Institute of Human Nutrition and Food

College of Human Ecology

University of the Philippines Los Baños
Institute of Human Nutrition and Food
College of Human Ecology
University of the Philippines Los Baños

2nd SEMESTER, A.Y. 2022-2023

MODULE 2.
RED MEATS, POULTRY, & FISH
This module will be divided into four sections, namely: (A) Red Meats and its different cuts, (B)
Poultry, and (C) Fish.

I. Learning Objectives

At the end of this module, the students will be able to:

1. describe the techniques on slaughtering, trussing, carving, and deboning;

2. identify meat cuts appropriate for the recipe; and
3. apply dry and moist heat cooking methods on meat, fish, and poultry

II. Instructional Procedures

1. Read the lecture notes

2. View infographics and read supplementary reading materials
● Pork Retail Cuts
● Beef Retail Cuts
● Types of Fish
● Maillard Browning

3. Watch videos
● Trussing chicken (Roast Chicken) Thomas Keller, Roast Chicken
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EWLt6G85zC4
● Chicken Carving tips Thomas Keller https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nj_Uj3gLlpQ
● Filleting Fish. How to fillet every fish. Method Mastery. Epicurious.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wcueSXGueJs&t=433s
● Science of Browning Reactions (HarvardX)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oWCrmVMjeds

4. Answer Knowledge Self-Assessment

III. Time Allotted - 2weeks (March 13- March 23)

RED MEATS AND VARIETY CUTS OF MEATS

DEFINITION AND KINDS

Meat refers to the flesh of the animal or the edible part of the striated muscle of the animal. It
also includes the organs and glands of the animals such as tongue, liver, kidney, and heart.
Red meat refers to pork, beef, carabeef, chevon, venison, lamb, and others. White meat, on the
other hand, refers to fish and poultry.

1. Kinds of Meat
a) Beef- meat of cattle
i. Steer- male cattle castrated while young or before the development of secondary
sex characteristics.
ii. Heifer- mature female cattle that has not yet born a calf
iii. Cow- female cattle that has calved
iv. Stag- male cattle desexed after maturity
v. Bull- uncastrated male cattle
vi. Calf- cattle that is 3-8 months old, which is too old to be classified as veal and too
young for beef
vii. Veal- meat of calf slaughtered when younger than 9 months

b) Lamb and Mutton- meat of sheep

i. Lamb- meat of sheep less than 14 months old
ii. Mutton- meat of sheep over 14 months old

c) Pork- meat of hog or swine carcass usually 7-12 months of age

d) Chevon- meat of goat

e) Carabeef- meat of carabao

f) Game- meat of any wild animals (i.e., deer, wild pig)

NUTRITIVE VALUES

Meat is the major source of protein, containing all the essential amino acids needed for human
growth and maintenance. Also, meat is an important source of B vitamins especially thiamin (B1),
riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), B6 and B12. Specifically, pork exhibits a large amount of vitamin B1
than any other source of meat as it contains typical amount of 1 mg per 100g compared to 0.07
to 0.15 mg of other meat sources. Moreover, meat is an excellent source of iron and phosphorus.
Further, meat’s liver being a concentrated source of Vitamin A, is also rich in unsaturated fatty
acids. However, meat also has negative nutritional aspect as it is also high in saturated fat and
cholesterol content.

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION

Meat is made up of a combination of water, muscular (lean), connective tissue, adipose (fatty)
tissue, and bone.

1. Muscular (lean) tissue is consist of one or more muscles by which each of it is made up
of many bundles of muscle fibers. This kind of tissue has lesser amount of connective
tissues and fat and is about eighteen percent (18%) protein.

a) Muscle fibers are the basic structural units of lean meat that make up the fasciculi
(muscle bundle). Each muscle fiber is filled with sarcoplasm and is surrounded by
an outer membrane called sarcolemma. Sarcoplasm contains the vitamins,
enzymes, and pigments. Perimysium is the connective tissue enveloping each
individual muscle bundle. Endomysium, on the other hand, is the very delicate
tissue found between muscle fibers. Lastly, epimysium is the connective tissue
surrounding an entire muscle (many bundles of bundles of fibers). Sarcoplasm is
also where the muscle fibrils are found to act as contractile components.

b) Muscle fibrils are separated into segments called sarcomeres. These muscle fibers
contain the muscle proteins namely, myosin (thick filaments), actin (thin
filaments), and tropomyosin by which myosin is the principal myofibrillar protein.
During muscle contraction, a myofibrillar protein called actomyosin is formed by
the union of actin and myosin. Both the formation and degradation of actomyosin
are catalyzed by adenosine triphosphate, Ca and Mg.

2. Connective tissue is a part of ligaments and tendons that act as a “glue” holding the
muscle fibers into bundles. There are four categories of muscle proteins in connective
tissues of which collagen is the most important.

a) Collagen is a white, tough, and fibrous protein arranged in parallel fashion that is
found within and between muscles to provide support to muscles and prevent it
from over-stretching. It is the most abundant protein in the animal body, and it
determines the toughness of the meat. Muscles used for movements like neck and
legs are high in collagen because as the muscle is exercised, its fiber expands and
its connective tissues thicken making it larger, redder, tougher, and more flavorful.
Upon exposure to hot water, it disintegrates and during cooking, it is converted to
gelatin.
 b) Elastin is a yellow connective tissue found in the deposits outside muscles. The
elastic properties are necessary in the tissues of the neck, the
abdominal/intestinal wall, and the arterial system. It is little affected by heat and
it does not tenderize in cooking. It has a rubbery characteristic due to the presence
of two unique amino acids called desmocine and isodesmocine.

c) Reticulin is made up of very small fibers of connective tissue which form interlaces
around muscle cells. It is associated with myristic acid.

d) Ground substance is undifferentiated matrix of plasma proteins and glycoproteins

in which fibrous molecules of collagen and/or elastin are bound.

3. Adipose (fatty) tissue is found around or between muscles, or in connective tissue.

a) Cover fat is found on the outside of the meat that is for retaining the moisture of
meats The fatty acids that are mainly saturated found in the triglycerides in the
fat depots are oleic (C18:1), palmitic (C16), and stearic (C18). Lipid and lipid-
related compounds include cholesterol, glycolipids, phospholipids, and
sphingomyelin.
b) Intramuscular fat or marbling is found within muscles that appears in wavy lines
in the meat that resembles the appearance of marble. Marbling is the distribution
of fat in connective tissues and within the muscles that contributes to flavor and
juiciness of the meat.

c) Amount of fat depends on age, feed, amount of exercise and species of animal.
There is large amount of fat with older and well-fed animals and those which have
limited exercise. Pig, specifically, accumulate more fat readily that most other
animals.

4. Bone determines the age of the animals. Young animals have soft backbone with a
reddish tinge while mature animals have bones that are flinty and white.

5. Pigments are responsible for the meat color.

a) Myoglobin is the predominant meat pigment accounting for 80% of meat
pigment. It receives oxygen from the blood and stores it in the muscle.
b) Hemoglobin accounts for the 20% of the pigment in meat. It transports oxygen
throughout the body and is present in the bloodstream.
c) Oxymyoglobin is a cherry red color pigment due to reaction of myoglobin with
oxygen. It is responsible for the medium-rare color of the cooked meat.
d) Metmyoglobin is the brownish red color upon too long exposure of myoglobin to
fluorescent or incandescent light.
e) Denatured globin hemochrome is responsible for the grey-brown or well-done
color of the cooked meat.
 f) Nitrosomyoglobin is the pink-red color of cured meat due to the reaction of
myoglobin with nitrate.
CHANGES IN MEAT AFTER SLAUGHTER
The process of converting once living muscle to meat begins soon after the animal has been bled
and the oxygen in the muscle is rapidly exhausted. It is important that the all the blood is pumped
out to prevent early meat spoilage. Thus, to achieve this, the stunning of the animal using a
stunning gun before killing the animal is crucial so that the cardiac activity and the pumping out
of blood from the vessel continues.

1. Immediately after death, the animal muscle is pliant, soft, and extensible which means
that the meat is in excellent condition for cooking because it is most tender. During this
stage, the meat should not be frozen because thaw rigor, an excessive muscle shortening
and drips upon thawing, will occur. Cold shortening is a severe muscle contraction in
carcasses that have been chilled too quickly and severely after slaughter.

2. Onset of rigor mortis happens when a stiff condition of meat occurs due to the decrease
in its pH. This happens within the first 12 hours after slaughter and the time allowed for
it to pass (known as aging) may last for varying periods within 24 hours. In this stage, the
meat shortens and becomes temporarily rigid, inflexible, and tough as muscles
contracted, thus it cannot be handled for preparation. Rigor mortis is accompanied by
depletion of adenosine triphosphate in the muscle which brings about the contraction of
muscle protein.

3. Post rigor stage happens when stiffening process ended. After a few days, if held at
temperature above freezing called aging, the muscle structure weakens and gradually
tenderizes due to the loss of biological regulation of proteinases. Also, the desirable flavor
of the meat in this stage has been developed.

MEAT CUTS
The carcass of the slaughtered animal is split longitudinally down the center into right and left
sides and then horizontally into fore and hind quarters which are further cut into wholesale or
primal cuts.

Table 2.1. Wholesale and retail cuts of beef (FNDRC manual, 2012).

Cut Local Name

Hind quarter- most desirable meat; higher in price

Round Pierna corta

Rump Tapadera

Whole loin Kadera

Flank Kampto/ kamto

Hind Shank Kenchi

Fore quarter- cut between 12th and 13th ribs; 12 on forequarter, one on hind

Rib Kostillas

Chuck Batok, paypay, kasim

Brisket Punta y pecho

Short plate Kabilugan

Foreshank Kenchi

Retail cuts (e.g. steak)

From loin end

Sirloin steak Tagilirang hulihan

From shortloin

Club steak Tagilirang unahan

Porter house, T-bone steak Tagilirang gitna

Tenderloin steak Solomillo

Table 2.2. Beef cuts according to tenderness (FNDRC manual, 2012).

Cut Local Name

Tender cuts (from least exercised muscles)

Whole loin

Loin end or sirloin Kadera

Short loin Tagilirang hulihan

Club steak Tagilirang unahan

Porterhouse, T-bone Tagilirang gitna

Tenderloin Solomillo

Ribs

Short ribs Kostillas

Rib roast

Less tender cut

Round, round steak Pierna corta

Rump, rump roast Tapadera

Chuck, chuck rib roast; may be Paypay, giniling

ground

Tough cuts

Shank (fore and hind) Kenchi

Flank Kamto

Plate, short ribs Tadyang

Brisket Punta y pecho

Neck Buto-buto

Oxtail Buntot
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Diagram-of-American-beef-cuts-standing-animal-NCBA-
Muscle-profiling-Natl_fig1_26246649
Figure 2.1. Parts of cow.

https://images.app.goo.gl/UBNuuZeeuNZujkoX7
Figure 2.2. Beef cuts
Table 2.3. Pork cuts according to tenderness (FNDRC manual, 2012).
Cut Local Name and Typical Use

Tender cuts

Loin (pork chop when sliced; Canadian Lomo- pork steak, grilled, broiled
bacon when cured)

Ham Pigue or hita- pork steak, may be ground or

cured

Bacon or belly Liempo- lechon kawali, broiled, may be

cured

Less tender cuts

Shoulder Paypay- stews, may be ground for

embotido, filling for relleno

Boston butt Kasim- adobo, tocino

Picnic ham Buto-buto- sinigang

Spareribs Buto sa tadyang- broiled, stewed

Pig-feet or knuckles Pata- crispy pata, patatim, may also be

stewed (nilaga)

Tail Buntot- sinigang

Jowl Kalamnan- stews

Head Ulo- dinuguan, kilawin, lechon

 https://images.app.goo.gl/A5uX6pCoCwmSaMVC8
Figure 2.3 Parts of swine.

https://images.app.goo.gl/8cCdQVboicqTE16c9
Figure 2.4 Pork cuts.
MEAT GRADING

It is the classification according to the quality, conformation, and finish of the carcass.
1. Quality refers to tenderness, juiciness, and palatability of the meat.
a) Tenderness refers to the universally accepted meat quality. Shown below are the
factors influencing tenderness of the meat.

i. Amount and type of connective tissues: meats with more elastin are less
tender. Lesser elastin is found in younger animals, chicken than pork, less
exercised cut and in females and castrated animals.
ii. Quality and distribution of muscle fibers: dense and coarse muscles, and
parallel than circumstantial arrangement of muscles is tougher.
iii. Amount and distribution of fat: marbled meats are tenderer.
iv. Aging: holding at temperatures ten to thirty (10-33) ⁰C, seventy percent
(70%) humidity for three (3) to six (6) weeks increases tenderness.

b) Juiciness is associated with water holding capacity of meat. Shown below are the
factors influencing juiciness of the meat.
i. Aging results in increased water holding capacity, making meat juicier.
ii. Marbling increases intramuscular fat improving juiciness.
iii. Species: beef is more prone to loss of juiciness than pork
iv. Age of animal: older animals are less juicy.
v. Type of muscle in carcass: compact muscles are less juicy.
vi. pH: immediately after slaughter, the decline of pH causes less juiciness.

c) Palatability is associated with overall flavor of the meat. Shown below are the
factors influencing flavor of the meat.
i. Age: the older the animal, the stronger the flavor
ii. Amount of exercise: more exercised animals have tougher meats but are
more flavorful.
iii. Ripening: makes meat more flavorful
iv. Feed: the more varied the feed, the more distinctive the flavor
v. Conformation indicates the relative proportion of lean meat to bone.
Good conformation means a high meat to bone ration and a high
percentage of tender cuts.
vi. Finish refers to the amount, quality, and color of the fat within and
around the muscle.
MARKET FORMS AND CONSIDERATIONS IN BUYING

1. Market Forms
a) Fresh meat refers to the meat immediately after slaughter, (usually within 12 to
18 hours) that has not undergone any processing methods. It is the most common
form of meat sold in the markets throughout the country.
b) Chilled meat refers to meat that has been cooled to a temperature just above the
freezing (1⁰- 3⁰C) within 24 hours after slaughter. Supermarkets and specialty
meat shops sell meat in this manner. Chilled meats are packed using polystyrene
trays with stretch film overwrap.
c) Frozen meat refers to meat frozen to an internal temperature of -2⁰C. Packaging
for frozen meat is the same as for chilled meats, polystyrene trays with stretch
film overwrap, or low-density polyethylene bags. Imported meats such as turkey
and duck are which are vacuum packed are sold in this manner.
d) Processed meat refers to meat that has been changed from its original fresh cut.
Before being refrigerated, meat was preserved by curing, smoking, canning, and
drying.

2. Types of Processed Meat

a) Ham is a cured pork from the hind leg of a hog.
i. Canned ham is a boneless fully cooked ham that can be served cold or
heated. Gelatin is added in dry form to absorb the ham’s natural juices
as it cooks.
ii. Water-added ham contains no more than 10% by weight of the added
water. This added moisture gives a moist, juicy, and tender texture.
iii. Imitation ham retains more than 10% moisture after curing.
iv. Country ham is cured by dry salt method. Usually, it is hickory smoked
to develop the distinctive flavor.
v. Picnic ham is a cured pork coming from the front leg instead of back leg.
It is less tender and is higher in fat than regular ham.

b) Bacon is cured and smoked meat from the side of the hog. It is balanced in its
proportion of fat to lean. Bacon with too much lean will be less tender while one
with higher proportion of fat will shrink too much.

c) Sausage is a meat that has been finely chopped or ground and blended with
various ingredients, seasonings, and spices. This mixture is stuffed into casings or
skins. Pork and/or beef fat is added to increase the moisture content and improve
the texture.
i. Uncooked sausage is made from ground, uncooked meat. Examples are
fresh pork sausage, bratwurst, and bockwurst.
 ii. Cooked sausage is made from cured meat, which is slightly smoked
before it is stuffed into the casings. Examples are hotdogs, bologna, and
knockwurst.
iii. Dry/ semidry sausage is made of cured meat that has been dried.
Examples are pepperoni, salami, and cervelat.

3. Types of Processed Meat According To Their Major Meat Ingredient (Brown, 2005)
a) BEEF: bologna, salami, and pastrami
b) PORK/ HAM: blood sausage, bratwurst, capacolla, chorizo, frizzies, ham, ham
bologna, linguica, lola/Lolita, luncheon meat, Lyons, New England- style sausage,
Old-fashioned loaf, pork sausage, prosciutto, salsiccia, scrapple, thuringer.
c) BEEF and PORK: club bologna, cervelat, frankfurters, honey loaf, hotdoh,
knockwurst, luncheon meat, mettwurst, mortadella, olive loaf, peppered loaf,
pimento loaf, salami, smokies, weiner, Vienna sausage.
d) VEAL and PORK: bockwurst, bratwurst, veal loaf, weisswurst
e) MEAT LIVER: braunschwieger, liverwurst (pork)

Table 2.4 Types of processed meat (pork).

Ham
https://images.app.goo.gl/
7mRU1vWDUgxvFEAg6

Bacon
https://images.app.goo.gl/
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Sausage
https://images.app.goo.gl/
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 4. Considerations in Buying Meat
It is important that the characteristics of a good quality meat should be considered in buying to
achieve and maintain the tenderness, juiciness, and palatability of the meat. The following are
the characteristics of a good quality meat in general.
a) Large proportion of lean-to-bone.
b) Lean meat is firm, fine-textured, and well-marbled with fat.
c) Beef is bright red in color while pork is pink.
d) Bones are pinkish to reddish on color and are porous, indicating that meat is from
a young animal.
Table 2.5. Characteristics of meat according to age (Madlangsacay, 1975 as cited in FNDRC
manual, 2012).
Characteristics Very young Nearing maturity Mature
Lean meat Pink Rose Dark red
● Color Fine grain Relatively course Coarse
● Texture Relatively firm Firmer Firm
Fat Creamy White or creamy White or creamy
● Color Tinged with pink fine Fairly fine Coarse
grain
● Texture Relatively firm Firmer Firm
Distribution marbling Thin None None
Flavor Flavorful More flavorful More flavorful
Bone White tinged with pink White White
Flexible
Less flexible Rigid

Table 2.6. Characteristics of meats according to source (Madlangsacay, 1975 as cited in FNDRC
manual, 2012).
Characteristics Beef from Veal Carabeef Beef Beef Pork
young cow from old from old
cow* bull**
Color of muscle Pale Pale grayish Dark reddish Lighter Dark Pale gray
red brown copper to pinkish
red
Consistency of Firm Moderately Loose Firm Dry Soft
muscle firm to Soft Loose Firm
loose Less sticky
Odor Peculiar Slightly sour Disagreeable Milky Peculiar Impulsive
urine odor
Fat Creamy Loose White or Creamy Creamy Generally
Greasy white gray White Soft
White Firm Oily
*cow- female that has borne a calf
**bull- uncastrated male cattle

STORAGE AND CARE

Meat has high percentages of water and protein making them ideal for the growth of
microorganism. Therefore, meat should be stored in the refrigerator or freezer. Following are the
tips for storing meat.

1. Meat should be refrigerated just above freezing (32⁰F/ 0⁰C), between 32⁰F and 36⁰F (0⁰-
2⁰C)
a) Meat freezes when the temperature drops below 28⁰F (-2⁰F)
b) Meat is stored in the coldest part of the refrigerator
2. Fresh meat should not be stored in the refrigerator longer than 3-5 days whereas ground
meat and other variety should be cooked within 1 or 2 days.
3. Cooked meat can be stored for about 3-4 days.
4. Meat kept longer than the suggested storage times should be frozen.
5. Meat to be frozen should be wrapped tightly in aluminum foil, heavy plastic bags, or
freezer paper stored at or below 0⁰F or (-18⁰C)
a) Beef cuts can be kept frozen for 6-12 months whereas ground beef should be
frozen no longer than 3 months.
6. The texture and flavor of thawed meats are adversely affected if these are refrozen.
7. Freezer burn (loss of moisture from the surface of frozen food) occurs when meat is
stored longer than the recommended storage time.

Table 2.7. Home storage of meat products (Serraon- Claudio, Jamorabo-Ruiz, Yuosn-De Leon and
De Lima-Chavez, 2014).
Product Chiller (4⁰C/ 40⁰F) Freezer (-18⁰C/ 0⁰F)
Fresh beef roast, chops, 3-5 days 6-12 months
steaks
Fresh beef liver or variety 1-2 days 3-4 months
meat
Cooked meat dishes 3-4 days 2-3 months
Cooked gravy and broth 1-2 days 2-3 months
Hotdog, luncheon meat, 2 weeks 1-2 months
vacuum packed
Hotdog, opened pack 7 days 1-2 months
Fresh pork 3-5 days 4-6 months
Fresh chilled chicken 1-3 days 4-6 months
Canned meat products (Up to 2 years in the pantry) 2-3 months after opening
3-4 days after opening

Dried meat products 2-3 months -

Another way to prolong the age-life of meat and to improve its palatability is through aging. Aging
is the ripening process that takes place when carcasses are hung in refrigeration units for longer
periods than that needed to reverse rigor mortis. Hanging the meat stretches the muscles and
aids in the aging process. Aging is also the process to improve the meat’s juiciness, tenderness,
flavor, color, and their ability to brown upon cooking. There are three ways of aging meats.

1. Dry aging happens when carcasses are hung in refrigeration units at 34⁰- 38⁰F (1⁰-3⁰C)
with low (70-75%) or high (85-90%) humidity for 1 ½ to 65 weeks.
2. Fast aging uses warmer temperature of 70⁰F (21⁰C) with a high humidity of 85-90%
lowering the aging time to 2 days. UV lights are used to inhibit microbial growth.
3. Vacuum-packed aging happens when meat carcasses are divided into smaller cuts and
vacuum-packed in moisture-and-vacuum-proof plastic bags and aged under refrigeration.
These vacuum-packed aged meats have less weight loss and spoilage.

Another way to improve the palatability and flavor of meat is through tenderizing. There are
several ways to make the meat tenderer.

1. Enzymes, specifically proteolytic, breaks down the protein within the muscle fibrils to
“relax” the contracted muscles towards the end of rigor mortis
a) A tenderizing solution of papain injected into the bloodstream of animals 10
minutes before slaughter
b) Commercial meat tenderizers are effective on thin cuts of meat since they
penetrate a depth of ½- 2mm. Tenderizers available as a salt or liquid include
papain from papaya, bromelain from pineapples, ficin form figs, trypsin from the
pancreas of animals, and rhyzozyme P-11 from fungi.

2. Salts in the form of K, Ca, or Mg chlorides increase meat tenderness by retaining the
moisture and breaking down the component surrounding muscle fibers and releasing the
proteins.

3. Acids can be used as marinades to break down the outside surface of the meat. It includes
vinegar, wine, lemon, tomato, and other fruit juices.

4. Mechanical tenderization processes such as grinding, cubing, needling and pounding can
tenderize meat by physically breaking the muscle cells and connective tissues.
a) Grinding and cubing increase the surface-area-to-volume ratio, enabling the teeth
to chew easier
b) Needling uses an equipment which sends numerous needle-like blades into the
meat to separate the tissues
c) Pounding makes use of a special hummer to break apart the surface tissue of
meat. It is the preparation used for dried meat such as tapa.
 d) Slicing thinly cuts the muscle fiber and makes chewing easier. This is applied to
meat cuts intended for stir frying and sautéing.
e) Marinating is intended primarily to heighten or incorporate flavors in meat but it
has added effect of tendering because of the uptake of solution of water by the
meat.

5. Electric stimulation speeds up rigor mortis by accelerating glycogen breakdown and

enzymatic activity which makes the meat tenderer. This type of meat tenderizing process
happens when electric current passes through the carcass, usually beef and sheep, after
slaughter and before rigor mortis.

METHODS OF MEAT COOKERY

1. Preparing Meat For Cooking
a) Wipe the meat with a paper towel to remove any surface moisture
i. Washing meat or leaving water on the meat results in a faded color and a
loss of some water-soluble nutrients and flavor compounds
b) Trim the meat of any visible fat or connective tissue to reduce calories and
increase tenderness
c) For frozen meat, thaw thoroughly in the refrigerator or microwave before cooking
i. Frozen meats take longer time to heat and more difficult to heat evenly,
and the center may remain frozen even though the outside looks cooked

2. Beef/ Carabeef Cooking Methods

a) Grilling
i. The cuts suitable for grilling are sirloin steak, rump steak,
porterhouse steak and T-bone steak.
ii. Grill must be preheated but racks should not be
iii. Grease is used to prevent sticking.
iv. Baste is also needed.
b) Roasting
i. Larger cuts such as ribs and sirloin are best suited for roasting
ii. Whole young calf may also be roasted.
iii. Baste the meat with its own dripping as it cooks to prevent drying
out.
iv. Internal temperature for rare is 55⁰C, for medium 71⁰C, and for
well-done 77⁰C.
c) Pan Frying
i. Cuts suitable for grilling may also be fried, the tender cuts cut into
small/ thin sections.
ii. Just enough fat to cover the bottom of pan. Cook at high heat, turn
only once.
 d) Pot Roasting
i. Beef cuts such as flank, brisket, rump, top side, and silverside are
suited for pot roasting.
ii. Using a heavy large pan with heavy lid, brown first then place on a
bed of vegetables, cover and cook under low heat for 45 minutes
per half kilo. The covered pot may also be heated in a preheated
oven at 165⁰C also 45 minutes per half kilo.
e) Braising
i. Suitable for same cut as those for pot roasting (brisket, rump,
sirloin, etc).
ii. Brown meat first in small amount low heat of fat. Also use a bed of
vegetables but add some liquid. Cover and cook over for 2 to 3
hours.
f) Stewing
i. Used for tough cuts of meat such as shin, chuck, and flank.
ii. It may or may not be coated with flour and browned.
iii. Use a small amount of liquid but replenish as needed. Cooking time
is up to 3 hours depending on the cut used. It may also be cooked
in a covered pot inside the oven.
g) Charcoal Grilling
i. BBQ in bamboo sticks or tender cuts of meat are grilled over live
charcoal in a parilla.
ii. Dried woods are used for live coals to impart different acceptable
flavors.
3. Pork Cooking Methods
a) GRILLING And FRYING
i. Chops of all kinds can be grilled or fried.
b) Roasting
i. All joints are suitable for roasting, even whole as in lechon.
ii. Cook to internal temperature of 77⁰C to ensure safety.
c) STEWING And BOILING
i. Suitable for all cuts as in sinigang.
d) Charcoal Grilling

Table 2.8. Internal temperatures recommended for cooked meat (Brown, 2005 as cited in CHNI
manual, 2012).
Meat Description Color Internal Temperature
⁰F ⁰C
Beef Rare Rose red in center, pinkish 140 60
toward outer portion,
shading into a dark gray,
 brown crust, juice bright
red

Medium Light pink, brown edge and 160 70

crust, juice light pink
Well-done Brownish gray in center, 170 77
dark crust
Veal Well-done Firm, not crumbly, juice 165 74
clear, light pink
Pork
Ham, fully cooked Heated Pink 130-140 55-60
or canned
Ham, cook before Medium Pink 140 60
eating
Smoked loin Medium Pink 160 70
Fresh rib, loin, Well-done Center grayish white 170 77
picnic shoulder

EFFECT OF HEAT ON MEAT

1. Changes During Cooking

a) Cooking at the correct temperature and at the right amount of time improves their
tenderness, juiciness, and flavour
i. Cooking too long and at too high temperature will toughen, shrink, and
harden meats. It will also shorten muscle fibers, denature protein, and
dehydrate it.
ii. Longer cooking at lower temperature of tougher meat cuts make them
most tender since this breaks down collagen to gelatin.
iii. Cooking melts fat in meat which increases its tenderness, juiciness, and
flavour
iv. Searing may be done to increase the flavor and color of the meat.

b) Flavor also changes as the meat is being cooked due to:

i. Coagulation of protein, melting and breakdown of fats, organic acids, and
nitrogen-containing compounds.
ii. Small amounts of carbohydrates (sugar) react with proteins in the Maillard
reaction to produce desirable flavor and color of the browned meat
surfaces.
iii. Condiments may be added to enhance the flavor of the meat (use of steak
sauces, ketchup, seasoned butters, salsas, chutneys, and fruit juices)
 c) Cooking also improves food safety as it destroys parasites and pathogenic
microorganisms.

Table 2.9. Effects of heat on meat proteins, color and texture (McGee, 2004 as cited in Serraon-
Claudio, Jamorabo-Ruiz, Yuosn-De Leon and De Lima-Chavez, 2014).
Temperature Doneness Meat Protein Collage Protein Myoglobin
⁰F ⁰C characteristics fibers n bound pigment
water
100 40 Raw Soft to touch Starting to Intact Accumula Normal/
Translucent, unfold te within red
deep red cells
120 50 Rare Starting to firm Myosin More
and become starts to water in
opaque denature, cells and
coagulate escape
from cells
increase
130 55 Medium Yields to touch Myosin
Release juice coagulated
when cut
Opaque lighter
red
140 60 Medium Starts to shrink Other fiber Collage Flow from Begins to
Exudes juice proteins n cells denature
Red fades to denature, sheaths under
pink coagulates shrink, collagen
squeez pressure
e cells
150 65 Medium Continues to
well shrink
Less free juice
Pink discolors
to gray brown
160 70 Well done Continues to Begins Stops Denatured
shrink to flowing coagulated
Meat becomes dissolv
stiff and dry e
170 75 Well done Stiff, dry, gray
brown
180 80 Actin
denatures,
coagulates,
cell
 contents
densely
compacted

200 90 Fibers separate Dissolv

es
rapidly

SOUP STOCK, GRAVY, AND SAUCE

1. Soup stock is made from boiling exercised muscles such as leg or neck sections because
they have the most flavor i.e. from beef with vegetable seasoning
2. Gravy or sauce is made from drippings from fried, pan-broiled or roasted meat and
cooking liquor from stewed or braised meats and poultry which may be thickened or not.

REFERENCES
Foods and Foodservice Systems: A Review Manual in Nutrition and Dietetics. 2012. Consultants
in Health and Nutrition, Inc.

Basics Foods and Institutional Management: Fundamentals in Nutrition and Dietetics. 2012.
Institute of Human Nutrition and Food, College of Human Ecology, University of the Philippines
Los Banos.

Serraon-Claudio, V., Jamorabo-Ruiz, A., Yuson-De Leon, S., and L. De Lima-Chavez. 2014. Basic
Foods for Filipinos. 5th edition. Merriam & Webster Bookstore, Inc. Philippines.
POULTRY

DEFINITION AND KINDS

1. Poultry is generally referred to kinds of domesticated fowls that are used as foods. Its
main sources include chicken, duck, goose, turkey, pigeons, and quails
2. Game birds are wild fowls usually hunted for food and pleasure which include pheasant,
wild duck, and squab.

NUTRITIONAL IMPORTANCE
1. Similar to beef, pork veal and other type of meats, poultry has 18-20% protein, fats
occurring as soft, hard or liquid, glycogen, vitamins (A, B, D, E, K), minerals (iron, copper,
cobalt, phosphorus), pigments (myoglobin, oxymyoglobin, metmyoglobin), flavour
compounds and water.
2. The dark meats from chickens and turkeys have higher fats, calories and iron than white
meat. Moreover, duck and geese have also higher content of fat than chicken and turkeys.

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION

1. Muscles
a) There are two types of muscles depending on the meat color (dark and white)
b) Dark muscles are found to those kind of poultry (i.e., wild birds) that are very
active and mobile
c) Dark chicken meat is richer in riboflavin but is poor in niacin
d) Dark meat also has more myoglobin, fat, and connective tissues than white meat
e) Turkeys and chicken have both white and dark meat wherein its lightness and
darkness depends on the amount of myoglobin in the muscle
2. Fat
a) Chicken fat is yellow due to the presence of carotenoids, xanthophyll and carotene
b) The higher the carotene content of the food contributes to more yellow color of
the chicken fat
3. Color
a) Hemoglobin contributes to the light coloration in the poultry
b) Poultry meat color is affected by factors such as bird’s age, sex, strain, diet,
intramuscular fat, moisture content, pre-slaughter conditions, and processing
variables
c) Discoloration can be related to the amount of pigments that are present in the
meat, the chemical state of the pigments, or the way in which light is reflected off
the meat
d) Extreme environmental temperatures or stress due to live handling before
processing can cause broiler turkey breast meat to be discolored
e) Bruising can also cause discoloration
CLASSIFICATION AND MARKET FORMS
1. Classification of Poultry (US Department of Agriculture Poultry Grading Manual, 1971 as
cited in FNDRC Manual, 2012)
a) Chicken
i. Rock Cornish Game Hen or Cornish Game Hen has very tender meat and
chubby breast. It is about six (6) weeks old before slaughter and has not
more than point nine (0.9) kg.
ii. Broiler or fryer is a young chicken that is usually slaughtered at nine (9) to
twelve (12) weeks old and weighs point nine (0.9) to one point five (1.5)
kg. It has tender meat, soft and pliable skin, and flexible breastbone
cartilage.
iii. Fryers are usually slaughtered at fourteen (14) to twenty (20) weeks old.
They are bigger than broilers, weighing point nine (0.9) to one point five
(1.5) kg.
iv. Roasters are young chicken that are usually three (3) to five (5) months
old. It has tender meat and has soft, pliable, and smooth-textured skin. It
also has flexible breastbone cartilage. It weighs one point five (1.5) to two
point five (2.5) kg prior to slaughter.
v. Stewers are mature and has high fat female chickens aging ten (10) months
to one (1) year old before slaughter.
vi. Capons are surgically unsexed (castrated) male chickens that are usually
under eight (8) months old before slaughter. It has a very tender meat, and
soft, pliable and good covering skin.
vii. Stags are male chicken that are usually ten (10) months old prior to
slaughter. It has a course skin, darkish meat, hard breastbone cartilage.
viii. Hen or stewing chicken or fowl is a mature female chicken that age more
than ten (10) months old before slaughter. It has a nonflexible breastbone
tip.
ix. Cock or roaster is a mature male chicken that is ten (10) months old prior
to slaughter. It has a course skin and has a tough, dark and more flavorful
meat.
b) Duck
i. Broiler duckling or fryer duckling is slaughtered less than eight (8) weeks
old weighing two (2) to four (4) pounds. It has high fat, a very tender flesh
and a soft bill and windpipe
ii. Roaster duckling is a slaughtered upon reaching sixteen (16) weeks old or
less. It has also a tender flesh but its bills and windpipe are slightly hard.
iii. Mature duck or old duck is slaughtered when it is over six (6) months old.
It lacks fat and has a tough meat and hardened bill and windpipe.
c) Turkey
i. Fryer or roaster is a young turkey usually under sixteen (<16) weeks old. It
has a tender meat, soft pliable skin, and a flexible breastbone cartilage.
 ii. Young hen turkey is a young female (or male) turkey that is usually five (5)
to seven (7) months old. It has tender meat, soft pliable skin and a less
flexible breastbone cartilage as compared to fryer turkey.
iii. Yearling hen turkey is a mature female (or male) turkey that is usually
under fifteen (<15) months old. It has a reasonably tender meat and
smooth-textured skin.
iv. Old hen turkey is a mature female (or male) turkey that is usually over
fifteen (>15) months old. It has a tough meat and course skin.
d) Goose
i. Young goose is approximately six (6) months old and has a very tender
meat.
ii. Mature goose is old and is over six (6) months old. It has a very tough meat.
e) Pigeon
i. Squab is a young immature pigeon that has not flown. It is marketed at
about three (3) to four (4) weeks old. It has an extra tender and light meat.
ii. Pigeon is over four (>4) weeks old that has tough dark meat.
f) Guinea
i. Young guinea ages under six (<6) months old before slaughter and it is
relevant to pheasant.
ii. Old guinea is up to twelve months old before slaughter.

2. Market Forms
Table 2.10 Market forms of chicken.
Live Alive birds which are in cages
https://images.app.g where buyers can choose from.
oo.gl These birds must be alert, healthy,
/1Z5NVwpMGnG6X well-feathered and well-formed.
Uwx6
Whole or Galantina Slaughtered birds that have been
https://images.app.g bled and defeathered wherein
oo.gl head, viscera and feet are still
/hDJ8juqKtR3xSBzT6 intact.

Dressed Slaughtered birds that have been

https://images.app.g bled, defeathered and the visceral
oo.gl/ organs are removed.
bdEhxiKJNVsCEz2q8

Ready-to-cook Poultry that have been dressed and

https://images.app.g drawn. These are eviscerated
oo.gl/ (removal of entrails from the
KC3g3c12WztuT2rM cavity), bled, defeathered, and that
8 the head and feet are removed as
well. This is the style of poultry that
is available in the supermarkets.

Convenience Smaller pieces of poultry such as

https://images.app.g halves, breasts, drumsticks, thighs,
oo.gl/ and wings. It also includes ground
RuXVSkcHpje5Km3 turkey and chicken meat.
M7

Processed poultry Processed turkey and chicken that

https://images.app.g have used in caned or dried soups,
oo.gl/ frozen dinners, pot pies, sausages,
YiARWAD6QZ9XdKK hotdogs, burgers and bologna.
RA Larger pieces of processed poultry
meat without bones are available
 as boneless turkey breast, roll and
ham. Processed meats are also
made from mechanically deboned
poultry in which bone fragments
were removed.

3. Poultry Parts
a) Dark meat includes drumsticks, thigh, wings, neck, back and rib cage.
b) White meat includes solely the breasts.
c) Giblets include gizzard, heart and liver.
d) Others are proven (proventriculus tube) and intestines.

BUYING OF POULTRY

Generally, all poultry must be free of skin tears and bruises and has a fresh odor when bought.
Following the USDA Inspection Label and Guide, Grade A chicken meat must be fully fleshed and
meaty, has a uniform fat covering, well-formed, has good and clean appearance. Moreover, cuts
of meat depending on the recipe to be cooked must be considered. Lastly, it is important to buy
meat from a reputable buyer.

The following statements are the guideline for purchasing poultry (Purdue University, 2002)

1. Fresh Uncooked Chicken/ Turkey

a) Meat should be firm and moist with a creamy yellow skin color
2. Frozen Poultry
a) Solid to the touch
b) Free of ice crystals
c) Sold in a tightly sealed package

STORAGE AND CARE (CHNI, 2012)

1. Fresh, ready-to-cook poultry is kept in the refrigerator at 40ºF (4ºC) or below up to 3
days. Dark meat has higher myoglobin content than white meat making it more easily
oxidized. Iron in myoglobin acts as metal catalyst that hastens the reaction of
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) to being oxidized. Oxidation of PUFAs will the result
to disagreeable off-odors. Store poultry in a vapor-proof wrapping (or the way it was
bought) since repackaging increases the risk of bacterial contamination.
2. Frozen whole poultry can be frozen up to four months. However, if poultry is kept frozen
more than what is recommended, its moistness and eating quality may decrease.
3. Thawing frozen birds should be done in the refrigerator wherein an average-size chicken
can be thawed about one day. Once defrosted, poultry should not be refrozen unless it
has been cooked. Stuffing should be refrigerated promptly and eaten within 2-3 days.
4. Poultry must be handled carefully because of the possibility of being contaminated with
bacteria, specifically Salmonella.
METHODS OF COOKING POULTRY
There are two cooking methods that can be applied depending on the age of the bird and its fat
content (CHNI Manual, 2012).
1. DRY-HEAT COOKERY
a. Roasting or Baking
i. Stuffed birds have more cooking time wherein additional 5 minutes per
pound to kill microorganisms
ii. Chicken and turkey need basting to prevent drying of the skin and meat.
iii. Birds to be roasted are placed with the breast up in a heavy-duty roasting
pan on the lowest rack of the oven
iv. Stuffed bird should stand for only a short time after removing from the
oven and before serving.
v. Stuffed bird should be refrigerated and the stuffing removed from the
bird’s cavity before refrigerating.
b. Broiling or Grilling
i. Methods used for cut-up poultry
ii. Poultry is marinated or coated with butter and seasonings before broiling
or grilling.
c. Sautéing
i. Small poultry pieces are placed in a skillet or pan with a small amount of oil.
Pieces are turned to ensure adequate doneness.
d. Pan-Frying
i. Chicken pieces are breaded or floured before frying over high heat in about
¼ inch of fat. Breading is used to add texture and flavour, to keep the fried
food moist and to allow heat to be transmitted to the food with the
absorption of too much fat.
e. Deep-Frying
i. Breaded, floured, or battered poultry pieces are submerged completely in
oil.
f. Stir-Frying
i. Bite-size pieces of boned chicken are lightly fried while stirring frequently
in tiny amount of oil.

2. MOIST HEAT COOKERY

a. Braising or Fricasseeing
i. Use of slow, moist heating to tenderize meat. Pieces of chicken or turkey
are browned in a small amount of oil or butter. Liquid is added and poultry
is simmered in a covered pan until tendered.
b. Stewing
i. Whole or cut-up poultry is covered in cold salted water and heated to
boiling point. When this is reached, the heat is lowered to simmer.
c. Poaching
 i. Chicken pieces are poached in a small amount of water. Chicken pieces are
placed in a frying pan and covered with 1 ½ cups of water. The water is
brought to a boil then simmered. The chicken is cooked for 10 to 15 minutes
or until tender.
d. Microwaving
i. Microwave chickens generally do not heat food deeply and evenly so that
it is not suggested for stuffed poultry. It is best for chicken pieces. For
example, chicken breast is heated on high for about 10 minutes or until well
done. Cooking is completed when the flesh is firm or fork tender, and the
juices run clear instead of pink.

Table 2.11. Defects in poultry cookery (FNDRC Manual, 2012).

SITUATION CAUSE

Pink coloration more Occurs when gas-fired oven is used for cooking. The carbon
obviously seen in white monoxide and nitric acid of the cooking flame reacts with the
meat, particularly of hemoglobin of the chicken blood, forming
younger birds carboxyhemoglobin and nitric oxide hemoglobin that are pink
in color even after heating, although it does not affect the
quality of the poultry meat

Meat and bone darkening Freezing and thawing release hemoglobin form the red cells in
in cooked frozen poultry the bone marrow. Bones from the slaughtered young chicken
are still porous, and this porosity allows seepage of the
pigment in the meat next to the bones.

Difficulty in separating Due to elastin that is insoluble even at 100ºC or higher. It is

bones of thigh and believed to be due to the presence of two amino acids namely
drumsticks of chicken desmoscine and isodesmoscine.
and turkey even after
extensive cooking

Rancidity Due to oxidative rancidity, as poultry fat is mainly PUFA. Turkey

fat is more unstable than chicken fat.

Off-flavors Due to rancidity, putrefaction, and contamination of feed and

odors absorbed during storage.
REFERENCES
Purchasing Chicken. 2002. Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana.

Foods and Foodservice Systems: A Review Manual in Nutrition and Dietetics. 2012. Consultants
in Health and Nutrition, Inc.

Basics Foods and Institutional Management: Fundamentals in Nutrition and Dietetics. 2012.
Institute of Human Nutrition and Food, College of Human Ecology, University of the
Philippines Los Banos.

Serraon-Claudio, V., Jamorabo-Ruiz, A., Yuson-De Leon, S., and L. De Lima-Chavez. 2014. Basic
Foods for Filipinos. 5th edition. Merriam & Webster Bookstore, Inc. Philippines.
FISH & FISH COOKERY

DEFINITION AND SOURCES

Fish refers to a large group of cold-blooded animals living in water. All fishes are classified into
two broad categories namely finfish and shellfish.

1. Finfish or vertebrates are those with fins, backbones, and grills. It is subdivided into
groups according to their sources, shape, and fat content.
a) Sources (see Table 2.14)
i. Freshwater fish do not have heavy skeletal framework and their bone
structure is made up of hundreds of very small bones.
ii. Saltwater fish have thicker due to increase buoyancy to saltwater.
iii. Brackish water fish

b) Shape

Table 2.12. Shapes of finfishes.

Flatfish Usually shaped like an oval platter
https://images. wherein its top side is dark while its
app.goo.gl/ bottom is white. Its eyes may be on
a3CWJE1QC the side of the body facing
cykYZNj9 upwards. This type of fish can swim
along the bottom of the sea.
Examples include sole or dapa

Roundfish Have rounder body. Examples include

https://images. cod, salmon, and trout
app.goo.gl/
8tm5AceZG
vHuXyyw8

c) Fat Content
i. Lean finfish contain less than 2.5 percent of fat that is mostly concentrated
in the liver.
ii. Moderate fat finfish contain less than 6.0 percent of fat.
iii. High fat finfish contain above 6.0 percent of fat, usually nearly12.0% but
can be as high as 30.0%.
 2. Shellfish or invertebrates are those with external skeleton or shells. Invertebrates are
classified into three subgroups.
a) Crustaceans are shellfish with hard shells over the back and along the claws but
have relatively soft shells covering he lower part of the body and legs.

Table 2.13 Types of crustaceans.

Alimango or green crab Ten (10) legged crustacean
https://images.app.goo.g with two pincers. It has the
l sweetest and succulent meat
/bH8zBk1QC7kFDRcm8

Alimasag or blue crab

https://images.app.goo.g
l/
Lvko8nRprSTqeTNQ6

Talangka Small crab which is about one

https://images.app.goo.g sixth (1/6) of the original size
l/ of alimasag
SNejoypvCjCgVUYY9

Hibe and alamang Small type of shrimp that is

https://images.app.goo.g normally be eaten with their
l/ shells
c2TfeFzXuu76ofEm6

Suahe Salt-water shrimp

https://images.app.goo.g
l/
AfavwKzieUkMtNAA8
 Ulang and tagunton Fresh-water shrimp
https://images.app.goo.g
l
/yJpqGwHsmc5jTVqR9

Lobster Has cylindrical body, stalked

https://images.app.goo.g eyes, and the first of its five
l/ pairs of limbs modified as
EW7oNrwXQcoXTtYr9 pincers.

b) Mollusks is a type of shellfish with soft structure that is partially or wholly enclosed
in a hard shell

Table 2.16. Types of mollusks.

Univalve Has only one shell that enclose
https://images.app.goo.gl the body. Examples are kuhol
/ and suso
uKEgLh76af2fuHhZ8

Bivalves
Clams (halaan or tulya) Burrows in sand and mud
https://images.app.goo.
gl/WvSyCF4QmjFgYf6H9
 Oyster (talaba) Has rough irregular shells which
https://images.app.goo.g tend to have dissimilar top and
l/XSi6tgTtAzxkjN6c9 bottom shell by which the upper
is flattened and the lower is
concave. They attach
themselves to surface by limy
secretion and they are found in
sea beds of coastal waters.

Mussels (tahong) Found both in fresh and marine

https://images.app.goo.gl waters. They attach themselves
/4hnhJExLEdam2bQf6 to rock

Scallops Flattish fan-shaped shells that

https://images.app.goo.gl swim by expelling water from
/YwSRuCFMYXRGm9uH8 shells by a series of snapping
motions

c) Cephalopods include those type of shellfish that has tentacles.

Table 2.14 Types of cephalopods.

Squid Has ten (10) arms and
usually a long, cigar-
https://images.app.goo.g
l/MieLv9edarNdh2sd6 shaped body with fins at
the end. It has no
backbone but a quill-like
pen located beneath its
mantle, or body
 Cuttlefish Have thicker mantle and has
a hard white
https://images.app.goo.g
l/ endoskeleton inside the
Vd4wAsDcHmLjaw8F6 body

Octopus Has eight sucker-bearing

arms, a soft body, strong
https://images.app.goo.g
l/ beaklike jaws, and no
NjK6jdqQMCzMRVzv7 internal shell.

NUTRITIONAL IMPORTANCE
1. Fish has a high protein content of about 18-20 percent. Fish protein concentrates have
been developed by grinding whole fish, the calcium-rich bones, dehydrating it, and
removing the fat. This is used as an additive in foods such as noodles to increase protein
quality and calcium content.
2. In general, finfish are low in fat but squid and shrimp contain more than 100mg
cholesterol per 100 grams. Shellfish contain carbohydrates in the form of glycogen. Fat
from fish is a good source of omega-3 fatty acids which have been found to decrease the
risk of heart disease. Omega-3 fatty acids can also alleviate psoriasis and some
inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus erythematous. Seen in the
table below is the list of fish that are high in omega-3 fatty acids.
3. Vitamins and minerals
a) Fish is a good source of B vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and B12) but some
amounts may be lost through decomposition, heating and/or extraction in water
or salt solutions.
b) Fish with high fat are good sources of vitamins A and D.
c) Fish are also good sources of iodine, calcium specially in canned sardines and
salmon, and iron.

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION

1. Flesh meat is the edible portion of the fish which is composed of muscle and connective
tissues.
a) Muscle tissues in fish are shorter than in meat by one inch length. These muscles
are arranged in layers of short fibers, myotomes, separated by large sheets of very
thin connective tissues called mycommata. This structure of the muscle is
 responsible for the flaking of prepared fish as heat softens the collagen in the
mycommata. The red muscle containing the myoglobin can be found in a small
portion at the side of the fish which is the dark meat seen on the skin.
b) Connective tissues, on the other hand, in fish are mainly collagen. The myosepta
contains layers of collagenous connective tissues which connect myotomes
together. The mycommata also contains protein collagen which swells and shrinks
upon heatig in the presence of moisture. This collagen shrinkage allows the
tenderization of fish even in slight cooking.
2. Fat content varies among different types of fish. Generally, its fat content is lower than
that of pork, carabeef, beef, and chicken. T Fat in fish is highly prone to oxidative
deterioration due to highly unsaturated nature of its fatty acids.
3. Amino acid content in fish also varies differently. Fish is tender since there is less amino
acids (hydroxyphine) in the connective tissues. When fish is cooked, the collagen breaks
down easily at a lower temperature and is converted to gelatin.
4. Pigments, such as white, pink, and red, are present in the flesh of fish. The color of the
flesh changes when exposed to air during preparation. The color of the fish flesh depends
on whether the fish depended mainly on quick or solid movements to stay alive.
a) Red or darker meat flesh (as seen in salmon) is due to the higher concentration of
“slow-twitch fibers” needed for long distance swimming and endurance.
b) White meat (as seen in sole) is due to more “fast-twitch fiber” designed for quick
burst of speed.
c) Dark, light and white meat (as seen in tuna) is due to the presence of both fast-
twitch and slow-twitch fibers.
d) A high fat content can also darken the color of the fish flesh, as seen in tuna and
mackerel.

CLASSIFICATION AND MARKET FORMS

1. Classifications
As stated above, fish is classified further to different categories based on sources, shape
and fat content

Table 2.15 List of finfish and shellfish based on sources.

FINFISH SHELLFISH

FRESH WATER SALT WATER FRESH WATER SALT WATER

Tilapia Bream (bisugo) Suso Mussels (tahong)

Catfish (hito) Cavalla (talakitok) Oysters (talaba)

Murrel (dalag) Grouper (lapu-lapu) Ulang Clams

Herring (tawilis) Black bass (apahap) Scallop

 Carp Round scad (galunggong) Talangka Spider conch

Goby (biya) Spanish mackerel Blue crab

(tangigi)

Gurami Indian sardines (tamban) Bibi Squid and

cuttlefish

Eel (kasili) Samaral Uyap Octopus

Tuna

Caesio (dalagang bukid)

Mullet (banak)

Red snapper (maya-maya)

Marlin

Table 2.16. Fat content of 3-ounce portions of fish and shellfish (Brown, 2005 as cited in
CHNI Manual, 2012)
LEAN FISH FATTY FISH

Very low fat Low fat Moderate fat Higher fat

(< 2.5 g total fat) (> 2.5 g but <5.0 (> 5.0 g but <10.0 (> 10.0 grams total
grams total fat) grams total fat) fat)

Clams Bass Butterfish Mackerel (Atlantic)

Cod Bluefish Herring Salmon (King)

Cusk Blue mussels Mackerel (Spanish)

Blue crab Catfish Salmon (Atlantic)

Dungeness crab Croaker Salmon (Coho)

Flounder Mullet Salmon (Sockeye)

Grouper Oyster (Eastern) Lake trout

Haddock Salmon (Chum) Tuna (Bluefin)

Halibut Salmon (Pink)

Northern lobster Shark

 Mahi-mahi Smelt

Monkfish Striped bass

Perc Swordfish

Ocean perch Rainbow trout

Pike (Northern) Sea trout

Pike (Walleye) Wolffish (ocean

catfish)
Ocean pout

Orange roughy

Scallops

Shrimp

Red snapper

Snow crab

Sole

Squid

Tuna (skipjack)

Tuna (yellowfin)

Whiting

2. MARKET FORMS OF FINFISH

Table 2.17. Market forms of finfish- fresh fishes.

Whole or round Marketed as brought
https://images.app. from the water. Scaling,
goo.gl/ eviscerating, and
FgRSL7ZjHNS2x8Lx7 removing head, tail and
fins are done by the
purchaser.
Drawn Eviscerated only.
https://images.app.
goo.g
l/Rwv7gRd4yJCoatU
Q6

Dressed Eviscerated and scaled.

https://images.app. Usually, the head, tail,
goo.gl/ and fins are removed.
WvBwMijnRP7fT9sG Also, the fish is cut into
7 smaller portions.

Steaks Ready-to-cook cross-

https://images.app. section slices or large-
goo.gl/ dressed fish.
7xCwfurhrnpjQnej9

Fillets Sides of fish cut

https://images.app. lengthwise away from the
goo.gl/ backbone. It may also be
iieATgEoUBwQEjNc6 skinned. Single fillet is cut
from one side of the fish
while butterfly fillet is cut
from two sides of the fish
and skin of the belly
Sticks Lengthwise or crosswise
https://images.app. pieces of fish that is cut
goo. from fillets or steaks for
gl/9BdJQtt7JiP9d7Eu individual portions.
7
 Boneless Most convenient form of
https://images.app. fish with wherein
goo.gl intramuscular bones are
/u8vDdfP1zdWYie1R removed
8

Table 2.18. Market forms of finfish- preserved fishes.

Dried fish Fishes that has lost its
https://images.app. moisture through drying,
goo.gl/ making it less susceptible
BqdTALnBifySfg3j7 to spoilage. It may be
stored for months at room
temperature. The very
common method of
preserving meat is
through sun drying.
Smaller fishes are dried
whole, while larger fish
are filleted prior to drying.
One of the most common
type of dried fish is the
salted cod or bacalao.
Smoked fish Shelf-life shorter than
https://images.app. dried fish. Smoked fish are
goo.g called tinapa although
l/qfEabug6CZtRvLj tinapa making is a
MA combination of salting,
smoking, cooking and
drying.
Canned fish fish that have been
https://images.app. processed, sealed in a
goo.g hermetic container.
l/ECskSXfuCv8idrS1
9

Anchovies Tiny, silvery fish that is

https://images.app. generally filleted, salt-
goo.gl/ cured, and canned in oil. It
5KQ5h3aEurdzYsH3 can be sold flat and rolled
9 with some rolls containing
fillings in the center like
small onions, nuts and
capers.

Sardines May be packed with oil,

https://images.app. mustard or tomato sauce
goo.gl/
Yvd4R4Ni7798bePh
6

Tuna May be packed grated or

https://images.app. in chunks and flakes
goo.g
l/M189hE2m5QnY
M9rv7
Table 2.19. Market forms of finfish- other types of fishes.
Patis or bagoong products prepared by
https://images.app. mixing fin fishes or tiny
goo.gl/ shrimps with salt and
XHJBNoVS8vEnUqDC allowed to ferment for
9 months

Fish roe Comes from fish eggs. It

https://images.app. is black or salmon-
goo.gl/ colored and only roe
9qYdwDzy3WgZfxNS from sturgeon is
7 branded as caviar.

Shark fin Sun-dried and preserved

https://images.app. in lime
goo.gl/
RqN7ohzWUfUhWjN
c9

Bihod Fresh fish eggs of

https://images.app. Ilocanos
goo.gl
/rbYebGAW8wCqVa
xp7
Table 2.20. Market forms of shellfish.
Live Alive crabs, clams,
https://images.app. mussels, oysters, snails,
goo.gl/ and lobsters if
cJSrkjXCfU8QGGyY7 purchased with shell

Whole Has head and thorax

https://images.app. being intact as in
goo.gl/ shrimps
DXQS7fpV27rrVpV8
A

Shucked Bivalves or mollusks

https://images.app. removed from the shell.
goo.gl/
LQicBLqwbYajxJbk8

Headless Common in shrimps

https://images.app. and lobsters for export.
goo.gl The head is removed to
/RifvmrULMTijYmRC avoid bacterial spoilage
6 during storage and
transport.
 Cooked meat Usually common for
https://images.app. canned shellfish
goo.gl
/bezGqZgPiShgSPt1A

CARE, SELECTION OF FISH AND SHELLFISH

1. Characteristics of Fresh Fish
a) Eyes are not red but are bright, clear, and full.
b) Flesh is firm, elastic and not separating from the bones.
c) Gills are reddish pink with no slime or odor.
d) Scales must be in bright color and not dull, glossy and shiny, translucent and
adhering to the skin.
e) Odor must not be undesirable or objectionable

2. Deteriorative Changes After Death

a) As soon as the fish is caught, they de except for hito and dalag that have accessory
breathing organs
b) Immediately after death, the flesh portion of muscle is soft, gel-like and sticky
c) Then, rigor mortis sets in causing rigidity of the muscle
d) When rigor mortis passes, deterioration starts wherein bacteria form the slime of
the skin, from the gills, and from the intestines will start digesting neighboring
flesh causing autolysis
e) Conversion of trimethylamine oxide found in living fish to trimethylamine occurs.
This has an undesirable odor of stale fish. At the same time, oxidative rancidity of
fats is also present.
f) Perishability can be delayed by:
i. Chilling immediately
ii. Adding of ice or packing in ice during transport
iii. Drawing at once to prevent autolysis

3. Storage of Fish
a) Fresh fish are best consumed within a day or two of purchase. All raw seafood
carry some bacteria which multiply rapidly above 40ºF (4ºC)
b) Fish is stored in the coldest part of the refrigerator. Prompt cold storage is
necessary to avoid breakdown of trimethylamine oxide to trimethylamine, the
substance that imparts the fishy odor
c) Fish should be tightly wrapped to prevent odors form coming in contact with other
foods
 d) Fish exposed to oxygen increases its perishability because its high levels of
polyunsaturated fatty acids are oxidized into compounds that affect odor and
taste
e) Never salt fresh fish before storing. Dried fish need not to be stored in the
refrigerator. It may be stored in a week at room temperature in a basket which
can allow free air circulation and protection from animals, rodents and insects.
f) Smoked fish should be stored in the refrigerator and wrapped in plastic if it will
not be used immediately.
g) \Other spoilage factors include proteolytic enzyme, natural toxins, and
contaminants. Proteolytic enzymes break down muscle proteins and provide
amino acids for bacterial growth. Bacterial enzymes breakdown proteins to amino
acids and increase the levels of histamine which is a toxin.

PREPARATION OF FISH
1. Changes in Meat During Cooking
a) Change in color
i. During cooking, the translucent flesh of raw fish becomes opaque and the
muscles become easily flake which is an indicator of doneness
ii. The quantity of red muscle, which contain more myoglobin, increases as
the activity level of fish increases. Active fish like tuna have darker meat.
b) Loss in weight is generally affected due to loss of fluid in fish
c) Changes in connective tissue
i. During cooking, collagen of fish is converted to gelatin as it shrinks and
becomes more soluble

2. Methods of Cooking
a) Dry heat
i. Broiling is usually done over smoldering charcoal and is conveniently done
outdoors or in an open shed
ii. Baking is done in a moderate oven with temperature from 350º-400ºF
(180-200ºC)
iii. Frying is done in cooking the fish in oil
iv. Toasting is done in a round bottom frying pan or work without the addition
of oil or water. Dried dilis is usually toasted.
b) Moist heat cooking examples
i. Paksiw na isda is cooked fish in vinegar, some water, sliced ginger, salt,
pepper, and other spices.
ii. Sinigang na isda is cooked in considerable amount of water with some
vegetables and an acidifying agent such as tamarind
iii. Pesa is usually dalag cooked in rice washings, ginger and considerable
amount of water to make a thin soup.
iv. Fish in Gata is braised fish in coconut milk.
 v.Sinaing or Pangat is cooked when tulingan or tuna are eviscerated and
arranged in a claypot, seasoned with salt, and acidified with a souring agent
such as vinegar, tamarind, or kamyas
vi. Steaming is approporiate for cooking large fish such as lapu-lapu,
pompano or apahap
c) Raw fish or shellfish
i. Raw oysters carry Vibrio vulnifucus, V. cholera, V. parahaemolytics,
Norwalk virus, or hepatitis A
ii. Sashimi (raw fish) sued in sushi can have aniskianisis parasites, with the
width and color of white thread
iii. Ceviche (raw fish) is prepared by an acid marination, with a lemon or lime
juice base, that denatures the proteins and turns the flesh white.

REFERENCES
Foods and Foodservice Systems: A Review Manual in Nutrition and Dietetics. 2012. Consultants
in Health and Nutrition, Inc.

Basics Foods and Institutional Management: Fundamentals in Nutrition and Dietetics. 2012.
Institute of Human Nutrition and Food, College of Human Ecology, University of the
Philippines Los Banos.

Serraon-Claudio, V., Jamorabo-Ruiz, A., Yuson-De Leon, S., and L. De Lima-Chavez. 2014. Basic
Foods for Filipinos. 5th edition. Merriam & Webster Bookstore, Inc. Philippines.