e reciprocal systems
, ,
Hence ( page 8 7) they .
O_
_
O is a ve rs o r .
There
are two geometric interpretations of the transforma
tion due to a d adic O such that y
$ 0 ¢3 = l ¢ l
O=
syste m i ’
, k still remains right-handed and rectangular
’
,
’
,
O :
338 VECTOR A NA L YSIS
— 4
jk) .
( )
ij +
.
k k = I — ii
.
k j— jk z I x i .
Hence O=ii + c os q (I
— i i) + s in q I x i . 5
( )
If more generall in place y
of the i -axis any axis denoted
by the unit vecto r 3 be taken as the axis of rotation and if as
b efore the angle of rotation about tha t a x is b e denoted b q y
y
,
r b e p a ra ll e l t o a
(D . r a a o r z r .
Hence the vector r has been rotated in its plane through the
angle q If r were any vector in space its component parallel
.
et a be given in terms of i k as , ,
a a — a 2
1 1 -
0 0
1 a - a
0 °
rj + a a
0
1 k
1 1 2 1 3
R O TA TI ONS A ND S TRA INS 3 39
jk
+ a
3
a
1 ki + a
3
a
2
kj a
2
k k,
,
I x a = 0i i — a i j+ a i k,
3 z
M a n on - a
s k,
O { a
1
2
(1
jl a a
z ( 1 -c o s
q)
-d
a
sin q } i j
+ {a 1
a
3 ( 1
ga z a
l (1
{ 0
2
2
(1 — 008
2) cos 9} i i
+ { a
2
a
3 (1 — c os q)
— a
1
Sin
qjjk
+ { a
3
a
1 (l — cos q)
— a
2
sin q } ki
{ a
s
d
a (l kj
1
( + cos q ) + c o s q } kk .
( 7)
O8 = 1 + 2 c os q .
sin q x/ Ox -OX
1 + c os 1 + OS
( 8)
q
1 +O ;
Q o ta n
z
éq .
Th e Q
vector determines the versor O completel
. Q will b e y .
call ed t h e ve c to r s e m i t a n ge n t of ve rs io n
-
.
O= a a + c os
q (I
— a a
) + s in q l x a .
— Q X in t o c -
c c i- Q x c .
342 VE C TOR ANAL YSIS
and c
c
-( I
M ul t ip ly b y c
— I x 0).
-1
-
(c
H ence th e dyad c i
carr ies the vector 0 Q x 0 into the vector 0 x o no matte r Q
what the value of 0 Hence the d adic O determines the y
Q
.
( I + Q -Q ) c .
—
Q >
<c
-
( c
1 + Q Q °
To i
ob viate th s di ffi culty the dyad Q whi ch is an annihilator Q
Q
.
1 + Q - ( 1 0)
Q
a + l )
( I x Q) -
QQ —
Q-
QI .
Hence substitut in g
1 —
( e
1 + Q -
Q
(1 + a 2—
b 2
— a 2 2 — 2 a )ik
+b (1 1 )
— a 2— 2 2
+ (2 a c (1 b + 0 ) kk
1 a
2
b 2
c
“
product
9 2 — I 2 s e — I)
:
( b b ) o
(
y
is certainl a versor ; for the product of an tw o ve rs o rs y
is a versor Co nsider the common perpen di c ul ar to a and b
. .
Q-
.a = ( 2 b b — I) o
( 2 3 3 — I) o
a = 2 bb o a — a.
from a to b
y
.
O= 2
( bb ( 1 4)
resolution of ve rs o rs into the product of two b iq u a d
Th e
rantal ve rs o rs a fi o rds an immediate and Simple method for
compounding two fi nite rotations about a fi x ed point et L
L
.
T= 4 c o h c b — 2 b b — 2 0c + I,
Tx = 4 c o
b c x b,
Ts z 4 -
(o b)
2 — 1
T o O=4 c o a c a — 2 c c — 2 a a + I,
( T o O) x = 4 c -a c x a ,
z —
o
e ) 1 .
a xb b x c
Hence ’ Q2 ’
a o
h b c c
[ a b c ] b
QZ X Q I
-b -c -c
' ' °
a b a o
b b
B ut
Hence -
b .
a xb a >
< o
< Q1
Q2 > +
a -b a -b b o
c
Hence Q2 x Ql Q,
s e e
a o h b e
0l
, Q2 ( a x b) a . b b . c a . c b . b
a O
b b o
c a o b b o c a .
b b .
c
Hence 1 Q2 ,
QI .
1
ROTA TI ONS AN D S TRA INS 34 7
mula reduces to
Q3 QI i Q2 ‘ "
.
Cyc li c s Righ t Te n s o rs , To n ic s ,
,
a nd Cy c lo to n i c s
T : ii + c oS q
’
ji
C + k k) + s in q
’
( j
k —
jk ) .
y
M u ltipl ing
O T : T O : ii c os (jj+ k k)
> sin ( c
jk ) ( 1 6)+g
'
k
( : — .
and s in n q ( j
k —
jk) .
34 8 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
O the o t her hand let Ol equal jj kk; and O2 q
e ual
j
n
k —
jk T.hen
O ( i i cos O
q I sin ”
q
O ii
"
c os
: O
q , n cos
1
q sin
”
q Ol
l
O ,
” ” "
fl-
O2 Hence
.
O =ii +
” "
q O1 +
" 1
si a
‘
cos n c os q 2
B ut
n ( n — l ) cos
c os n q — cos q
2!
n ( n — 1 — 2
s rn n q = n c os
” ‘
1
q s rn q
O ’
q (b b +
’ ’
: a a + cos c c ) + s in q (c b ’
1
( )7
3 50 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
th e who le e llip s e a s
qa displacement of t h e
i s to 2 7 r .
1
Such
radius vector r may b e called
an e llip tic ro ta tio n th r ough a
sector q from its si m ilarity to an ordi nar rotation of which y
it is the projection
fi
.
O : a a
’
+ cos q (b b +
’
c c
’
) sin g ( c b ’ — b c
’
) 1
( 7)
is called a c yc lic dya di c Th e versor is a Special case of a.
cyclic dyadic .
O "
a a
’
cos n
q (b b
’
c c
’
) sin n q ( c b ’
i
it s possible to raise the dyadic O to such an integral ower p ,
O m =I
1 It is i d e n t t h a t fix i n t h e re s u l t o ft h e a ppli c a t i o n o f T t o a ll ra dn ve c t o rs
ev
ve c t o r in t h a t pla n e m a
t h e e l lips e .
g
in a n e llip s e p ra c t i c a l l y fi x e s it fo r a ll ve c t o rs in t h e pl a n e o f b a n d c
y b e re a rd e d a s a s c a l a r m Fo r a n y
u l t ipl e o f a ra di us ve c t o r o f
.
R O TA TI ONS A ND S TRAINS 3 51
o z
( i i +
a jj b j j k k ) + ( i i + jj c k k)
r
.
.
y
.
e l o n ga tio n .
’
i i + b jj+
’ ’ '
k k ' ’
) 1
( )9
o : :t ( a c
'
a : i + k k)
’
Th e factor i i ’
+ jj
'
k k
1 1 + JJ+ k k ’
1 +i o 1
’
-
+ JJ+ k
’ o k
Th e other factor
a ii + bjj+ c kk
j
, ,
b efore the product the version and pure strain mus t have
associated with them a reversal of direc t ions of all vectors in
space — t hat is a perversion Hence , .
order In the two cases the rotation and the rat ios of elonga
.
, ,
O o 97 : 117 -O = a
1
a
2
a a
’ -
4 b b
into a more conve n ient form b y de t erm ining the posit ive
scalar p and the positive or negative scalar q ( which may
always b e chosen be tween the limits 1 7r) so that
b =p c os q
c =p s in q .
a nd
Then
O : a a a
’
+ 19 cos q ( b b ’
c c
’
) +p s in q ( o h ’
( 25)
O= (a a a
’
bb
’
c c
’
) ( a a
’
+p bb +p
’
c c
’
)
{ a a
’
cos q (b b
’
c c
’
) sin q ( c b ’
i
ow ng to the fact that it combines the properties of th e
y y
c clic d adic and the tonic is called a c yc lo to n ic .
a
’
b
, c for con sequents is a third c cloto mic and is com
’
,
’
mu tative .
= a
1
a a
'
+p1 c os q1 + 19 1 s in g1 ( c b ’ — b c
’
)
= a
2
a a
’
+p2 cos q2 (b b
’ -
l sin q2 (c b ’ — b c
’
)
O
’
: ill -O = a a a a
’
+p1 pz c os ( q1 + q2)
( 26)
'
+ 101 1 )s (91 + 92 ) (e h
Re du c ti o n oD
f y a di cs t o Ca n o n ic a l Fo rm s
That y
is to sa the dyadic O x 1 is planar A vector per
,
H
.
Th e o re m If the cu b ic equation
x
2
$8 4 x $2 3
1
“
$3 1
:
For let a : ac = c
(O a I) a O,
( (D — b I) -b = 0,
( O
O a a a
b
,
O b b,
O -c c &
m a n b
(O — c I)
R O TA TI ONS AN D S TRAI S N
m O -
a — m c a + n O o b — n c b = 0 .
O . a a a, O o b = bb .
m ( a
m (a n (b
m = Oor a n = Oor b = c .
y
.
, , ,
a a,b b c c is the to n ic
,
O= a a a
’
bbb
’
c c c .
Th e cub ic equa t ion has one real root This must b e posi
L
.
( O — a I) o a = 0 .
i
z .
8” ( O— a I) 0 b = 0 .
[ O c a OZ o
h O O o h b] .
B ut O-a a a .
Hence a a -
b) = O3 a
a
( O Z o h) x( O -
b) = O3 O -
b x b .
2 -1
p a O3 .
( 3 2)
b3 = p 1 O-
b bz z
Oz b, etc 3
( )3
“ ‘
z
p o .
b 1
=p 2
O
‘
l o b b _2 _ p 2
O
‘
2 -b , etc .
bs l
z bl x bz,
Then b3 + b1 = 2 n b2 b1 + b2 = 2 n b3
b 1 + b _1 2 n b b -1 + b _2 — 2 n b
3 62 VE C TOR A NAL Y I SS
There
remain two cases in wh ch the reduction 1
i
is impossible as can b e seen b y look ng over the proof In
, i .
If ” = i 1, b _l + b 1 = i 2b
L et
o
b _1 bl “
2 z h o
Choose 0 z b1 — b =b — b _l
y
.
Consider the d a di c T= a +p c b ’
T o a a a = O . a ,
ill
'
o b = p b i—p h 1 ~
O -b ,
—
p h = O -c .
Hence O a a a
’
p (b b
’
c c
’
) +p c bl .
( 3 7)
Th e transformation due to this dyadic may be seen best b y
factoring it into three factors which are independent of the
order or arrangement
O ( ’
+ b b +
’ ’
: a a a c c )
( a a
’
bb ’
C W)
mg d q lil mi i g lyi g b
il bi c e qu a t io n
m l
1 In t h e s e c as e s it w l be se e n tha t th e cu h a s t h re e re a ro o t s .
In one case t wo o f th e a re e ua a nd in t h e o th e r c a s e t h re e of t he Th us
i m gi y
.
t he s e dya d i cs ma y be re a r e d as t n c a se s n e t we e n t h e c y c l o t o n ic in
li m i g k i g pl
wh i c h t wo o ft h e ro o ts a re i a i na r a nd t h e to n c in wh c h a ll t h e ro o t s a re re a l
a nd
i
t wo
mg
a
dis t i n c t Th e
.
in a ry p a rt o f t h e
o ft h e ro o t s o f th e t o n
t
i m gi y
t wo
i pp i g
d
m a y be
c a
a na r
re
ro a c h
ar de
ro o ts o
n
as ta
ft h e
e a c h o the r
c
n
y c l o t o n ic
.
a ce e
mg
i th e r by t h e p u re
be c o i n z e ro o r by
R O TA TI ONS A ND S TRAINS 3 63
I+ c M
( +
’
1 o h ) ma ma ,
b =
’
1
( + c b ) cc zc b a s,
’
(I b ) a o
'
c cc c .
A y
d adic of the form I o h leaves vectors parallel to a and c ’
words the trans forma t ion of points in Space is such that the
plane of a and c remains fi x ed point for point b u t the points
in planes parall el to that plane are shift ed in the di rec t ion c
by an amount proportional to the di stance of the plane in
which they lie from the plane of a and 0
i
.
I+ c h ’
is called a dyadi c or
s h e a ri n g s h e a re r and the geometri ca l
transformation which it causes is d
calle a s h e a r Th e more .
general dyadic
( 3 7)
ll ll
wi al so be ca ed a shearing dyad c or s he a rer Th e trans i .
— 1 instead of n
If n + 1 the result is much the same ,
.
O : a a a
’ — e h’
’ ’ ’ ’ ’
O: (a a a bb c c ) {a a -
p (b b (I
364 VECTOR A N AL Y I SS
Th e facto rs are the same ex cept the second whi ch now re p re
sents a stretching of the plane of b and 0 comb ined with a
reversal of all the vectors in that plane Th e shearing dyadic .
where a -b ’
z a -c ’
z b o
c
’
z o a nd b
Square T Tz z —
A D ki = a c
’
.
0i + Dj
T=AD k + A ji .
A D
—
A D k,
b =A j
366 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
more systematic treatment of the var ous k nds
A i i
of dyadics which may arise may be given by means of the
Hami lton -Cayle equat ion y
O 3 Ts O + O 2 5 O 2 Os I = 0
x 3 —
Os x2 + Oz g x — O3 = 0 .
If a
b are
,
the
,
roots
c of th s cubic the Ha m ilton -Cayle i y
equation may be written as
( O — a I) -( O 4
( )0
If, however, the cubic has only one root the Hamilton -Ca le yy
equat ion takes the form
(O — a -
I) ( O 2
4
( )1
( O — a I) -( O — b I) o
( O
2 —
( O — a I) o
( O 2p c os q
( O — a I) -( O — b I) 2
( O — a I) -( O
(O
( O
(O
R OTA TI ONS AND S TRA INS 3 67
O= a s a ’
+ b( bb
’
+
These
seven are the only essentially di fferent form s which a
dyadic may take There are then only seven really different
.
tonic toge t her wi t h thr ee mi t ing cas es the two simple and ,
Su mm a ry o f Ch a p te r VI
r
t ansformation due to a dyadic is a linear h o m o ge n e o u
Th e
strain Th e dyadic itself gives the transformation of the
.
D
l
= ¢ 3
1k
or tha t O-O0 = I O3 = + 1
or th a t T T0 = I
0 T3 > 0
Th e y
necessar and suffi cient condi tion that a d adic repr o y
sent a rotation combined with a transformation of reflection
y
b which each fi gure is replaced by one symme t rical to it is
that
O= + k k)
’
or th a t O-OC = . O3 — 1
or that O O0 O3 0 . 3
( )
A dyadic of the form ( 1 ) is called a ve sor one of the form r
a perversor
r
.
O= a ii + bjj+ c kk
’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
O (a ) (i
’
i i b jj k k i + jj k k)
’
: i c
or ( 1 9)
Consequently any linear homogeneous strain may be regarded
as a comb ination of a rota tion and a pure strain accompanied
or unaccompanied b y a perversion .
and c y c l o t o n ic
O a a a
’
b bb ’
c c c
’
— b c ) ( 23 )
or — b c
’
) ( 2 5)
p
— b
where = and l q
Vb +
—
P + z
c
z ta n
2
p + b
An y y
d adic in general may be reduced either to the form
and is therefore a tonic or to the form and is
y
,
cases it ma be written as
O = a a a
’
+ p + c b ’
( )
3 8
( O — a I) -( O — b I) o
( O — c I) = O tonic
(O — a l) g
(O
2
y
c cloto mic
( O a I) ( O b I) 2
0 simple shearer
( O— a I) -( O — bl) = 0 special tonic
( O a I) 3 0 complex shearer
(O a I) 2
0 special simple shearer
( O a I) 0 pecial tonic
S .
C H A P TER VII
Qu a dric Su rfa c e s
If O y
be an constant dya di c the e uat on q i
r O r const .
r -O - r = 0 2
( ) .
Th e y
dyadi c O ma be assumed to be self-conj u gate Fo r if .
a a
m y
Th e dif
ferent cases which arise are four in number If the .
signs are all positive the quadric is a real elli psoid If one
, .
y
, ,
conjugate if desired
r ii
.
b replacing r b y r t
’
.
’ — ’ — t + ’ —
A+
( r t) O ( r ) ( r t) o
r
’ o O o
’
r — t o O o
r — ’
r
’ -O o
t + t -O o
t
’
+ r o A— t
Since O l
is se f-conjugate the second and thi rd terms a e r
equal . Hence
r
' . O -A
r o O -r = 1 .
dr o O o r + r o O o dr = 0 .
dr O r O .
N = T ~ r
r o
p = r c os
Hence r o
p = p
o
p .
P '
P P
_
P ‘
P P ‘
P
B ut r -O -r r -N z l .
O -r = N
37 6 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
On page 1 08 it was seen t hat the vecto r which ha s the dire c
tion of t h e normal to a plane and which is in magnitude equal
to t h e reciprocal of the di stance from the origin to the plan e
may be ta ken as the vector co ordi nate of that plane Henc e .
from the origin to the plane tan gent to the elli psoid at
the e xtremity of the vector r
y
.
r o O -r z l,
O o r =N .
r = “
l o
N -O z N
-l
Hence r -O -e -O ‘
I -O -O I -H ‘
. O 1 .
q
Hence the desired e uati on is
N o O
‘
I -N = 1 .
5
’
+
b
— 2
a ii + s j+ 0
2
kk .
Let
and
where a v w are the reciprocals of the intercept s of the
j
, ,
th e dyadi c O .
=O b = O
' ’
a
’
o a ,
o h, c
Th e r
vecto s a
’
, b
’
, 0
’
form the system reciprocal to a, b, c .
Fo r a o O o a = 1,
c -O -c = 1 ,
-b = 0, b -0 ’
=b o O o c = 0,
c o a
’
c o O o
a = O .
—l —
O a a + b b c c .
pendent of
‘
B ut if
1 2 2 ”
O3 b
“
a c .
Hence [ a b c
] a b c.
re t in O O 1
and O it is possi b le to show that
q
“
p g 3 S , S ,
aa , O l
i + j-O 1 -
j+ k O 1
k
‘ " '
o o o
respectivel parallel to i k , , .
a -O o
a =b
Hence i
a
o
-O
O o
o
i
a
+
j
b
o O
-O -b
-j
+
k
c
.
-O
O -k
o
c
s -O- a = 1 1
( )3 .
vector of any point upon the line which joins the termin u s of
s and the termin u s of a is
y s + :c a
a + g
/
vanishes .
Hence s O a = 1 o o
s -O -z a z l ,
1
s -O o a
z
re a
1 It is
l or i mg
a
ev mm
id e n t ly i a t e ri a l wh e t h e r t h e
ina ry e llip so id o r h ype rbo lo id
, .
c e n t ra m
l qu a dri c d e t e r i n e d by 4»b e
3 82 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
If Ais any point outside of the qu a dric and f all the tangent i
pla nes which pass t h rough A are drawn these pla nes envelop ,
the plane of the curve bein g the polar plane of the poin t A .
r O r 1 .
( a O o s O -a
Hence ( r O -
r — 1
) ( a -O -a — 1
) —
( a o O a r
B ,
’
C are positive or negative scalars . Further
A < B < 0
O— B I= ( 0— B ) kk — ( B — A ii
) .
Q UADR IC S URFA CE S 3 83
’
c + a =p and c — a = q .
1
O= EI+ ( )
1 4
2
L et
.
r p n
18
q o r ( r o
p
q r = 0
. and r p n o z .
384 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
Inasmuch
as these curves lie upon a sphere the are circles y
i
.
B r o
r =1
y
‘
, , e a .
k and d
Then
-l
O I = ff— d d — d
)
+ ( f
3 86 VECTOR A NA L YSIS
i
the rotat on the section is a circle In li ke manner consider .
mean ax is of the elli psoid as one axis Th e other axis cha nges .
Let r 0 w o r 1
and r a O
r
.
Difi e re n t ia t e d O r 0,
Furthermore
[a r O r] O .
C onversely if [a r O r] 0,
Then
d r o r 0 .
Q UA DR I C S URFA CE S 3 87
'
in s t e a d o f r o O o r z l .
This y
ma be done ; becaus e if
ii jj kk
’
z
c
ii ii kk
+
a b 0
q
.
i i jj kk
i i jj kk
Fo r y
thi s reason it is necessar to bear in mi nd that th e square
y i
root whi ch is meant b O 5 s that particular one whi ch has
bee n denoted by T
Th e equation of the e lli psoid may be wr tte n in the form i
t o T o T o
r z l ,
y
‘
.
, ,
a T
Z -b z b o Tz o c = c o T2 0
a = 0 .
’
c
r
Hence the th ee radii vectors a b c of the unit sphere into ’
,
’
,
’
r -O -r - z l,
and r
i ’
L et the quadrics be r O r 1,
and r T r 1
Let
.
s = O -r a n d s ’ = T-r,
r = O "
1 o s an d r = T “
1
Then q
the uadr ics may be written in terms of s and s ’
as
s O
‘
I -s = 1,
and s
’
T
"
I
s
’
1,
y
where b the confocal property ,
—1 — I
p
B ut o
s = ( T
—1
+ a 1) o s
T 1
‘
o 8 + 9c s ,
:c S o
s
’
s
’
o T
‘
l o
s
’ —
s T
‘
l o
s
’
=1 — s T
‘
l o s
’
.
In like manner
r — O
‘
I -S = T
“
I o
s
’ —
(O
“
I
ml) s
’
= O ‘
1 o s
’
x s
'
o
s
’
s -O "
1 o
s
’
s -O ‘
1 a
s = s -O ‘
1 o s —
’
1 .
2 ’
(O
l
T 1
)
’
‘ “
s s s
'
a s o s o a o .
a n d the third h
yp erb oloids of two sheets
, B y the foregoing .
Q UADR I C S URFA CE S 391
these lines are called corre s pondi ng points upon the two e llip
s o ids It may b e Shown t ha t the ratios of the components of
.
ii kk
a
.
$
71:
1
T I
O I dn
“ "
( O + I ci n
-
g 5 Oi -r ,
O dn) i
‘
o r,
O d n) o r = r
39 2 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
Th e vectors f and r differ by a mul tiple of O r whi ch is
perpendicular to the ellipsoid O Hence the te rmi ni of f and .
dn
Th e rati o of these components is
2
2 a
V a
z —
dn
a
V _ V0 2
b
2
b dn _ 2 dfl
In lik e manner
3/ 0
Th e P r op a ga t io n f
o Ligh t in Cry s ta ls l
To t re a t
Th e g m m
t h e s u bj e c t fro
g
fo llo wi n d i sc u s s io n u s t b e re a rd e d a s a t h e
t h e s t a n d po in t o f p h y s i c s wo u ld b e
m m a t ca
o ut o f
i l not p h ys i c a l
pla c e he r
e .
.
3 94 VE C TOR A NAL YSIS
Then D= A c os (m o r — n t)
Th e value of V D V V O - D and V V O -
o
, D ma y b e
o
,
B = A c os ( m a:
9D
V o n z l o — i -A m s in ( m x
a x
V o V O o D — m2 O o A c os (m zc
V V -O -D — m 2
i i -O -A c os ( m x
Hence V o D — m -A sin ( n -r
V -V O -D — m e
m O o D
V V -O -D — mm O -D
J
o .
M oreover n
2
D .
Introduce
the wave-slowness .
D= S s O D— s e - o O -D o .
a -a = s s a -O a = 3 s
o o o .
3 96 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
Hence the wave slowness s due to a displacement in th e
direction a is equal in magni tude ( b u t not in di rection) to the
radius vector drawn in the elli psoid a O a 1 in that
direction .
a x O s — a x s s - O s o o
0 s z -a ) -a S O s o o .
L et x i + y j+ z k and 3
2
x
2
+ y +
2
z
2
.
equation in
Th e Cartesian i
coord nates ma be obta ned y i
i
d rectly from
O l —
I+ _- O
( )8
‘
s o s s s .
2 2 a s
b y
2 + 2 — z +
— a 3 b s
out .
Th e equati o n is
2
3
1
2
b
where 3 2
n
2
O
2
w This may be wri tten in any of the
z
.
medium this is n o lon ger true Th e ray does not travel per .
y
.
ray travels along the radi us vector drawn to the point of tan
g e nc
y of t h e wave -plane Th e wave -planes .envelop th e
wave-surface ; the termini of the rays are situated upon it .
i
.
ray and v the velocity of the wave 8 v 1 and the cond tion ,
’
and s v v ’
o d s = 0, s
’
o d v = 0,
’
y
v ma be e xpressed in terms of a , s, and O as follows .
a = 8 0
8 ¢ 0
a — 8 8 0 ¢ 0 a’
da = 2 s o
ds O -a — S o O o
a ds + s -s O -d a
— s ds o O -a = s s -O -d a .
a O -d a = 0and a a s s Then o o .
402 VECTOR ANA L YSI S
and the normal to the elli psoid the wave -slowness and the , ,
ellipsoid O
—
1
on the other .
’
[ O o a v a ]
Th e last equation states that if a plane b e passed through
the center of the ellipsoid O 1
perpendicular to v then a
“
’
,
’
Th e fi rst equation
[ O a v a] 0 ’
stat es that a is the rad ius vector drawn in the ell ipsoid O to
the point of tangency of one of the principal elements of t h e
cylinder circumscribed ab out O parallel to v if b y a principal ’
x i + y j+ z k,
OW SW SW
Ol ly — M '
9 x sy s z
9W 9W
Hence d W= d r o
ly
E Oz
j , ,
9 W O W OW
VW— 1
( )
,
r '
9 m 9y Oz
Then W d r VW d 2
( ) .
dV dr V V :
rr
a x 9 x
M eg
”
sy
.
aX .
aY
a z
4 06 VECTO R A NAL YSIS
an attempt were made t o appl the operator V s ym b o li
If y
cally to a scalar function V th re e times the result would be a ,
9 x ” 9 x 9 y 9 z
tion of posit ion in space the result will be a triadic and hence
,
9 a: Qy
9 O OO
V o ¢ = l o
+ 1 0
a x 9y
If
V o O=V o u i + V o v j+ V -w k .
CW 9 17 a n OW
v X O
9g Oz Oz 9 a:
9 a a v 9 W
v . O + ( 8)
9 w 9 y Oz
In r
a similar manne the scalar operators ( 3 V) a n d ( V V)
may be applied to O Th e resul t is in each case a dyad c
. i ,
VA RI AB LE D YA DI CS 4 07
9 a) a T 9 (17
2 2
O 2
9 O 9 9 O
( V . V) O + + '
9 x
2
9 y2 9 z
2
( -Va) W = a
(V -V) W = V -V W .
x w) w -V v — V -Vw — v -V w -l- V w v o
,
V ( V o
w) = V v -w + V W o
v,
V -v w + v -V w .
V x V x O : VV -O — V -V O, e tc .
— v w
.
Hence
A gain
Hence
1 48] was
It seen ( rt 7 9) that if C denote a curve of
A
i
.
f
a r V V = V ( r) V ( ro ) .
In like manner
f a r V W= W ( r) W(t ) o ,
f dr o V W= 0 .
f
dr -V W and
r W(x 9
N ew W rs
r3
2, 2,
d 17 2 ,
x $ 0132 , z
a ) d 1)
3
r
12
r Q ( x2 , y”
Ma x O dc 2
W= X i + Y j+ Z k
te nsions di ffer so sli ghtly from the simple cases which have
THE CUR VA TURE OF S URFA CES 41 1
Th e C u rva tu r e f
O Su rfa ces
]
There
are t wo difi e re n t methods of treati ng the cur
va t u re of surf a ces In one the surface is e x pressed in pa ra
.
= f u,
r
( r
) .
, ,
F ( as,
y, z ) 0 .
s dl '
O VF Z - O.
‘
1 M uc h o f wh a
e s pe c ia ll y t ru e
t
o ft h e
fo ll o ws
t re a t m g
is p ra c t i c a lly fre e fro
e n t o f e o d e t ic s A rt s , .
the u se
1 55-1 5 7 .
of dy a di c s . Th is is
41 2 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
equated to z ero give the same geometric surface V F ma be , y
considered as t h e normal upon either side of the surface In
y
.
, y ,
z
) const .
l
the norma V F lies upon that side upon which the consta nt
inc reases
. L r
et V F be epresente d b N the magn i tude of y
which may b e denote d b y N and let n be a uni t norma l drawn
,
N e N = N 2 =
VF o V F,
s = r + kVF
j
where i and are two perpendi cula r unit vectors l ing in the
’ ’
y
tangent plane and a and b are positive or negative scalars .
a n = d r o
( a
’
fi + b
’
Th e vectors i ’
, j and the sc
’
ars a b vary from point t o point
al ,
form
¢ = a
a f+ rn
THE CUR VA TURE OF S URFA CE S 41 5
In another special case the dyadi c O becomes lin ear and redu
Cib le t o the { 0 1 m f f
a i i .
which has at each poin t the direc t ion of the asym ptotes of the
indicatri x Th e direc t ion of the curve at a point is al ways
y
.
d n = O -d r = ( a -d r
dr a:
Then evi dently d n and d r are parallel when and onl when y
d r is parallel to i or j Th e state ment is therefore proved
’
’
r
. .
a dr = 0 .
( 6)
A nother method of statement is that the nor mal to the surface ,
dn = d r o O
da -d r z dr O -d r .
0: + b
d
a t dr dr -d r
Hence C a cos ( i
2 ’
, d r) b cos (j 2 ’
, d r) ,
C a cos ( i
2 ’
, d r) b sin ( i 2 ’
, d r) . 1
( )0
plane section varies from the value a when the plane passes
through the principal direction i to t h e val ue b when it
’
i j
,
Hence
which proves the statement
q l
.
a b
q
Hence the e uation x2 O, a: O2 5
THE CUR VA TURE OF S URFA CES 41 9
VVF —
n n ) o
( I n u )
N
( n u -V V F -n n -V V F ) S = ( n n . v
( V V F )S ( n u V V F)S
Hence
N
( v v r m z v o V F,
( n n -V V F ) S n n : VVF= n -
VVF o u .
H ence V . VF VF VF
N 3
z VVF
-V F - -
X
V VF V F VF
J
Th ese r y
ex p e ssions ma be written out in Cartesian co ord na tes i
y y
,
as fo ll o ws :
(I “
11 1 02 ( V V F )2 ( I — un
g )
2
A7
— nn
( I )2
Hence
VF .
( V V F )2 . VF VF VF : ( V V F) 2 .
4
N 4 N
G iven
an curve upon a surface y et t be a unit L
r
.
Hence m o d n z o
-a n + n o a m .
n o a n = 0 .
m -d m = 0 .
t x d m = 0, 1
( )6
d m x dn = 0 .
string rs at rest upon the surfac e the normal rea ctions of the
s u rface must lie in the osculating plane of the curve Hence
y
.
points P o f a curve are thus const ructed from the same origin ,
s p o n din
g element upon the sphere is d a where ( Art ’
.
d a = O2’ o da .
O= a
O2 = ’ ’ ’
=
’
a b i x j i x j a b n u .
Hence d a
’
a b n n -d a .
m dt . 2
( 0)
B
f m -d t z
f 8 (m o d t)
f em -d t +
f m . 8 dt
d ( m -8 t) = dm -8 t + m o d 8t
8
f m -d t =
f 8m o dt —
f dm o 8t +
f d (m -8 t) .
S
f m -d t z
f dm o dt —
f dm o dt .
Th e ide m fa c t o r is
Sm o dt = 8m o l o d t = 8m o n n o dt
-B t )
S
f m o dt=
f ( 8 m o n n -d t — dm o u n .
-Sn )
Hence
f -d t =
f ( m -3 n -d n m du t
—
8 m t o
S
f m —
f o dn x d n .
424 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
ferential 8 n
Th e di f x
represents the element of a ea
dn r in
the h o do gra m upon the unit sphere Th e inte gra . l
f n o dn x d n
f m -d t — 2 7r.
’
n da H ,
H ence f m -d t = 2 7r — H ,
H = 2 7r
H +
fm o dt = 2 rn
upon the sphere wil l appear positive when the curve upon the
"
D= i A s in n t .
D1 = i A l cos ( m ac — n t) (1)
is likewise a plane wave perpendicular to the axis of a but
not stationar y Th e vib ration is harmonic and advances
y q
.
2 W
a
m
Th e displacement
cos ( m a — n t )
D2 = j A 2
D= A c os (m o
r
cl
2
r 2
n r.
z
d i
y
is the velocit of the displ a ced point at an moment in t h e y
ellipse in which it vib rates This is of course entirely differ
.
—
A cos ( m -r — n t) — B sin ( m -r — n t)
n dt
6
( )
+ V — 1
jA s in
(m -r — n t ) + B s in (m -r
V: r— u
“
9 + V— l n .
.
n d.
of the product gives the displ a cement of any point and the
pure imaginary part gives the velocity of di splacement
reversed in Sign and divi ded b y n
r
.
r o s ( rl
1
‘
X S= ( 1
'
1 x s
r
— l
a
'
'
X 3
2 + r
z X 3
1 )
8
1
5
2)
i ( 1
1
8
2
r
s
”
1 )
) = 2 i r
2
x r1 ,
( fr + i r
2 ) r1 1 “
r
e
i l 1
' "
l
'
where a
2
O 2 : 1,
Thus if
I I I I
HA RIlI ON I C VIB RA TI ONS AND B I VE C TOR S 4 31
r, cos q r
1
sin q .
r o
r
Ifa o b = 0,
r -r — b o b) .
r o r a + i b,
b
tau 2 q
a
q is indeterminate T h e di rectional
. ellipse is a circle A .
r o r
have real directions the condi t ions degenerate into the per
n di c u l a rit of hose directions T h e conditions t herefore
y
p e y t .
p e n di c u l a r .
mm g
.
m
It s h o ul d be d t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n o f p e rp e n di c u l a ri t y o f a j o r a x e s is n o t
1 no te
t he sa e as t he c o n di t i o n o fp e rp e n di c ul a ri t y o f re a l p a rt s a n d i a in a ry p a rt s .
HARM ONI C VI B RA TI ONS AND B I VE C TOR S 4 35
be considered as real et .
A AI i A
m m1 i m2 ,
n = n i n
1 g,
( mx o + t mg — n1
I) A
( I i Aa ) e
' r a r t
- m
m —mt)
D ( I
A i A2 ) r ua rd
'
e
e e g
—nc
the resultant is (A B) e
flm r .
— mc 011 1 r — n t) — mg i ( — m1 -—
A f
A r r t)
. 3 .
' n
e 6 e e
— mz { ml - mz
Ae (m 1 )
'
o r o
r d
e .
r e 6
1
Su c h
e
us e o
e c ro
f bive c t o rs is
a ne c e r
m dL by
P ro fe s s o r Gibb s in h is c o u rs e o f l e c t u re s o n
a e
Th E l t m g t i Th o y of ight d e l i ve re d bi a n u a ll y a t Ya l e Un i ve rs i t y ,
n .
B ive c t o s we re n o t u s e d in t h e s e c o n d p a rt o f t h i s c h a p t e
m
r
o f t h e p re s e n t a u t h o r t h e y p o s s e s s n o e s s e n t i a l a dva n t a
b e c a u s e in t h e O pi i o n
e o ve r re a l ve c t o rs u n t il g r, n
mg
t he o re a d va n c e d p a rt s o f t h e t h e o y
a n e t s a n d c ry s t a ls t o t a l a n d
, m
ro t a t i o n o f t h e pl a n e o f p o la ri a t i o n by
e t a ll ic re fle c t i o n e t c
r ,
a re re a c h e d ,
.
, .
z