Perspective in Human Geography / Evolution • Quantitative Revolution (1940’s – 50’s)

of geographical thought • Critical Revolution (1950s-60s)

• Perspective in Human Geography • Social Relevance Approach (1970’s)
• Perspective in Human Geography – Books
and Resources Perspective in Human Geography: TOPICS
• Preparation methodology of Perspective in • Areal differentiation
Human Geography • Regional synthesis
• Evolution of geographical thought • Dichotomy and dualism
(Overview) • Environmentalism
• Classification by Richard Hartshorne • Quantitative revolution and locational
• Phases of Classical Antiquity (Early analysis
Phase) • Radical, behavioral, human, and welfare
• Dark age (for Europe) approaches
• European renaissance • Languages, religions, and secularization
• Age of Voyages & Exploration • Cultural regions of the world
• Phases of Pre-classical geography • Human development index
• The modern classical phase of geography
• Perspectives & Models in geography [The
1930s-1940s (Debates)]

Perspective in Human Geography – Books and Resources

• Evolution of geographical thought by Majid Husain
• Fundamentals of Geographical Thought by Sudeepta Adhikari
• Geographical Thought by R D Dixit

Models in Geography + Evolution of Geographical Thought (Set of 2 books)

Preparation methodology of Perspective in Human Geography
This is a very important topic in the syllabus. In fact, This topic will help you to score 150+ in Paper-1 of
Geography Optional. I have seen that even in earlier years, people with good marks unarguably had a
strong grasp of this topic.
I would recommend the following path to cover this topic.
First, read the Notes and Articles of Lotus Arise. It’ll build a broad understanding and chronology of the
evolution of geographical thought.
Then, read Evolution of geographical thought by Majid Husain (Chapter 7,8,9,10,12).
If You have much time, then, also read Geographical Thought by R D Dixit (Chapter 1-8, Chapter 11) and
Fundamentals of Geographical Thought by Sudeepta Adhikari (Chapter 11, Chapter 13-16).
This will equip you to write extremely good answers as you’ll have precise definitions, theories, and lots of
examples given originally by Geographers in their studies. Use the original quotes by Hartshorne, Febvre,
Semple etc. along with the names of their thesis or books. Use chronological flowcharts while answering
questions.
Also prepare topics like Languages, Religions, Cultural Regions, and HDI, and link these with Geographical
Thought. Example – Link HDI with Welfare Geography; Languages and Religion with Diffusion and Cultural
Landscape of American and German Geographers.

Evolution of geographical thought (Overview)

If you want to understand the Perspective in Human Geography then, first of all, You have to understand
the Evolution of geographical thought i.e. how geography has evolved over a period of time.
The first person who tried to trace the development of geography and who identified different phases in
geography was Richard Hart Shorne – in his book “Nature of Geography” (1939) followed by another
book “Perspectives on Nature of Geography” (1949).

Classification by Richard Hartshorne

1. Phases of classical antiquity 4. Age of Voyages & Exploration
2. Dark age (for Europe) 5. Phases of Pre-classical geography
3. European renaissance 6. The modern classical phase of geography
7. Perspectives & Models in geography b. Humanistic Backlash
8. The 1930s-1940s (Debates) 11. Social Relevance Approach (1970’s)
9. Quantitative resolution (the 1940s-50s) a. Radical Approach
10. Critical revolution (2 phases) b. Welfare approach
a. Behavioral geography

Phases of Classical Antiquity (Early Phase)

• 9-10 BC (century) to 1-2 AD (century)
• Greeks, Chinese, Indians, etc. (dominating)
• Towards the end, the Romans dominated
• Early phase and no major developments
• Greece played a main role in Ancient trade routes so Greek scholars attained knowledge of the
world
Dark age (for Europe)
• 500-800 AD to 1200-1400 AD
• Church dominates
o Laws against religion discarded (Blasphemy)
▪ No promotion of Scientific Enquiry
• Arabs dominated this era
o Arabs became powerful in knowledge as well as political influence controlled land routes
towards east Asia (e.g. Arabs coined the term ‘Monsoon’ from an Arab word ‘Mausim’)
o Famous Arab scholars were Al Masudi, Ibn Battuta, etc
• The Church was dominating Europe in this age, so the Europeans had no contribution.
• Beginning of European renaissance towards end of this phase.
European renaissance
• Beginning of Scientific enquiry in Europe
• Also promoted by rulers and monarchs
• Cultural Revival of Europe with growing Economic ambitions of rulers, thus looking for a
route towards India and other countries
• Rulers were supported by Merchants
• Crusades – fight to control Jerusalem.
Age of Voyages & Exploration
• European Renaissance led to an increase in faith in Man’s Capabilities rather than in religion.
• Declaiming Arabs.
• Knowledge about places explored, and Lots of Maps drawn & Discovery of World Map
• Development of new instruments/tools helping in Navigation.
• New studies such as tides, ocean waves, etc while on voyages.
• The Discovery of new places led to the knowledge of new cultures and places, their physical and
human geography, demography, etc
o Amerigo Vespucci – North America
o Spanish & Portuguese – South America
o Vasco Da Gama – India
o British – New Zealand & Australia

Phases of Pre-classical geography

• The 1600s-100s AD
• Bernard Veranius (1650’s)
• Emmanuel Kant (1750’s)
• These philosophers laid down the philosophical foundation of geography
• They said that geography as a discipline is possible
The modern classical phase of geography
• Early 1800’s (1800-1860)
• Geography established as a modern scientific study
• Alexander Von Humboldt & Carl Ritter (contemporary)
Perspectives & Models in geography [The 1930s-1940s (Debates)]
• The late 1800s & early 1900s
• Beginning of Dichotomy [division or contrast between two things] and Dualism [idea or theory that
something (an object, an idea, or the whole world) is split into two parts] in Geography.
• 1st Debate – Physical Geography vs. Human Geography
o Resolved both Equally Important
o The study of Human Geography helps to understand anthropogenic factors in the
environment and enhancement of technological capabilities of Humans
• 2nd Debate – Environment vs. Man
o Which is more important?
o Determinism vs Possibilism
• Ratzel’s book – the 1880s – ‘ANTHROPO GEOGRAPHIE‘
• Debate – Physical Geography vs. Human Geography
• Debate – Regional Geography (or, special, or particular geography such as Himalayan study,
etc) vs. General or Universal Geography (General Laws such as for Mountains, Rivers, etc)
Anthropo Geography
• Ratzel’s 1880’s book Anthropo Geography (Two Volumes)
o Volume 1 – In favor of determinism (It gave him identity)
o Volume 2 – In favor of possibilism (inspired french possibilism)
French Possibilism
• Vidal de la Blache inspired by Volume 2 (Ratzel’s book)
• Griffith Taylor resolved the difference between Determinism & Possibilism but more in favor of
Determinism & was called Neo-determinism.
According to him, Determinism & Possibilism do not have any major differences and are not
extreme views. The environment provides possibilities to man but there are some limitations of the
environment.
e.g. Rainforest cannot be grown on the Sahara Desert, Tundra Region has limitations of
climate, unpredictable Earthquakes, and Tsunami, etc.
• It’s up to man how he utilizes the possibilities provided by Man but it has limitations too.
e.g. Agriculture in the Sahara Desert is challenging.
1930s-40s
• When will be the scale & method of study?
• Debate – Between Regional Geography (Special) & Systematic Geography (General)
o Regional Geography – The only description of Regions possible but no laws can be formed.
o Systematic Geography – Laws can be formed.
• Debate – Hartshorne (Regional)(Areal Approach)(Descriptive) vs. Shaffer (Systematic) (Spatial
Approach) (Analytical).
Quantitative Revolution (1940’s – 50’s)
• Post-World War II Developments
• Lots of Models developed such as Von Thunen Model, Weber’s Model, etc
• Lots of Generalizations & Simplifying Assumptions such as Isotropic Surface, Rational man, etc
• Cons
o Laws – Ideal (Normative) and far from reality
o Dynamic behavior of man – not taken into account.
Critical Revolution (1950s-60s)
• Arose due to critique against QR(Quantitative Revolution)
• Critical about ideal laws, about Normative assumptions, spurious generalizations which were
believed to increase the credibility of Geography as a subject
o Doesn’t depict reality
• 2 Branches evolved –
o Behavioral Geography
o Humanistic Geography
Behavioural Geography
• In favor of law-making quantification and generalization
• Against the model of man as a rational economic man (the mechanical man has perceptions)
 • Analytical approach
• Refined from of QR phase
Humanistic Geography
• Rejects quantification generalization and Lawmaking
• Every man is unique so No generalized laws possible for all
• You just appreciate and acknowledge the diversity
• Descriptive approach
Social Relevance Approach (1970’s)
• Using geography to resolve social issues and development
• Zelinsky (President of the American Association of Geographers) gave the speech that
– Geography must act as a doctor and give a prescription for problems of society.
• 2 Schools developed –
o Radical Approach (Marxist Ideology, Socialism)
o Welfare Approach (Humanism)
 Areal Differentiation (Hartshorne) – Human Geography
• Areal differentiation
o Historical Background
o Revival of Areal Differentiation
o Main Reason for Revival of Areal Differentiation
o Methodology of Areal differentiation
o Criticism of Areal differentiation
o Current Status and Relevance of Areal differentiation
As the environment, topography, culture, language, human activities, and human requirements, etc are not
uniform everywhere on the earth, hence, it is not prudent or suitable to make the standard model/theory to
study/develop for all geographical areas.

In simple words, the development/study model of the plain area can not be suitable for the
development/study model of the hilly area.

The Main Idea to develop this concept was to give the importance of regional geography, and it is against
the standardization of the Model/theory.

Areal differentiation is one of the perspectives of human geography in which importance is given to
the uniqueness of the geographical area rather than the standard model creation. The first technical
word ” Areal Differentiation” was mentioned by Hartshorne in his book ” Nature of geography”.

In Areal differentiation, We try to understand “how one area differs from others”.

Areal differentiation
The study of areal variation of human & physical phenomenon as they relate to other spatially
proximate and causally linked phenomenon is known as Areal Differentiation.

• Human and Physical phenomenon refers to areas such as NCR which has variable boundaries and
changing Population patterns
• Spatial Proximation means the places/areas should be in proximity or close enough to easily
undergo their comparison e.g. Agricultural zones such as Wheat Zone, Rice zone cannot be
compared with Industrial Zones
• It studies variations in different areas/regions.
• Nature is not equal everywhere as variation in character, intensity & magnitude of the
phenomenon of climate, vegetation, etc.

The term ‘Areal Differentiation’ was coined & used by Hartshorne in his classical work ” The Nature
of Geography” published in 1939.

Areal Differentiation gives a scientific & rational definition of Geography i.e. Geography is defined as
a study of accurate description and analysis, rational description & the Study of variable
characteristics of Earth. It defines whether differences are to be considered or similarities in a region. It is
the study of variable characteristics of the earth in general & region in particular.

Areal Differentiation is also known as chorology and chorography. Chorology is the study of the Areal
Differentiation of Earth’s Surface. Areal Differentiation may be termed as “idiographic” as it is
concerned with uniqueness & particular. The idiographic Approach is based on finding differences.

Historical Background

• Perspectives in Human Geography iterates the philosophy behind the evolution of Geography
• Areal Differentiation represents the oldest tradition of Western Geographical inquiry
• First set forth by Hecataeus of Miletus in 6th Century BC & codified in the form of Chorology by
Strabo in his 17 books on Geography
• In Strabo’s words, “Geographer is the person who describes the parts of Earth”. 2 Keywords
are described & parts i.e. Parts towards Regional Geography
 • Subsequent to Strabo, it was Kant who gave a philosophical foundation to chorology
• Kant is the philosophical father of Geography
• Hecataeus – Strabo – Kant – Hettner
• Then, it was Hettner who established Chorology as Regional Science
• The concept of Hettner was the inspiring guiding line for Hartshorne.

Revival of Areal Differentiation

• At the beginning of the 1940s, there was QR & various idiographic approaches were severely
criticized by followers of QR
• QR approached Geography with a systematic approach following Science, Mathematics,
etc to develop Models. Developing Models requires to focus on similarities and not on differences
• QR was criticized as the approach is against theory-building & laws and without theory-
building & laws, prediction can’t be made and planning can’t be done.
• In the 1940s, Shaeffer raised a debate against Areal Differentiation that it is hindering the growth
of Geography as a systematic science because Areal Differentiation follows an idiographic
approach (i.e. study of particular uniqueness of different regions) but for formulating laws &
theories, you need to study similarities that exist between various regions i.e. by way of following
nomothetic approach – theories & laws can be propounded. Therefore, Geography can be a
systematic subject
• Schaefer termed Kant as a father of Exceptionalism and called areal differentiation as the
exception.
• Areal Differentiation studies exceptional features of different regions
• Revival – In the 1980s, Areal Differentiation again resulted as a powerful tool & made a
comeback as a central perspective for Human Geography.

Main Reason for Revival of Areal Differentiation

Areal Differentiation studies variation in Physical and Human Phenomenon.

• Streams of thought referred to as Humanistic Geography which gives a central and active role
to human awareness & human agency, human consciousness, and creativity
• The Humanistic Method (iconographic technique) seeks to explore the composition of the
landscape, interpreting their Symbolic content & how the human landscape is shaped by and
shaking broaden the social and cultural process
• Changing Physical Phenomenon facilitates changes in Human Phenomenon which supports
Areal Differentiation e.g. Races in Equatorial Region are different from that in Tundra and Taiga with
different social and cultural practices
• Humanistic Geographers considered Man as an active agent of Change who then started
supporting Areal Differentiation
• The analysis of Uneven development & changing spatial division of Labour which includes
Analysis of Regional Disparities
• Inter-Country
• Intra Country
• To identify backward regions & study differences in the region which help in finding out
reasons for their backwardness
• Resource Disparity
• Human Resource Differences
• Since Areal differentiation emphasized the study of differences, Backward Regions can be
easily identified, Therefore, Areal differentiation is a potential tool for planners
• Spatial Variation in economic activity, wellbeing can be studied by Areal differentiation e.g.
HDI is different for different countries, Iron is found in Karnataka, Chhattisgarh, etc but not in other
states
• It helps in planning for a region or a country with disparities such as for BIMARU states and
South Indian states
• Various Govt programs such as Desert Area Development Program, Backward Area Development
Program, Border Area Development Program, etc help study the uniqueness and differences of a
region
• Therefore, to study Geography, variations are a must to be taken into consideration
 • Another source of influence comes from attempts to create a contextual theory in social
sciences, in which a place or region is viewed as geographically mediating between Human age
& Social structure e.g. Regions like NCR, Western Rajasthan, Southern Regions play an important
role in Human and Societal interaction such as joint family system may be prominent in Rural areas
and Nuclear family may be prominent in Urban Areas
• Areal Differentiation is important for planning as differences help in planning
• It is thus implicated directly in the portion of Geographical sameness and differences.

Methodology of Areal differentiation

Areal differentiation has done in 3 steps –

• The basic tool of Areal Differentiation is regionalization for which qualitative and quantitative
methods have been applied
• e.g. To study climatic regions in India, Qualitative and Quantitative methods are applied
such as the amount of Rainfall, Temperature, Precipitation, etc and formulas/calculations for
their generalization
• Regional Synthesis to understand the integrative nature of elements of phenomenon & to find
causal links
• e.g. Influx of Population in NCR because of economy, industries, climate, etc. Less
population in Western Rajasthan due to High Temperature and Low Rainfall, etc.
• Study of a coherent picture of the region by having a comparison with the near proximate i.e.
Areal Differentiation joining regions or related regions e.g. Rainfall in the Western Ghats and
Meghalaya can be compared.

This whole method is Areal Differentiation.

Criticism of Areal differentiation

• Areal Differentiation attempts to have demarcation of boundaries that can’t be static,

rather they are often dynamic and act as transitional zones, so fixation of boundaries is a
problem in Areal Differentiation.
• E.g. Different Climate zones have boundaries that cannot be fixed, NCR is expanding
regularly, etc; any region backwardness – mainly because of population & people are mobile
– is variable (Territoriality of Social Groups is dynamic & can’t be reduced to singular
temporally fixed set of spatial units)
• Schaeffer criticized Hartshorne & called Areal Differentiation as exceptionalism in World
Geography and Kant as Father of Exceptionalism.
• Schaeffer said Areal Differentiation has made Geography complicated & complex
science and he supported systems approach in Geography such as Generalisations, Nomothetic
approach, etc
• Haggett was one of the main critics of Areal Differentiation as he focussed on Areal Integration
• Areal Differentiation criticized that it is incapable of contributing towards effective
generalization
• Schaeffer said Geography shall be a law seeking subject comparable to physical sciences &
mere description can’t lead to the development of the discipline
• After 2nd WW, Areal Differentiation was rejected & QR witnessed the growth of Nomothetic
Geography
• Regions and Features of regions are not isolated entities. They are the result of interaction with
neighboring region leading to further classification e.g. Delhi and adjoining regions such as
Faridabad, Ghaziabad, Gurgaon, Noida, etc are studied together
• Presupposed Determinism as with Blache theory and evolution of Possibilism
• More descriptive
• No demarcation
• Focus on Regional Totality and not on individual elements (Regions are integrated with
neighboring Region)
• Limited to further classification, therefore a new theory of Regional Synthesis developed.

Current Status and Relevance of Areal differentiation

In the present context, Areal Differentiation is again reverberating in the minds of Geographers and
considered an essential tool in Geography because of

• Regional Planning – Resource Planning

• Backward Area Development, Tribal Area Development
• Naxalism & causal links (Physical and Non-Physical Factors)
• Agri Zonal
• Epidemic disasters e.g. Zika Virus.

In India, nowadays we are planning to develop 100 smart cities, the same model cant be applied in
all smart cities because each city has there own importance. Examples:

• Varanasi smart city: it is a religious city, so importance should be given to:

• Ganga Ghat development
• Classical Music development
• Varanasi Sari industries
• Temple, Streat cleanliness
• Communication, connectivity Security of foreign tourist, etc
• Kanpur smart city: In is an industrial center city, importance should be given to:
• Textile & leather industries
• Hight transport facilities needed to easy movement of goods
• Need water conservation for textile & leather industry
• Water treatment plants needed to avoid water pollution from the textile and leather industry.

Areal differentiation can help to reduce the social disparity by regional planning.
 Regional Synthesis – Perspectives in Human Geography
• Regional Synthesis
o Region
o Attributes of Region
o Classification of Region
o What is Regional Synthesis?
o Importance of Regional Synthesis is the current time
o Note on Regional Synthesis/Model Answer
Regional Synthesis
Regional Synthesis is an advanced form of Areal Differentiation. It was supported by the followers
of Areal Differentiation. Regional Synthesis is a part of the process of Areal Differentiation.
As in Areal differentiation, importance is given to the study of the region. In Region Synthesis, importance
is given to “process to study region” i.e. it explains how the region should be studied.

The word, ‘synthesis’, means a “complex whole made up of a number of parts unified”.

So the Regional Synthesis means analysis of integration and interrelation of all the phenomenon i.e
physio-cultural, socioeconomic and geopolitical; in a region to bring about the real and genuine picture
of the region.

Region
• Region has been defined as “a differentiated segment of Earth’s surface” as advocated by
Whittlesey.
• Region is a dynamic concept, which has been defined differently.
• It keeps on changing. e.g. Areas such as NCR, Rural areas, Urban areas have changing
boundaries
• Vidal de la Blache calls areas of similar physical and cultural characteristics as pays
• e.g. Climatic regions such as equatorial regions consisting of the Amazon basin, Congo
basin are areas of similar physical characteristics
• From a wider perspective, it may be defined as “an area that is differentiated from other areas
according to specified criteria”
• e.g. the equatorial region is different from the savannah region or tundra region on the
basis of climate and vegetation
• e.g. Wheat region and rice regions are demarcated on the basis of rainfall, water
availability, soil, etc.

Attributes of Region
Herbertson (1905) was the first to divide the earth into major natural regions on the basis of Climate
Parameter –

• Regions have Locations e.g. Wheat Region, Industrial Region, Climatic Regions, etc.
• Regions have spatial extent e.g. Definite area of a region
• Regions have boundaries e.g. NCR
• Regions may be formal or functional
• Regions are hierarchically arranged
• Regions have transitional boundaries i.e. No clear demarcation of boundaries
• e.g. Zone between Equatorial region and Savannah in Africa

Classification of Region
• Physical Regions
• Landform regions, climatic regions, air masses, ecosystems, etc
• Cultural Regions
• Population regions such as UP,
• Linguistic regions e.g. Kannada Region,
• Religious regions e.g. Hindu Hamlets

What is Regional Synthesis?

Regional Synthesis is a method used for regionalization to synthesize means bringing together
variables and integrating them into a new coherent picture.

• For example, per capita income, literacy rate, mortality rate, health facilities are rationally
analyzed, synthesized, and integrated to form a region called a backward area
• The backward area cannot be defined according to a single variable such as literacy
or health rather by a synthesis of multiple variables
• Similarly, language, ethnicity, customs, rituals, religion are synthesized to form a cultural
region
• The development of Regional Synthesis required topical specialism in geography to contribute
towards the regional paradigm.
• To study any specific region, it is essential to conduct Regional Synthesis.
• A regional Synthesis is an approach that views geography as a synthetic study of
relationships between human society and the environment
• e.g. During the study of Indo-Gangetic plains, Attributes such as Rainfall, Soil, Topography
as well as Culture are taken into consideration
• It is based on a multi-disciplinary approach and studies the diverse Physical and Cultural
phenomenon and their interactions
• Fenneman propounded that Geography deals with overall interaction between various
subjects & gave the circumference of Geography as shown –

• This circumference of Geography contains interactions such as

• Geology and Physiography/Geomorphology consisting of Volcanoes, Earthquakes, Rock
types, etc
• Biology and Bio-Geography consisting of Flora, Fauna, etc
• Economics and Commercial/Economic Geography consisting of economic resources,
industry, trade, etc
• A multidisciplinary approach is being followed to study any particular region with the
attributes of the circumference
• Regional Synthesis implies that geography is an integration of various sister disciplines like
Geology, meteorology, etc
• All parameters are studied in an integrated way and values are deciphered from sister
disciplines of geography

An American Geographer, J.L Berry, explains the regional synthesis through the geographical matrix.
In Geographical Matrix, there are three dimensions:

• 1st: Rows represent attributes

• 2nd: Columns represent locations
• 3rd: Time
In this matrix, each cell has a geographical fact.

The following diagram shows the basic features of the Berry geographical matrix of the Delhi Region (in
this matrix we considered matura location as part of the Delhi region).

As per Berry geographical matrix, there are ten approaches to do regional analysis and same are
listed below:

1. Cells within rows show the spatial distributions of geographical features. In the above
geographical matrix, the first geographical feature is temperature.
2. Cells within the column show the localized geographical features. In the above geographical
matrix, New Delhi localized regional analysis variables are temperature, rainfall, and humidity.
3. Spatial variation can be studied by comparing two rows
4. Areal differentiation can be studied by comparing two column
5. Study of sub-matrix
6. Study of spatial variation by comparing the same row through time which is temporal-spatial
covariation. Example caparison of the present-day temperature of New Delhi with 100 years ago
temperature.
7. We can get sequence occupancy of a particular location by comparing the same column through
time.
8. Comparing a row with another row across the time dimension
9. Comparing a column with other columns across the time dimension.
10. The comparison and study of sub-matrix across the time dimension

Importance of Regional Synthesis is the current time

• Global temperature rise is not a sudden phenomenon and it is not uniform worldwide. By
using regional synthesis analysis one can easily get a trend of temperature rise region-wise.
• It helps to study of sequence occupance of region
• Regional Synthesis help to analyze the regional disparity within and with another region by
comparing the economic variable across the temporal analysis.

Note on Regional Synthesis/Model Answer

The concept of Geography as a regional synthesis was propounded by Fenneman in 1919, which
was further supported by Richard Hartshorne & his disciples as it was a part of Areal Differentiation.
According to Hartshorne, Geography is an integrative & synthetic science.

According to the Oxford Human Geography dictionary, the word synthesis means ” a complex
whole made of a number of parts unified”.

According to James Cunant, every science is an integrated whole which is the result of
interconnection between various concepts, experiments, field surveys, and observation.
Geographers are like any other scientist identified not so much by the phenomenon, they study Geography
as by the integrating concept and processes they stress.
The concept of regional synthesis is not very old. The American, British and German Geographers did
vigorous exercises to define the philosophy, scope, and methodology of geography. The objective of this
philosophical concept was to define the subject of geography and to determine its area & scope
and to suggest a suitable methodology for geographical research.

The subject matter of Geography, in general, is shared by many sister disciplines like Anthropology for
tribal studies, meteorology, geology, ocean sciences, biology, and so on.

Some geographers argue that the geographers’ task is to study the regions and places with the set
objective to explain their peculiarities and to make a synthesis of the new regions.

• e.g. peculiarities in Equatorial climates such as rainfall, dense vegetation, fauna, etc.
• e.g. Geologists deal with lithology & rock structure, therefore Geographers focus on
Geomorphology.

Similarly, biologists study the plants and animal’s taxonomy while Geographers are concerned with
the spatial distribution of Biogeography through maps.

Therefore, Geographers deal with Numerous phenomena at the same time, and the main task is to
make a synthesis of a phenomenon where atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere & biosphere
converge.

• e.g. theorists like Koppen used vegetation and precipitation for their climatic classification.

In the same manner, soil classifications are based on humidity and aridity. Geographers deal with an
overall interaction of biotic and abiotic phenomena both in space and time observed in the biosphere.

Relevance of Regional Synthesis: Regional Synthesis is one of the dynamic approaches to

understand the various dynamic phenomenon associated with physical and human earth which
further provides assistance to both demographic and regional planners, geomorphologists,
climatologists to synthesize their knowledge for the overall benefit of human society and its
prosperity.
 Dichotomy and Dualism – Human Geography
• Dichotomy and Dualism
o Historical Perspective of Dichotomy and Dualism
o Types of Dichotomy/Dualism
o General Geography vs. Special Geography
o Physical Geography vs. Human Geography
o American school of Geography
o British school of Geography
o French school of Geography
o Conclusion
The word ‘dualism’ simply connotes the state of being divided. For any domain of knowledge, therefore,
it means two conceptually contrasted stances. Dualism finally leads to ‘dichotomy’ which means
the bifurcation of any subject into branches of knowledge.

Ever since its inception as a domain of knowledge, geography has been encountered several
methodological issues that eventually gave birth to several dualisms and dichotomies in the subject.
Such a sort of dualism was prevalent even in the classical or medieval periods of geographical history.

Greek scholars like Aristotle, Herodotus, or Hecataeus emphasized on physical geography; Roman
scholars like Strabo insisted on regional geography while Ptolemy stressed on mathematical
geography; and, the Arab scholars like Al-Masudi, Al-Biruni, or AlIdrisi highlighted on the importance
of the physical environment. However, such dualisms were very equivocal and abstruse.

It was in the post-Renaissance period that geography witnessed the evident rise of dualism and
since then, the subject has been branched off into several exclusive domains on methodological grounds.
Over time the divisions have been further sub-divided into different sub-disciplines.

Dichotomy and Dualism

• Whenever any subject evolves as a discipline, there are debates and discussions that take
place and various scholars present their views on different interpretations, approaches, etc
• In Geography, it was a debate of Physical geography or Human Geography, Methodologies
to be adopted, etc
• Modern Geography has inherited right from the beginning, the concepts of dichotomy and
dualism
• These terms are used interchangeably but they have different meaning and perspectives
• The dichotomy is the contrast or difference between two ideas, connoting division in the subject
matter, while Dualism is the concept of debate on a particular subject matter.
• Dualism is the hallmark of social philosophy and environmental thinking. It means two parallel
ideas having the same goal but mutually distinctive
• Environmental Philosophy has been governed by dualistic thinking and dichotomous
perception – as a result, several dualistic ideologies have emerged in the field of geographical
learning.

Historical Perspective of Dichotomy and Dualism

Right from the days of Varenius, there has been a tendency to divide geography into 2 types of Subject
Matter.

Varenius divided Geography into General Geography (e.g. Generalized study of Mountains, Plains, etc)
and Special Geography (e.g. Study of Himalayas, Alps, Ganga, etc).

Kant has given more stress on Special Geography and this is obvious when he divided geography
into 5 branches such as –

• Mathematical Geography
• Moral Geography,
• Political Geography,
 • Commercial Geography, and
• Teleological Geography.

Kant’s work was to promote Spatial Geography. Kant has also emphasized over systematic
analysis and that was basically in General Geography.

With the rise of Humboldt and Ritter, there was a clear cut division in the methodology of Geography.

Humboldt had promoted Systematic Approach, while Ritter promoted Regional Approach.

The dichotomy is a methodological dividing line in geography. Another dividing line was brought in
Subject Matter.

Ratzel’s view was completely different from the General Geography of Humboldt and Ritter.

Humboldt was one step ahead by saying that Physical Geography was General Geography.

It was discredited by Ratzel. Ratzel did not agree with the view that physical geography was general
geography.

He rather promoted a new branch of geography as Human Geography. With this, the division of
Geography became imminent. So with the emergence of Ratzel, a new dichotomy was started in
geography in the name of Physical and Human geography.

With the rise of the French school of Geography, a new kind of dichotomy emerged in the subject that
was known as Environmentalism vs. Possibilism. Environmentalism is also known as Determinism.

French Geographers promoted Human Geography as General Geography as they considered man as an
active agent i.e. Possibilism.

American Geographers like Semple focussed on Environmentalism while French Geographers

focussed on Possibilism.

Vidal de la Blache (Father of French Geography) stated that Human Geography is General
Geography.

He outrightly rejected the concept of Humboldt that Physical Geography is General Geography.

Humboldt divided Geography into 4 parts –

• Geomorphology
• Climatology
• Oceanography, and
• Biogeography

While Blache did not make any divisions, he emphasised on 5 aspects of human beings –

• Possibilism (rise of Human Beings)

• Race, Tribes, and Ethnicity
• Cultural landscape and region
• Population Growth, Distribution, and Migration
• Trade and Transport

It was therefore obvious that Geography was divided into 3 sets of concepts of Dichotomy that
were not a healthy trend for growing subjects like Geography. The 3 sets were –

• Systematic vs Regional Geography

• Physical vs Human Geography
 • Environmentalism vs Possibilism

Consequently, many geographers emerged for the unitary approach. In geography, many geographers
gave the argument in favor of minimization of the distance between the divided subjects following
the unitary approach. This type of thinking started the dualistic debate in Geography that is known as
Dualism.

The concept of Dualism promoted discussion, arguments, and counter-arguments on the divided
subject matters

Geographers like OHK Spate, Dudley Stamp, and Griffith Taylor were strongly in favor of an integrated
Geography. They welcomed debate but disagreed with the division of Geography. The emergence of
Positivism in American Geography (1953-70) also promoted the Theoretical and Realistic Approach in
Geography.

Positivism refers to the use of Science & Physics Laws, theories, mathematical models in Geography e.g.
Weber Model, Newton’s Gravity model in Population Geography, etc

The Realistic approach was further strengthened after 1970 by Critical Revolution in Geography

Consequently, present-day geography gives more emphasis to human aspects but this is not a favor
to human geography, but simply due to need of present geography for its survival in the competition of
applied subjects. Thus, the focus today is on Welfare Geography e.g. Border Area Development Program,
Tribal Area Development Program, etc

Geography is being made more relevant with a focus on Human Geography. Traditional Geography
will be compelled to remain in isolation and therefore, the dividing line is meaningless. What is important is
to know the present aspects of society from Geography.

They expect Geography to play a central role in spatial analysis, This may be of any geographical item
but the purpose must be to serve the society and to bring welfare and betterment to society.

Due to this compulsion, present-day geography has brought some major deviations from traditional
empirical methodology and subject matter of Geography, Consequently, many aspects of Physical
geography are marginalized and many new concerns have emerged in Modern Human Geography.

Although there have been some recognizable changes in the methodology and subject matter of geography
but dualistic debate continues to remain as an important part of geographical exercises.

The dichotomy is not of so much importance in present-day geography but dualism continues to
have due recognition.

Types of Dichotomy/Dualism
American school of geography has enlisted 6 types of Dualism in Geography viz –

1. General Geography vs. Special Geography

2. Systematic vs. Regional Geography
3. Physical vs. Human Geography
4. Determinism vs. Possibilism
5. Theoretical vs. Applied Geography
6. Idiographic vs. Nomothetic Geography

The first four have a clear division of concepts that is why they promoted dichotomy in Geography, but
the latter two types of dualism have emerged after the 2nd World War and are not along lines of
dichotomy, but are excessively due to emerging needs of society.

However, these six types of Dualism have not created any threat to the subject but have
promoted healthier discussions and debate, which have ultimately enriched the subject.
In fact, the present day geography largely depends upon Dualistic debates.

General Geography vs. Special Geography

• It includes Systematic vs. Regional Geography

• This was started by Varenius (German) during the 17th century
• Varenius recognized the two main divisions of Geography –
• General or Universal
• Special or Particular
• General Geography deals with the entire world as a unit
• It was, however, mainly restricted to physical geography which could be understood through
Natural laws e.g. Plate Tectonics
• On the contrary, Special Geography was primarily intended as a description of individual
countries and world regions e.g. Himalayas, the Alps, etc.
• It was difficult to establish laws in special geography where human beings are involved, whose
behavior is always unpredictable
• Special Geography nevertheless helped in the formulation of hypothesis and structured
ideas
• A similar view was also given by Immanuel Kant, but this type of division was not inherited by
Humboldt and Ritter
• Humboldt and Ritter presented a different scenario of Geography. They are known as the
founding fathers of Modern Geography
• They did not emphasize over Special Geography but gave more importance to Physical
Geography/General Geography
• There was not a division between Humboldt and Ritter on the subject matter, so dualism started by
Varenius and Kant couldn’t be further promoted, and there was a decline of debates without any
compromise or understanding among the promoters of general geography and special geography
• However, Humboldt and Ritter brought a new kind of Dualism in Geography that is known as
Systematic vs. Regional Approach in Geography
• Humboldt was seriously engaged in the development of systematic physical geography, while Ritter
was a regional geographer who gave weight to man as an important component of Physical
surroundings
• Gradually, all studies of a general nature acquired the status of Systematic Geography, while the
special or particular studies were described as Regional Geography
• Systematic Geography drew inspiration from the existing systematic sciences with a search for
universal and generic concepts
• Regional Geography, on the other hand, has not moved out of the ambit of particular studies
• According to Humboldt, Geographical facts cannot be discussed in isolation
• Every subject matter is related to some other aspects of the earth system
• Hence, Regional accounts also need a geographical introduction of contents of accounts
• For example, the Climate of Germany is to be studied, Humboldt had viewed in his famous book
‘Kosmos’ that the climate of Germany is very much related to the climatic system of Europe
• It is not enough to simply describe Isotherms, isobars, the direction of winds, and the precipitation of
Germany. It is more important to examine their causative factors. When this type of investigation is
started, the geographical area of study would go beyond Germany and it is only a systematic
approach that can provide details of the weather conditions of Germany
• Ritter’s approach was completely different
• Ritter, a teleologist, stressed the need for the study of natural phenomena “as a whole, as in
parts”, in order to comprehend the “inherent plan”
• He believed in the centrality of Regional Geography
• He was of the view that there are regions at different levels of Geography e.g. Macro regions, Meso
regions, and Micro regions
• So, there are needs of climatic description, and it would be different at different levels
• When the climate of Europe is discussed, it would be done at a higher order of regionalization, than
when the climate of Germany is discussed
• Ritter, therefore, suggested preparing a comprehensive discussion of all geographical aspects of a
region
• In other words, he was of the view to discuss physiography, climate, soil, vegetation, population,
economy, and all other aspects of special geography in the form of regional descriptions of
 geographical facts. This type of work is still relevant e.g. NCR can be studied as an independent
entity.
• Nowadays, when regional planning development strategy is adopted, the country is more concerned
with the subject of regional rather than to the subject to other regions
• Even during the later phase of Humboldt and Ritter (after 1840), some German geographers had
begun to reduce the differences between the two geographers. In this regard, Richthofen and
Hettner did a significant role
• Ratzel started a new kind of Dualism but as a subject of methodology, it provided equal
importance to both systematic and regional approach
• Richthofen was of the view that there is no real difference between the systematic and
regional approach
• Every systematic approach is to be carried on at a regional level and every regional account
provides a systematic discussion of related facts and figures
• These perceptions were strongly debated in Geography and sometimes, there were apprehensions
of the divisions of Geography but when we look into basic contents of systematic and regional
approaches, it is found that both have a similar approach for the explanation of Geographic facts
• There cannot be a systematic approach without regional explanation and similarly, no
regional explanation is complete without systematic descriptions
• In the words of Berry, “The regional and general geography are not different approaches but
are just two extremes of a continuum”
• Thus, the dichotomy of systematic and regional therefore falls, as they do not oppose but
support each other in the final analysis, of the subject matter of Geography.

Physical Geography vs. Human Geography

• The Greeks were probably the first who started this branching of the discipline
• Hecateus gave more weight to Physical Geography, while Herodotus and Strabo emphasized
the Human aspect
• In the medieval period, only Al Beruni is humanistic, others are all Physical Geographers
• Dualism of Physical and Human Geography is still a characteristic of the discipline
• In modern times, Varenius was the first to suggest differences in the characteristics of
Physical and Human Geography
• Right from the beginning, Physical Geography was the core concern of Geography. It was
properly developed by Humboldt
• Both Humboldt and Ritter had studied Human Beings as a subject matter of Physical
Geography
• Ritter wrote a book “Erd Kunde” where German Society is discussed simply as one of the living
species
• Humboldt was primarily interested in Physical Geography, while Ritter was more inclined
towards Human Geography
• There was a marked change in approach with Ratzelian Philosophy gathering more support and
Human Geography gained much acceptance henceforth
• Ratzel did not agree with this kind of approach towards the study of Human Beings. He was
influenced by the contemporary concept of Social Darwinism
• Hitler was influenced by the views of Ratzel and gave the concept of Greater Germanic Reich
• Darwinism has considered two kinds of Evolution in the earth system
• One is the evolution of species of nature. It was taken as a natural selection process
• Social scientists like Spencer proposed the view that there is a similar process of selection and
evolution in society. On the basis of this Social Darwinism, Ratzel considered that the social
evolution of human beings cannot be discussed as a part of the selection and evolution of species
of the Earth system
• Human beings are physically and socially a different species and therefore their geographical
presentation need the development of a separate branch of Geography and with this was the
emergence of Human Geography
• Ratzel introduced Human Geography through his book ‘Anthropogeographie’ having 3 Volumes
• Most of the contemporary German Geographers were General Geographers
• But real activities in general geography was about physical geography, so German geographers
were clearly divided into physical and human geographers
• The division of German Geography brought about a phenomenal impact on the emerging discipline
of Geography in the USA, UK, and France.
American school of Geography

• Before the impact of the Ratzelian school of thought, physical geography was general geography in
the USA
• Guyot was the first professor of Geography in the USA. Other Geographers – W.M.Davis,
Salsbury, and Thornbury, played a significant role in the development of Physical
Geography. They significantly emphasized on Landforms. Trewartha emphasized on
Climatology
• Up to the first decade of the 20th century, American Geography was basically Physical
Geography
• The change was brought by the work of Semple when she wrote a book – “Influences of
Geographic Environment” in 1911
• Although she was an environmentalist, but her approach was in the context of human settlement,
human activities, human population growth, migration, and other related phenomena
• Similar approach was taken by Huntington and after the 1st WW, American Geography was
also divided into Physical and Human Geography
• Geographers like Salsbury changed their academic interest and during the later phase of his
career, he became a human geographer
• After 2nd WW, this division continued in American Geography and that has practically
benefitted the discipline as a whole
• Presently, American Geography is integrated at the college level but at the university level,
there is a division with a greater amount of specialization
• This trend of specialization has increased the applied importance of Geography.

British school of Geography

• Right from the beginning, British Geographers are giving importance to both the branches of
Geography
• Geographers like Herbertson, Dudely Stamp, Griffith Taylor, and O.H.K Spate had taken an
integrated approach but with the emergence of Mackinder in British Geography, the
emphasis was shifted in favor of Human Geography
• Mackinder had supported the stand of Vidal de la Blache that Human Geography is general
Geography and the idea of Possibilism
• Mackinder’s impact was phenomenal on British Geography
• Consequently, many universities established the department imparting Human Geography
• The impact soon spread to other countries
• Yangon or Rangoon has the first department of Human Geography established in 1919 by Dudely
Stamp
• It was followed by Lahore, Karachi, Aligarh, and Chennai.
• Department of Human Geography at Delhi University was established by Mackinder.

French school of Geography

• There is a great diving line in a French school
• French Geography was sharply divided on the issue (Physical & Human)
• Human Geography was overwhelmingly supported in France and Physical Geography was
marginalized
• Human Geography was provided leadership by Vidal de la Blache, who is regarded as the
founder of Human Geography school, whereas Physical Geography was promoted by De
Mortonne (only to promote physical geography in France by his book “French Alps” – a book on
Glaciated reforms).

Conclusion
• The Dichotomy of Physical Geography vs. Human Geography is artificial and illogical
• In brief, Geography does not fall into two groups i.e. Physical and Human, which are two
extremes of a continuum.
• Presently, these two geographies are major branches of geography having an Integrated and
interrelated analytical approach
• It is this approach due to which the subject has survived with greater strength and
credibility.
 Quantitative Revolution in Geography
• Quantitative Revolution
o Quantitative Revolution – Definition and Related information
o Base of Quantitative Revolution
o Approaches in Quantitative Revolution
o Assumptions
o Philosophy behind the Quantitative Revolution
o Phases of Quantitative Revolution
o Advantages of Quantitative Revolution
o Demerits of Quantitative Revolution
o Conclusion
Quantitative Revolution
• Geography for more than 200 yrs. was confronted with the problem of generalization & theory-
building while in all other Physical & Social Sciences, Theory building has a long tradition as
in Sociology, Public Administration, etc
• When Geography as a subject was evolving, debates and discussions followed on whether to follow
a subjective approach or an objective approach in Geography
• Making Geography objective required the use of laws of Physics, models, etc which shifted the
focus of scholars towards the Quantitative Revolution, to make geography a scientific subject
• Some scholars wanted Geography to be a descriptive subject
• After the 2nd World War, Geographers, especially of developed countries, realized the
significance of using Mathematical Language, rather than the language of Literature in
Geography.
• e.g. Af in Koppen’s classification of Climate meaning Tropical Rainforest
• After the 2nd World War, only those subjects survived which had relevance for society,
Therefore, in 1949, World Social Science Congress was held at Princeton University in the USA
• 2 major conclusions in this were –
• Subject Matter should be relevant for society i.e. Practically applicable
• The approach has become obsolete in a changed socio-economic situation, hence
there is a need to bring about methodology change in social sciences
• Therefore, after the 2nd World War Quantitative Revolution became prominent because
• World Social Science Congress held in 1949
• America & Canadian University dropped Geography
• Schaeffer’s argument supporting the Nomothetic Approach
• Geographers themselves wanted Geography to be at par with Physical Sciences
• Thus, in 1949 congress developed the concepts that social sciences should go to adopt
Quantitative Methods or tools for scientific inquiry
• This conference provided a new lease of life for social sciences
• Immediately after the congress – Zipf (1st Geographer to use new methods) came up with a
research paper titled – “Human Behaviour & Principles of least effort” in 1949
• He used the Rank Size Correlation method of Spearsman to establish the amount of
correlation between rank & Size of Population.
• Therefore, a number of qualitative tools used extensively, new electronic devices made
possible use of complex mathematical computation never attempted before.
• Canadian Geographer Burton firstly introduced Statistical Methods in Geography and
published a research paper “Qualitative Revolution & Theoretical Geography”.

Quantitative Revolution – Definition and Related information

• The term ‘Quantitative Revolution’ was coined by Burton in 1963
• Definition – “The application of Statistical and Mathematical techniques, theorems, proofs in the
understanding geographical system is called as Quantitative Revolution in Geography”
• Quantitative Revolution was developed in Geography by B.J.L Berry, Richard Chorley
• Statistical Methods first introduced in Geography in the 1950s
• Quantitative Revolution calls for a change in methodology, thereby imparting a scientific character
to discipline
• The methodology included Mathematical tools, Statistical Analysis, Laws of Physics, etc which
provided objectivity and Scientific touch, as was desired by some Geographers
• Quantitative Revolution provided Geography with a sound Philosophical and theoretical base
 • It aims at making the geographical study more useful by making precise generalization identifying
the ideal location for economic activities
• It aims at explaining & interpreting spatial patterns of Geographical phenomenon in a rational and
objective manner using physics laws, mathematical tools, statistical analysis, etc
• Quantitative Revolution was inspired by the positivistic school of thought
• Profound supporters of the Quantitative Revolution were Neil Harvey, Schaeffer,
Ackerman, Haggett, Chorley, etc.

Base of Quantitative Revolution

Quantitative Revolution was based on various methods-
Statistical Methods – Mean (e.g. HDI), Median, Mode, Coefficient of Variability (e.g. Rainfall), Standard
Deviation (e.g. Rainfall), Probability, Least Square Method (e.g. Agriculture)

1. Mathematical Methods – Algebra (e.g. Locational Triangle), Geometry theorems, Triangular

Methods, etc – All these led to Spatial Analysis in Geography
2. Laws of Physics – such as
• Gravity Laws – Gravity model such as Breakpoint theory
• Thermodynamic Laws – in the study of Ecosystem
3. Cybernetics – Branch of Physics which includes a study of regulating or self-regulating systems
4. Neoclassical Economics – Ricardo, Adam Smith, Weber, Keynes, etc.

Approaches in Quantitative Revolution

Quantitative Revolution was based on 3 Approaches –

1. Locational Analysis – It includes spatial analysis but seeks to find out the optimum location (where
profit is maximum and cost is minimum) by applying statistical and mathematical techniques,
physics laws, etc
• e.g. Weber Locational Model, Von Thunen Agricultural Model
• It was suggested by P. Haggett and Bunge
2. Spatial Analysis – It is the Study of Earth as a Space Geometry
• It includes measurements & Divisions of space and man became a point on Surface
• It means Geometrical analysis, the study of distance, the geometrical shape of CPT
3. System Analysis – Study of various functional components of a system and their interrelationships
• e.g. in Central Place Theory, the relationship between various settlements at various
hierarchical levels.

Assumptions
Models and Theories formulated in this era were based on some common assumptions as these
models follow ideal conditions such as –

• Man is economic and rational

• Man has infinite knowledge of his environment and resources
• Space (Environment and Resources) is isotropic surface
• There is no place for normative questions like cultural values, social values, emotions, etc in
Geographical Research
• Assumed prices to be the same everywhere.

Philosophy behind the Quantitative Revolution

1. Positivism – It means reality is what is cognizable. It guides Quantitative Revolution
• It means the formation of universal laws on the basis of the unification of sciences
• It is against the normative questions of a man like values, morals, ethics, emotions, etc
• It considers man as economic and rational
• It considers reality as what can be defined through laws
2. Functionalism – It leads to system analysis
• It studies the various component elements of a phenomenon & its interrelationship
3. Empiricism– It believes in direct observation.

Phases of Quantitative Revolution

 • Phase 1 – Genesis Phase
• 1818-1915
• Von Thunen Model for Agriculture
• Weber Industrial Model
• Migration laws of Ravenstein etc
• 1915-1950
• Settlement Geography
• Rank Size Rule
• Primate City Concept
• Some economic models etc
• Phase 2 – Zenith Phase
• 1950-1970
• Geographers dropped all other methods to adopt Quantitative Techniques
• Dominance of the Quantitative Revolution
• Quantitative Revolution term coined by Burton in 1963
• Several models were created such as the Gravity Model, Distance Decay law, Losch
Model, the sphere of Urban Influence, etc
• Phase 3 – Declining Phase
• Post-1970s
• After 1976, the Quantitative Revolution was suddenly abandoned as its supporters
stopped supporting it due to its lost relevance
• Limitations of Quantitative Revolution came to the front
• As a reaction, Critical Revolution started to grow which was more guided by
humanism and took into consideration normative questions.

Advantages of Quantitative Revolution

• The emergence of scientific approach and quantitative tools undisputedly improved the functional
relevance of geography
• It gave a new lease of Life to Geography
• Geography became well structured & geographical ideas became precise and accurate
• It developed objectivity from being overly descriptive
• It helped in describing, analyzing, and simplifying Geographical Systems
• Geographers are now being able to make use of primary information and are no more dependent
on secondary and tertiary sources (such as other sciences)
• Modern Geography is capable of developing scientific theories and models. Before the
Quantitative Revolution, most of the theories and models were empirical and not scientifically tested
• Quantitative Revolution provided the sound scientific and methodological base
• Quantitative tools have been very helpful in the explanation of man-environment relation with the
help of correlation and regression methods
• The use of Central values and deviation methods has improved the quality of Geographical
mapping. Presently, scattered diagrams, choropleth maps, and isopleth maps are drawn with
scientific intervals and have been very helpful to developmental agencies.
• The use of nearest neighbor statistics have been able to help in the understanding of spatial
patterns of settlement of distribution
• Now, it is possible to define areas of compact, dispersed, and randomly distributed patterns
of settlements. This kind of information is helpful to planners for the development of infrastructure
and socio-economic variables
 • Before the arrival of Quantitative tools, Geographical Regionalization was based on observation and
assessment. Hence, there were problems with overlapping and non-inclusions. By making use of
Gravitational models, it is now possible to bring a scientifically defined regionalization process
• e.g. Crop combination Regionalization was developed by Weaver and is now popular
throughout the world. It is based on the deviation method
• There have been several investigations of socio-economic problems in geography. There have
been problems in the management of multivariate information. With the help of Quantitative
techniques, a multitude of information can be reduced to a manageable number of factors i.e.
Generalisation of information
• It served as an important tool to measure Reality & Deviation.

Demerits of Quantitative Revolution

• It rejected man and his normative questions like faith, belief, emotions, customs, desires,
prejudices, aesthetic values, etc but in the real world, man-environment relations and decision-
making processes are affected by normative questions and social, moral, ethical values, etc
• In any decision-making process about the utilization of resources, people, etc are largely
governed by religious, moral, cultural, and social values
• It is because of these values that dairying is not developed in Khasis (Meghalaya) and
Lushais (Mizoram) where taking milk is a taboo
• Muslims all over the world hate piggery and Sikhs dislike the cultivation of tobacco
• Thus, by excluding the normative questions, the study may become objective but gives only
a parochial picture of the man-environment relationship
• Isotopic surface and other idealistic conditions are never found. Thus, models were mostly
normative and lacked universal application
• The man became a point on the surface
• Geography became a space geometry where the measurement was the means of understanding a
spatial dimension of Geographical phenomenon
• The advocates of Quantitative Revolution focussed on ‘Locational Analysis’ which promotes
Capitalism
• Geography has the main task of studying the reciprocal relationship between man and nature. Thus,
this task was itself offloaded during the Quantitative Revolution
• The man became mechanistic and models developed with the help of Quantitative techniques
reduced people to Passive agents. Such models may be seen as one of economic determinism
• With the development of sophisticated machinery and automation, there is less scope of
employment. Thus, it leads to unemployment
• The man and environment relationship cannot be properly established by the mechanistic models
designed with the help of Quantitative techniques
• The advocates of the Quantitative Revolution pleaded for the language of Geometry, but Geometry
is not an acceptable language to explain man and environment relation
• The assumption that man is a ‘rational person’ who always tries to optimize his profit has been
criticized.
• In real-world, location decisions are seldom optimal in the sense of maximizing profits or
minimizing resources
• According to Simon, “Man in a limited number of alternatives chooses one that is broadly
satisfactory rather than optimal”
• In most of cases, the satisfying model applies and the man takes decisions about the
utilization of his resources to satisfy his aspirations and desires
• The assumption that man has ‘infinite knowledge’ of his space or environment has also been
criticized as technology is a dynamic concept that keeps changing with resource
• Applications of Quantitative Revolution demand reliable data which is rarely available in developing
country like India
• The estimates and predictions made with the help of sophisticated quantitative techniques proved
erroneous many times and the danger of overgeneralization prevails
• The models developed with the help of statistical techniques gave more prominence to some
features and distorted some others
• Making reliable models and universal laws in Human Geography with the help of Quantitative
techniques is not possible
• Among the early protesters of the Quantitative Revolution, O.H.K Spate and Dudley Stamp
were prominent
 •O.H.K Spate argued that the use of the methodology needs mathematical and scientific
temperament of investigation, but Geographers come from social science temperament so
they may concede some fatal errors in judgement
• Hartshorne also held that the views of Spate cannot be ignored
• Dudley Stamp was opposed to the blind use of quantitative tools in Geography and opined
that geography need not borrow any techniques
• According to him, “Maps speak themselves” so there is no need to bring other scientific techniques
• However, Statistical techniques improved the quality of maps which was ignored by Stamp
• Quantitative tools provide precise and rigid conclusions, but geography is a social science
where conclusions should have flexibility.

Conclusion
• Despite all the merits and demerits of the Quantitative Revolution, it may be summarized
that ‘spatial science’ was inaugurated in North America
• By the end of the 1960s, it was dominating many of the journals published throughout the
English speaking world and there was a growing consciousness among geographers about the
usefulness of quantitative tools
• Most of the researchers used Quantitative models, and thus contributed to the development of
theories and models. But, these theories and models presented only a partial picture of the man-
environment relationship
• This methodology was criticized and as a reaction to this, behavioural and humanistic approaches
were introduced in human geography
• It was realized that the use of Quantitative tools cannot provide relevant conclusions for all
geographic problems. Hence, after the 1970s, there has been an emphasis on the selective
use of such tools
• Often a combination of the quantitative and qualitative approach is more satisfactory for making
estimations and predictions in geography
• Whatever the limitations, the fact cannot be denied that it was a Quantitative Revolution which
could bring scientific understanding in Geography and the very base of the present status of
Geography lies in Quantitative Revolution

Locational Analysis in Human Geography

• School of Locational Analysis
• Locational Analysis
o Characteristics
o Criticisms Against Locational Analysis
o Spatial vs Locational analysis

School of Locational Analysis

Spatial analysis, which is also called area analysis and locational analysis, is the study of human
trends in a specific place. It is an approach in human geography that focuses on the spatial
arrangement of phenomena. It tries to build accurate generalization, models, and theories with
productive power. Locational analysis is based on the philosophy of positivism and empiricism. Its
usual methodology is that of spatial science.

History and development of Locational School

A number of geographers in the U.S.A. advocated the cause of locational analysis in the
1950s, although it has much deeper roots in the work of pioneers who were later adopted by geographers.

Lukerman was advocated by a number of geographers in the USA in the 1950s, but its actual working
started in the 1960s. Many geographers were associated with this stream later on. Bunge (1966), for
example, wrote a thesis on Theoretical Geography based on the premises who stated that geography is
the ‘science of locations’.

Others such as McCarty were strongly influenced by developments in the field of economics, to
which they introduced the spatial variable. Mc Carty introduced spatial variables in the field of
geography. These links led to the close interrelationship between geographers and regional scientists in
the 1960s and 1970, and illustrated by attempts to build economic geography theories of spatial
arrangements.
Locational Analysis
• Locational Analysis is an approach to human geography that focuses on the spatial arrangement
of the phenomenon.
• e.g. Weber’s Industrial Location Model for profit maximization
• Its usual methodology is that of spatial science.
• The main objective of Locational Analysis was expressed as building accurate generalization,
models, and theories with productive power.
• Accurate Generalization refers to assumptions made in different models which are then used for
the generalization of outcomes.
• According to Bunge, Geography is the ‘Science of Locations‘ as described in his book
Theoretical Geography (1966).
Characteristics
• Locational Analysis is based on the philosophy of Positivism
• It concentrates on identifying theories of spatial arrangements and is hence closely linked to
Quantitative Revolution
• Locational Analysis is based on empiricism. Empiricism accords special privilege to empirical
observations over theoretical statements
• In the empirical enquiry, it is assumed that its facts ‘speak for themselves‘
• Haggett in his book, Locational Analysis in Human Geography (1965), appealed to adopt the
geometrical tradition to explain the order, location order, and patterns in Human Geography
• e.g. Locational Triangle Model uses a Geometrical approach
• Such a focus is needed –
• To adopt a systems approach which concentrates on the patterns and linkages within an
assemblage
• To employ models as to understand the man and environment relationships, and
• To use quantitative techniques to make precise statements (generalizations) about
locational order
• For the Spatial Analysis, it was suggested to adopt a ‘linear model‘, spatial autocorrelation, and
regression.
• Other Geographers – Morril, Col, Chorley, Cox, Harvey, Johnston, etc
• Morril in his book, The Spatial Organization of Society, argued that people seek to maximize
spatial interaction at minimum cost and so bring related activities into proximity, and the result is that
human society is surprisingly alike from one place to another.

Criticisms Against Locational Analysis

The locational approach in human geography has been criticized on philosophical and methodological
grounds by behaviouralists and humanists.
Some of the main criticisms against locational analysis are as under:

1. The locational analysis based on positivism ignores the normative questions to explain the man
and environment relationship. It was their mistaken belief that “positive theory would lead to
normative insight”. Cultural values are quite important in any decision-making process. The ideal
location for any economic activity may not be acceptable to individuals and society.
2. The locational analysis did not reflect the reality of decision-making processes and so was of
little value in predicting locational arrangement.
3. The models developed with the help of locational analysis conceal the complexities of the real
world.
4. At present, there is economic interdependence of societies at the global level, which means that
spatial interdependence has become much more important and “locally experienced
environmental dependencies lost their rationale”.
5. Locational analysis has also been criticized on the ground that it encourages the social
order of capitalism in which the owners of the means of production become rich and the poor
becomes poorer.
6. The locational analysis has given a chance to the capitalists to optimize their profits. It gives
uncontrolled liberty and license for plunder and miscalled profit.
7. Owing to locational analysis, there is overproduction and the economy enters the era of over
industrialization.
 8. It is mainly because of the locational analysis and capitalism that there is a total newness—
new technology, new means of transportation, new education, new art, new morals, new media,
new amusement, new weapons, new violence, new terrorism, new war and the new mode of
exploitation.
9. The followers of spatial science (positivists) treat people as dots on a map, statistics (data) on
a graph, or numbers in an equation. They consider humans as non-living beings.
10. The followers of spatial science (positivists) neglect the humans and related animate aspects

It is because of the inadequacies of the locational analysis that the ‘behaviouralism’ and ‘humanism’
achieved much significance in human geography.

Whatever the reason for its origin, there is little doubt that locational analysis substantially changed the
nature of human geography from the mid-1960s, although there is some doubt that it ever dominated
the discipline.

It presented geography as a positivist social science, concerned to develop precise, quantitatively stated
generalization about the pattern of spatial organization, thereby enriching and being enriched by ‘Location
Theory’, and to offer models and procedures which could be used in physical planning.

Spatial vs Locational analysis

Spatial analysis
In Spatial analysis, the focus is on the spatial
arrangement of phenomena that are
the organizational center (node), network,
interaction /flow, distance, relative distance, etc.
Locational analysis
In Locational analysis, the following analysis
is done in particular locations: Population and
demographic, Migration, Industries and types of
Industries, Literacy, and school, college
infrastructure
 Critical Revolution in Geography
• Critical Revolution
o Backlashes – Behavioural and Humanistic
o Concepts & Objectives in Behavioural Revolution
o Kates Model
o Concept of Mental Maps
o The Humanistic Backlash
o Important Scholars of humanistic Geography
Critical Revolution can be seen as a critique on positivism introduced by the Quantitative
revolution. Critical Revolution can be seen as one of the major turning points in the history of
geography. Major turning points that came before were, in chronological order, environmental determinism,
regional geography, and the quantitative revolution.

Critical Revolution

• The demerits of the Quantitative Revolution led to the rise of the Critical Revolution.
• When Quantitative Revolution was declining, Critical Revolution gained more worth
• Critical Revolution was a backlash against Quantitative Revolution in the 1950s & 1960s as
the related scholars wanted a change in the methodology
• Critical Revolution is a realistic approach in Geography. It evolved from the criticism against
the Quantitative Revolution which was a part of the Critical revolution
• During the 1970s, a new wave emerged in Geography that is known as Critical Revolution.
• The term was used by Tuan in 1976
• This was also supported by Peet
• It is related to societal problems, that is why Critical Revolution is not only a methodological
revolution but also a revolution in the contents of Geography
• Critical Revolution has established human aspects as the principal concern of geography as
Quantitative Revolution reduced man to a mechanical being
• Critical Revolution deals with aspects of human geography, hence it is directed to establish
geography as a useful subject that cannot be ignored by planning and development
agencies
• Critical Revolution has brought about 6 major concepts in geography –
• Behavioural concept
• Humanistic concept
• Time-space concept
• Human ecology concept
• Welfare concept
• Radical concept

Overview of Behavioural and Humanistic Approaches and Differences between them.

Backlashes – Behavioural and Humanistic

• There were 2 backlashes :

• Behavioural
• Humanistic
• The backlash was mainly with regards to the concept of Rational Economic man which was
a mechanical model of a man reducing man to the machine but a man is not always
economic and rational in real life (e.g. Khasi tribe and milk taboo)
• Man is a predictable reactor to stimulus
• Behavioural Geography was not against quantification, positivist methods, or law-making
generalizations
• Behavioural Geography is often not considered as a backlash but is considered more as a
refinement of Quantitative Revolution in making laws & generalizations more relevant to
Geography
• Behavioural Geography was basically opposed to the idea of considering man as economic &
rational and reducing man to machine
• Humanistic, on the other hand, was critical of the positivist method and the objective of cause-
effect relationship study and generalizations through laws and models
• The concepts of Behavioural Geography have their roots in 2 studies –
• A study by WHITE, who studied how people respond to disasters like floods where the
decisions are not always rational in the objective sense. People evaluate disaster threats
according to their perceptions
• A study by HEBERT SIMON, who observed how farmers make choices in their agriculture
systems. He was the one to observe that human decisions are more the choices of man as
satisfiers than maximizers
• WOLBERT is said to have initiated the school of Behavioural geography based on the above two
studies.

Concepts & Objectives in Behavioural Revolution

• Its objectives were generalization, law-making and it was in favour of the positivist method,
so actually, it was an extension of the Quantitative Revolution
• One disagreement was about the model of man, that man is not a maximizer and man is a satisfier
• Man makes choices & decisions not on the basis of the real objective world but on the basis
of perceived subjective world
• e.g. Disaster perception and reaction
• According to Behavioural school, there are 2 worlds –
• Real World – Objective, Measurable
• Perceived World – Subjective, Measurable
• The Humanistic school also acknowledges the presence of perceived subjective world but the
subjective world was not measurable & hence was anti-positivist and completely against
Quantitative Revolution
• Humanistic School rejects the existence of any real objective world
• Behavioural Geography was very inspired by concepts from psychology – cognitions, attitude,
perceptions, etc which was a trend in those times
• Another point of departure between the Quantitative Revolution and Behavioural Geography was –
• Hartshorne believed in the Areal region, No laws, description, positivism, empirical, no
cause-effect relationship
• Quantitative Revolution focussed on Spatial, law making, cause-effect relationship,
normative assumptions, isotropic surface, rational man
• Behavioural Geography – disagreed on the concept of Rational Man
• Behavioural Geography was also critical of the spatial science tradition of Quantitative Revolution
and believed that study of spatial patterns & generalisations of the cause-effect relationship of
phenomenon should not be the focus of Geography because such laws are only another levels of
description which Quantitative Revolution had discredited in the areal paradigm of Hartshorne
• Behavioural Geography intended to develop Geography as the science of studying how man
perceives and operates on the environment & for making laws and models to predict human
decision making and not as geography as a spatial science
• Behavioural Geography has a difference of orientation. It should not focus on laws and models but
on the perception of man
 • Quantitative Revolution focuses on Objective outcomes while Behavioural Geography focuses on
Subjective outcomes
• Behavioural Geography (& Humanistic Geography) shifted the focus of Geography from aggregates
of the population reduced to mono-dimensional economic-rational man to studying individual and
smaller groups, to understand the decision making the process better
• Humanistic Geography was extreme in treating every individual as unique to the extent that it
rejected any type of generalisation
• It also rejected the objective of behavioural geography to study cause-effect relationship because it
argued that it is impossible to analyze and generalise man who is dynamic in his perceptions and
decisions

Kates Model
KATES gave a better description of the model of man and he detailed how man perceives and make
decisions. He says –

• Man is rational but rational with respect to his perceived environment (bounded rationality &
not absolute rationality) i.e. all men are not rational in all situations
• Man makes choices based on selective perception but eventually, the choices become habitual
after series of conscious choices. Choices eventually lead to Stereotyping
• Decisions & choices are made on the basis of pre-existing knowledge which are always partial
knowledge
• Information is evaluated according to certain predetermined criteria.

Concept of Mental Maps

• The idea of Mental Maps was given by GOULD and was later improvised by DOWNS
• In behavioural Geo, Mental maps are
• important tools of enquiry
• cognitive representations on the reality
• picturizations of the perceived worlds (Objective or Subjective)
• Mental Maps were a technique in understanding how people make choices & therefore in
predicting decision making
• Mental maps are the subjective representation of reality but they are objective tools
• Mental maps are examples of positivist methods in the behavioural school to understand how
the man makes choices
• This technique however was rejected by the humanistic school because it believed that a subjective
reality could neither be depicted objectively nor could the inferences from such maps give a true
picture of the choices made
• Humanistic Geography was against any form of positivism

The Humanistic Backlash

• Another form of Critical Revolution

• It was against all types of positivism and law-making generalizations
• It was against studying any type of cause-effect relationship
• It was not only against Quantitative Revolution but also against Behavioural Geography
• It revived the descriptive methods
• It was of the opinion that because there is nothing like real-world and because every moment and
every individual is unique, the best geography can do is acknowledge & appreciate what exists
and describe it without analyzing it.
• In a way, it might look like Humanist Geography is reviving Hartshornian with a focus on a
descriptive approach but the fact is that Hartshorne was in favour of positivist methods to
develop geography as an accurate, orderly, rational science of description.
• This school of Humanistic Geography suggested many vague concepts like the philosophy of
phenomenology, techniques of Verstehen (“about getting into the mind of a person to understand
an event”), and others because of which it never really became an alternative to Quantitative
Revolution
• It was always a criticism against Positivism.
Important Scholars of humanistic Geography

• The three important scholars of humanistic geography were –

• YIFU TUAN – He is the first to talk about the concept of the perceived world in Human
Geography.
• GUELKA – He introduced the philosophy of idealism into Human Geography.
• KIRK – He is the founder of the school of Phenomenology.
 Behavioural Approach in Geography (Behaviouralism)
• Behavioural Approach
o Behavioural Concept in Geography – Historical Perspective
o What is Behavioural geography?
o Models of Man-Environment interaction
o Advantages of Behavioural Concept
o Limitations /Disadvantages
o Criticisms
Behavioral geography is an approach to human geography that attempts to understand human activity
in space, place, and environment by studying it at the disaggregate level of analysis—at the level of
the individual person. Behavioral geographers analyze data on the behavior of individual people,
recognizing that individuals vary from each other.

Behavioural Approach
By the mid-1960s use of statistical techniques in research for precision has been largely accepted by
geographers. The duality of systematic versus regional geography was resolved as both were now
accepted as important components of the discipline through interdependent and equally useful.

It was increasingly realized by the geographers that the models propounded and tested with the help of
quantitative techniques, provided poor descriptions of geographic reality as well as the man-environment
relationship.

Consequently, progress towards the development of the geographical theory was glaringly slow and its
predictive powers were weak. Theories such as Central Place Theory, based on statistical and
mathematical techniques, were found inadequate to explain the spatial organization of
society.

The economic rationality of decision-making was also criticized as it does not explain the behaviour
of man. It was a psychological twist in human geography which emphasized the role of subjective and
decision-making processes that mediate the association between environment and spatial behaviour of
man.

It can be said that the dissatisfaction with the models and theories developed by the positivists,
using the statistical techniques which were based on the ‘economic rationality’ of man led to the
development of behavioural approach in geography.

The axiom of ‘economic person’ who always tries to maximize his profit was challenged by
Wolpert, in his paper entitled ‘The Decision Process in Spatial Context’, Wolpert (1964) compared the
actual and potential labour productivity of Swedish farmers and came to a conclusion that optimal farming
practices were not attainable. He concluded that the farmers were not optimizers but, satisfies.

Thus human behaviour was seen to be a product of decision-making and it was a human tendency
to have incomplete information, to make imperfect choices, and even then be satisfied with sub-
optimal options.

Behavioural Concept in Geography – Historical Perspective

• The very emergence of behavioural concept had taken place in 1951 when Kirk had used the
term “Behavioural Environment” to explain some complicated socio-economic problems, but
this work could not receive attention in the midst of the tornado of Quantitative Revolution
• Similar work was done by Boulding in 1956 who presented a book titled “Progress in
Geography” in which he expressed arguments in favour of behavioural explanation of some
complicated geographical problems but he also failed to get due recognition
• By the end of the 1960s, there was a realization that scientific models and theories are unable to
provide a realistic explanation of several socio-economic problems and in that situation,
behavioural explanations were sought and it was this approach that provided satisfactory
conclusions.
 • Gradually, Quantitative Revolution started declining and Behavioural Geographers started
criticizing some components of the Quantitative Revolution like considering man as economic
and rational, isotropic surface, etc.
• It is rightly observed that the emergence of behavioural geography was due to
disillusionment with the axioms on which the models of geography were based as these axioms
were far removed from reality (they were idealistic)
• Minshull, in his book “Making of Geography“, stated that “by giving some models and preparing
some theoretical statements you cannot explain geography”
• In other words, behavioural revolution in counter-revolution of Quantitative Revolution –“
where Quantitative Revolution failed to give a scientific explanation, behavioural concept solved the
problem”
• Behavioural Revolution refined some loopholes of Quantitative Revolution, therefore it is also
called as refinement/extension of Quantitative Revolution
• Behaviouralism is antithetical to Quantitative Revolution in 2 regards –
• In Quantitative Revolution, the man was considered economically rational and it
neglected normative questions of a man like value system, culture, moral, his
choices, sentiments whereas in Behavioural Revolution, perceptions of man are taken into
consideration
• Behaviouralism believed in per capita or per individual study whereas Quantitative
Revolution was based on gross generalization. In behaviouralism, model building and
theorization was not neglected. It wanted to construct a law by induction, and collection of
primary data by field surveys. Thus, it is not against positivism but it differs on the point
that it is against overgeneralization and considering man as a point on the surface

What is Behavioural geography?

• The essence of behavioural approach in geography lies in the fact that the way people behave is
mediated by their understanding of the environment in which they live or by the environment
itself with which they are confronted
• The behavioural approach has taken the view that a deeper understanding of man environment
interaction can be achieved by looking at the various psychological processes through which man
comes to know the environment in which he lives and by examining the way in which these
processes influence the nature of resultant behaviour (i.e. perceptions of man, Downs concept,
Mental Maps, etc) at the psychological level
• The behaviouralistic approach is largely inductive aiming to build general statements out of
observations of ongoing processes i.e. generalisation achieved through specific cases.

Models of Man-Environment interaction

• The followers of behavioural geography do not recognize the man as a rational person or an
‘economic man’ who always try to optimize profits
• Man always does not take into consideration the profit aspect while performing an economic
function
• Most of his decisions are based on behavioural environment rather than on the objective or real
environment
• The decisions are influenced by Perceptions of man

Conventional Models of Man-Environment interaction

• Boulding in 1956 presented a model for Man-Environment interaction

• The fundamental arguments of behavioural geography are
• People have environmental images (based on perception)
• Those images can be identified accurately by researchers, and
• There is a strong relationship between environmental images and actual behaviour
Down’s Model (1970)

• It is completely based on perceptions from the real world

• These perceptions are filtered as per the value systems to create an image
• Image then helps in taking a decision, which is reflected in behaviour.

Porteous(1977) suggested 3 environments –

• Physical Environment (Physical objects),

• Personal Environment (perceived images of phenomenal or real environment), and
• Contextual Environment (culture, religion, beliefs, and expectations that influence behaviour)

On the nature of changes in behavioural environment, American geographer Pred presented

a behavioural matrix in 1969 which is as follows –

• Application of perceived information creates different scenarios such as B11, B32 etc.

American geographer Sonnenfield has also presented a model to explain the importance of behavioural
environment in Human Geography

• He viewed that behavioural environment is in the centre of understanding of the universe and
once the universe is understood, the development plans can be prepared for the betterment of
society
• His model is as follows –
 • It consists of nested set of Environments according to which the perception of any observer will
be reflected in Behaviour
• By presenting this model, Sonnenfield has also viewed that developed societies have a greater
geographical environment in comparison to developing societies. Consequently, they are capable
to make greater use of resources
• Developing societies have not been able to develop a greater operational environment due to a lack
of information. Consequently, They depend on traditional operational behaviour

Advantages of Behavioural Concept

Revolution has brought phenomenal changes in the understanding of socio-economic problems in
Geography

Olosor (Sweden) has rightly observed that the behavioural approach has the key of social geography

Although every field of human geography is within the investigation realm of behavioural approach, but
there are two important fields which have received greater advantages from this method –

1. Study of movement in Geography (contributors – Wolpert, BJL Berry, Hagerstrand)

2. Study of Locational Decision (contributors – Smith, Gould, Hotteling, Hagerstrand, Felter)
1. The study of movement can be broadly divided into –

(a). Consumer Movement / Marketing Behaviour

(b). Migration, and
(c). Intra-moves (Knox)

• All these spatial activities can properly be explained with the help of behavioural approach
• Marketing pattern is no more simply depending on space proximity and Nearest market is not
necessarily the preferred market
• Marketing depends on behavioural perceptions. Hence, there has been a need to redirect
transport system
• Migration pattern has also the impact of behavioural pattern
• All over the developing countries, there is a rural-urban migration because the urban centres
provide more job opportunities while in developed countries they have urban-rural migration
because urban areas are environmentally degraded and is preferable to settle in nearby rural areas
for healthier environment
• Knox in his work “An introduction to the study of Urban Social Geography” developed the
concept of intra-moves
• Intra-moves means residential movements within urban areas.

2. All kinds of functional locations are influenced by Behavioural environment, so behavioural

explanation is needed

• Hotteling cites an example that in the USA, Miami beach has tremendous growth of ice-cream
industry
• According to Hoover, a minimum production cost centre is the most favourable centre for industrial
growth
• According to Weaver, a minimum transport cost centre is most favourable for industrial growth, But
in the case of Miami, none of these 2 views are applicable because here both the production and
transport cost is maximum as milk is brought from California (2000 Km away) and sugar from the
northern parts of USA
• It is the behavioural environment of tourists due to which the industry has emerged here. So, it is
only the behavioural approach which can explain the location of industries
• It is in opposition to Quantitative Revolution’s optimum location where cost should be minimum and
profit should be maximum
• Smith’s industrial location theory is known as maximum profit point theory
• Industry will emerge at a point where profit is maximum
• Purchasing capacity depends upon income and behaviour
• This is in contradiction to theories of Quantitative Revolution
• Gould worked in an agricultural location
• He viewed that farmers often change the crop on the basis of changes in demand and changes in
meteorological conditions
• Hagerstrand has given a model on the diffusion of innovation and their impact on agricultural
efficiency
• He has viewed that all farmers of a region would not adopt new seeds and techniques, only a few
progressive farmers would take the risk and once the high yield would be established, there would
be a sweeping use of seed on new environment
• These are some studies and some examples to substantiate the fact that behavioural revolution has
brought about a major change in the explanation of human geography in general and complicated
socio-economic problems in particular
• Quantitative Revolution cannot be applied everywhere and perceptions of man help us better to
understand human geography.

Limitations /Disadvantages

• Harvey has a famous book to his credit known as “Explanation in Geography” published in 1969,
according to which behaviouralism is a complex phenomenon and has been oversimplified in
geographical explanation. Behaviouralism plays a greater role in sociological and historical
events rather than events of geography
 • H.J.Eysenck (psychologist) has also viewed that this type of approach will bring psychology
of politics in social sciences as bringing subjectivity in Geography will make it more
complicated
• Herbert Simon has also been of different view. According to him, behavioural environment is a
hypothetical perception. It needs satisfying knowledge which is never possible
• Skinner (psychologist) in his book “Beyond dignity and freedom” viewed that behavioural
approach may become the basis of reactionary political doctrines in social sciences
• Several geographers have also been afraid of the distortion and deviation of behavioural
environment due to ill-conceived and biased information. So, Information is the principal issue
• Perceptions can be Hypothetical which can reduce objectivity in Geography
• The information can be irrelevant from Geographical perspective
• If the flow of information is proper, then the behavioural information may be an instrument of
geographical explanations
• But any situation leading to distortion of information will be suicidal for this new anthropocentric
approach in geography and will lead to deviation from Man-Environment Focus.

Criticisms

• One of the main weaknesses of behavioural geography is that it lacks in the synthesis of
empirical findings, poor communication, inadvertent duplication, and conflicting technology
• The terminology and concepts remain loosely defined and poorly integrated, primarily owing
to the lack of a systematically organized theoretical basis.
• Another shortcoming of behavioural geography lies in the fact that most of its data are generated
in laboratory experiments on animals and the findings are applied directly to human
behaviour.
• Behaviouralist theories are elegant but unhelpful when it comes to understanding the real world
man-environment interaction.
• Behavioural geography has too often put too much emphasis on ego-centred interpretations of
the environment.
• It is difficult to bring the concept into the mainstream of geography due to the lack of subjectivity
• Another significant deficiency has been the gap between theory and practice
• In fact, behavioural geographers remain observers than participants
• Behaviouralism has failed to produce any model or law related to man
• Some models that were built have limited credibility
• Due to this, after 1970s, post-behaviouralism entered geographic researches
• Post-behaviouralism is close to humanism in its methods, ideologies and approaches
• It finally merged into humanism and welfare geography

Despite several constraints and methodological limitations, behavioural geography is now widely accepted
within the positivist orientation. It seeks to account for spatial patterns by establishing generalizations
about people-environment interrelationship, which may then be used to stimulate change
through environmental planning activities that modify the stimuli which affect the spatial behaviour of us
and others.

The research methods of behavioural geography vary substantially but the general orientation –
inductive generalization leading to planning for environmental change remains. Eventually, it is
hoped, a ‘powerful new theory’ will emerge.

Golledge argued that substantial advances in understanding spatial behaviour have already been made by
studying ‘individual preferences, opinions, attitudes, cognitions, cognitive maps, perception, and so on –
what he terms processes variables.
Humanistic Approach in Geography (Humanism)
Humanistic Approach/Humanism

• Humanism is one of the new approaches in geography which emerged during the period
of Critical Revolution in Geography
• It is principally derived from behavioural approach which was also a critique of the Quantitative
Revolution
• In true sense, it is an anthropocentric approach, where the role of the human being is considered
as central in the solution of complex problems of Human beings and every human being is
considered unique
• This approach was developed by Tuan in 1976
• According to him, Human awareness, consciousness, and creativity helps in the
understanding of meaning, value, and significance of life events of human beings
• So, the life of humankind has a profile. It may be a profile for an individual family, community, or a
nation
• Life events require anthropocentric explanation where individual behaviour on a particular event
needs to be geographically explained
• Humanism contradicted Positivism on the following basis
• Man as economic and rational
• Geography as geometrical (only a spatial science neglecting humans)
• Isotropic surface
• Man as a mere point on the surface
• Humanism in geography started in late 1960s but after publication of Tuan’s work “Humanistic
Geography”, it took centre stage after fall of Quantitative Revolution
• The revival of humanism in 1970s owed much to a deep dissatisfaction with more
mechanistic models developed during Quantitative Revolution.

Theories of Humanism
Humanism is based on 4 major theories, in order to understand life events in a better way-

1. Human Agency – Man is an actor and he influences nature by his tools or technologies. This is
close to possibilism where man is an active agent of change.
2. Human Consciousness – Humans are governed by the human environment or intellectual
environment which has consciousness. Humans make use of perceptions and mental maps. It is
close to behaviouralism.
3. Human Awareness – Man has geographical knowledge and from the day of his existence, his
awareness related to the environment is increasing. He knows the limitations and possibilities and
that is how he acts. It is close to existentialism. Thus, man has geographical knowledge as well as
environmental consciousness.
4. Human Creativity – Humans have the special ability to create their own tools and the physical
environment behaves neutral. Due to his creativity, man can modify the environment for his benefit
but man’s creativity varies with circumstances e.g. man’s behaviour in a crowd and privacy are not
the same.

Themes

• According to Tuan, there are five basic themes of general interest to geographers, namely –
1. Nature of Geographical knowledge and its role in human survival
2. The role of territory in human behaviour and the creation of place identities
3. The interrelationship between crowding and privacy
4. The role of knowledge as a factor of influence on the livelihood
5. The influence of religion on human activities
• These 5 themes have established humanistic approach/humanism or humanist geography
• Tuan was himself in favour of its recognition as a new critical approach of human geography
Approaches in Humanistic Geography
Realizing its importance as a branch of geography, some geographers have developed approaches for
humanistic geography.Presently, there are 3 well recognized approaches in Humanistic geography –

Idealistic Approach
It was developed by Leonard Gulke in 1981.

• According to him, an idealistic approach is required for philosophical events in Geography to

understand the perceived world.
• Philosophical events like historical events of scarcity, events of large scale human transfer, large
scale massacres require idealistic explanations.
• Historical events can be explained by an idealistic approach
• Gulke developed the concept of humanistic geopolitics based on historical events
• He had viewed that present-day politics has a greater dependence on historical events rather
than present events.
• Through an idealistic approach, he also presented the concept of humanistic geopolitics
• Accordingly, the politics of territorial space depends on historical events than present events
• Although the basis of geopolitics may be a historical or humanistic approach but it is similar to
German politics
• Consequently, the approach and theme of Gulke failed to be widely acknowledged

Hermeneutic Approach
• It was developed by a German school. The German Hermeneutic Approach is known as the
theory of interpretation and classification of meaning.
Phenomenological Approach
• Tuan propounded this approach
• Kirk is also the propounder of this approach
• According to Tuan, it is an approach for understanding the world in totality
• Nowadays, there has been a growing consciousness for world community or make the people of
the world live in a world village
• This type of approach is supposed to be more efficient in the understanding of world
phenomenon
• Phenomenologists argue that there is no objective world independent of Man’s existence
• All kinds of knowledge proceed from the world of experience and cannot be independent of the
world which is in totality
• Every knowledge and every experience has a background of totality and proceeds for totality.

Criticisms
• The humanistic approach is not relevant currently and has no application in the
contemporary sense
• On methodological grounds, it separates human geography from physical geography, thus
reviving the dichotomy, which is not beneficial for the discipline as a whole
• Humanistic Geography, which is largely based on participant observation, lacks a sound and
valid methodological base as it involves more subjective than objective research and can be
biased
• There is an insignificant emphasis on applied research. This indifference might destroy the base
of the subject. The potential dangers are greater since other disciplines have been more effective at
academic imperialism than geography
• e.g. applied research in economic geography is in danger of being consumed within
economics
• It does not offer a viable alternative to scientific geography. Rather, the humanistic approach is
best understood as a form of criticism
• It cannot be a replacement or an alternative to geography.

Conclusion
• It revived the principles of regional geography and areal differentiation and enriched
geographical thought.
• It is therefore obvious that the humanistic approach is not a welfare approach but is an
approach to understand the world in a more scientific and comprehensive way
 Radical Approach in Geography (Radicalism)
Radical Approach – Historical Perspective

• Radicalism is one of the approaches developed during the period of Critical Revolution in
Geography
• This approach was first propounded by Harvey in 1973
• But principal contributors to this approach have been Peet (1977) and Holt Jenson (1981)
• Peet presented a separate book titled “Radical Geography” that is why many geographers call
him “Father of Radical Geography”
• He developed a comprehensive concept of radicalism in geography
• The emergence of radical geography principally took place in the USA
• It was developed by some progressive geographers of the Klark University of USA in
1969 through a Geographical journal “Antipode”. American capitalistic polar socio-economic
system was opposed through this journal. On the basis of its information, it was commonly known
as a Marxist journal in Geography.
• The book of Peet provided final acceptability to Radicalism in geography
• This book contained a map depicting the geographical distribution of poverty in the USA. According
to this, around 20% of people in the western states of Utah, Colorado, Washington, New
Mexico were living below the minimum standard of quality of life
• The American Govt started quality of life improvement programme only after the publication of the
book of Peet
• This approach in Geography received cross-sectional acceptability in American society and that
was due to the following facts
• Vietnam war and defeat of the US by a handful of Guerrillas showed that how a mighty
power can be defeated by small groups through concentrated efforts
• Discrimination and apartheid against the inhuman treatment of African blacks.
Radicalists sought for equality in the society
• Inferior status to the women kind
• American Society found themselves closer to radicalism and this branch of geography received
wide appreciation
• The work of Klark University geographers was also appreciated by Canadian and West
American schools of geography
• Geographers acknowledged this type of approach as a substitute to possibilistic and
theoretical geographies emerging due to the Quantitative Revolution
• It was taken as a counter product of Quantitative Revolution as Quantitative Revolution was
theoretical but the society required radical change
• It was able to provide an explanation to those geographical events whose quantification was
almost impossible such as apartheid, the status of women, etc.

Radicalism in Geography

• Radicalism is a school of thought, having a strong base in Humanism which employed

Marxian Theory to explain the basic cause of poverty, deprivation, and social inequality. The
contemporary social problems were related to the development of capitalism
• Radical Geographers recognized 4 basic components of this kind of approach –
• It is an alternative of a positivist spatial approach
• It provides a general theoretical framework based on the principles of stimulation for the
production system (Change to Marxian approach from Capitalism)
• It is to establish how individuals act within the structural imperatives (Humanistic
Approach)
• Empirical work that seeks to understand the particular aspects of subject matters of
human geography within the structuralist framework
• Most radical geographers accept geography as a legitimate field of study and feel that it has to
offer in finding solutions to world problems
• Radical geographers’ aim is the alteration of the operating societal process by changing the
relations of production components.

Criticism
 • The Marxist-Leninist approach was appreciated by progressive geographers in the developed
world but it was opposed by two kinds of geographers
• First, there were those American Geographers who believed in traditional
explanations of geographical facts (e.g. Hartshorne)
• Second, there were Soviet Geographers who called it as deviation and distortion of the
philosophy of Marx and Lenin
• Marx’s philosophy is based on the share of workers in the wealth of the nation, the share of workers
in the management of the work while American Radical Geography has not referred to these two
vital components of Marxist philosophy
• Other criticisms include –
• It had a revolutionary ideology and aims
• It posed a threat to the “status-quo”
• It could not build a theoretical base
• At best, Radicalists just acted as pressure groups in the US.

Conclusion

• The Radicalist movement was short-lived because of the above-mentioned criticisms

• Gradually, it merged with humanism and by the 1980s, it got completely lost.
• In a man-environment relationship, it simply considered class-differentia and capitalistic model
of production for over-exploitation of resources
• In spite of these criticisms, one has to appreciate the American approach as it provided a new
direction to the study of poverty, unemployment, backwardness, social injustice, and the
factors of socioeconomic underprivileged.
 Welfare Approach in Human Geography
• Welfare Approach
o Welfarism & Smith’s Welfare concept
o Basis of Welfare Geography
o Welfare vs. Radical Approach
o Criticisms
o Conclusion
Welfare geography is an approach to the geography where the emphasis is on spatial inequality and
territorial justice. Destined up with the rise of radical geography in the early 1970s, welfare geography
stresses the need to identify and explain the existence of crime, hunger, poverty, and other forms of
discrimination and disadvantage.

Welfare Approach

• The concept was introduced by a British Geographer, Smith of Dandee University, Scotland in
1971.
• Smith wrote a book – “An introduction to the Geography of Social Well-being“.
• He was one of the geographers criticizing QUANTITATIVE REVOLUTION.
• According to him, Models and theories should have benefits for the welfare of society,
otherwise, it is not that relevant.
• Welfare Geography is one of the alternative models of Critical Revolution.
• For investigation in Human Geography, Smith said that center of the geographical
investigation is the welfare of social beings. It is the need of time otherwise the subject cannot
survive.
• Smith’s work was further strengthened by Optimality Model prepared by Pareto (economist) in
1973.
• Both Smith and Pareto said that there should be a proportionate increase in income i.e. Inequality
should be reduced with the increase in GDP.
• Amartya Sen also promoted a welfare economy in the Indian Subcontinent.
• In 1977, Smith presented a new book – “Human Geography – A welfare approach“.

Welfarism & Smith’s Welfare concept

• S.K. Nath, an Indian origin British Geographer (1973) defined Welfare Geography in the following
terms – “Welfare Geography is that part of Geography where we study the possible effects of
various geographical policies on the welfare of society”
• Geographical policy basically means the impact of geographical attributes on the society e.g.
studying about earthquake, volcanoes, etc help in developing policies for Disaster Management.

Smith’s Welfare concept

 • Smith’s Welfare concept is a great contribution in the field of welfare geography
• He has directed four attributes of investigations to the study i.e. Who, What, Where, and How
• Who – Identification of downtrodden, retarded, underprivileged people in the society
• What – Identification of development preferences of welfare
• Where – Identification of Place
• How – Identification of method for the execution of welfare programme.
• In short, also known as – Who gets What, Where, and How.
• But these attributes faced a lot of interferences – legal, illegal, political, etc, due to which welfare
measures are not properly implemented.
• Most of the developing countries face this problem. Economic disparity is increasing in
developing countries.
• Smith has given 3-dimensional models for his concept: WHO! WHERE! WHAT!

Basis of Welfare Geography

• Welfare Geography is based on

• Non-discrimination
• Ecological parity and well-being
• Social justice
• Equal status to women
• Protection to children and old
• Secular society
• Physical quality of life
• Thus, welfare geography seeks equanimous positions for all human beings with the good
physical quality of life, distributive justice, protection of their natural life i.e. an egalitarian Society
• Welfare Geography is based on 4 principles –
• Humanism
• Radicalism
• Post-behaviouralism
• Existentialism
• The aim was welfare status and prosperity for all and to achieve this, mapping of regions was
done using Human Development Indicators
• Scandinavian countries were the first to adopt this approach and it was taken up by others as
well.

Welfare vs. Radical Approach

• Though the origin of both was same, their methodology and objectives were different

Welfare Approach Radical Approach

Soft tone approach Hard tone Approach

Moderate Philosophy Marxist Philosophy

Not very much critical Very critical and accused the government
 Gave solution Couldn’t give solution

• Also, unlike the radical approach, the welfare approach also gave some solutions under the existing
societal setup.

Criticisms
• This branch of geography has brought the discipline closer to the welfare and development of
society
• But this branch gives more emphasis on socio-economic parameter than on Geographical
orientation.
• It ignores the traditional geography parameter and therefore, some geographers have been
against this new approach
• To them, it is very much a part of applied geography and this type of study needs to be
promoted within applied geography
• Other Criticisms
• The demarcation of welfare regions is difficult
• Definition of welfare varies
• Reliable options available
• It is a qualitative approach, therefore cannot be measured
• However, many Canadian and American Geographers have appreciated that approach and have
almost established its importance not only in the field of geography but also in the fields of planning,
development, and welfare e.g. Hill Area Development Program, Tribal Area Development Program,
etc are based on Welfare Geography.

Conclusion
• The welfare approach enriched geographical thought and by emphasizing on equality and
social justice, gave a new face to it
• But a need for the synthesis of all approaches still persists so as to derive the best out of all of
them.
 Environmentalism – Human Geography
It is an offshoot of Welfare Geography where many of the problems were related to environmental issues
such as human impact, global ecological issues, etc. Welfare Geography focuses on issues relevant to
Society and for the welfare of human beings.

Eventually, environmentalism also became radical & came under the influence of Radical
Geography. Environmentalism refers to the movement on issues related to Environment –
about environmental protection, particularly the consequences & causes of the harmful impact of
man on the environment.

The debate of the man-environment relationship, its causes, and consequences has always been a theme
in Geography & it was natural that geography should move towards assessing & dealing with the
problems related to the environment.

Environmentalism
Environmentalism, the political and ethical movement that seeks to improve and protect the quality of
the natural environment through changes to environmentally harmful human activities; through
the adoption of forms of political, economic, and social organization that are thought to be necessary
for, or at least conducive to, the benign treatment of the environment by humans; and through a
reassessment of humanity’s relationship with nature.
It advocates for the discussion of environmental statutes and regulations, including international
conventions and also environmental Law.

Environmental thought and the various branches of the environmental movement are often classified
into two intellectual camps:

• those that are considered anthropocentric, or “human-centred,” in orientation,

• and those considered biocentric, or “life-centred.”

This division has been described in other terminology as “shallow” ecology versus “deep” ecology and
as “technocentrism” versus “ecocentrism.”

Anthropocentric approaches focus mainly on the negative effects that

environmental degradation has on human beings and their interests, including their interests in health,
recreation, and quality of life.

Thinkers & Works related to Environmentalism

• The American Association of Geographers (AAG) in the 1970s set up a commission as a part
of a Government initiative to study environmental issues & to promote environmental
education.
• It also sponsored a task force to deal with issues related to environmental quality.
• The works could be broadly classified under 2 heads –
1. The traditional geographical approach of description & analysis on the problems of
the environment and the study of man’s impact was extensively documented
2. The issues of environmental management where the emphasis was on dealing with the
causes & suggesting societal responses on how to deal with environmental hazards. This
was a trend popularized by O’RIORDAN
• O’ Riordan identified 2 types of approaches which were more like public debates in dealing with
environmental issues
• Thinkers like Paul Ehrlich (wrote a book – “Population Bomb”) who believed that the primary
reason for all environment problem had its roots in the Population increase.
1. e.g. Pollution in Urban Areas is attributed to large population growth, Ganga and Yamuna
rivers are polluted in Plains due to high population density, etc
• He promoted the concept of Zero Population Growth (Stabilisation of Population)
• Ehrlich’s Concepts have their roots in Malthusian ideas & he is considered a Neo-Malthusian
• Malthusian theory focusses on population stabilization and achievement of the optimum population
which is in sync with the resources available
 • Thinkers like COMMONERS who believed that the problems lies in technological
advancements, exploitative economic systems that have caused depletion of Natural Resources
& Pollution
1. e.g. Fossil Fuels cause pollution, deforestation, etc
• Both the above approaches have strong geographical relevance and were taken up during the
social relevance phase
• Environmentalism became a trend because of 2 monumental works –
1. RACHEL CARSON’s book “The Silent Springs” that detailed the effect of pesticides &
insecticides in Agriculture
2. The Limits to Growth published in 1972 by The Club of Rome headed by DANIS MIDDOWS,
as unsustainable growth will have a negative impact on the environment
• In the US, the History of Environmentalism is even older & some trace it to GIFFORD PINSHET &
GEORGE PERKINMARSH (as early as the 1860s)
• According to O’ Riordon, Environmentalism encompasses a wide range of ideas & practices.

Forms of Environmentalism
Broadly, there are 2 forms of Environmentalism–

1. ECOCENTERISM, where the solutions are focussed around ecological initiatives

• In many ways, it includes the concept of Sustainable development
• e.g. eco-tourism follows the eco-centric approach
• The concept of Man’s adaptation within the limits of the environment is the central
theme
• e.g. The School of Gaianism which believes that earth is a self-contained, self-
adjusted system like a living organism and can act as a self-regulating entity. It
always strives for balance and the consequences may not always be conducive for
human survival i.e. Earth – the Gaia, will survive but not necessarily the human
species if Gaia readjusts itself
2. TECHNOCENTRISM is an approach that seeks a solution in Technological & Scientific options
• It believes that all human problems can be addressed by innovations & scientific
interventions
• e.g. BS emission standards
• This is the Neo-Classical approach that believes in the maxim that “Necessity is the
mother of Invention”
• e.g. Svalbard Global Seed Vault aims to preserve genes to prevent them from
extinction.

Today, almost all environmental-based interventions, environmental planning & even those related to
disaster management have a mix of ecocentrism & Technocentrism approaches.

• e.g. Biodiversity Conservation can focus on Biosphere Reserves (ecocentrism approach) and
Population management through Radio collars, Artificial Breeding (Technocentrism Approach).
Environmental Movement
The world’s first green parties—the Values Party, a nationally based party in New Zealand, and
the United Tasmania Group, organized in the Australian state of Tasmania—were founded in the
early 1970s.
The first explicitly green member of a national legislature was elected in Switzerland in 1979;

By the late 1980s, environmentalism had become a global as well as a national political force. Some
environmental non-governmental organizations (e.g., Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth, and the World
Wildlife Fund) established a significant international presence, with offices throughout the world and
centralized international headquarters to coordinate lobbying campaigns and to serve as campaign centers
and information clearinghouses for their national affiliate organizations.

• Although a small number of bilateral and multilateral international environmental agreements were
in force before the 1960s, since the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment in Stockholm,
• The changing nature of the public debate on the environment was reflected also in the organization
of the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (the Earth Summit)
 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which was attended by some 180 countries and various business groups,
nongovernmental organizations, and the media.

Kyoto protocol, SDGs, and Paris Agreement are the result of this movement. In India Green Plant,
Green City, Eco-tourism, EIA, and like this other environmental friendly schemes came into effect after
Environmentalism.
 Cultural Region of the World UPSC

• Cultural Region of the World

• Defining cultural regions/realm
• Classification of Cultural Regions of World
• Broek & Webb’s classification
• Major cultural realms
• Occidental Realm
• Islamic Cultural Realm
• Indian Cultural Realm
• East Asian Culture
• Minor cultural realms
• South-East Asian Realm
• Meso-African Culture
• Criticisms
• Conclusion
• Cultural Region of India

Cultural Region of the World

• Culture is a dynamic concept and it changes imperceptibly.

• Culture is enriched by cross-fertilization. ( Culture is defined as a manifestation of socio-
religious economic condition, the standard of living, level of technology, and people’s
environmental perception.)
• Culture has been defined in a variety of ways but it is difficult to explain the notion of culture
through words.
• It is abstract, however, can be defined by elements like language, religion, ethnicity, traits, the
standard of living, and moreover by rituals, customs, traditions, and tools.
• India is a mosaic of cultures i.e. different cultures are found in every region such as North
India,
South India, Himalayan, etc.

Now, let’s have a look few terminologies related to cultural regions.

Defining cultural regions/realm

• A cultural realm is a geographical region where cultural traits maintain homogeneity.

• The cultural traits are supposed to be the product of regional geographical circumstances
• It is, thus, regional geography that has become the basis of the delineation of cultural realms in
the world
• Ratzel’s concept of the cultural landscape provided encouragement to geographers for cultural
regionalization
• Blache and Spencer are other Geographers who considered the study of cultural realms as an
important part of Human Geography
• Apart from Geographers, historians, anthropologists, and sociologists have also tried to regionalize
the world into cultural realms
• The variables of cultures include economic organization, social customs, traditional values, dietary
habits, dress patterns, language, etc.

Hearths – They are the source areas from where ideas, innovations, and ideologies radiated that
changed the world beyond. It is an ancient concept and doesn’t exist anymore.
E.g. – Hwang Ho, Mesopotamia, etc.

• 7 cultural hearths:
1. The Nile river valley
2. The Indus river valley
3. The Wei-Huang river valley
 4. The Ganga river valley
5. Mesopotamia
6. Mesoamerica
7. West Africa

Core – Cultural hearths expanded into cores. It is a medieval concept. India has 3 cores-

1. Rigveda – in Punjab
2. Later Vedic culture – in Bihar
3. Dravidian culture – in the south (in and around Thanjavur)

Region – It is a modern concept and does not include the geographical continuation. There should be
a boundary; geopolitical regions have been used to define cultural regions.

Realm – It is the largest possible area of cultural influence. It is a wider concept and includes
overlaps and transitional areas. It can be discontinuous. E.g. Islam realm.

Classification of Cultural Regions of World

Several attempts have been made by geographers, anthropologies, historians, etc. to divide the world into
cultural regions. The division into cultural regions is not easy, and with the advent of communications,
and the concept of the global village (cultural intermingling), the task has been further made more difficult.
However, there are some environmental factors that are bound to create cultural differences. besides,
there are also social factors, emotional factors like language, etc which also create divide lines.

Great political geographer – Moodie said – Land is a great divide line of the peoples of the world“. The
emergence of the European state is an example here.

Toynbee has divided the world into 3 cultural regions:

• Living realm
• Arrested Realm, and
• Abortive realm

Broek & Webb’s classification

• They tried to establish the dominance of a particular phenomenon over the evolution of the
cultural landscape
• They found that the impact of religious values is tremendous over the entire cultural system
• A cultural-religious investigation reveals that the culture of a particular region becomes ineffective
once the religious impact is withdrawn
• They have used 8 variables for cultural regionalization of the world
1. Race
2. Religion
3. Language
4. Economic Unionism
5. Folk
6. Habit or Diet
7. Dresses
8. Beliefs orthodox/scientific

The emergence of all these variables is based on environmental factors or geographical realities of
the regions, according to Broek, he cited examples like people living in polar areas will not go for
cotton cloth.

Broek further wrote that of all these 8 variables, society has the maximum bearing of religion. It is the
religion which compels to adopt certain kind of economies, dresses, food habits, and beliefs. It also brings
temptations to learn certain languages. It is the religion that provides some restrictions at the time of
cultural mingling.
All other variables are directly or indirectly controlled by religion. However, giving due emphasis to all these
factors, he had divided the world into major, meso, and micro cultural realms.

He divided the world into 4 major cultural realms and 2 meso realms.

The major cultural realms are:

1. Occidental Realm
2. Islamic Realm
3. Indian Realm
4. East Indian Realm

And the minor cultural realms are:

1. South-East Asian Realm

2. Meso-African or Negro African Realm.

These are further subdivided into micro realms.

Major cultural realms

Occidental Realm
Occidental culture is the culture of European society. It is influenced to a great extent by Christianity. It has
regional modifications on the basis of varying levels of industrialization, political and economic thought,
colonization, commercialization, urbanization, and development of transport systems, land development of
social, political, and economic institutions.

In many parts of the occidental culture, the impact of non-religious factors, particularly the effect of
modernization, is so great that the religious values are sidelined. Post-industrial Europe is fast emerging as
a society where traditional values are nearly abandoned. Occidental culture covers a vast area. It is further
divided into six sub-regions considering the impact of the regional environment.

• West Europe is the most industrialized and urbanized culture.

• Continental European culture is influenced by different political and economic thoughts, while
Christianity remains an important influence.
• Mediterranean Europe includes countries lying to the south of the Alps. It is the region of the
dominance of Christianity. To many geographers, the deep-rooted traditional social system is the
principal cause of limited economic development in countries like Spain, Portugal, and southern
Italy, compared to countries of northern and western Europe that adopted necessary changes in
their social systems.
• Anglo-American and
• Australian cultural realms are practically the offspring of west European culture. Both are
inhabited by migrants from west Europe. There are only some regional differences.
• Latin American culture is very similar to the Mediterranean culture. It is the only region of
occidental culture which lies in the tropics and is underdeveloped. It became a part of the occidental
culture as a result of the conversion of tribes into Christianity. The colonial languages, Spanish and
Portuguese, have become the state languages. Regional architecture has been influenced by the
Spanish and Portuguese styles. Practically all countries maintain economic, cultural, and social ties
with the Mediterranean countries.

Islamic Cultural Realm

• It is a region of desert and semi-desert culture

• The culture here is influenced by Islamic values.
• It covers a vast geographical area from Morocco in the west to Pakistan in the east.
• The population is sparsely distributed due to the inhospitable environment. The coasts, river
basins, and oases have been the cradles of Arabian culture in this realm. The British call it
the Middle-East while the Germans call it a region of oriental culture.
 • This cultural realm lies between the traditional Indian culture in the east and the modernized
European culture in the west.
• Islamic culture is highly orthodox and based on traditional beliefs, the impact of which can be
seen in high female illiteracy rates. These countries have very high per capita incomes, but
the level of modernization is very low.
• Israel is a different culture in context to religion.
• Central Asian Republics are regions of transitional culture type.
• For many years, they were a part of East European culture due to economic unionism. But with the
emergence of Glasnost and Perestroika, they are no more part of the same system
• They have come closer to Islamic culture
• Islamic culture has the traditional dominance of nomadism, food-collectors, wanderers, caravan
route, etc.
• Food and water shortage is the major problem on which the culture of this region emerged
• Even Islam gave messages to perform prayers for five times facing Mecca
• These two religious messages contributed to the development of permanent settlements and
cultural permanency
• Recently, the culture of this region is influenced by ‘Petro-dollars’ so there is a high level of
urbanization and modernization
• Immigrants have created pluralistic urban culture but the social system is yet to be significantly
altered and modernized
• That’s why they are yet to become developed countries in spite of high incomes.

Indian Cultural Realm

• This is the culture of the Indian sub-continent. It is also known as Monsoonal Culture.
• Baker called it a subcontinental culture, while D. Stamp used the term paddy culture.
• This cultural realm is well-defined; it lies between the Himalayas in the north, the Indian Ocean
in the south, and the Hindukush Mountains in the west.
• It is the only region where religion is not a binding factor in cultural development. It is a region of
racial tolerance and religious tolerance. Several streams of people came to this region and
remained here permanently, which enriched the culture
• This cultural realm is characterized by the joint family, village community, caste system,
semi-feudal land relations, subsistence agriculture, paddy farming, seasonal climate
changes, and the agricultural season coming at the same time all over the region.
• The culture of this region is greatly influenced by Vedic values. Though the region is inhabited
by various communities, the social system has the hidden impact of Vedic cultural values.
• It has the largest number of Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Jains, etc. and only Christians are
insignificant here.
• There is a religious-mixing in this region and All religious groups have adopted other religious
customs.

East Asian Culture

• This is a cultural region of Mongoloids. This culture is basically a Buddhist culture with
regional modifications.
• True Buddhist culture can be seen in South Korea and Japan.
• Even these two countries have felt the impact of industrialization, urbanization, and modernization.
The culture of mainland China has modified the Buddhist system.
• This culture was adopted after the Second World War.
• It has inherited horse-riding, pastoralism, and wandering
• But when they settled on the plains of China and islands of Japan, they maintained permanent
dwellings
• They practice Buddhism, but nowadays, the impact of religion is not so strong as
geographical location or socio-cultural philosophies
• East Asian culture is subdivided into Chinese culture and Japanese Culture (Continental culture and
Marine Culture)
• Continental or Chinese culture has the bearing of socialistic tradition
• Although, there are some reforms but some commune system continues to remain as the core of
continental culture
 • It is a village cooperative system (from Mongolia to Hainan island)
• It is also a region of Paddy culture
• Maritime culture is the culture of Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea
• Relatively, they have more bearing on Buddhism in comparison to the Chinese side
• But at the same time, they have adopted democratic values, social and economic happiness
and also have developed industrial and commercial culture
• Japan is often known as “Britain of East”
• It has a similar culture to the British, except the race and language. However, Religion is not
significant here.

Minor cultural realms

South-East Asian Realm

• It is another region of cultural tolerance.

• South-East Asian Culture It is a transitional culture lying at a place where different cultures have
intermingled.
• It is a region where people have come from all parts of the world but there was no way out to the
east, so they settled here, Consequently, there is no indigenous culture
• The dominance of Buddhism can be seen in Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam.
• Mongoloids, Negroids, Caucasoids, Indics, Islamics – all races came here
• The influence of Christianity can be seen in the Philippines and of Indie culture over the islands of
Indonesia.
• Islamic influence is evident in Malaysia and the Indonesian islands. No other region has such
peculiarities.
• Bali island is dominated by Hindus
• Singapore is a region of Pluralistic Society
• This region is the ‘Museum of Culture’ or the ‘Storehouse of Culture’

Meso-African Culture

• It is the culture of African tribes. This culture is also known as the Negro culture.
• It is not being able to develop due to multiple tribes having different cultures. About 220
isolated cultural pockets within Africa can be found.
• Most of them have animist culture, depending on nature and not god e.g. Natural habitat on
trees, etc.
• There is slow interaction with modern values. The inflow of modernization has begun in this
region
• It principally includes tropical Africa. Similar cultural systems can be seen among the American Red
Indians, Latin American tribes, Australian aboriginals, and several tribes of the Asia-Pacific region.
• Historian Toynbee has used the term ‘marginalized culture’ for these traditional culture
units. Some geographers even include Eskimos under this cultural realm. Thus, it is a widely
scattered cultural realm characterized by marginalized and relatively isolated communities.
Criticisms

• The classification gives more emphasis on religion

• There is a neglect of the influence of physiographic aspects

Conclusion
Although this classification is a good attempt, but globalization is weakening the boundaries and the
civilizations are moving continually towards a global multifaceted culture.

Cultural Region of India

1. West Himalayan Culture

• Ladhaki Buddhist Culture
• Kashmiri Culture
• Kinnori Culture
2. Eastern Himalayan Cultural
• Sikkim, Arunanchal(Buddhist)
• Great Naga Culture
• Other ethnic tribal cultural
3. The Aryan Culture
• The eastern Hindi culture
• Western Hindi Culture
4. The Dravidian Culture
• Tamil
• Telugu
• Kannad
• Malayalam
 Cultural Regions of India

Cultural Regions of India

Language, religion, customs, and traditions are some of the important elements of culture. Cultural
regions may be delineated on the basis of these cultural traits.

Language as a determinant of Cultural Region

• India is a multi-ethnic, multilingual, and multi–religious country. According to anthropologists

and historians, the Indian population comprises of the people who came here from the
Mediterranean region, Central Asia, Southwest & South East Asia, Mongolia, Tibet, and China.
Each of these racial and ethnic groups has its own language. After coming to India, the cultural
mixing led to the mixing of their languages also.
• These languages have their core and peripheral areas. This broad linguistic regional identity formed
the basis for the demarcation of Indian States in 1956.
• According to the Census of 1961, there were 187 languages spoken by different sections of the
Indian society. Of these, 94 were spoken by less than 10,000 people.
• According to Bhasa Research and Publication Centre, the country had 1100 languages in 1961,
but nearly 220 of them disappeared in the past 50 years. The lost languages were spoken mostly by
nomads. At present, there are 780 languages in India (Times of India – August 8, 2013). The fifteen
main languages (out of 22), as mentioned in the 8th Schedule of the Indian constitution, are
spoken by over 92 % of the total population of the country.

Indian Language and Linguistic groups

The Indian languages belong to the following four linguistic groups:-

1. The Indo – European family (Aryan)

2. The Dravidian family (Dravida)
3. Austric family (Nishada)
4. Sino – Tibetan family (Kirata)

The Indo – Aryan Language

• This is the most important group of Indian languages spoken by most of the people of northern
India. Its core area is known as the Khadi Boli region, comprising of Haryana and western Uttar
Pradesh.
• Going away from the core, it has different shades and dialects. Prof. A. Ahmad has given a
diagrammatic representation of the diffusion of Khadi Boli (Hindi) in different directions from the core
area.
• Offshoots include Dardi, Kohistani, Kashmiri, Lahnda, Sindhi, Kacchchi, Gujarati, Marathi, Odiya,
Bengali, Assamese, Bihari, Avadi, Bagheli, Chhattisgarhi, Hindi, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Nepali, and
Pahari.
• Hindi is the principal language of the Indo – European Family spoken by over 40% of the total
population of the country. It is mainly spoken in Bihar, Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan, UP, and Uttarakhand.
• Urdu is closely akin to Hindi and is popular in Bihar, Delhi, Hyderabad, J&K, M.P, UP,
Uttarakhand and is most of the places of urban India.

The Dravidian Family

• The Dravidian Family of the Indian languages is mainly spoken in Andhra Pradesh (Telugu),
Karnataka (Kannada), Kerala (Malayalam), and Tamil Nadu (Tamil).
• These four languages are spoken by more than 22 % of the total population of India.

The Austric Family

 • The Austric languages are spoken by the tribal groups of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya
Pradesh, Meghalaya, Odisha, and West Bengal.

The Sino – Tibetan Family

• The Sino – Tibetan language is spoken mainly in the Himalayan belt. It has three major
subdivisions:
1. Tibeto–Himalayan: – It comprises Chamba, Lahauli, Kannauri, and Lepcha languages in
Himachal Pradesh. The Balti, Bhutia, Ladakhi, and Tibetan languages are spoken in the
northern parts of the J&K state. The Bhutia and Kinnauri are the dominant languages in
Himachal Pradesh.
2. The North Assam and Arunachal Pradesh:– In north Assam and Arunachal Pradesh the
main languages are Abor, Aka, Assami, Dalta, Miri, and Mishmi.
3. The Assami–Myanmari (Burmese):– These languages are spoken by the Assamese,
Bodo, Kochin, Kukichin, Miri, Naga, and Xaxa tribes.

Linguistic State/ Union Territory Linguistic State/ Union Territory

Region Region

Assamese Assam and adjacent regions Karnataka and adjacent

Kannada
regions
West Bengal and parts of
Bengali
Tripura Kashmiri Kashmir division

Gujarati Gujarat and adjacent regions Malayalam Kerala and Lakshadweep

Bihar, Chhattisgarh. Delhi, Andhra Pradesh and

Telgu
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, adjacent regions
Jharkhand, Madhya
Hindi Pradesh,
Marathi Maharashtra and Goa
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
and Uttarakhand
Odiya Odisha and adjacent regions

Linguistic State/ Union Territory
Region
Punjab and adjacent parts of
Punjabi
Haryana
Tamil Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry
Facts related to Indian Languages:
• Hindi is the official language of the
country spoken by 40% of the total
population. The Hindi belt includes the
states of UP, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan,
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
and Delhi in which over 90% of the
population speaks Hindi.
• Urdu is basically a variant of Hindi written
in Arabic/ Persian script instead of the
Devnagri script of Hindi. It was born in
India but is virtually “homeless” without a
strong regional base. J&K has adopted
Urdu as the official language of the state.
It is the mother tongue of about 8% of the
total population of the country. It is mainly
spoken in UP, Bihar, Haryana, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Delhi, J&K, and
Uttarakhand.
• Bengali, the second-highest most spoken
language of India has its cultural core in
West Bengal, but its periphery extends in
Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, and
Tripura.
• Telugu stands next to Bengali with its
linguistic core in Andhra Pradesh and
extension in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. It
has been called as the Italian of the East.
• Marathi stands fourth in numerical
strength. Its linguistic core lies in
Maharashtra (93%) with speakers also in
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and
Goa. Konkani, spoken in the Konkan
coastal areas and Goa, is an offshoot of
Marathi.
• Tamil occupies the fifth rank. It best
represents the old Dravidian Script. It has
rich literature commencing with the
beginning of the Christian era. Its linguistic
core lies in Tamil Nadu (92%), but it
extends its influence in Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, and Pondicherry.
• Gujarati emerged from Gujarat and has
carved out its influence in Maharashtra
and Rajasthan.
• Kannada stands next to Gujarati. Its
linguistic core lies in Karnataka (91%) and
it has its extension in Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh.
• Among the Dravidian languages,
Malayalam has the smallest number of
speakers. Its linguistic core lies in Kerala
(92%) and extends in Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, and Maharashtra.
• Odiya has a distinctive character as it is
the old Apabhramsa and has enriched
itself with Sanskrit.
• Assamese has its distinctive
pronunciation and grammar but is often
included in the Bengal, Assam group.

Religion as a determinant of Cultural Region

• Religion has been defined differently by different scholars. Friedrich Schleiermacher defined
religion as the feeling of absolute dependence. According to William James, religion is the
enthusiastic temper of espousal.
• Otto defines the essence of religious awareness as awe, a unique blend of fear and
fascination before the divine.
• The main characteristics of religious life are:-
• Traditionalism,
• Myth and symbol,
• Concept of Salvation,
• Sacred places and objects,
• Sacred actions (rituals),
• Sacred writings,
• The sacred community (monastic order)
• Religion, like language, is a symbol of group identity and a cultural rallying point. All societies
have value systems, common beliefs, understandings, and expectations that unite their people.
• It plays a crucial role in the socio-economic life of the people and even their utilization of natural
resources is closely controlled by the religion of the people. Geographers are concerned with
the interaction between religion and landscape (resources). Thus, religion provides a good
basis for the demarcation of cultural regions.
 • India is a multi-religion country. It is the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.
Subsequently, the successive waves of people of other religious faiths came to India. They
maintained their religious identity.
• For example, the Syrian Christians appeared on the west coast of India in the first century AD.
They are still found in Kerala. The Muslims came to India from southwest Asia and Central Asia and
maintained their religious identity.

Concentration of Religious Groups in India

Hindus • According to Census 2001, about 80.5% of the total population of India are
Hindus by faith. They are predominantly distributed throughout the country, but in a
few areas, like the Kashmir Valley, Punjab, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Nagaland, and
parts of Kerala, they are in minority. [Census 2011, about 79.8%]
• Hinduism is one of the oldest religions of the world. It is a polytheistic
religion. The proportion of the Hindu population is the highest in Himachal Pradesh
(95%) and lowest in Mizoram (3.6%). It is higher than the national average in
Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Karnataka, MP,
Odisha, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and Tripura, while it is much lower in the states of
J&K, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Nagaland, and Punjab.

• Islam is a strictly monotheistic (one God) religion. The percentage of

Muslims the Muslim population is about 14.2 %. [Census 2011]
• The Muslims are well spread out in the country, but their high concentration found in
Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Maharashtra,
Kerala, Kashmir, and Southern districts of Uttarakhand.
• The proportion of the Muslim population, however, the highest in J&K (over
68%) and insignificant in Mizoram (1.1%). Their proportion is higher than the
national average in Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, J&K, Kerala, UP, and West Bengal.

• Christianity is the universal religion that has the largest number of followers
Christianity in the world. It came to India in the 1st century AD, when the Syrian Church was
established in Kerala.
• The largest number of the Christian population is in the state of Kerala – about
29% of the total population. Christians number more than one million in the states
of Andhra Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, and Tamil Nadu. Their proportion is
significantly large in the states of Mizoram, and Goa.

• The religion of Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak Sahib in the 15th
Sikhism century. The Sikhs constitute about 2% of the total population of the country
(census 2001).
• Sikhism attempted to create social harmony by removing the Hindu caste system
and permitting widow remarriage. But for a long time, it remained confined to Punjab
and has accepted Gurumukhi as its language.
• Nearly 79% of the total population of Sikhs is concentrated in the state of Punjab. In
addition to Punjab, Sikhs are found in Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi, Rajasthan, and
the Terai region of UP and Uttarakhand. At present, Sikhs have spread in all parts of
the country and have acquired an international presence in U.K., Canada, Australia,
USA, New Zealand, Kenya, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Singapore, and Hong Kong.

• Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha (563 – 483 BC) in North

Buddhism India. The Buddhists constitute less than 1% of the total population of the country.
• Nearly 80% of Buddhists live in Maharashtra. The traditional pockets of Buddhism
are Ladakh, areas of J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and
Tripura

• India is the homeland of Jainism which is a minority religion (0.4%) and has
Jainism no perceptible following in other countries. Its followers are found in
Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat, MP, UP, Uttarakhand, and Karnataka, particularly
in urban areas. The Jains have an important influence in business and politics.
 • The Parsis (population about 1.67 lakh) are the followers of Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism (2011 Census). It was a dominant religion in the days of the Old Persian
Empire. The essence of its ethics is well summed up in three words: – Good
thoughts, good words, and good deeds. Their religious book is Avesta.
• They have been influenced by the Hindu customs but they do not advocate celibacy
and permit remarriage. About 80% of the Parsi population is concentrated in Greater
Mumbai and the rest in Navsari, Surat, and Ahmedabad.

Customs
• Customs are a very important component of cultural geography. A custom is a frequent
repetition of the same act to the extent that it becomes characteristic of the group of people
performing the act.
• There is a positive correlation between the customs and utilization of the environment
(resources). In fact, the tradition-bound society has many oral folk traditions. In the delineation
of cultural regions, customs (folk dance, folklore, folk medicine, etc.) are also important
indicators.

Cultural Regions of India based on language, religion, and customs

On the basis of language, religion, customs, and traditions, India may be divided into the following 10
cultural regions:

1. The Ladakhi – Buddhist Cultural Region

2. The Kashmiri – Muslim Cultural Region
3. The Sikh – Gurumukhi Cultural Region
4. The Kinnauri – Dev – Bhumi Cultural Region (Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand)
5. The Hindu – Hindi Cultural Region
6. The Mixed Cultural Region of North East India
7. The Bengali Cultural Region
8. The Tribo – Hindu Cultural Region
9. The Marathi Hindu Cultural Region and
10. The Dravido Cultural Region (comprising of Telgu, Kannada, Tamil, and Malayalam)
Cultural Region
The Ladakhi – Buddhist It has the dominance of Buddhists and the Ladakhi language. There are Gompas and
Monasteries in this region. Leh and Dhramshala are the important sacred and
cultural centers of this region
The Kashmiri – Muslim It stretches over the valley of Kashmir and northern parts of Jammu (Doda district
Cultural Region etc.) and southern parts of Ladakh (Kargil) divisions. It is a predominantly Muslim-
dominated region in which Kashmiri is the main language. Hindus and Sikhs though
in minority, speak Kashmiri and follow the Kashmiri cultural traditions.
The Sikh – Gurumukhi It stretches over the state of Punjab and the Union Territories of Chandigarh, this
region has the majority of Sikhs who speak Punjabi language. The Hindus are in
minority.
This region is characterized by Gurudwaras in almost all the villages and towns. The
Golden Temple situated in the city of Amritsar is a sacred place and an important
pilgrimage centre for religious people.
The Kinnauri – Dev – Bhumi (Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand):
This region sprawls over the mountainous parts of Himachal and Uttarakhand. It is
called the Dev – Bhumi in which there are many religious shrines (Kedarnath,
Badrinath, Haridwar, etc.).
In the region of Himachal, Kinnauri is the dominant language, while in Uttarakhand
Hindi is the language of the masses.
 The Hindu – Hindi This region covers the states of Bihar, Haryana, MP, Rajasthan, southern parts of
Uttarakhand, and Uttar Pradesh. It is the Hindi heartland with dominance of the
Hindu religion.
In the western UP and in urban centres, Muslims constitute a significant minority.
Sikhs and Christians are also sprinkled, mainly in the urban areas like Delhi, Kanpur,
Lucknow, Varanasi, Meerut, Agra, and Allahabad.
The Mixed Cultural Region It stretches across the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya,
of North East India Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura; it is a region of mixed culture in which there are
areas of dominance of Hindus, Christians, Muslims and Tribal religion.
There is a great diversity in the languages, religions, customs, folk-dances, music,
and folk medicine.
The Bengali It spreads over West Bengal and the adjacent regions of Jharkhand and Bihar. This
region has the dominance of Bengali speaking people. The main religion of the
people is Hinduism, while Muslims constitute a significant minority in isolated
pockets.
The Tribo – Hindu This cultural region spreads over Chotanagpur Plateau. Most of the people belong
to the Hindu religion, while Christians are also significant in number. Most of the
people speak the Hindi language.
The Marathi Hindu It stretches over Maharashtra, parts of Gujarat, Goa, and the adjacent regions of
Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. This region has the dominance of the Marathi
language and Hindu population. Concentration of Muslims and Buddhists is in
isolated pockets.
The Dravidian This region sprawls over Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. The
people belong to the Palaeo – Mediterranean race and speak Dravidian language.
The major languages are Tamil, Malayalam, Telgu, and Kannada.

Languages Religions and Secularization

Language
Language is the expression of ideas through speech sound combined into words. Language, a system
of conventional spoken, manual (signed), or written symbols by means of which human beings, as
members of a social group and participants in its culture, express themselves.

The functions of language include communication, the expression of identity, play, imaginative
expression, and emotional release.

The following are the importance of language:

• Languages are the main source of cultural consideration.

• Culture practice, moral values, literature, etc pass on from generation to generation through
language.
• Language is one of the variables in the demarcation of regions, for example, most of the Indian
states are created based on language.

Dialect
It is a particular form of language that is limited to the geographical or social region.
Languages of the World
Roughly 6,500 languages are spoken in the world today. Determining what are the most spoken languages
in the world is a more difficult task than you might imagine.
Here are the few most spoken Languages of the World
• English (1,132 million speakers)
• Mandarin Chinese (1,117 million speakers)
• Hindi (615 million speakers)
• Spanish (534 million speakers)
• French (280 million speakers)
 • Arabic (274 million speakers)
• Bangla/Bengali (265 million speakers)
• Russian (258 million speakers)
• Portuguese (234 million speakers)
• Indonesian (199 million speakers)
• Urdu (170 million speakers)
• German (132 million speakers)

Religion
Communities of the same supernatural belief and moral values that bind people together is religion.
Our world’s cultural geography is very complex with language and religion as two cultural traits that
contribute to the richness, diversity, and complexity of the human experience. Nowadays, the word
“diversity” is gaining a great deal of attention, as nations around the world are becoming more culturally,
religiously, and linguistically complex, and interconnected. Specifically, in regards to religion, these
prestigious cultural institutions are no longer isolated in their place of origin but have diffused into other
realms and regions with their religious history and cultural dominance. In some parts of the world, this has
caused religious wars and persecution; in other regions, it has helped initiate cultural tolerance and respect
for others.

These trends are, in some ways, the product of a history of migratory push and pull factors along with a
demographic change that have brought together peoples of diverse religious and even linguistic
backgrounds. It is critical that people critically learn about diverse cultures by understanding important
cultural traits, such as the ways we communicate and maintain spiritual beliefs. Geographers need to be
aware that even though our discipline might not be able to answer numerous questions related to language
structure or address unique aspects of theological opinion, our field can provide insight by studying these
cultural traits in a spatial context. In essence, geography provides us with the necessary tools to
understand the spread of cultural traits and the role of geographic factors, both physical and cultural, in that
process. People will then see that geography has influenced the distribution and diffusion of differing
ideologies, as well as the diverse ways they practice their spiritual traditions.

As is the case with languages, geographers have a method of classifying religions so people can better
understand the geographic diffusion of belief systems. Although religions are by themselves complex
cultural institutions, the primary method for categorizing them is simple. In essence, there are two main
groups: universalizing religions, which actively invite non-members to join them, and ethnic religions,
which are associated with particular ethnic or national groups.

Everyone can recount moments in his or her life in which there was interaction with individuals eager to
share with others their spiritual beliefs and traditions. Also, that same person might have encountered
individuals who are very private, perhaps secretive, when it comes to personal religious traditions deemed
by this individual as exclusive to his or her family and the national group. A discussion of these life
experiences can generate fascinating examples that serve as testimony to our world’s cultural richness
when it comes to different religious traditions.

Origins of World Religions

• A significant portion of the world’s universalizing religions has a precise hearth or place of origin.
This designation is based on events in the life of a man, and the hearths where the largest
universalizing religions originated are all in Asia. Of course, not all religions are from Asia.
• The three universalizing religions diffused from specific hearths, or places of origin, to other
regions of the world.
• The hearths where each of these three largest universalizing religions originated are based on the
events in the lives of key individuals within each religion.
• Together, Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism have over 2.5 billion adherents combined.

Types of World Religions

• The major religions of the world (Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Confucianism, Christianity,
Taoism, and Judaism) differ in many respects, including how each religion is organized and the
belief system each upholds.
• Other differences include the –
 • nature of belief in a higher power,
• the history of how the world and the religion began, and
• the use of sacred texts and objects.

Why the study of religion is needed in geography?

• Religious festivals, food, and ceremonies are shaped by the physical environment.
• It helps the study the religion & environment relation
• Religion supports Sustainable development, environment conservation, and improve the welfare of
the population.

Diffusion of religion
The Major religion of the world was originated in a small area but spread to a large part of the world
by:

• Invasion, for example, Islam

• Conquering
• Missionary, for example, Buddhism, Christianity
• Politically imperialism
• Expansion of political boundaries
• Migration of population

Secularization
Secularization refers to the historical process in which religion loses social and cultural
significance. As a result of secularization, the role of religion in modern societies becomes
restricted.
In secularized societies faith lacks cultural authority, religious organizations have little social power, and
public life proceeds without reference to the supernatural. Secularization captures a long-term societal
change, but it has consequences for religion itself.

In Western countries, where it has been most pronounced, it has made the connection to their Christian
heritage more tenuous. Yet secularization is important beyond the formerly Christian West, given that many
of the forces that first sustained it there affect other societies as well.

Before 1648 the term secularism had been used to denote one side of Christian distinctions between
sacred and mundane. In the Catholic Church, secular priests were those serving society at large rather
than a religious order; secularization had referred to the dispensation of priests from their vows. After the
1648 Treaty of Westphalia ended the European wars of religion, secularization was used to describe the
transfer of territories held by the church to the control of political authorities.

By the end of the nineteenth century, however, it had come to refer to the shifting place of religion
in society many scholars associated with modernization. Used in this way the very notion of
secularization has provoked contention for more than a century. Once at the center of conflict between
traditional advocates of strong public religion and secularist intellectuals striving to reduce its role, it has
more recently become the subject of scholarly controversy. Although since the 1960s prominent
sociologists of religion have charted the course of secularization, partly guided by the work of MAX
WEBER (1864– 1920), others have questioned the validity of their interpretations.

Secularization is the process to make:

• People logical
• Improve a scientific study
• Remove the dominance of religious institutions and symbols from society.
• To separate religion from state.
• Cultural shifts in society and make the society free from superstition
• Communal harmony
 Human Development Index (HDI)
Human Development is the process of enlarging people’s choices. The ethos of planning in India has
always been people-centric. However, the introduction of the human development paradigm in the
planning mechanism ensured the focus of human development in the growth process.

As the country was opening up its economy in the 1990s, this central position was essential for policy
planners to continue focussing on people who may be excluded from market-oriented growth.
Additionally, it is extremely essential to incorporate human development into the planning process
so that people can be empowered to hold their governments to account and Governments can be
encouraged to be responsive to the needs of the people. (UNDP, 2010).

Thus, in 1990, the UNDP gave a call for a broad approach to improving human well-being that would
cover all aspects of human life, for all people, in both high-income and developing countries, both now
and in the future. It went far beyond narrowly defined economic development to care for the full flourishing
of all human choices essential for the quality of life.

For a large country such as India, the utility of the study of human development is enhanced once the
exercise is attempted at the state level. Apart from the diversity, an important reason for establishing a
“benchmark” and subsequent “follow-up” on different aspects of human welfare at the state level is due to
the dominant role played by the states in social sectors in the country.

Human Development Approach

For decades, countries’ levels of welfare were measured in terms of economic growth or an increase in per
capita gross domestic product (GDP). While this approach has the advantage of being straightforward and
easy to use, the failure of economic growth to improve the wellbeing of a significant proportion of people in
many countries has underscored the need for a more encompassing measure that also captures human
development.

The concept of human development emerged in the late 1980s based on the conceptual foundation
provided by Dr. Amartya Sen and Dr. Mahbub ul Haq. The HD approach puts people at the center of the
development agenda, where economic growth and wealth are considered means to development, not
an end by itself. Put simply, the starting point for the human development approach is the idea that the
purpose of development is to improve human lives by not only enhancing income but also expanding
the range of things that a person can be and can do, such as be healthy and well-nourished, be
knowledgeable, and to participate in community life. Seen from this viewpoint, development is about
removing the obstacles to what a person can do in life, obstacles such as lack of income, illiteracy, ill-
health, lack of access to resources, or lack of civil and political freedoms.

The first Human Development Report defines human development as a process of enlarging
people’s choices. To lead a long and healthy life, to be educated, and to enjoy a decent standard of
living are the three most critical choices identified in the first HDR. Additional choices include political
freedom, guaranteed human rights, and self-respect.

Human Development Index

HDI is part of the Human Development Report that is published by the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP). The Human Development Index (HDI) is a summary measure of average
achievement in key dimensions of human development:

• a long and healthy life,

• being knowledgeable
• and have a decent standard of living.
The HDI is the geometric mean of normalized indices for each of the three dimensions.

The health dimension is assessed by life expectancy at birth, component of the HDI is calculated using a
minimum value of 20 years and a maximum value of 85 years.

The education component of the HDI is measured by means of years of schooling for adults aged
25 years and more and expected years of schooling for children of school entering age.

Mean years of schooling are estimated by UNESCO Institute for Statistics based on educational
attainment data from censuses and surveys available in its database.

Expected years of schooling estimated are based on enrolment by age at all levels of education.
Expected years of schooling are capped at 18 years.

The indicators are normalized using a minimum value of zero and maximum aspirational values of
15 (Mean years of schooling) and 18 (Expected years of schooling) years respectively.

The two indices are combined into an education index using arithmetic mean.

The standards of living dimension is measured by gross national income per capita.

The scores for the three HDI dimension indices are then aggregated into a composite index
using geometric mean.

Classification of countries

• Very high human development (HDI 0.900 and above)

• High human development (HDI 0.800 – 0.899)
• Medium human development (HDI 0.500 – 0.799)
• Low human development (HDI below 0.500)

India lies in medium human development category.

Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI)

The IHDI indicates percentage loss in HDI due to inequality.

The Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI) takes into account not only the average
achievements of a country on health, education, and income, but also how those achievements are
distributed among its citizens by “discounting” each dimension’s average value according to its level of
inequality.
The IHDI is distribution-sensitive average level of human development.

Two countries with different distributions of achievements can have the same average HDI value.

Under perfect equality the IHDI is equal to the HDI, but falls below the HDI when inequality rises.

The difference between the IHDI and HDI is the human development cost of inequality, also termed
– the overall loss to human development due to inequality.

The IHDI allows a direct link to inequalities in dimensions, it can inform policies towards inequality
reduction.

It leads to a better understanding of inequalities across populations and their contribution to the overall
human development cost.

Gender Inequality Index (GII)

The GII is an inequality index.

It measures gender inequalities in three important aspects of human development—

• reproductive health, measured by maternal mortality ratio and adolescent birth rates;
• empowerment, measured by the proportion of parliamentary seats occupied by females and the
proportion of adult females and males aged 25 years and older with at least some secondary
education;
• and economic status expressed as labor market participation and measured by labor force
participation rate of female and male populations aged 15 years and older.
The GII sheds new light on the position of women in 162 countries;

it yields insights in gender gaps in major areas of human development.

The component indicators highlight areas in need of critical policy intervention and it stimulates proactive
thinking and public policy to overcome systematic disadvantages of women.

It measures the human development costs of gender inequality. Thus, the higher the GII value the more
disparities between females and males.

Gender Development Index (GDI)

GDI measures disparities in the HDI by gender.

The GDI measures gender gaps in human development achievements by accounting for disparities
between women and men in three basic dimensions of human development—health, knowledge, and living
standards using the same component indicators as in the HDI.

Health measured by female and male life expectancy at birth.

Education measured by female and male expected years of schooling for children and female and male
mean years of schooling for adults ages 25 and older.

Command over economic resources measured by female and male estimated earned income.

The GDI is the ratio of the HDIs calculated separately for females and males using the same
methodology as in the HDI.

The goalposts are also the same except for life expectancy at birth where the minimum and maximum
goalposts are varied (minimum of 22.5 years and a maximum of 87.5 years for female; and the
corresponding values for males are 17.5 years and 82.5 years.) The rationale is to take into account a
biological advantage averaging five years of life that females have over males.
 Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)
The Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) published for the first time in the 2010 report,
complements monetary measures of poverty by considering overlapping deprivations suffered by
people at the same time.

MPI captures the multiple deprivations that people in developing countries face in their health,
education, and standard of living.

The Index identifies deprivations across the same three dimensions as the HDI and shows the number of
people who are multi-dimensionally poor (suffering deprivations in 33% of weighted indicators) and the
number of deprivations with which poor household typically contend with.

It can be deconstructed by region, ethnicity and other groupings as well as by dimensions, making it an apt
tool for policymakers.

The MPI can help the effective allocation of resources by making possible the targeting of those
with the greatest intensity of poverty.

It can help addressing MDGs strategically and monitoring of impacts of policy intervention.

The MPI can be adapted to the national level using indicators and weights that make sense for the region
or the country, it can be adopted for national poverty eradication programs, and it can be used to study
changes over time.
The Global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) was developed in 2010 by the Oxford Poverty & Human
development initiative (OPHI) and the United Nations Development programme, and uses different factors
to determine poverty beyond income-based lists.

It replaced the previous Human Poverty Index. The global MPI is released annually by OPHI and the
results published on its website.

Human Development Report 2020

India ranked 131 among 189 countries on the Human Development Index (HDI) for 2019, slipping two
places from the previous year, according to the Human Development Report (HDR) 2020 released by
the United Nations Development Program (UNDP).

The 2020 Report has introduced the planetary pressures-adjusted Human Development Index, which
adjusts the standard Human Development Index (HDI) by a country’s per capita carbon dioxide
emissions and material footprint.

If the Index were adjusted to assess the planetary pressures caused by each nation’s development, India
would move up eight places in the ranking, according to the report.

Important points related to the index

• Norway ranked first in this index, followed by Ireland, Switzerland, Hong Kong, and Iceland
respectively.
• Talking about the neighboring countries of India, Bhutan was ranked 129, which is better than India,
followed by Bangladesh ranked 133, Nepal ranked 142 and Pakistan ranked 154.
• Singapore was ranked 11, Saudi Arabia 40, and Malaysia was at 62 in the global index,
representing the top bracket among the Asian countries with “very high human development”.
• Sri Lanka (72), Thailand (79), China (85) and Indonesia and Philippines (both 107), and Vietnam
(117), among others, were “high human development” countries.
• China’s net emissions stood at 8 gigatons, 34% less than China’s terrestrial emissions.
• The difference between net emissions and terrestrial emissions in the sub-Saharan region has been
15%.
• The report also said that no country could achieve high levels of development without over-filling on
natural resources.

Other Indices

• Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index:

• The IHDI indicates a percentage loss in HDI due to inequality.
• For India, the IHDI value for 2019 is 0.537 (16.8% overall loss).
• Gender Development Index:
• GDI measures disparities in the HDI by gender.
• For India, the GDI value for 2019 is 0.820 (World: 0.943).
• Gender Inequality Index:
• GII presents a composite measure of gender inequality using three dimensions:
• Reproductive health,
• Empowerment and
• The labour market.
• In GII, India is at 123rd rank. Last year, it was ranked 122nd out of 162 countries.
• Multidimensional Poverty Index:
• MPI captures the multiple deprivations that people in developing countries face in their
health, education, and standard of living.
• The most recent survey data publicly available for India’s MPI estimation refer to 2015-2016.
In India, 27.9% of the population (3,77,492 thousand people) are multidimensionally
poor, while an additional 19.3% are classified as vulnerable to multidimensional
poverty (2,60,596 thousand people).
Human Development Report 2019

India was ranked 129 out of 189 countries on the 2019 Human Development Index (HDI) improving from
the 130th position in 2018.

The focus of the 2019 Report is on ‘Inequality in Human Development’.

• Top Performers in 2019

• Norway, Switzerland, Ireland occupied the top three positions in that order.
• Germany is placed fourth along with Hong Kong, and Australia secured the fifth rank on the
global ranking.
• India’s Neighbours
• Sri Lanka (71) and China (85) were higher up the rank scale.
• Bhutan (134), Bangladesh (135), Myanmar (145), Nepal (147), Pakistan (152), and
Afghanistan (170) were ranked lower on the list.
• Region-Wise Performance
• South Asia was the fastest-growing region in human development progress witnessing a
46% growth over 1990-2018, followed by East Asia and the Pacific at 43%.
• India’s Performance
• India’s HDI value increased by 50% (from 0.431 to 0.647), which places it above the average
for other South Asian countries (0.642).
• In India, between 1990 and 2018, life expectancy at birth increased by 11.6 years, mean
years of schooling increased by 3.5 years, and expected years of schooling increased by 4.7
years. Per capita incomes rose by over 250%.