INTRODUCTION
Application of biocomponents in aviation fuels is not new;
POTENTIAL POSSIBILITIES FOR
BIOCOMPONENTS USAGE IN AIRCRAFT
FUELS FOR PISTON AND TURBINE
ENGINES
Zbigniew PĄGOWSKI PhD, ME
Institute of Aviation
Paper presents possibilities of biological components
usage in aircraft fuels for piston and turbine engines, con-
sidering serious developments in that matter from the USA,
Brazil and Germany. In his work, paper’s author refers to
Institute of Aviation contacts with leading world biofuels
research centers, as Baylor University Renewable Aviation
Fuels Development Center in Texas, USA, European Union
coordinating action of 6th Scientific Program Aeronet III,
and latest developments of Embraer Company. Paper
suggests necessity of starting biofuels implementation
program for Polish aviation. It seems, that Poland,
potentially one of the largest biofuel producers in Europe,
for economic, ecologic and technical reasons should
undertake this strategic challenge, more about it in the
article.
POTENTIAL POSSIBILITIES FOR BIOCOMPONENTS USAGE IN AIRCRAFT FUELS
Americans, Germans and Japanese used them almost from
the beginning of world aviation and also during the WW II
days.
In Poland, a long time before the WW II, building
strategic fuel independence from delivery of foreign aviation
fuel for Polish aviation, fuel imported mainly from Germa-
ny, Institute of Aviation developed fuel mixtures with 20%
ethanol additives, called BAB with 76 octane number and
BABC with 86 octane number. Those fuels were used across
whole Polish aviation and also in „Lot” Polish Airlines.
BAB fuel was used in 1931 for testing the first Polish pulse
jet engine, designed by W. Bernardzikiewicz, J. Oderfeld
and J. Sachs, prof. Oderfeld told me, that he got BAB fuel
for tests personally from doc. B. Mielnikowa, later, when the
WW II ended, she restored and organized fuel test
department in Institute of Aviation (currently liquidated).
Interest for use of biofuels in aviation reappeared at the
end of the nineties, when in Poland, in Aviation Institute,
work started for development of the first rape oil fuel for
traction engines. Unfortunately, the project for use of
biofuels in aviation has found no acceptance and financing
in National Committee for Scientific Research. However in
that time, work intensively progressed for application of
biofuels, mainly in the USA and sequentially in Brazil, who
contacted Poland for that case, more about it later. Also, the
first transatlantic flight, fueled by pure ethanol and
performed by Max Shauck, together with his wife Grazia
Zanin, came into world public without reverberations. Max
Shauck, director of Baylor University Renewable Aircraft
Fuels Development Center in Texas, received aviation’s
Harmon Trophy Award, prestigious and the fourth Trophy
for making of this flight.
Max Shauck (also known as „Mad Max”) visited Institute
of Aviation in Poland. In 30th September 2002, in our
„Institute of Aviation”, a seminar, titled: „Review of biofuel
activities in aviation” was held (Photo 1). Next, with our
help, in frames of Aeronet II, and also held in Bonn,
Germany, a wide presentation of his work was performed as
„Joint AERONET-JAA/BMVBW- Workshop on Fuels and
Aviation Piston Engine Emissons”. It fruited with idea of
specific, coordinating action, called „Pistonnet”, for which
the Institute of Aviation was also invited.
It was no accident. In Europe, Poland resumed addition of
ethanol to the engine fuels, guided by current EN-PN 228
standard (see Tabl. 1), specifically in a year of 1997, 38.13%
of engine gasoline fuels contained above 4.5% of bioethanol
alcohol supplement. Further increase of production was ended
by public hysteria, controlled by media, and unleashed with
accordance to the „Biofuel Act”. Producers of the bioethanol
export 80 percent of production; the rest is utilized, with dif-
ficulty, domestically. Meanwhile, world ethanol production
rises (Fig. 1) and implemetation of fuel biocomponents in
Europe is assisted with 2003/30/EC European Union
directive, which, for the present, refers to biofuel ratio in
surface transport. Actually, biocomponent fuel ratio is barely
0.49%, in the face of 2.0%, drawed by directive. For several
years, Polish biofuel market is waiting for support, petroleum
sector still restrains development of biofuel market, according
to the rule „Every liter of fuel (in supposition, biofuel)
produced beyond us, is acting against us”.
65

Phot. 1. Professor Max Shauck with his wife, Grazia Zanin and
author of the paper, pictured before take-off of the Polish I-23
„Manager” airplane during seminar „Review of biofuel additives
in aviation” , seminar organized by Institute of Aviation
Fig.1 World ethanol production
BIOFUELS IN AVIATION TODAY
Development of application of biofuels started in Baylor
University in a year of 1980, though fact of ethanol usage in
aviation fuels was known long since. At that time, the first
test flight, fueled with ethanol was performed. Ethanol
development was crowned like US media fact by Max
Shauck as first cross Atlantic flight of Velocity airplane in
1989. This fact was not seen in Europe, deeply involved in
system changes, also in Poland. Interesting is the cost of
ethanol for Atlantic crossing flight, equal to $160. Usage of
aviation gas will raise the cost to the $230. Usage of the
ethanol fuel lengthened overhaul periods (TBO) almost
twice. Detonation on ethanol fuel was non-existent. Engine
modifications were limited to the fuel system, and made
allowance for bigger fuel consumption (Tables #1 and #2),
Table #1 Bioethanol production in Poland as 4,5% gasoline biocomponent acc. to PN EN 228
66 TRANSACTIONS OF THE INSTITUTE OF AVIATION NO. 183
compensating for lower specific combustion heat value
(ethanol 27,2 MJ/kg vs. 44,2 MJ/kg for Avgas fuel, more
data – see Table #4)
Table #2 Fuel flow modifications
Table #3 Fuel consumption change in lph for 0 540 engine
*Power of the 0 540z engine, ethanol fuelled, increased to the
level of 316 HP!
Table #4 Properties of the aviation fuel
Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio, Texas
performed materials compatibility research. It was con-
firmed, that standard aircraft engine elastomers are resistant
to ethanol, and use of the DCI-11 additive allowed to neglect
necessity of anodizing of several types of aluminum fuel
tanks. Considering lower vapor pressure and higher specific
heat of evaporation, ethanol has lower tendency for creating
vapor locks but creates problems with engine cold starts.
Cold start problems in temperatures lower than 20 °C were
bypassed through usage of additional four-liter gasoline
tank. Lubrication properties of ethanol are slightly higher
than Avgas fuel, what is a very positive phenomenon. To
certify ethanol as aviation fuel, Baylor University researched
this problem and made construction modifications for twelve
various airplanes: Bellanca Decatthlon, Pitts Special S1c,
Cessna 182, Piper Aztec, Siae Marchetti SF 260, Storck
Weallaby, Velocity, Pitts 2B, Piper Pawnee, Cessna 182,
Pitts 2B EXP, CESSNA 172, performing certification pro-
cedures approved by FAA. Those airplanes received Sup-
plemental Certificate Type (SCT) for ethanol fuel
operations. Considering similarity of the Lycoming O 360
engine versions powering Velocity composite aircraft and I-
23 „Manager” airplane, developed in Institute of Aviation,
Professor Max Shauck offered STC to the Institute of
Aviation for promotional price of $1000.
Research performed at Baylor University also considered
use of biofuels in turbine engines. This research considered
esters received from rape or soy oil (Biodiesel B100), ETBE
ether and ethanol (in low percentage) mixed with aviation
JetA fuel. Biodiesel 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 % mixtures were Phot. 2. Pitts Special „Ethanol powered”
used. In exhaust, CO2, CO, O2, HC, NOx and SO2 per-
centage was measured. Drop of NOx emissions from 90 to
60 PPMV in cruise speed conditions and drop of HC
emissions from 330 PPMV to 260 PPMV during idle was
measured. Solid particle emissions were not measured.
(Actual aviation rules do not regulate maximum rates of
engine exhaust toxic emissions). It was found (considering
cost of biofuels), that greatest benefits occur with JetA fuel
and 20% Biodiesel additive. Beechcraft King Air 90 flight-
tests with 20/80-fuel blend does not disclosed pilots per-
ceptible differences (performance, fuel consumption!). Lack
of the smoke marks on upper wing surfaces behind PT6
engine exhaust can be seen (Fig. 2)!
Preliminary tests of soy biofuel B100 mixes with ETBE
Phot. 3. BeechCraft King Air 90 exhaust smoke traces on wing
ether and ethanol were also performed, with attention on surfaces
possible materiel problems. Because of high volume of fuels
burned in turbine engines, and also in near future in aircraft Works of Max Shauck has found imitators in many North
Diesel engines, Baylor University considers that this fact and South America research centers. In South Dakota Uni-
will have a great influence on development of aviation versity, an interesting program (previously mentioned) of
biofuels. Currently, prof. M. Shauck works together with AGE 85 aviation fuel implementation is performed, fuel
Instituto Dominicano de Desarrollo Integral located in with 106 motor octane number and physical properties near
Dominican Republic and tied with Green Airport Program, the pure ethanol, with composition of 80% to 90% ethanol
which promotes usage of ethanol as aviation fuel (by volume), 0.5% to 1.0% Biodiesel Fuel (by volume), 10%
Corn Utilization Council from South Dakota also to 20% penthan isomer (by volume), with composition:
performed spectacular actions since 1993. Special aerobatic Isobutane: 1%, n-Butane: 1%, Isopentane: 53%, n-Pentane:
airplane team, also known as „Ethanol Powered Vanguard 4%, Dimethyl- butane: 11%, Isohexane: 23%, n-Hexane:
Squadron” is flying on RV-3A airplanes, powered by 1%, Cyclohexane: 5 %. STC certificates for use of AGE 85
Lycoming 0-320 engines, adapted for ethanol fuel. Engines fuel received airplane Cessna 180/182s with O-470/UTS
have compression ratio increased to 10, resulting in power engines. They can be also bifuelled, and fly also on Avgas
increase from 150 to 180 horsepower. Aerobatic team flies fuel. On AGE 85 fuel, Cessna airplanes has already flown
every year since 1993 in famous Oshkosh and Wisconsin air for time of 1000 hours. The work is near completion on
shows, promoting cheap ethanol fuel and USA inde- airplanes: Mooney, Grumman Ag Cat, Piper Seneca and
pendence on crude oil import. They are accompanied in engines: Lycoming IO-360 and Pratt and Whitney R-1340.
other air shows by Max Shauck, which flies Pitts Special Mooney airplane with carbureted Lycoming 0-360 engine
„Ethanol Powered” airplane. During presentation in Institute has logged without failure over 700 hours. Currently, fuel
of Aviation, we saw many Max Shauck spectacular stunts, injection system, pistons crowned for compression ratio of
recorded on video. His renaissance nature leaded to Le 10 and composite propeller are installed to greatly improve
Bourget demonstrations of ethanol-fueled airplanes. airplane performance. Use of the new fuel increased power
Reverenge M-10, powered by standard Rotax 912XUL was on the Grumman airplanes from 600 to 650 horsepower.
recently shown there. Ethanol conversion costs in Baylor Since January 2005, Piper Seneca airplane with Lycoming
University are only $3000 (On the margin, Rotax does not 0-360 engines, turbocharged with RayJay units, is flying and
recommend use of more than 5% ethanol additive in fuel, detonation tests are conducted. The work continues.
but is allowing use of Mogas automobile fuel). Research for Biodiesel B100 usage as JP8 fuel bio-
component additive was performed by US Army, for ground
and airborne applications. This fuel was also tested on

POTENTIAL POSSIBILITIES FOR BIOCOMPONENTS USAGE IN AIRCRAFT FUELS 67

Allison T63 turbine helicopter engine and Pratt&Whittney
F100-PW-200 engines. Already in September 1994, a
thousand hour ground tests and flight tests were performed
by 416th Flight Test Squadron in Edwards Air Force Base,
followed by 3000-hour flight tests of nineteen F16 A/B
airplanes. Lower airbase airplane fleet exploitation and
service costs were documented, in 1985 for a sum of $ 825
000 alone! This fuel was also used on T-37/T-38 airplanes.
Fuel shown greater thermal stability and shown also other
„dramatic” properties as lowering fuel injectors carbon
caking and level of smoke particles in exhaust. By extrap-
olation, value of possible savings for military forces, equal
to $80 millions was published. Research was also performed
in other USA scientific centers, e.g.: use of 10% ethanol
additive to JP4 fuel, supplied from separate system and
mixed with basic fuel just before engine fuel port. Research
was performed on Beechcraft King Air 200 airplane. Pure
Energy enterprise started delivery of Garrett 831-800 450
KW engine fuelled with pure ethanol for ground appli-
cations. Seven units is already working, unit price $50000
each. Other countries are just jumping in, as Dominican
Republic (Shauck), Germany (Dr Moller), India, but Brazil
is currently the most promising country.
In Brazil, research on use of biofuels in aviation started in
Sao Paulo University Aerospace Department, performed by
aviation engineer J.R.Waterhouse, together with professors:
Romeu Corsini, Dawilson Lucato and Antonio Moreira, in a
year of 1995. Engineer Waterhouse contacted professor
Shauck, but concluded that American solutions cannot be
adopted in Brazil, mainly because alcohol requirements are
different in both countries.
And curiosity here, Mr. Waterhouse typed PZL 26
„Mewa” airplane (with PZL Franklin engines, manufactured
in Rzeszów, Poland) for his research. As was stated, „com-
mercial problems” blocked agreement between Waterhouse
and PZL Rzeszów. Brazilians created Aeroalcool enterprise
in a year of 2000 and started alcohol certification of
Lycoming IO-540 engine, used on the Piper PA-25 and
Neiva - EMB 202 Ipanema airplanes. In a year of 2004,
Neiva enterprise (100% owned by Embraer) with support of
CTA (Centro Technico Aerospacial) agency and Textron
Lycoming and Harzell enterprises, received certification for
agricultural airplane EMB 202 Ipanema, powered by
Lycoming 0 540-K1J5D engine and ethanol fuelled, reg-
istered in Brazil as AvA1c. As the first tests showed, engine
with 300 horsepower, thanks to the AvA1c fuel, increased its
power by 5%, increased TBO by 20% to 80% and increased
its ecological attributes. This fuel is three times cheaper than
Avgas. Enterprise had 69 orders for airplanes in a year of
2004. It is a first in a world ethanol fueled, series produced
airplane! There are plans to manufacture 250 airplanes in a
5-year period! Each new plane costs $245000. According to
the press, four hundred non-certified, but using this fuel
airplanes already flies in Brazil
Market is very big - Brazil has large, 14 000 airplanes in
size, and second only to the United States general aviation
fleet. Certification of Embraer manufactured and ethanol
fuelled airplanes: Sertanejo, Minuano, Carioca, Corisco,
Neiva P-56 and Cap-4 , Piper PA-18, Seneca - Cessna 182
Skylane, Cessna 188 Agwagon is planned. Vice-President
for Research & Development of Embraer, Satoshi Yokota,
has informed that cheaper and more ecological fuel prolongs
68 TRANSACTIONS OF THE INSTITUTE OF AVIATION NO. 183
engine life and forms a base for domestic and foreign
markets commercial success in countries, which are
promoting ethanol as aviation fuel.
Latest news:
Ipanema airplane received two most prestigous inter-
national prizes in the year of 2005: „Scientific American
50 award ” and „Flight International Aerospace Industry
Award ” in the category of General Aviation for re-
markable implementation of the new, alternative
technology.
Phot.4. Ethanol fueled EMB 202 Ipanema
SUMMARY
Application of biofuel components in aviation fuels has
found a wideworld common understanding from various
technical, social, ecological and recently, from very forcefull
political reasons.
Comparison with Brazil and USA shows that in Poland
and in Europe, in that case, a harmonization of efforts is
needed, because of engine types diversity and possibility of
application of various fuel types.
Institute of Aviation repeated early efforts, currently
placing a research project in Ministry of Science and
Education, project titled „Bioethanol Fuel for Aviation Pis-
ton Engines”, project supported by i.e. WSK Kalisz, Frank-
lin sp. z o.o. and Polish Aero Club.
A proposition for turbine engine fueling, supported
initially by respective engine producers is actually in stage
of biofuel research project preparation.
Author suggests a wide application of (popularly called)
biocomponents in fueling the airplane and helicopter fleets,
in various aviation application areas, and realizing how
enormous amount of work is needed to perform this, rec-
ommends cooperation of all aviation men in Poland in that
theme, pointing that a national tradition of BAB and BABC
biocomponent fuels implementation and usage obligates us
for doing that.
One considers, that Europe normalization efforts should
be coordinated at the European Union level, but those efforts
shouldn’t bypass a national initiatives.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Aeronet II Workshops „Fuels and Aviation Piston
Engine emissions”, „Clean Fuels” Bonn, 6-7.05.2003
[2] Frame E. and others „Biodiesel fuel for military appli-
cations” US ARMY TACOM
[3] Corporan E. I. and others „Impacts of Biodiesel on
Pollutant Emissions of JP-8 fueled turbine engines”
reprints
[4] „Brazilian crop duster flies on ethanol” – CBC News,
Wed, 16 Mar 2005
[5] „Neiva’s Ipanema crop duster wins Scientific American
Award” - Embraer news, December 28, 2005
[6] D. Helder- „AGE 85 Aviation Grade Ethanol”, PP
Presentation from South Dakota State University,
http://www.age85.org/ProjectDescription.htm
[7] Claire de Oliveira „Alcohol-powered plane launched”
Coolscience Thu, 17 Mar 2005,
[8] „Ethanol-fuelled IPANEMA certified by the CTA”-
Embraer News, Oct. 19, 2004
[9] http://www.ilot.edu.pl/STRPOL/AKTUALN/Wiad9.htm
[10] http://www.aeroalcool.com.br/english/history.htm
[11] http://www.baylor.edu/bias/index.php?id=5302
[12] „Jane’s –All the World’s Aircraft 2005-2006”
ISBN 0 7106 2684 3.
[13] „JP8+100 fuel technology transitioned” acc. AFRL
[14] Pągowski Z. „New perspectives for biofuels in avia-
tion” KONES 2003
[15] Shauck M. E. „RAFDC’S Turbine Engine Emission
Testing Program” Baylor University, Waco, USA
[16] Shauck M.E. Zanin M.G. „The present and Future Po-
tential of Biomass Fuels in Aviation” Baylor University,
Waco, USA
[17] Shauck M.E. Zanin M.G. „Certification of Cessna 152
on 100% ethanol” Baylor University, Waco, USA
Caution: Author not included all positions in a rich,
available to public and used by him bibliography, but he is
asking authors for pardon, due to lack of available space.
POTENTIAL POSSIBILITIES FOR BIOCOMPONENTS USAGE IN AIRCRAFT FUELS
Zbigniew Pągowski
POTENCJALNE MOŻLIWOŚCI ZASTOSOWANIA
BIOKOMPONENTÓW W SILNIKACH LOTNICZYCH
Streszczenie
Przedstawiono możliwości zastosowania biokom-
ponentów w paliwach lotniczych do silników tłokowych
i turbinowych, uwzględniając poważniejsze osiągnięcia w
tym względzie między innymi z USA, Niemiec, Brazylii.
Autor publikacji opiera się przy tym o kontakty Instytutu
Lotnictwa z czołowymi ośrodkami światowymi
wprowadzającymi biopaliwa jak Centrum Rozwoju Lot-
niczych Paliw Odnawialnych Uniwersytetu Baylor
w Teksasie, akcji koordynacyjnej 6 Programu Naukowego
Unii Europejskiej Aeronet III a także ostatnie osiągnięcia
firmy Embraer. Artykuł proponuje podjęcie wdrażania
biokomponentów do polskiego lotnictwa. Wydaje się, ze
Polska potencjalnie jeden z największych producentów
biopaliw w Europie powinna podjąć to strategiczne
wyzwanie z wielu względów ekonomicznych, ekolog-
icznych i technicznych, o czym pokrótce w artykule.
Збигниев Понговски
ПОТЕНЦИАЛЬНЫЕ ВОЗМОЖНОСТИ
ПРИМЕНЕНИЯ БИОКОМПОНЕНТОВ В
АВИАЦИОННЫХ ДВИГАТЕЛЯХ
Резюме
Представлены возможности применения биокомпо-
нентов в авиационных топливах для поршневых и
газотурбинных двигателей, учитывая серьезные
достижения в этой области, в частности в США,
Германии, Бразилии. Автор публикации использовал
в ней контакты Института Авиации с ведущими миро-
выми центрами внедряющими биотоплива, как Центр
Развития Авиационных Обновляемых Топлив Универ-
ситета Baylor в Тексасе, координирующего действия
в Научной Программы Евросоюза Aeronet III, а также
последних достиженний фирмы Embraer. В стате
предлагается начать внедрение биокомпонентов в
польской авиации. Представляется, что Польша
потенциально один из крупнейших производителей
биотоплив в Европе должна принять этот
стратегический вызов по многим причинам
экономического, экологического и технического
характера. И об этом вкратце говорится в статье.
69