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The effect of an intermittent, high-intensity warm-up on supramaximal

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Journal of Sports Sciences, 2003, 21, 13–20

The effect of an intermittent, high-intensity warm-up on

supramaximal kayak ergometer performance
DAVID BISHOP,* DARREL BONETTI and MATTHEW SPENCER
School of Human Movement and Exercise Science, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley,
WA 6009, Australia

Accepted 7 October 2002

It has previously been shown that the metabolic acidaemia induced by a continuous warm-up at the ‘lactate
threshold’ is associated with a reduced accumulated oxygen deficit and decreased supramaximal performance.
The aim of this study was to determine if an intermittent, high-intensity warm-up could increase oxygen uptake
(V̇O2) without reducing the accumulated oxygen deficit, and thus improve supramaximal performance. Seven
male 500 m kayak paddlers, who had represented their state, volunteered for this study. Each performed a graded
exercise test to determine V̇O2max and threshold parameters. On subsequent days and in a random,
counterbalanced order, the participants then performed a continuous or intermittent, high-intensity warm-up
followed by a 2 min, all-out kayak ergometer test. The continuous warm-up consisted of 15 min of exercise at
approximately 65% V̇O2max. The intermittent, high-intensity warm-up was similar, except that the last 5 min was
replaced with five 10 s sprints at 200% V̇O2max, separated by 50 s of recovery at *55% V̇O2max. Significantly
greater (P50.05) peak power (intermittent vs continuous: 629+199 vs 601+204 W) and average power
(intermittent vs continuous: 328+39.0 vs 321+42.4 W) were recorded after the intermittent warm-up. There
was no significant difference between conditions for peak V̇O2, total V̇O2 or the accumulated oxygen deficit. The
results of this study indicate that 2 min all-out kayak ergometer performance is significantly better after an
intermittent rather than a continuous warm-up.

Keywords: accumulated oxygen deficit, metabolic acidosis, prior exercise.

Introduction The influence of continuous warm-up exercise upon

Despite limited scientific evidence to support its
effectiveness, a warm-up before supramaximal exercise
is a well-accepted practice among athletes. Warm-up
exercise is generally proposed to improve supramaximal
performance by serving as a preparatory stimulus for the
systems involved in oxygen transport and utilization,
thereby allowing an individual to reach a high level of
aerobic metabolism more rapidly (di Prampero et al.,
1970; Gutin et al., 1976; Pendergast et al., 1983). The
faster oxygen uptake (V̇O2) kinetics after warm-up
exercise have been proposed to result from enhanced
oxygen delivery associated with increased muscle blood
flow (Hughson et al., 1996; MacDonald et al., 1997), a
temperature-induced facilitation of oxyhaemoglobin
dissociation (Boning et al., 1991) and/or acceleration
of the rate-limiting oxidative phosphorylation reactions
(Grassi, 2000).
* Author to whom all correspondence should be addressed.
e-mail: dbishop@cyllene.uwa.edu.au
Journal of Sports Sciences ISSN 0264-0414 print/ISSN 1466-447X online # 2003 Taylor & Francis Ltd
DOI: 10.1080/0264041031000070912
V̇O2 kinetics has been reported to be intensity-
dependent (Gerbino et al., 1996). Gerbino et al. found
that supralactate threshold V̇O2 kinetics were speeded
by a supralactate threshold warm-up (*80% V̇O2max),
but not a sub-lactate threshold warm-up (*50%
V̇O2max). They suggested that the faster V̇O2 kinetics
were due to improved perfusion of the working
muscles, consequent to the vasodilatory effects of
metabolic acidaemia from the warm-up. However,
while a continuous supralactate threshold warm-up
has been reported to result in faster V̇O2 kinetics, it
does not appear to be an optimal warm-up for
improving supramaximal performance (Stewart and
Sleivert, 1998; Bishop et al., 2001).
It has previously been shown that anaerobic
performance is significantly better after a continuous
warm-up at 60% or 70% V̇O2max than after no warm-up
(Stewart and Sleivert, 1998). It has also been reported
that there is no significant difference in anaerobic
performance improvement after a continuous warm-up
performed at intensities of 55–70% V̇O2max, whereas
14
performance is impaired after a continuous warm-up at
greater than 70% V̇O2max (Stewart and Sleivert, 1998;
Bishop et al., 2001). Furthermore, this impaired
performance is associated with a greater metabolic
acidaemia and a reduction in the accumulated oxygen
deficit. It has been suggested that if the continuous
warm-up intensity is too high, the subsequent metabolic
acidaemia may result in decreased supramaximal
performance through inhibition of anaerobic glycolysis
(Hermansen, 1981) and/or interference with muscle
contractile processes (Fabiato and Fabiato, 1978).
Ahmaidi et al. (1996) showed that lactate removal
and subsequent power output during sprint exercise are
greater after low-intensity work. Therefore, an inter-
mittent, high-intensity warm-up that includes several
high-intensity, short-duration repetitions interspersed
with low-intensity work may achieve the proposed
benefits of warm-up (e.g. increased muscle tempera-
ture, acceleration of the rate-limiting oxidative phos-
phorylation reactions and increased muscle blood flow),
while limiting the accumulation of lactate and hydrogen
ions (H+). In this way, supramaximal performance may
be improved through increased aerobic metabolism
without significant inhibition of the anaerobic metabo-
lism or muscle contractile force. The aim of this study
was to compare the effects of a continuous warm-up,
which has previously been shown to improve anaerobic
performance, and those of an intermittent, high-
intensity warm-up on supramaximal kayak ergometer
performance.
Methods
Participants
Seven male 500 m kayak paddlers, who had represented
their state, volunteered to participate in the study. Their
age, body mass and V̇O2max were 24+4 years,
80.4+5.6 kg and 4.07+0.52 l×min–1, respectively
(mean+s). During the study, all participants kept to
their normal training routine and diet, but did not train
on the day before each test. They were instructed to be
adequately hydrated and not to have eaten in the 3 h
before each test.
Experimental overview
After being informed of the risks associated with the
study, each participant provided their written consent.
The test procedures were approved by the Research
Ethics Committee of the Western Australian Institute of
Sport. Measurements were taken over 2 weeks. For
each participant, evaluations were conducted at the
same time of day and separated by at least 48 h. In an
attempt to blind the participants to the nature of the
Bishop et al.
study, they were told that they were to take part in a
reliability study.
In the first week, each participant performed a
graded exercise test on a wind-braked kayak ergometer
(K1 Ergo, Garran, Australia) for determination of
V̇O2max and lactate parameters. Later in the same
week, the participants were familiarized with the 2 min
all-out kayak ergometer test. During the second week
and in a random, counterbalanced order, each partici-
pant performed a 15 min warm-up (continuous or
intermittent, high-intensity) followed by 5 min passive
recovery before completing the 2 min all-out kayak
ergometer test. Based on previous research (Bishop et
al., 2001), the continuous warm-up consisted of 15 min
of exercise at *65% of the power output at V̇O2max.
The intermittent, high-intensity warm-up was similar to
the continuous warm-up except that, during the last
5 min of the warm-up, five 10 s sprints were performed
at an intensity equal to 200% of the power output at
V̇O2max, each separated by 50 s of recovery at *55% of
V̇O2max.
Apparatus and procedures
Kayak ergometer
All physiological tests were conducted on a calibrated,
wind-braked kayak ergometer (K1 Ergo, Garran,
Australia). The position of the ergometer foot-bar was
adjusted to resemble the paddler’s own kayak. The
ergometer was interfaced with a computer that con-
tinuously measured, calculated and stored accumulated
work and other associated work indices using specifi-
cally designed software. The stroke rate was freely
chosen.
Heart rate
A heart rate monitor (Polar Vantage NV, Finland) was
used to monitor and store heart rate every 5 s during
the physiological tests.
Blood analysis
Arterialized capillary blood (100 ml) was drawn from a
hyperaemic earlobe, induced by a cutaneous vasodilator
cream (Finalgon, Boehringer Ingelheim) for 10 min.
Capillary blood samples were sampled 5 min before the
warm-up, 1 min after the warm-up, in the minute
before the 2 min tests and 1, 4 and 7 min after exercise.
Whole blood lactate concentration was determined
using the Micro Stat LM3 (Analox Instruments Ltd,
London, UK). Whole blood pH was determined using
a Ciba Corning blood gas analyser (#865, Chiron
Diagnostics, Walpole, MA). Both instruments were
Effect of warm-up on ergometer performance
calibrated and routinely assessed by external quality
control.
Gas measurements
During the graded exercise test, both warm-up condi-
tions and the 2 min tests, expired gas samples were
monitored continuously for oxygen and carbon dioxide
concentrations using Ametek gas analysers (SOV S-3A
and COV CD3A, respectively; Pittsburgh, PA). The
data were averaged over 15 s intervals. Ventilation was
recorded every 15 s using a turbine ventilometer
(Morgan, Model 096, Kent, UK). The gas analysers
were calibrated immediately before and verified after
each test using a certified gravimetric alpha-grade gas
mixture (BOC Gases, Chatswood, Australia); the
ventilometer was calibrated before exercise and verified
after exercise using a one-litre syringe.
Graded exercise test
A graded exercise test was used to determine both
V̇O2max and threshold parameters. The exercise test
began at an initial workload of 50 W, with increments
of 25 W every 5 min until exhaustion. One minute of
recovery was allowed between each increment for the
sampling of capillary blood. The test continued until
the athlete could no longer maintain the required
power. The V̇O2 values for the last 2 min of each 5 min
step were recorded and used to determine, for each
participant, the linear relationship between V̇O2 and
power output. The highest four consecutive 15 s V̇O2
values were summed to determine V̇O2max. The ‘lactate
threshold’ was calculated using the modified Dmax
method (Bishop et al., 1998). It was determined by the
point on the polynomial regression curve that yielded
the maximal perpendicular distance to the straight line
formed by the lactate inflection point [first increase in
lactate concentration above the resting value (Yoshida
et al., 1987)] and the final lactate point.
2 min test
The participants completed a 2 min all-out test on the
kayak ergometer. Strong verbal encouragement was
provided to each participant throughout. The test
duration was chosen based on research reporting the
validity of an all-out procedure for estimating the
maximal accumulated oxygen deficit (Gastin et al.,
1995) and research indicating that this deficit is
maximized when the test is similar in duration to that
of the criterion event (Craig et al., 1995). The
estimated oxygen cost for the 2 min all-out test was
then determined by extrapolation from the V̇O2–work
rate relationship established from the graded exercise
15
test (Gastin et al., 1995). The accumulated oxygen
deficit was then calculated as the difference between
the estimated oxygen cost of exercise and the actual
V̇O2. Average power, the estimated oxygen cost of
exercise and actual V̇O2 were calculated over 15 s
intervals. The oxygen deficit for each 15 s interval was
accumulated over time to give the accumulated oxygen
deficit.
Statistical analysis
The work and power data were analysed to determine
whether any significant differences existed between the
2 min test results after the two warm-up conditions
using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with
repeated measures for warm-up condition. The blood
and gas data were analysed using a two-way repeated-
measures ANOVA. Where appropriate, post-hoc com-
parisons were used (Student-Newman-Keuls test).
Statistical significance was set at P50.05. All statistical
analyses were conducted using the SPSS statistical
package (version 8.0, SPSS, Chicago, IL).
Results
Power
Group results for average power and peak power
recorded during each 2 min test for each of the two
warm-up conditions are summarized in Table 1.
Average 2 min power, average power in the first 60 s
and peak power were all higher after the intermittent
warm-up (P50.05). Average power, recorded at 15 s
intervals (Fig. 1a), was higher in the first and second
15 s intervals after the intermittent, high-intensity
warm-up.
Metabolic variables
There was no difference in V̇O2 between conditions
during the first 10 min of the warm-up (intermittent
vs continuous: 2.26+0.28 vs 2.29+0.31 l×min–1;
P 40.05). However, V̇O2 was significantly higher in
the final 5 min of the intermittent warm-up (when the
intervals were performed) than the continuous warm-
up (intermittent vs continuous: 2.60+0.34 vs
2.30+0.26 l×min71; P50.05). No difference in V̇O2
was observed during the rest period and V̇O2 was
similar between warm-up conditions immediately
before the 2 min performance test (intermittent
vs continuous: 0.69+0.29 vs 0.79+0.20 l×min–1;
P 40.05; Fig. 1b).
No differences were noted between conditions
during the 2 min test for peak V̇O2 (intermittent vs
continuous: 4.06+0.47 vs 4.05+0.56 l×min–1), total
16 Bishop et al.

Table 1. Average power and peak power recorded during the 2 min tests for the continuous and intermittent, high-intensity warm-
up (mean+s)

Peak power Average power Average power Average power

Warm-up 2 min test 2 min test first 60 s second 60 s
condition (W) (W) (W) (W)

Continuous 601+204 321+42.4 359+82.9 284+36.2

Intermittent 629+199* 328+39.0* 375+84.3* 281+38.1

*Significantly greater than in the continuous condition (P50.05).

500
Average power output (W)

450
* significant differences were observed between warm-up
*
400 conditions at any 15 s interval for V̇O2 or the
350
300
accumulated oxygen deficit.
250
200
150 Blood lactate concentration
100
50 There was no difference in resting blood lactate
0
(a) concentration between the two conditions (Fig. 2a;
P 40.05). Immediately after the intermittent warm-
1.2 up, blood lactate concentration was higher than at
1
rest and remained so at the end of the 5 min rest
period (P 40.05). The corresponding values after the
0.8
continuous warm-up did not change significantly
VO2 (l)

0.6 (P 40.05). The lactate concentration was significantly

·

0.4 higher after the intermittent than continuous warm-up

0.2
(P50.05). After the 2 min test, an increase in blood
lactate concentration was seen for both conditions,
0
(b)
but there was no difference between conditions
(P 40.05).
1.8
1.6
1.4
Blood pH
1.2
There were no significant differences in blood pH
O2 eq (l)

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 points (P50.05).
Rest 0–15 15–30 30–45 45–60 60–75 75–90 90–105105–120
(c)
Fig. 1. Group mean (+s) (a) average power, (b) V̇O2 and (c)
accumulated oxygen deficit recorded every 15 s during the
2 min performance tests for the continuous (&) and inter-
mittent, high-intensity (&) warm-up. *Significantly greater
than in the continuous condition (P50.05).
V̇O2 (intermittent vs continuous: 6.88+0.90 vs
6.63+0.99 l), aerobic contribution (intermittent vs
continuous: 60.3+5.9 vs 59.1+6.2%) or the accumu-
lated oxygen deficit (intermittent vs continuous:
4.58+1.13 vs 4.63+1.17 l O2 eq) (Table 2). Mean
V̇O2 and the accumulated oxygen deficit every 15 s
during the 2 min tests are illustrated in Fig. 1. No
between the two conditions at any instant in time
(Fig. 2b). For both conditions, however, post-test pH
was significantly lower than at the three preceding time
Time (s)
Heart rate
There were no significant differences in heart rate
between the two conditions at any instant in time
(P 40.05). For both conditions, however, heart rate
was higher after the warm-up (continuous vs inter-
mittent: 146+16 vs 140+19 beats×min–1) than at rest
(continuous vs intermittent: 72+9 vs 74+10 beats×
min–1). Heart rate before the 2 min test (continuous vs
intermittent: 123+19 vs 116+25 beats×min–1) was
lower than after the warm-up, but higher than resting
heart rate. For both conditions, peak heart rate
(continuous vs intermittent: 188+10 vs 190+9 beats×
min–1) was higher than the heart rate recorded at the
three preceding time points.
Effect of warm-up on ergometer performance 17

Table 2. Peak V̇O2, total V̇O2, aerobic contribution and accumulated oxygen deficit (AOD) recorded during the 2 min tests for the
continuous and intermittent, high-intensity warm-up (mean+s)

Warm-up Peak V̇O2 Total V̇O2 Aerobic contribution AOD

condition (l×min71) (l) (%) (l O2 eq)

Continuous 4.05+0.56 6.63+0.99 59.1+6.2 4.63+1.17

Intermittent 4.06+0.47 6.88+0.90 60.3+5.9 4.58+1.13
Blood lactate concentration (mmol·l–1)

16 7.5

14
a 7.4
12
7.3
10
a

pH
8 * 7.2
*
6
7.1
*
4
7
2

0 6.9
Rest Post-warm-up Pre-test Post-test Rest Post-warm-up Pre-test Post-test
(a) (b)

Fig. 2. Mean (+s) resting, post-warm-up, pre-test and post-test values for (a) blood lactate concentration and (b) pH for the
continuous (&) and intermittent, high-intensity (&) warm-up. *Significant difference between conditions (P50.05).
a
Significantly different from all preceding time points.

Discussion up (Houmard et al., 1991; Mitchell and Huston, 1993).

However, neither of these two studies measured
The results of the present study extend previous performance directly. Houmard et al. (1991) only
findings and demonstrate that an intermittent, high- reported changes in stroke length, while Mitchell and
intensity warm-up (five 10 s sprints at *200% V̇O2max Huston (1993) only reported tethered swim time to
separated by 50 s of recovery at *55% V̇O2max) exhaustion. Despite these conflicting reports, the results
resulted in significantly better kayak ergometer perfor- of the present study are in agreement with the only
mance than a continuous warm-up performed at *65% previous study to measure changes in performance
V̇O2max. Compared with a continuous warm-up of the (Grodjinovsky and Magel, 1970). However, unlike that
same duration, the intermittent warm-up resulted in study, we also compared the physiological responses to
greater peak power and greater average power during the two warm-up conditions.
the subsequent 2 min test. There was, however, no Consistent with previous research (Billat et al.,
difference in V̇O2 or the accumulated oxygen deficit 2000), the intermittent, high-intensity warm-up re-
recorded during the 2 min test between the two sulted in higher V̇O2 during the last 5 min of the warm-
conditions. up and a higher blood lactate concentration than the
Although several studies have examined the influ- continuous warm-up. However, before the 2 min test
ence of a continuous warm-up on exercise performance (after a 5 min passive rest), there were no significant
(Stewart and Sleivert, 1998; Bishop et al., 2001), only differences between the two conditions for heart rate,
one previous study has described the effects of an V̇O2, blood lactate concentration or pH. Oxygen uptake
intermittent warm-up on performance. Grodjinovsky had returned to resting values in both conditions and
and Magel (1970) reported that a ‘vigorous’ warm-up blood lactate concentration for each condition was not
(5 min jog plus 176 yard run at near maximum speed) significantly different, although it remained higher than
resulted in greater improvements in one mile (1.6 km) at rest in the intermittent condition. Thus, before the
run time than a ‘regular’ warm-up (5 min jog) in 2 min test, the elevated blood lactate concentration,
untrained males. Two other studies reported no compared to rest, was the only measured physiological
additional benefits to swim performance by including difference between the two warm-up conditions.
a high-intensity component (4646 m sprints with It has previously been proposed that the greater
1 min rest intervals) rather than a low-intensity warm- residual acidaemia after a more intense warm-up may
18
result in improved supramaximal performance as a
result of faster V̇O2 kinetics (Gerbino et al., 1996).
Metabolic acidaemia may enhance oxygen delivery
through vasodilatation and elevated muscle blood flow
(Hughson et al., 1996; MacDonald et al., 1997), and/or
through an acidaemia-induced facilitation of oxy-
haemoglobin dissociation, thus improving the capil-
lary-to-mitochondria diffusional gradient for oxygen
(Boning et al., 1991). However, recent evidence
suggests that V̇O2 kinetics are not limited by convective
oxygen delivery to muscle (Grassi et al., 1996) or the
peripheral diffusion of oxygen to the mitochondria
(Grassi et al., 1998). Thus, even though the greater
metabolic acidaemia associated with an intermittent
warm-up may enhance oxygen delivery to the muscle, it
is unlikely to alter V̇O2 kinetics.
Although we were unable to mathematically model
V̇O2 kinetics, there were no significant differences in
the 15 s V̇O2 values or total V̇O2 during the subsequent
2 min test after either of the warm-up conditions in the
present study (Fig. 1). This result is consistent with
recent research reporting no effect of prior exercise on
phase II V̇O2 kinetics, which describe the oxygen
response in approximately the first 2 min of exercise
(Burnley et al., 2000; Koppo and Bouckaert, 2001).
Furthermore, the results of these studies suggest that
the overall faster V̇O2 kinetics previously reported
(Gerbino et al., 1996) is primarily related to a reduction
in the amplitude of the V̇O2 slow component and not to
a measureable speeding of the phase II V̇O2 kinetics
(Burnley et al., 2000). Thus, mechanisms other than
improved V̇O2 kinetics are likely to explain the
improved 2 min kayak ergometer performance after an
intermittent, high-intensity warm-up in the present
study.
The significantly greater peak power after the
intermittent than the continuous warm-up suggests
that the participants may have been able to recruit
additional motor units following the intermittent warm-
up. After a maximal voluntary contraction, there is an
increased twitch potentiation (Vandervoort et al.,
1983). Furthermore, improved performance of both
the upper and lower extremities has been reported after
maximal voluntary contractions (Gullich and Schmidt-
bleicher, 1996; Young et al., 1998). This potentiation
has been attributed to phosphorylation of the light
chains on the myosin head (Moore and Stull, 1984) or
elevation of Ca2+ in the cytosol (Allen et al., 1989).
Although the participants in the present study did not
perform maximal voluntary contractions, an increased
twitch potentiation has also been reported after max-
imal dynamic knee extensions (Gossen and Sale, 2000).
It is therefore possible that the large voluntary contrac-
tions required for the sprint component of the inter-
mittent warm-up may have improved performance
Bishop et al.
through an increase in voluntary neuromuscular activa-
tion.
Not all authors have reported a significant increase in
muscle force after a maximal voluntary contraction
(Gossen and Sale, 2000). However, Gossen and Sale
allowed only 15 s recovery between the maximal
voluntary and the dynamic contraction. With only
15 s recovery, it is likely that there was still some
residual fatigue from the maximal voluntary contraction
before the dynamic contraction. This is supported by
the significant decline in torque (16.3%) during the
10 s maximal voluntary contraction (Gossen and Sale,
2000). Previous studies reporting a significant increase
in dynamic performance after maximal voluntary
contractions used longer recovery intervals of 3–5 min
(Gullich and Schmidtbleicher, 1996; Young et al.,
1998). Although it is likely that some of the post-
activation potentiation would have been diminished by
this longer recovery interval (Hamada et al., 2000), the
greater reduction in residual fatigue may have more
than compensated for the diminished post-activation
potentiation.
It has previously been shown that, if the warm-up
intensity is too high (*75% V̇O2max), the subsequent
metabolic acidaemia is associated with impaired supra-
maximal performance and a reduction in the accumu-
lated oxygen deficit (Bishop et al., 2001). This was
attributed to an accumulation of H+ and subsequent
inhibition of anaerobic glycolysis (Hermansen, 1981)
and/or interference with muscle contractile processes
(Fabiato and Fabiato, 1978). However, while a con-
tinuous warm-up at *75% V̇O2max tended to decrease
the accumulated oxygen deficit (Bishop et al., 2001), an
intermittent, high-intensity warm-up (five 10 s sprints
at 200% V̇O2max, each separated by 50 s of recovery at
*55% V̇O2max) did not result in a significant decrease.
Furthermore, compared with the study of Bishop et al.
(2001), there was also less blood lactate accumulation
after the intermittent warm-up used in the present study
(5.1+1.1 vs 3.2+1.4 mmol×l–1). Thus, compared with
a continuous warm-up at *75% V̇O2max, an inter-
mittent, high-intensity warm-up produces a smaller
increase in blood lactate concentration and maintains
the anaerobic contribution to the supramaximal task.
In conclusion, there was a greater peak power and
average power after the intermittent, high-intensity
warm-up than after the continuous warm-up. Although
blood lactate concentration remained significantly
higher than at rest after the intermittent warm-up, there
were no other measured physiological differences
between warm-up conditions before the supramaximal
task. Despite the improved performance, there was no
significant difference in V̇O2 or the accumulated oxygen
deficit during the 2 min test between the two warm-up
conditions. Further research is required to determine if
Effect of warm-up on ergometer performance
changes in neuromuscular function or alternate me-
chanisms are responsible for improved supramaximal
performance after an intermittent, high-intensity warm-
up. Our results, however, do suggest that sprint kayak
performance is likely to be significantly better after an
intermittent, high-intensity warm-up than after a con-
tinuous one.
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