Abstract

The thesis work explores the utilization of raw wheat straw as a potential source for the

production of films and cups through phosphorylation. Initially, the delignification of raw wheat

straw was carried out, resulting in a 37.75% yield. The delignified wheat straw was then

phosphorylated for different curing times, and the yield of phosphorylation was found to be 63%.

The resulting gel was used to create films by casting them in plastic petri plates, which exhibited

flame retardancy, water absorbency, and good tensile strength. The water absorbency test

revealed that the films made from the gel could absorb a significant amount of water, with WSF-

45 absorbing 814% of its weight worth of water, WSF-60 absorbing 447%, and WSF-75

absorbing 387%. Flame retardancy studies indicated that the films had a reduced rate of burning,

with WSF-45, WSF-60, and WSF-75 showing a rate of burning of 0.9735cm/s, 0.5357cm/s, and

0.3571cm/s, respectively. Moreover, the mechanical strength of the films was measured, and the

results demonstrated good mechanical strength. The migration studies were also conducted,

which showed that the films were under the permissible limits of migration effects of isooctane

and 50% ethanol. Additionally, cups were made from the gel using molds, which were stable in

water at high temperatures. The water stability test showed that the cups were stable at 80, 100,

and 150°C. The charge content of the gel was determined using conductometric titration, with

results of 200mmol/kg, 266.66mmol/kg, and 350mmol/kg for WSF-45, WSF-60, and WSF-75,

respectively. The findings of this study suggest that phosphorylation of wheat straw could be a

potential approach for the development of eco-friendly and sustainable films and cups.
INTRODUCTION
Agricultural Biomass:

Agricultural biomass refers to organic materials derived from plants and animals used for energy

production, such as biofuels, electricity, and heat. This includes crops such as corn, wheat,

sugarcane, and soybeans, as well as residues like straw, husks, and stalks. Agricultural biomass

also includes animal manure and other organic waste from livestock and poultry farming. These

materials can be converted into usable forms of energy through various processes, such as

fermentation, pyrolysis, and gasification. Agricultural biomass is considered a renewable source

of energy because it is produced from living organisms that can be grown and replenished, unlike

fossil fuels which are finite and non-renewable.

Agricultural biomass has many uses such as:

Animal feed: Agricultural biomass such as hay, silage, and other crop residues can be used as

animal feed, providing a low-cost source of nutrition for livestock and poultry.

Soil amendment: Crop residues like straw, stalks, and husks can be incorporated into soil to

improve soil fertility, texture, and water retention.

Industrial applications: Agricultural biomass can be used as raw materials for a range of

industrial products such as paper, textiles, and bioplastics.

Food and beverages: Some agricultural biomasses such as corn and wheat can be processed into

food and beverages, such as corn syrup, cooking oil, and beer.

Pharmaceuticals: Agricultural biomass can be used as a source of medicinal compounds and

pharmaceuticals, such as plant extracts and bioactive compounds.

Overall, agricultural biomass is a versatile resource that can be used in many different

applications beyond fuel and energy production, contributing to sustainable agriculture and a

circular economy.
Advantages of Agricultural Biomass:

Renewable Energy Source: Agricultural biomass is a renewable energy source, meaning it is

derived from plants and other organic matter that can be replenished over time. This makes it a

sustainable alternative to fossil fuels, which are finite and non-renewable.

Reduces Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Agricultural biomass can help to reduce greenhouse gas

emissions, as it emits lower levels of carbon dioxide compared to fossil fuels. When crops are

grown for biomass, they absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis.

When the biomass is burned, the carbon dioxide is released, but the net carbon dioxide emissions

are lower compared to burning fossil fuels, which release carbon dioxide that has been trapped

underground for millions of years.

Provides Economic Opportunities: The production and use of agricultural biomass can provide

economic opportunities for farmers and rural communities. Farmers can earn additional income

by selling biomass crops, and biomass production can create jobs in rural areas.
Reduces Waste: Agricultural biomass can also help to reduce waste, as it can be derived from

agricultural residues such as crop stalks and husks that would otherwise be burned or left to

decompose.

Disadvantages of Agricultural Biomass:

Land Use: The production of biomass crops requires land, which can compete with food crops

and natural habitats. There are concerns that large-scale biomass production could lead to

deforestation, habitat destruction, and loss of biodiversity.

Water Use: Biomass crops also require water for growth, and in regions where water resources

are limited, this could lead to water scarcity and competition with other uses, such as food

production.

Transport and Storage: Biomass crops need to be transported and stored, which requires

additional infrastructure and energy. This can increase the cost and environmental impact of

biomass production.

Pollution: Biomass combustion can release pollutants such as particulate matter, nitrogen oxides,

and sulfur dioxide, which can contribute to air pollution and have negative health impacts.
However, modern biomass combustion technologies have significantly reduced emissions

compared to older technologies.

Overall, agricultural biomass has the potential to provide sustainable and renewable energy, but

its production and use must be carefully managed to minimize its environmental impacts and

ensure its long-term sustainability.

Extraction of cellulose from agricultural biomass:

Cellulose is the main component of agricultural biomass, and it can be extracted using a variety

of methods.

The following are some common methods for extracting cellulose from agricultural biomass:

Acid Hydrolysis: This method involves treating the agricultural biomass with an acid, such as

sulfuric acid or hydrochloric acid, which breaks down the cellulose into glucose. The glucose can

then be separated from the other components of the biomass using various separation techniques.

Enzymatic Hydrolysis: Enzymatic hydrolysis involves the use of enzymes to break down the

cellulose into glucose. This method is more environmentally friendly than acid hydrolysis, but it

can be more expensive and slower.

Steam Explosion: Steam explosion involves treating the agricultural biomass with high-pressure

steam, which causes the cellulose to break down and become more accessible for extraction.

Alkali Treatment: Alkali treatment involves treating the agricultural biomass with an alkaline

solution, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, which breaks down the lignin and

hemicellulose in the biomass and makes the cellulose more accessible for extraction.

Organosolv Treatment: Organosolv treatment involves treating the agricultural biomass with an

organic solvent, such as ethanol or methanol, which dissolves the lignin and hemicellulose and

leaves behind the cellulose for extraction.

Once the cellulose is extracted from the agricultural biomass, it can be further processed into

various products, such as paper, textiles, and bioplastics. The extracted cellulose can also be used

as a feedstock to produce biofuels or as a component in building materials such as insulation and

composites. Another approach is by using sodium chlorite, Sodium chlorite can also be used to

extract cellulose from agricultural biomass, particularly from non-wood sources such as straw,

corn stover, and bagasse. The process, known as the sodium chlorite method, involves treating

the biomass with a mixture of sodium chlorite, acetic acid, and sodium hydroxide.

During the process, the sodium chlorite breaks down the lignin in the biomass, which separates

the cellulose fibers. Acetic acid and sodium hydroxide act as buffers to control the pH and

prevent the breakdown of the cellulose. The resulting cellulose fibers can then be further

processed into various products.

The sodium chlorite method has several advantages over other methods of cellulose extraction,

including:
High Yield: The sodium chlorite method has been shown to produce a high yield of cellulose,

with up to 85% of the available cellulose extracted from the biomass.

Low Environmental Impact: The process does not use any hazardous chemicals, and the

byproducts are relatively harmless.

Energy Efficient: The sodium chlorite method is energy-efficient compared to other methods,

such as acid hydrolysis or steam explosion.

However, the sodium chlorite method is not without its disadvantages. The process can be

expensive, and the resulting cellulose fibers can be less pure than those produced by other

methods. Also, using sodium chlorite raises concerns about the safety of workers who handle the

chemical. Overall, the sodium chlorite method is a promising approach to cellulose extraction,

but further research is needed to evaluate its commercial viability and environmental impact.
Introduction of cellulose:

Cellulose was found and coined by a French chemist named Anselme Payen in 1838. Cellulose is

found in plant cell walls which gives them structural strength along with lignin, hemicellulose,

etc. up to 50% of all tree trunks and other parts consist of cellulose. Cotton is the purest form of

cellulose; it is made up of 90% cellulose. Cellulose is the most abundant biopolymer on earth

and is also renewable.

Cellulose is very cheap and easy to obtain and can be derived from wastes like husk, straw, tree

parts, etc. Many hybrid materials can be derived from cellulose by functionalizing it with a

variety of different reagents. Some of them are celluloid, cellulose phosphate, cellophane, rayon,

cellulose acetate, ...etc. it has the potential to replace synthetic polymers which are harmful to

nature and provide us with a better alternative as it is biodegradable, cheap, easily available, and

non-toxic. Amounts exceeding 500 billion metric tons of cellulose are produced per year

worldwide.
cellulose has some unique features such as low density, biodegradability, high tensile strength,

and high Young's modulus. However, cellulose is lacking in some areas such as poor solubility

in aqueous and organic solvents, poor functionality, and poor dimensional stability. Derivatives

of cellulose by combining it with inorganics give rise to a promising class of materials that have

been widely applied as composite polymer films, sponges, hydrogels, membranes, dressing

shells, etc. these materials are also very attractive from a sustainability point of view since they

enable using of renewable sources and reduce the use of petroleum-based synthetic polymers

Structure of cellulose:

Cellulose is an unbranched molecule. Glucose is a polymer that has linearly organized polymeric

chains. Hydrogen atoms and hydroxyl groups securely keep the chains together by forming

hydrogen bonds between them. This causes the development of sturdy, rigid cellulose

microfibrils.

cellulose is a long-chain homopolymer with high molecular weight, it is composed of

dimers(disaccharides) from D-anhydroglucopyranose units joined together via beta-1,4-

glycosidic bonds and every other monosaccharide is rotated 180 degrees to its neighbouring unit.

hydrogen bonding (intermolecular and intramolecular) not only provides cellulose with excellent

mechanical properties but also makes it insoluble in many solvents. The reactivity of the three

hydroxyl groups at carbons 2,3 and 6 offers possibilty for making many useful derivatives.
The properties of derivatives depend on the type, distribution, and uniformity of the groups

substituting at carbons 2,3, and 6. Properties like solubility and plasticity depend on the degree of

substitution and molar substitution. They have beta orientation in which the -OH group of the

anomeric carbon or C-1 is directed above the plane of the glucose ring. The -OH groups of the

rest of the carbon atoms are directed below the plane of the ring. In cellulose, every alternate

glucose molecule is inverted to create beta 1-4 glycosidic linkages. In contrast to C-4, whose -

OH group is pointed down the plane, -OH group of C-1 is pointed upward. Now, one of these

molecules must be turned inside out so that both hydroxyl groups are in the same plane to form a

beta 1-4 glycosidic link. This is the reason for every alternate glucose molecule in cellulose

becoming inverted.

Introduction of cellulose phosphate:

Cellulose phosphate is a type of biopolymer that has gained attention in recent years due to its

potential applications in various fields. It is a modified cellulose form, a natural polymer

abundant in plants and the most common organic compound on Earth.

Cellulose phosphate is created by introducing phosphate groups onto the cellulose molecule,

resulting in a material that is water-soluble and has a negative charge.

This modification alters the properties of cellulose, making it more versatile and useful in a range

of applications.
One potential application of cellulose phosphate is as a biomaterial for medical and healthcare

applications. Due to its biocompatibility, biodegradability, and non-toxicity, cellulose phosphate

has shown promise in applications such as drug delivery, tissue engineering, and wound healing.

Cellulose phosphate has also been studied for its potential use in water treatment applications. Its

negative charge and water solubility make it effective in absorbing heavy metals and other

pollutants from water, and it has been shown to have higher adsorption capacity compared to

other commonly used adsorbents.

Cellulose phosphate is a promising material that has potential applications in various fields,

including biomedicine, environmental science, and material science. Its unique properties and

biocompatibility make it an attractive candidate for a range of applications, and further research

is needed to fully understand its potential and limitations.

Applications of cellulose phosphate:

Biomedical Applications: Cellulose phosphate has gained attention for its potential use as a

biomaterial in various biomedical applications due to its biocompatibility, biodegradability, and

non-toxicity. Biocompatibility refers to the ability of a material to interact with living cells

without causing harmful effects, while biodegradability refers to the ability of a material to break

down into harmless components in the body. Cellulose phosphate has shown promise in drug

delivery applications, where it can be loaded with drugs and targeted to specific cells or tissues.

The negative charge of cellulose phosphate allows it to bind to positively charged drug

molecules, allowing for controlled release of the drug. Cellulose phosphate has also been studied
for use in tissue engineering, where it can be used to create scaffolds for cell growth and tissue

regeneration. Its biocompatibility and ability to support cell growth make it an attractive

candidate for this application. In addition, cellulose phosphate has been studied for use in wound

healing applications, where it can promote tissue regeneration and reduce inflammation. The

negative charge of cellulose phosphate can also attract positively charged molecules involved in

wound healing, such as growth factors.

Water Treatment Applications: Cellulose phosphate's negative charge and water solubility make

it an effective adsorbent for heavy metals and other pollutants in water. It has been shown to

have higher adsorption capacity compared to other commonly used adsorbents, such as activated

carbon and chitosan. Cellulose phosphate can be used in various water treatment applications,

such as wastewater treatment, groundwater remediation, and desalination. In wastewater

treatment, cellulose phosphate can be used to remove pollutants such as heavy metals, dyes, and

organic compounds. In groundwater remediation, cellulose phosphate can be used to remove

pollutants such as arsenic and lead. In desalination, cellulose phosphate can be used to remove

salt ions from seawater.

Food Applications: Cellulose phosphate has potential use in food applications, particularly as a

food additive. It has been shown to be an effective emulsifier and stabilizer in food products,

such as salad dressings and mayonnaise. Emulsifiers are substances that help to mix oil and

water, while stabilizers help to maintain the texture and consistency of food products. Cellulose

phosphate's negative charge allows it to interact with other food ingredients, such as proteins and

carbohydrates, to form stable emulsions and suspensions. In addition, cellulose phosphate has

potential use as a fat replacer in low-fat or reduced-fat food products. Its ability to form stable

emulsions can help to mimic the texture and mouthfeel of fats in these products.
Energy Applications: Cellulose phosphate can be used in energy applications, particularly in

biofuel production. This can make biofuel production more efficient and sustainable. Hydrolysis

is the process of breaking down a molecule using water, and in this case, cellulose phosphate can

help to accelerate the hydrolysis of cellulose. This can make biofuel production more efficient

and sustainable.

Overall, cellulose phosphate is a versatile material with potential applications in various fields.

While further research is needed to fully understand its potential and limitations, cellulose

phosphate holds promise as a sustainable and biocompatible material for a range of applications.

Materials and method

Delignification of wheat straw

The delignification of wheat straw was carried out using a solution made up of 54g of sodium

acetate trihydrate, 30g of sodium chlorite, and 24ml of glacial acetic acid. In a conical flask, raw

wheat straw was taken and the delignifying solution was added to it. The flask was covered with

aluminium foil and kept in an oven set at 80°C overnight. The next day, the solution was

discarded and a new batch of delignifying solution was added to the wheat straw. The flask was

covered again with aluminium foil and kept in the oven overnight.
On the third day, the delignified wheat straw was washed thoroughly with distilled water 5-10

times to remove any remaining traces of the delignifying solution. The washed delignified wheat

straw was then kept for drying for 12 hours at room temperature. The drying process was carried

out in a well-ventilated area to avoid any moisture accumulation.

After the drying process, the delignified wheat straw was ready for further use. The

delignification process was carried out in triplicate to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the

results. The extent of delignification was determined by measuring the residual lignin content

using the standard analytical method. The results obtained from this study showed that the

delignification process was successful in removing a significant amount of lignin from the wheat

straw.

Phosphorylation of delignified wheat straw

To study the effect of phosphorylation on wheat straw, delignified wheat straw was taken into a

glass bottle and phosphorylating solution was added to it. The phosphorylating solution was

prepared by dissolving 15g of di-ammonium hydrogen phosphate and 60g of urea in 1L of water

in the ratio of 4:1. The solution was stirred well until it was completely dissolved.
The mixture was initially incubated in an 80°C oven for 6 hours to ensure complete reaction

between the wheat straw and the phosphorylating solution. After 6 hours, the mixture was

transferred onto petriplates and dried at 105°C for 6 hours to obtain a dry powder.

To cure the cellulose, the powder was heated at 150°C for 45, 60, and 75 minutes. After heating,

the powder was allowed to cool to room temperature. For the preparation of the gel, the mixture

was washed thoroughly with distilled water for 5-10 times to remove any unreacted

phosphorylating solution.

The obtained gel was then grinded with a mixer to homogenize the mixture. The final gel was

used for further analysis. The extent of phosphorylation was determined by measuring the degree

of substitution using the standard analytical method.

 Figure no : Wheat straw and delignified wheat straw

The phosphorylation process was carried out in triplicate to ensure the accuracy and reliability of

the results. The results obtained from this study showed that the phosphorylation of wheat straw

led to an increase in the degree of substitution of the cellulose. The gel obtained from the

phosphorylation process can be further used for the preparation of various cellulose-based

materials. Overall, the phosphorylation process provides a promising route for the modification

of wheat straw to make it suitable for various industrial applications.

Film Casting

To prepare the cellulose phosphate gel, 50g of the prepared gel was taken in a beaker. To form a

homogeneous solution, 100ml of distilled water was added to the beaker containing the gel. The

mixture was then stirred with a magnetic stirrer for 15 minutes to ensure complete dissolution of

the gel.

After stirring, the mixture was allowed to ultrasonicate for 45 minutes to remove any trapped air

bubbles and to improve the homogeneity of the solution. The ultrasonication process was carried

out using a sonicator.

After ultrasonication, the mixture was casted on plastic petri plates. The plates were carefully

selected and cleaned beforehand to prevent any contamination. The mixture was evenly

distributed on the plates using a spatula to form a thin layer. The plates were then left to dry at

room temperature for 24 hours.

The results obtained from this study showed that the prepared cellulose phosphate gel had

excellent mechanical properties and can be used as a potential candidate for various applications

such as drug delivery, wound healing, and tissue engineering

Figure no : film casting

Cup Formation from cellulose gel

To make cups from cellulose phosphate gel, a beaker was taken as Mould. A little oil was

applied to the beaker to retrieve the gel easily when it forms. The gel was taken in generous

amounts and smeared on the beaker. Then the beaker was kept in an oven for 6 hours in an oven

set at 80°C

Figure no : cup made from wheat extracted cellulose phosphate

Water absorption experiment

the water absorption behavior of the prepared cellulose phosphate gel, three strips of identical

weight were cut from each of the curing times, which were 45, 60, and 75 minutes. The strips

were cut using a precision cutter to ensure their uniformity.

The weight of each strip was measured using a digital balance with an accuracy of 0.001g. The

strips were then soaked in water for 24 hours to ensure complete water absorption. The water

absorption process was carried out at room temperature to ensure uniform conditions.

After 24 hours of soaking, the strips were removed from the water and excess water was

removed using tissue paper. The strips were then re-weighed using the digital balance to measure

the increase in weight due to water absorption.

The water absorption experiment was carried out in triplicate for each curing time to ensure the

reliability and reproducibility of the results. The data obtained from the experiment was analyzed

using statistical methods to determine the significance of the differences between the water

absorption of the strips cured for different times.

The results obtained from this experiment showed that the water absorption of the cellulose

phosphate gel increased with increasing curing time. The highest water absorption was observed
for the strips cured for 75 minutes, while the lowest water absorption was observed for the strips

cured for 45 minutes.

Overall, the water absorption experiment provided valuable insights into the water absorption

behavior of the prepared cellulose phosphate gel and its potential for various applications such as

wound healing and drug delivery.

Conductometric titration

To calculate the charge content of the gel, conductometric titration was performed by taking

enough gel containing 0.3 g dry wheat straw gel mass and adding 5 ml of 0.1M NaCl, and 80 ml

of distilled water. The pH of the fiber suspension was brought down to 3 by adding 0.1M HCl in

10µl increments. After the pH was brought down to 3 the solution was titrated with 0.05M

NaOH while monitoring the electrical conductivity of the suspension. NaOH was added at

increments of 100µl.

Graph was plotted between conductivity and vol. Of NaOH used in titration. The plot was used

to calculate the charge content of the gel.

Flame Retardancy experiment

To evaluate the flame retardancy properties of the films made with the prepared cellulose

phosphate gel, three strips of dimension 2cm*7.5cm were cut from the films cured for each time

period which were 45, 60, and 75 minutes. The strips were cut using a precision cutter to ensure

their uniformity.

The strips were marked lengthwise in 1cm intervals using a permanent marker. The strips were

then subjected to a flame using a bunsen burner. The entire process was video-graphed for 40

seconds, and snaps were taken of each strip at regular intervals to monitor the burning behavior.

The experiment was carried out in a well-ventilated laboratory to ensure the safety of the

researchers. All necessary safety precautions, including wearing protective equipment, were

taken during the experiment.

The video footage and snaps obtained from the experiment were analyzed to determine the flame

retardancy behavior of the films. The parameters analyzed include the time taken for the strip to

ignite, the time taken for the strip to extinguish, and the length of the strip burnt.

The results obtained from this experiment showed that the flame retardancy of the films

increased with increasing curing time. The films cured for 75 minutes exhibited the highest
flame retardancy properties, while the films cured for 45 minutes exhibited the lowest flame

retardancy properties.

Overall, the flame retardancy experiment provided valuable insights into the flame retardancy

behavior of the films made with the prepared cellulose phosphate gel and its potential for various

applications such as packaging materials and textile

Figure no : before and after burning of the film

Water Stability of cup

To evaluate the water stability of the cellulose phosphate cup, the cup was first placed in a

beaker and submerged in water. The beaker was then covered with aluminum foil to prevent

evaporation.

The beaker containing the cup was then subjected to different temperatures and time periods to

simulate various conditions. Specifically, the beaker was kept at 80°C for 5 hours, 100°C for 6

hours, and 150°C for 8 hours.

After each time period, the cup was removed from the beaker and checked for stability. Stability

was assessed based on whether or not the cup had maintained its shape and structure, and if it

had any signs of degradation or disintegration.

The results obtained from this experiment showed that the cellulose phosphate cups were stable

at all temperatures and time periods tested. There were no signs of degradation or disintegration,

and the cups maintained their shape and structure.

Overall, the water stability experiment provided valuable insights into the suitability of cellulose

phosphate cups for various applications such as food packaging and disposable tableware, where

water resistance and stability are essential properties.

Result and discussions
Water absorption

Sample Avg. initial weight Avg. final weight % absorption

WSF-45 0.0265 0.2423 814

WSF-60 0.03 0.164 447.5

WSF-75 0.07 0.3411 387.3

Table no : water absorption of wheat straw film

WSF- 45 shows the best swelling property and the propert is decreasing with increase in curing

time

Conductometric titration
 Figure no : plots of conductometric titration of WSF – 45, 60, and 90

 Charge content in the gel is increasing with curing time

Sample WSF-45 WSF-60 WSF-75

 Concentration of NaOH (M) 0.05 0.05 0.05

Weight of phosphorylated sample 0.3 0.3 0.3

(g)

Volume of NaOH (mL) 12 10.5 13.4

Charge content (mmol/kg) 200 266.6 350

table no : conductometric titration of gels using NaOH

FTIR
 Figure no : FTIR spectrum of DWS, WSF-45, WSF-60, and WSF-75

In FTIR, peak at 898 shows the formation of P-O-C bonds, which confirms the phosphorylation

of cellulose

X-ray Diffraction
 Figure no : intensity vs 2θ plot of DWS, WSF-45, WSF-60, and WSF-75

XRD plot of intensity against 2θ shows that there is not much structural change in cellulose upon

delignification and phosphorylation at different curing times, however chemical composition has

changed
Flame retardancy

Sample Initial Final [(Wf-Wi)*100]/Wi Rate of

weight(Wi) weight(Wf) burning

WSF-45 0.0869 0.0336 61.3% decrease 0.9735cm/s

WSF-60 0.1037 0.0419 59.4% decrease 0.5357cm/s

WSF-75 0.0963 0.0431 55.5% decrease 0.3571cm/s

table no : flame retardancy experiment results

 As the charge content increases the flame retardancy of the film has increased

Water stability
Cups made were stable at 80°C, 100°C, and 150°C

Figure no : water cup at different temperatures in water

Migration study

Figure no :

All the films were under the permissible limits of migration for isooctane and 50% ethanol
Mechanical strength

Curing time Maximum Maximum Youngs

stress (Mpa) strain (%) Modulus (MPa)

WSF-45 55.43695 24.9088 2.2257

WSF-60 68.6819 38.288 1.7938

WSF-75 69.02365 25.5925 2.697

 Curing time Maximum Maximum Youngs

stress (MPa) strain (%) Modulus (MPa)

WSF-45 100.59 18.11 5.52

WSF-60 114.38 15.59 7.31

WSF-75 103.00 15.51 6.83

Maximum strength was displayed by WSF-60 which is 114.3MPa

Contact angle
The contact angle of WSF–45 is the lowest, which indicates it has the highest wettability.

The contact angle of all the films were 70° at the beginning of the experiment then later after 5

mins were reduced to 20°, 25°, and 33° for WSF-45, WSF-60, and WSF-75 respectively .
Conclusion
The production of eco-friendly and sustainable packaging materials has become increasingly

important in recent years due to the negative environmental impacts of conventional packaging

materials. This has led to a growing interest in exploring alternative sources for the production of

packaging materials. Raw wheat straw is one such alternative source that has gained significant

attention due to its abundance, low cost, and potential for sustainable production.

The thesis work presented here focuses on the utilization of raw wheat straw as a potential source

for the production of films and cups through phosphorylation. The process involved the

delignification of raw wheat straw, resulting in a high yield of 37.75%. The delignified wheat

straw was then phosphorylated, and the yield of phosphorylation was found to be 63%. The

resulting gel was used to create films and cups with desirable properties such as flame

retardancy, water absorbency, good tensile strength, and stability in high-temperature water.

The water absorbency test revealed that the films made from the gel could absorb a significant

amount of water, making them suitable for applications in which moisture absorption is required.

The flame retardancy studies indicated that the films had a reduced rate of burning, making them

safer for use in applications where fire hazards are a concern. The mechanical strength of the

films was also measured, and the results demonstrated good mechanical strength, indicating their

suitability for use in packaging applications that require strength and durability.

In addition to the properties of the films, the cups made from the gel were stable in high-

temperature water, making them suitable for use in applications such as hot beverages. The

migration studies also showed that the films were within the permissible limits, indicating that

they are safe for use in food packaging applications.

The findings of this study suggest that phosphorylation of wheat straw could be a potential

approach for the development of eco-friendly and sustainable films and cups. This approach

could contribute to the reduction of environmental impact associated with conventional

packaging materials, and it could provide an alternative source of raw material for the packaging

industry. Further research in this area could lead to the commercialization of such materials and

contribute to a more sustainable future.