1

TRAINING CENTRE
SEALS Introduction Seals are used to prevent leakage of a fluid between two mating parts, both are stationary or one may be moving relative to other. A seal is basically a device for SEALING A GAP or making a joint fluid tight. Seals are broadly classified into two categories.
i)

ii)

STATIC SEALS : Sealing takes place between surfaceswhich do not move relative to one another. This uses a JOINT to seal between two permanently or relatively static components. DYNAMIC SEALS : Sealing takes place between surfaceswhich have relative movement. Eg: Rotary movement of a shaft relative to a housing.This uses a SEAL to arrest the leak through the surface in contact between rotary and static components.

STATIC SEAL A gasket is a packing designed to go between two rigid parts of a container in an essentially stationary relationship. Gasketing (collectively) is material in sheet, strip or bulk form from which gaskets may be prepared. Even though gaskets seem simple, their importance is often overlooked. Leaky pipe flanges, leaking stuffing boxes, leaking joints of all kinds have cost millions of rupee yearly. New sealing materials and methods of using them arebeing found and knowing how and when to use them will helpstop the tremendous leakage rate. To stop leakage, flat gaskets in a flanged joint must be squeezed between the joint faces tight enough so that itexerts more pressure against the faces than the fluid pressure against the faces than the fluid pressure tending toleak past it. Since most joint surfaces are not machinedperfectly smooth, the gasket material must flow into thehills and valleys of the joint face and make a tight seal with no leakage passageways. In some cases a joint is sealed with molten lead. In the case of a copper ring or a screw plug, flow is caused by the combination of compression and dragging action called attrition. The surface finish of the joint faces is also important in the sealing process. The spiral tool marks left on the flange face by a facing cut will leave a continuous path for leakage unless the gasket material fills the path fully. Shaper and plunger tool finishes on a joint face are difficult to seal because they leave parallel grooves for pressure leakage paths on two sides of the flange. Hence a gasket is any media or device used to create and maintain a barrier against the transfer of fluid across mating surfaces of a mechanical assembly, when the surfaces do not move relative to each other Joint and gasket design must be considered together. A joint is only as good as its gasket, and the gasket may succeed or fail according to whether the joint makes the best use of the properties of the gasket material. Therefore, joint components must be thought of as a unit orsystem for effecting a seal. Otherwise, the end result more often than not, is a leaky joint.

There are three principal forces in a joint that affect the functioning of a gasket. (Fig. 1) Figure 1
BOLT LOAD

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE Gasket HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE (INTERNAL)

Compressive Load Compressive Load is the forced that initially compresses the gasket; it is usually applied by bolting. It must be sufficient to squeeze gasket into all voids in the faces of the flange - that is, the gasket must "flow" into all ridges and grooves and into all the surface imperfections of the joint's faces so that they will mate to achieve a tight seal that will have no paths for leaks. This compressive load must also off set the hydrostatic end forces encountered so that there will be enough residual stress on gasket to prevent leakage. Hydrostatic End-force When internal pressure is applied to assembly, the hydrostatic end-force tends to force the flanges apart, and thus reduce the load on the gasket. The difference between the initially applied force and the hydrostatic end-force is the residual load on the gasket. + Internal Pressure Pressure of the joint tends to bypass or blow out the gasket material. The strength of the gasket material and the residual load on the gasket must be sufficient to contain this pressure. The mechanics of the system of different forces acting on a gaskets joint can be explained by the use of a simple equation. Fb = Nb b Ab ..... (1)

Where Fb = Total bolt load, lb Nb = Number of bolts b = Bolt stress, psi

Ab = Stress area (mean of pitch and root area) per bolt, in.2 In almost all cases in the design of a gasketed joint, the total bolt load required Fb can be calculated. From this, the load per bolt or the product bAb can be calculated by dividing the total blot load by the number of bolts. If the maximum allowable stress b for the particular bolting material is known, the stress area Ab can be calculated and the size of the required blot determined. When a joint or joint design is already available, the calculations can be made in the reverse manner. The stress area of the bolts is multiplied by the maximum allowable stress for the bolting material and by the number of bolts to give the bolt load . Two methods of estimating the bolt load actually applied to a bolted joint are by the use of a torque wrench and a table or formula and by the use of an empirical equation. Bolt stresses as a function of torque are available in standard handbooks. A general relationship is given below : NbT Fb = ---------0.2 Db ..... (2)

Where T = Torque, in lb Db = Nominal bolt diameter, inches An empirical equation, which can be used when a torque wrench is not available, is based on the normal pull a mechanic would put on a standard open-end wrench for the required bolt size. Fb = 16000 DbNb ..... (3)

It should be understood that neither of these equations gives a very accurate determination of the bolt load, but often nothing more is available. Torques, especially, are misleading because the stress developed is so dependent on bolt load is by the measurement of bolt elongation using an extensometer or strain gauges. The bolt load is applied to the gasket during installation and therefore it is equal to the gasket load at that time. The gasket stress is this value divided by the gasket area which is in contact with the sealing faces. When a gasketed joint is placed in service so that an internal pressure is present, a new force, the hydrostatic end force, comes into and the area over which it is effective. The effective area at the leakage pressure is essentially the area based on the middiameter of the gasket. Fh = Pi AM ...... (4) Where Fh = Hydrostatic end load, lb. Pi = Internal pressure, psi Am = ----- D2m = Effective hydrostatic 4 pressure area, in.2

Dm = Mio-diameter of gasket in. The effect of this hydrostatic end force is highly dependent upon the particular assembly. This is one of the reasons a gasketed joint design should include an ample factor of safety. The effect of this hydrostatic end force is highly dependent upon the particular assembly. This is one of the reasons a gasketed joint design should include an ample factor of safety. In a rigid assembly, where a constant load is maintained on the joint, the hydrostatic end force balances some of the initial load. When the two become equal, even the best gasketed joint will leak. In a rigid assembly, where a constant load is maintained on the gasket rather than on the joint (constant strain), the hydrostatic end load directly adds to calculate exactly where, because of other factors such as flange rotation, gasket stress relaxation and bolt creep. The ASME code for unfired vessels presents the most commonly used design methods for gasketed joints.The ratio of residual load on the gasket area to the internal pressure is referred to as the `in' factor which is a safety factor. For example, a minimum `in' factor of three is advised for spiral-wound gaskets.Most gaskets are used in bolted joints and experience has shown that the pressure is the greatest close to bolts, and the least pressure is midway between. The force required to make a gasket flow into the surface imperfections is known as the gasket seating force or `Y' factor and is expressed in psi. The `Y' factor for various gasket materials is found in the gasket manufacturers handbook. The initial bolt load required to seat a gasket is given by the following formula : Wm = HY = 3.4 b Gy ...... (5)

Where Wm = required initial bolt load at atmospheric temperature conditions without internal pressure, Lb. Hy = total joint - contact - surface seating load, Lb. G = outside diameter of gasket contact less 2 b, inches. Y = gasket seating load, psi (gasket manufacturers handbook) As you can see from the formula, many factors are included in the design of the joint and in the selection of gasket material used in the joint. The torque or turning effort required to produce a certain stress in bolting is dependent upon a number of conditions, some of which are: Diameter of the bolt, type conditions of the nut bearing surfaces, lubrication of the bolt threads and the nuts bearing surfaces. It was found that nonlubricated bolts have an efficiency of about 50% of a well lubricated bolt. In all cases, it is necessary to select the type of gasket required based on temperature, pressure, fluid, flange finish, etc. GASKET MATERIALS Gasket material should meet four basic requirements.

. 1. Impermeability - resists flow of fluid through the material. 2. Ability to flow into joint imperfections when compressed. 3. Maintain a seal in spite of age, variation in temperature and pressure. 4. Resistance to attack by the fluids and gases that it must seal. 5. Resistance to recover due to pressure changes of relaxation in bolt loading due to temperature changes. Gaskets are made of relatively soft material compared toflange mating surfaces, and effort a seal by deforming and filling surface irregularities. For low pressures, gaskets made of soft materials such as cork, rubber and asbestos are used. For high pressures and under severe conditions metallic or combination gaskets are used.Although there are many materials suitable for gaskets; the more common can be classified into two wide categories: 1. Non-metallic gaskets 2. Metallic gaskets NON-METALLIC GASKETS The non-metallic gaskets can be classified into following categories; asbestos products, cork and rubber, cork composition, rubber and plastics, paper leather and composite.Since a gasket compensates for irregularities in joined, rigid members of an assembly, all the materials deform, or compact, under compression loads (Fig.2). The extent a gasket must be compressed to effect a seal depends on the finish of the contact surfaces and character of the material. In general the more compressible materials are used for low-pressure applications. Properties and uses of different materials are shown in Table-2. Asbestos Products Asbestos fibers retain most of their strength upto about 750 o F. Above that temperature they lose water of crystallization, a process which becomes instantaneous of about 1300 o F. Then they can be powderized by slight rubbing. 500 o F is a conservative operating limit. Asbestos gaskets, and compositions with asbestos fibers,have good resistance to crushing loads and to cutting action of narrow and sharp-edged flanges. They also have good dimensional stabilityPure asbestos products are very low in strength and high in porosity. For this reason, asbestos is almost always used with other products. It may be processedstrengthened with binders and saturants for greatest imperviousness, and it proves a good mixer when added as a filler to rubber and plastic compounds. Cork-and-Rubber Cork-and-Rubber is best used at temperature below 160oF. In some cases, it may perform satisfactorily in the range of 250oF. Cork CompositionSustained high temperature above 160oF produces permanent set in cork. Because of contained moisture and inherent acidity, cork compositions may encourage corrosion in aluminium and magnesium alloys and to some extent in stainless steel. Rubber

Natural rubber is used for hot and cold water and is sometimes used for low-pressure steam and gas. Rubber compounds other than silicones are best used at ambient temperatures not over 160oF.Synthetic rubbers stand up under higher temperatures and have excellent heat stability and good low temperature flexibility. Solid gaskets of TFP (Teflon) are manually used for low pressure 150-300 psi in raised-face flanges and for higher pressures, used in tongue-and-groove flanges of pressures as high as 30,000 psi. METALLIC GASKETS Metallic gaskets fall into several basic groups : a. Corrugated or embossed, thin metal b. Metal-jacketed, soft filler c. Spiral-wound d. plain or machined flat metal e. Round cross-section, solid metal f. Heavy cross-section, solid metal g. Light cross-section, pressure actuated. a. Corrugated This type consists of thin metal, corrugated or with embossed concentric rings. They are used plan; coated at the time of installation with gasket compound, or with asbestos cord cemented in the corrugation. The gaskets require the least costly tooling for non-standard sizes or irregular shapes. By proper material selection, they can be used at any time. i. Plain metal gasket with corrugations or embossed interruptions. Corrugations are concentric with I.D. For smooth faced, complex or non-circular low pressure (500 psi) applications such as valve bonnets, air craft gas turbine fuel and combustion lines. Available in metal thicknesses 0.010 to 0.031 in., with corrugation pitches 0.045 to 0.250 in. Overall gasket thickness is 40-50% of corrugation pitch. ii. Same as plain corrugated, only a coating of sealing compound is applied. Compound extends pressure limit to 1,000 psi. Flange surface finishes can be rougher. iii. Corrugated metal gasket with asbestos cord cemented in corrugations. Generally for low pressure (600 psi) on relatively large uneven surfaces such as machined flanges, steam chests, low-pressure high-temperatureexhaust-gas ducts. Available with 5/32, 3/16, and 1/4 in. corrugation pitch only. Thickness is 65-75% of pitch. b. Metal-jacketed, soft-filler gaskets i. One-piece French type : Used for narrow circular applications requiring positive, unbroken, metal gasket face across full width. Requires flange surface finish of 80 /u in rms or better in sizes less than 1/4 in. wide. Over 1/4 in. wide requires concentric serrated flange face. Minimum gasket width is gasket thicknesstimes 1.5.PA ii. Used for relatively narrow applications similar to French Type, but width-dia meter limitations do not apply. Generally less costly than French Type. Non-circular as well as circular shapes can be furnished. If over 1/4 in. wide, use double-jacketed type.

Requires flange surface finish 80 /u in. rms or better. iii. Used when completely enclosed gasket is required in widths less than those available in plain double jacket. Generally not available smaller than 1-in. I.D. Also available with filler made from metal wire which imparts more resilience than non-metallic filler. iv. Used for wide or irregular shapes not requiring protection of filler material or additional flange support at outer edge. Tooling less costly than for one-piece type. Interchangeable with one-piece type. v. Used when complete protection of the filler material is required. Also provides additional support of flange at outer edge by addition of lapped over jacket.Available in irregular non-circular shapes, but tooling more costly than other types. For widths less than 5/32 in. use French or single-jacket type. Requires flanges surface finish 80 /u in. rms or better. vi. Jacket is corrugated to increase its resilience. Used for circular and moderately noncircular shapes in widths 1/2 in. and wider. Sealability better than other types because of corrugations. Sealability can be further improved by use of gasket compound. With corrugated metal filler instead of asbestos, temperature limited only by metal selected.

c. Spiral-wound Gaskets 1. General-purpose spiral-wound gasket : consists of preformed, V-shaped strip of metal which is wound into a spiral. Metal layers are separated by a filler, usually asbestos. Has good resilience and sealability. This type is used where no centering or compression limiting device is required. Also used in metal-to-metal joints. .ii. Spiral-wound gasket provided with a solid metal centering and compression limiting ring around the outer edge. Used where gasket must be located remote from the bolts or other centering means and when it is important to limit compression because of possible over-bolting control of stack-height etc. For closures with circular or moderately non-circular bores and noncircular outer perimeter, the solid metal ring can be made to the required configuration and bolt holes drilled through it if necessary.

iii. Spiral-wound gasket with inner and outer compression limiting rings of solid metal for the most extreme operating conditions. Rings fill space between flange faces which might otherwise allow excessive turbulence or erosion of facings. iv. Spiral-wound gasket with lightweight metal devices to center the gasket without restricting compression. Used in non-critical or lightly bolted assemblies where there is no possibility of over-bolting or over-compression. Many different centering device configurations are available. These gaskets have the best resistance of all metal and asbestos-type gaskets. They have good tolerance for flange surface finish irregularities, and are furnished in a wide variety of metals in circular and limited non-circular shapes. Sealing action results from the flow of the metal and soft filler plies when the gasket is compressed to recommended an amount. Inner and outer metal-to-metal plies must be under compression. Spiral-wound gaskets are used for any circular or moderately non-circular applications where an approximate compressed thickness of either 3/32" or 1/8" can be tolerated. They are particularly suited for assemblies, subject to extremes in joint relaxation, temperature or pressure cycling, shook or vibration. Excellent performance in joints restricting compression is provided, since their resiliency will compensate for modest separation. Compression to a pre-determined thickness make a spiral-wound gasket give its best performance. Its compressibility can be controlled to some extent for a specific bolt loading by varying the density. Two gasket thickness, 1/8" and 3/16" are standard and suitable for most applications. For 1/8" thickness gaskets, compression to a thickness of 0.100" .005" is recommended. For the 3/16" thick gaskets, a compression to 0.130 0.005" is preferable. For non-corrosive services at least 80% of applications could use type 304 range of -320 to +1000 oF.The spiral wound design is popular because it makes a good all round gasket that can adjust for temperature changes, shock and vibration, and can be used at fairly high temperatures and pressures. Besides the multiple sealing action of the metal edges, the filler compresses under the bolt load to make another barrier against leakage. It can thus fill minute imperfections in the flange faces, while the spring action of the metal helps to create and maintain a tight seal. TEMPERATURE LIMITS OF METALLIC GASKET METALS Materials Lead Copper Stainless steel, 304 Stainless steel , 316 Stainless steel ,502 Stainless steel ,410 Nickel Monel Stainless steel , 321 Stainless steel , 347 Inconel Maximum Temperature (0F) 212 600 800 1000 1000 1150 1200 1400 1500 1600 1600 2000

Selection Criteria of Gaskets

Choice of a gasket material for any application depends on operating conditions, mechanical features of the flanged assembly and gasket characteristics. In general, operating conditions govern choice of gasket materials, whereas dimensional and mechanical features of the flange control selection of the type of gasket.As a rough guide to determine whether metallic or non-metallic gasket should be used, multiply the operating pressure in psi by the operating temperature in oF. If the result exceeds 250,000 only metallic gaskets should be used. Also non-metallic gaskets generally should not be considered above 850oF or below -65oF, or for pressures in excess of 1200 psi, without consulting a non-metallic gasket supplier. .TYPICAL LIMITATIONS OF GASKETING MATERIALS Gasket Material Rubber Vegetable fiber Cloth-inserted rubber All tee Compressed Asbestos Spiral-wound stainless steel with TEE Asbestos Mg. Li ceramic Max. Temp. x 15,000 40,000 125,000 150,000 250,000 250,000 250,000 250,000 Max. Temp. o F 225 225 225 500 750 1500 850 to 1200 1200 to 1900

Regular gaskets are made to compress a given amount in a standard ASA flange, and it is important that this conforms with the pressure rating of the flange. A 150 lb. gasket in a 900 lb flange would be crushed by the bolt load or blown out by the line pressure; conversely, a 900 lb gasket on a 150 lb flange would lack adequate bolt load, and a satisfactory seal would be highly unlikely. The rating of the gasket is marked on the centering, compression gauge ring. With ring-joint flanges, large variations in temperature during the process cycle often create difficult leakage problems. The solid ring-type gasket lacks sufficient resiliency to compensate for the changes in contact stress brought about by dimensional changes in flanges and bolts. The spiral-wound gasket with a centering, compression-gauge ring covering that area of the flange between I.D. of the groove and the inside of regular oval or octagonal solid metal ring.The spiral-wound gasket reduces costs and eliminates or considerably reduces, any turbulence in the pipeline. This special gasket was developed for existing ring-joint flanges. In new construction, a raised-face flange is advised, with a spiral wound gasket. The success or failure of any gasket depends in large measure on the condition of the flange itself. Seating surfaces should be flat-free from waviness or warpage. A Surface finish in the range of 125 RMS is recommended for hazardous service. For general service, satisfactory performance can be achieved with almost any commercial flange service, upto the range of 250 RMS.Concentric,and even spiral, grooves are acceptable if proper seating loads are provided. A surface made by a planer, however, should never be used because the lines machined into the surface by the planer provide straight-line leakage paths. Gasket Materials Application Material Temperature Range Service Remarks
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From Teflon -320 o F

To +500 o F All fluids,especially For food processing And for corrosive Services Likely to be attached by molten alkali metals &fiourine at high temps. and pressure On poor flange surfaces at low pressure applications where other Not recommended for solvents such as gasoline and benzene

ARMALON (Flou-carbon Imprenated with Teflon) VITON SILICONE

-100 o F

+400 o F

Services chemicals Like sulphuric acid , Hydroflouric acid And anhydrous amonia Oils fuels and Solvents at temp. over 400 o F Specialy for low tempErature applications In very high pressure Areas at temp .upto 1000 o F . For temp. upto 700 o F & pressures upto 400 psi . mildchemical Solutions &steam For hydrocar-bons for Acid service

High temperatures Upto 300-500 o F

Metal Fiber Composites Compressed Asbestos white Grs binder Asbestos with buneN or pro-prene binder Rubber Vegetable fiber Upto 300 o F Upto 250 o F

Hydrocarbons, solvents & mild chemicals Hydraulic services and oil at low pressure

FLANGE DESIGN AND SURFACE FINISH There are five basic types of gasketed joints. Some can use a wide variety of gasket materials, others are limited to only a few. This is discussed further in Table III The surface finish of the flange also narrows down the choice and greatly influences the performances of the gasket. Whether all the voids or imperfections in the flange faces have to be filler completely depends on the pressure and surface tension of the fluid being contained.

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Since gases have no surface tension, they do require that all voids be filled. Paste or fillers will contribute to the filling and the successful performance of gaskets where gas-tight joints are needed. Spiral or phonographic finishes create a sealing problem because of the continuous leakage path from the fluid side of the joint. Plane surfaces with parallel tool-marks also produce hard-to-seal joints because of the straight-line leakage paths. Concentric ridges or grooves are satisfactory; in fact, they are often desirable when smooth, flat metal gaskets are to be used. These are important points to consider when refacing a flange.

EVALUATING THE BOLTING ARRANGEMENT Uniform distribution of pressure over the entire gasket area is necessary for satisfactory sealing. While two or three bolts could perhaps be drawn up sufficiently to provide adequate loading to support the pressure, such an arrangement could result in leakage because the gasket would not be sealing over its entire area. By using a larger number of smaller bolts, properly spaced, this difficulty can usually be avoided. If there is any doubt as to the proper spacing of the bolts, you can make a simple test to determine whether there is an equal distribution of bolt loading. Using a new gasket as a template, cut a test gasket from white paper and one from carbon paper. Install all three in position, making sure that the carbonized side of the carbon paper is against the white paper. After all bolts are drawn up tightly disassemble the joint. From the carbon impression of the white paper, you can determine the effectiveness of the bolting arrangements. White areas appearing between bolts indicate that the bolting arrangement is not ideal. In such cases, gaskets must be selected that are thick enough to compensate for this unequal condition. A very accurate way of determining the evenness of bolt-loading distribution is by the solder plug test, whereby you punch a series of small holes at close intervals along the bolt circle of the gasket, and fill each with solder. After all the holes are plugged, draw up on the flange bolts until the gasket is compressed. Then after separating the flanges and carefully identifying each plug with its relative position on the flange, measure the height of each individual solder plug. If differences in height appear, then unequal bolt-loading distribution is apparent. Here again, it will be necessary to use a gasket material that will be thick and soft enough to compensate for the unequal bolt-loading and still be able to meet the other service requirements. THE CORRECT BOLTING PROCEDURES It is very important that the bolts be tightened in the proper sequence. If one bolt should be tightened full, the flange will be cocked out of parallel. Taking up on other bolts will not correct this condition. The proper way to tighten a flange is first to draw all the nuts hand-

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tight next tighten two bolts diametrically opposite each other. Then tighten another pair of bolts that is as near to 90 degrees from the first pair as possible. Continue this pattern until all the bolts have been drawn up. The bolts should be retightened after the joint has been brought up to operating conditions. Initial bolt torques should afford a reasonable factor of safety with reference to the yield point of the bolting material. Yet, the bolt loading must be great enough to ensure a right joint. .The Five basic types of gasketed joints

Type of joint

Unconfined

Character istics Commonly used for moderate pressures and services. Gasket is free to flow under bolt loading is too light or if pressure are excessive, the gasket could blow out. This tongue-and-groove design prevents the gasket from flowing anywhere except into the slight clearance between the mating flanges , thereby preventing blow-outs.

Suitable types of gaskets Rubber, cloth-re-inforced rubber compressed asbestos, vegetable fiber , telfon spiralwound.

O-rings . rubber ,compressed asbestos , teflon , small confined joints are often used with metalic gaskets under high bolt load

Confined

Under bolt loading , gasket O-rings , and the types listed can move in only one for unconfined joints. direction inward . (design can be reversed for vacuum applications)
Partialy confined

Under bolt high-pressure applications , it is built to accept ring type metal gaskets.
Self-confined

Solid metal gaskets , such as ring joint , delta and lenz types

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These joints are kept right by internal fluid pressure . Used mainly on boiler hand holes and manholes.

Woven or floded asbestos ,rubber .

Self-energised

FLANGE WIDTH There are no known methods of calculating the optimum flangewidth for gaskets, and the widths are usually picked on a basis of common-sense judgement based upon the following factors : .1. Most gaskets have a minimum flange width based upon their strength and fabrication limitation. These can range from a minimum of about 1/32" for a rubber or solid metal Oring to 3/8" for a corrugated jacketed metal gasket. 2. The maximum flange width will usually be limited by the bolt load available or by the practicability of manufacture. 3. The optimum flange width is that which will give an effective seal with a minimum bolt load. It can be arrived at by proper consideration of the sealing stress, hydrostatic endface and compression characteristics of the gasket. GASKET THICKNESS Gasket thickness is another factor which is difficult to specify. Generally, the thinnest gasket consistent with the requirements should be used. These requirements are determined by the limits of manufacture, flange surface finish, flange flatness, flange parallelism, and compressibility required. Rubber and compressed-asbestos gaskets are often used in 1/32" thickness when the flanges have a good finish and are parallel; they are seldom used above 1/8" thickness. Some gaskets like the spiral-wound asbestos-steel types are not generally available in thickness less than 1/8". COMPRESSIBILITY Knowledge of gasket compressibility is most important in two particular types of use. First, if the mating surfaces have a major deficiency in surface finish, flatness, or parallelism, a certain amount of compressibility is necessary in order to obtain contact between the gasket and flanges over their entire area. Second, many joints require a definite spacing (e.g. metal-tometal connections and parts with critically aligned components) and the gasket must therefore have enough compressibility to allow the joint to be made up metal-to-metal with the available bolt load. It must not be so compressible that the sealing stress is not obtained on the gasket before the load shifts to the metal-to-metal joint.

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.BOLT SPACING Bolt spacing is very important in gasketed joints, but little attention is paid to it and there are no good rules. Generally, the total load required is calculated and either the number of bolts is selected from an appearance or manufacturing viewpoint or the size of bolt is determined by appearance or flange width.

MONEY SAVING HINTS Remove corrosion and burrs from seal surfaces. Make flanges as parallel as possible. If warped, reface flanges so gasket compresses evenly. Select the right gasket for job condition, using ring-type where possible. Use a quality gasket the additional cost is small compared with savings in downtime and labour expense. Use the thinnest gasket possible, but try a thicker, softer one where rough faces cannot be machined smooth. Put in a metal spacer with a gasket on either side if flanges are too far apart. This is safer than a very thick gasket, particularly for high pressures. Do not make a gasket by hammering the material against the flange. That lumps the material, and may keep the flanges from sealing. Use a good gasket cutter. Cut bolt holes slightly larger than the bolts, so that the gasket won't bulge around them and prevent proper seating. Size gasket correctly, if not done, the exposed flange face may corrode and need machining next time the joint is opened. Make the gasket I..D just slightly more than I.D. of the pipe. This keeps the hydrostatic end force to a minimum; flow won't be obstructed by gasket squeezing into line. Graphite one or both sides of the gasket if the joint must be broken at times. Mix graphite with water (never with oil, because it attacks any rubber in the gasket) or use a gasket paste. Smear on antiseize compound on bolts, and run nuts down before making up joint. Replace faulty bolts and nuts. Tighten nuts in right sequence to load gasket evenly. Tighten again at operating conditions. On flanges with coarse tool marks or scratches that formpaths for leakage, interrupt paths by machininga circularV-groovesinboth flanges. The initial bolt torque can be applied by either of two methods : 1. Pulling up the well-lubricated bolt studs, using the proper torque.

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2. Pulling up the bolt studs to produce the elongation necessary for the desired bolt stress.

MAINTENANCE OF THE GASKET JOINT When a flanged joint is assembled, each of the component parts is subjected to tensile or compressive stresses of varying magnitude. Under service conditions, especially where high temperatures are involved, these stresses change, thereby lowering the bolt stress. To compensate for this reduction, it is recommended that the bolts be retightened after the joint has been brought up to operating conditions. Further more, if the operating temperatures are in the 200-500 oF range, the bolting in all flanged joints should be pulled up after the first shut down. On higher temperature service, where creep may be expected, bolting should be pulled up at least once during the first 200 hours of service, regardless of whether the line has been shut down or not. Bolt stress should be checked periodically during the life on the installation. CHANGING OF GASKETS Before installing full-face gaskets, all bolts of course have to be taken out. However, for ring gaskets, only enough bolts need be remove to enable the old gasket to be replaced. The balance should only be loosened sufficiently to permit cleaning of the flange faces. Care should be taken when breaking open the flange joint. Flange spreaders afford a safe way of doing this. If the joint is going to be wedged open, two wedges opposite each other should be used, to prevent distortion of the flange faces. Be sure to open the drain in the line to relieve line pressure before breaking the joint. Perhaps the most important factor in ensuring proper operating success from the new gasket is to make certain the old gasket is completely removed and that the flange faces are clean. Often it is necessary to scrape the flange faces, in which case great care must be exercised to prevent damage to them. A new gasket can be obtained ready to install from the gasket manufacturer or it can be cut from sheet. The letter requires laying out the gasket with dividers or tracing the gasket's form from the flange. This can be done by graphiting one of the flanges and then taking an impression on either a piece of paper or the gasket material itself. Gaskets can be cut with either tin snips or with gasket cutters designed for the purpose. It should be pointed out that it may be more economical to purchase gaskets than tocut them from sheet. GASKETS IN HIGH TEMPERATURE-HIGH pH WATER SERVICE It has been found that spiral wound Blue African Asbestos gaskets in high temperature - high pH water eventually leak because the Blue African Asbestos is soluble in high temperature high pH water (heat transport water pH 10-11). These gaskets should not be used, instead white asbestos should be used in this service.

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GASKET INSTALLATION The bolts of a flanged joint must be tightened in the proper sequence. If you tighten one bolt fully down, the flange will cock out of parallel. Taking up on another bolt will not bring them even. Result, poor pressure distribution leading to leaks and early failure. The proper way is to tighten up all bolts hand tight first. Next tighten two as near as 90 apart from the first two and so on as indicated in Figure A. Tighten bolts again after the joint comes upto the operating conditions. Do not overstress the bolts by using an extra leverage on the wrench handle or by using too big a wrench for the bolt size. Overstressed bolts take a permanent set and will not keep the squeeze on the gasket. For example, do not use a 12" wrench to tighten a 1/4 " bolt and expect not to overstress the bolt or strip the threads; conversely, do not use a 6" wrench on a 1/2" bolt and expect to get the necessary torque required to seal the joint. If a torque wrench is available, use it; find out the proper torque to apply to the particular gasket you are using in the joint. It is most important to use the correct type and style of gasket or seal when making a replacement or repair. Obtain from the maintenance card, the specification for the particular piece of equipment that must be repaired. The following is the basic procedures to be followed in replacing a gasket : STEP Open the drain to relieve pressure on the line before breaking any pressure vessel joint. Tag the appropriate switches or valves with the proper safety card to be certain that on one accidentally opens the line while you are working. Step - 2 Remove all of the bolts if the flange is sealed with a full gasket (shown in the right hand cross section). Step - 3 If the gasket is a ring type (shown in the right hand cross section) remove only enough bolts to slip the old gasket out and the new gasket in. Step - 4 (a) A flange spreader aids in opening flange joints. Two spreaders may be required for some jobs.

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Step - 4 (b) Steel wedges driven in at opposite edges will take the place of flange spreaders. Do not raise burrs on the edges of the flange. Step - 5 Scrape out all the old gasket material. Clean the flange faces thoroughly and file off any burrs that may be on the face of the flange. Step - 6 Find the bolt circle diameter by measuring from the bottom of one hole to the bottom of the hole 180 o apart or measure from the top of one hole to the top of the hole 180 o apart. Step - 7 The radius of the bolt circle is 1/2 the diameter of the boltcircle. Using a compass or a pair of dividers scribe the bolt circle diameter on a sheet of new gasket material. Scribe the outside diameter and inside diameter of the gasket. Step - 8 Lay out the bolt holes. On a 6 hole flange the chord is equal to the radius of the bolt circle. Scribe the diameter of the bolt holes a little larger than their actual size. (or) Replacing steps 6, 7, & 8, a gasket outline can be traced rather than drawn. Wipe the flange face with graphite and press the new gasket material on the flange to make an impression of the face and holes. Step - 9 Cut the gasket to shape using a gasket cutter or tin snips, scissors or a knife. Do not hammer the gasket to shape; this causes burrs and lumps on the flange which will cause leakage. Leave one corner on the gasket so that you can hold it in position when placing it on the flange. Step - 10 Cut out the bolt holes in the gasket using a punch slightly larger than the bolt size. Place the wood to protect the cutting edge of the punch. Step - 11 Slip one bolt through the flanges and the gasket, position the gasket and replace all the bolts. Remove the flange spreader or the wedges. Step - 12 Tighten the bolts in sequence as previously outlined. Tighten them finger tight, then tighten them with a wrench to the required torque.

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When the line is upto operating conditions retighten the bolts again in the sequence shown. Cut off the projecting corner of the gasket. SELECTION OF GASKET MATERIALS FOR DIFFERENT SERVICES Fluid STEAM Application (HIGH Temperature PRESSURE) upto 1000 o F Gasket Material Spiral-wound comp. Asbestos Steelcorrugated or plain Monel corrugated or plain SS-12 to 14% Cr-corrugated special ring type joint Woven asbestos Metal asbestos copper corrugated or plain Red rubber wire inserted Black rubber -red rubber wire inserted Brown rubber cloth inserted Comp. asbestos Red rubber wire inserted Black rubber ; soft rubber asbestos Brown rubber cloth inserted Comp. Asbestos Special ring tybe joint Cork - fiber Neoprene comp .asbestos Comp . Asbestos Red rubber Spiral - wound comp . asbestos Asbestos - Metalic Comp . Asbestos Woven Asbestos Red rubber Comp . Blue Asbestos Woven Blue Asbestos Sheet lead or alloy steel Asbestos - Metalic Comp . Asbestos Red rubber Thin Asbestos Sheet lead

Temperature upto 600 o F STEAM (LOW PRESSURE ) WATER Temperature upto 220 o F Hot , medium & high pressures Hot , low pressures Hot Cold Temp. upto 750 o F Temp. upto 1000 o F Temp . upto 312 o F Temp . upto 300 o F Temp . upto 750 o F Temp . upto 220 o F Temp . upto 1000 oF Temp . upto 1000 o F Temp . upto 750 o F Temp . upto 600 o F Temp . upto 220 o F Hot or cold Mineral Acids Various (debends on corrsion characterstics) Temp . upto 1000 o F Temp . upto 750 o F Weak solutions Hot Cold APPENDIX - GASKETS DETAILS REGARDING CAF GASKETS

OILS (HOT) OILS (COLD) AIR GAS

ACIDS

AMMONIA

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"CAF" is the registered trade mark for Compressed Asbestos Fiber jointing made by M/s Turner Brothers Asbestos Co. Ltd., Rochdale, U.K., who have over a larger number of years, established and maintained throughout the world an excellent reputation as manufacturers of high-grade compressed asbestos fiber jointing. M/s Hindustan Ferode Ltd., Bombay, who are in association with the above firm manufacturing CAF jointings in the trade names of `FIREFLY' & `PERMANITE' jointings at their Ghatkoper factory. M/s Asbestos Jointings Manufacturing Co. Pvt. Ltd., are manufacturing CAF gaskets in the trade name of "CHAMPION"jointings. The above gaskets are widely used in all industrial applications. Choice of CAF grade & Principles of Gasket Application The choice of the correct grade of CAF for any given condition of service is of paramount importance; this requires consideration not only of the nature of the confined fluid and its possible effect on the gasket material but also the operating pressure, temperature and mechanical features of the assembly. To avoid the necessity of producing perfection of finish on the contact faces of a mechanical assembly, this being not only costly but quite often impracticable; a CAF gasket enables a tight seal to be created and maintained between separable members for which perfect joint contact faces do not exist or would have to be specially prepared. With CAF the seal is effected by the yielding or the flow,of the material into the imperfections of the joint contact faces. In this way, the gasket provides an unbroken barrier of homogeneous structure through which no path ways exist for escape of the confined media. To achieve the yielding of the gasket a force of sufficient magnitude must be applied by the bolts of the assembly to the mating faces so as to act uniformly over gasket contact area. The case with which zero clearance between the gasket and flange contact faces may be obtained is dependent upon the area of the closure faces, the number and diameter of the bolts through which the force can be applied and the physical characteristics of the gasket material itself. Not only has the gasket to yield (the amount will depend on the force applied and the hardness of the gasket material), it also has to possess the resilience to recover and maintain its sealing effect throughout any changes in pressure of the confined media which bring about fluctuations in the end force tending to separate the flanges. In addition to those fluctuations which arise from pressure changes, similar influences on the gasket come into play as a result of relaxation in bolt, loading stresses brought about by temperature changes within the system. Another important feature of a jointing is the need for it to have a high surface coefficient of friction so that a gasket may be firmly gripped between the flange faces. The enclosed sheet will give the different types of `Permanite' and `Champion' jointings for various applications as recommended by the manufacturers.

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"PERMANITE" CAF JOINTINGS THK 0.4, 0.5, 0.75, 1.2 , 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 & 3.0 mm TYPE OF BRIEF SERVICE MAX.TEM- MAX.PRES JOINTING DESCRIPTION RECOMMENDED P -SURE NON-METALIC Crystotitle asbestos Saturated steam and 540 o c 140 kg/cm2 fiber intimately high pressure super blended with heat heated steam .Also resisting rubber suitable for gases compound and ,alkalis, weak acids , vulcanized oils solvents & most chemicals in every type of plant METALLIC High grade asbestos High pressure steam 600 o c 70 kg /cm2 fiber bonded with a application, heat resisting rubber particullary those compound , reinforced where narrow , with a fine mesh steel flanged gaskets are in wire gauze & use . It is also vulcanized extensively employed in air compressors and for main joints on internal combustion engines OIL High grade asbestos Hot oils, petroleum 540 o c 140 kg/cm2 fiber bonded with a distilates , solvents & rubber compound some refrigerents in having exceptional pipe flange and for resistance to oils and gasketed joints in oil vulcanized cracking plants , coal distallation units and high pressure stills . For water , steam and general AERO (NON Asbestos fiber of the Aviation fuels and 540 o c 140 kg/cm2 METALIC ) highest grade blended lubrication oils in the with a heat resisting gasketed joints of rubber compound & aero engines . Also vulcanized suitable for use on machined pipe flanges against steam , gases & weak acids ACID (NONAsbestos fiber Hot or cold 205 o c 140 kg/cm2 METALLIC ) intimately blended concentrated nitric with an acid resisting hydrochloric or compound sulphuric acids including oleum. For use in pipe flanges and for the gasketed joints of chemical and acid plant of all kinds CAF 9 Asbestos fiber in which Wet steam , water , 430 o c 70 kg/cm2
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CAF 40

high grade bonding compound is used and vulcanized High pressure steam jointing

CAF 20 STYLE 20 (STEAM) STYLE 39

E High pressure steam jointing Red or graphited Asbestos fiber , vulcanized with special rubber compound red /grey or graphited Asbestos fiber bonded with high grade binder compound Bron/Grey or graphited Excellent quality of chrysolite asbestos fiber blended with heat resisting rubber compounds .

gases and alkalies and for transportation of oils at normal termps. Used in extensive applications through out a wide range of industry against steam , water , gas, alkalies and many chemicals Stream , water, gases and alkalies Steam Dry & wet steam water gases alkalies , oils at normal tempartures , chemicals , fuels & general engg. Steam , Neutral non flammable gases , lyes alkaline soulations , fats & oils , alcohols , motor fuels etc. Superheated & saturated steam oxygen , petroleum distillates , oils & fats fuels , internal combustion engines , hydro-carbons , alchols, solvents ,lyes,etc . popularly used in marine engines electricity generating sets , etc. High pressures & tempertures . Rapidly changing operating conditions of pressure , where vibrations are experienced , where the flange of the gasket joint is narrow in diesel exhaust manifold cylinder and head gaskets . I.C engines and air compressors

380 o c

35 kg/cm2

380 o c 380 o c 440 o c

19 kg/cm2 35 kg/cm2 80 kg/cm2

STYLE 51 (HIGH PRESSURE ) STYLE 54 SUPER

440 o c

80 kg/cm2

550 o c

150 kg/cm2

TYLE 54 SUPER METALLIC

CAF graphited embedded with a strong reinforcement of steel wire gauge Graphited Black

600 o c

160 kg/cm2

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STYLE 59

Asbestos fiber bonded with a sophisticated compound Dark Grey

Petrochemicals fields , petroleum distillates ,oil and petroleum refining industries . In industrial processes with high contents aromatic substances , sulphurous , compounds , chloric , hydrocarbons , phenols , refrigerants , etc.

550 o c

150 kg/cm2

SEALS There are also types if seals which do not conform exactly to the basic definitions of static seals and dynamic seals. Thus some static seals (by function) may also be designed to accommodate limited movement of the surfaces being sealed, eg. to accommodate swiveling motions in flexible couplings for pipes. These are sometimes called semi-static seals, flexible (static) seals or seudo-static seals. Seal Categories and Types Dynamic seals fall into two main categories : .i) Contact seals where the seal bears against its mating surface under positive pressure. ii) Clearance seals which operate with positive clearance (ie. no rubbing contact). The majority of dynamic seal types in general use come in the former category, operating with rubbing contact separated only (and lubricated) by a thin oil film. They fall into two distinct classifications - compression seals and pressure - energized seals. Compression seals generate radial pressure for sealing by squeeze imparted to a soft gland material or packing ring(s) when the gland is tightened, expanding the material radially Fig-1. The actual packing material is usually in the form of a cut length of suitable section inserted into the gland, forming in effect a series of cut rings which are then compressed by tightening the gland nuts to close the effective gland length and apply radial pressure between the face of the packing and the surface over which it slides. Compression seals of this type are true packings and may be employed for both dynamic and static applications, both as reciprocating and rotary seals. They are also suitable for sealing in either direction of (reciprocating) motion and are thus double-acting seals. Their particular application is for heavy duty (reciprocating) rod seals or rotary shaft seals.
PACKING GLAND HOUSING

GLAND FOLLOW SLEEVE SLEEVE 22 THORAT BUSH LANTERN

23

There are other types of compression seals which employ rigid ring sections which generate their contact pressure by being sprung into place (eg. piston rings) or by applied spring pressure (eg. metallic split-ring seals). Pressure-energized dynamic seals fall into two categories.The first comprises solid elastomeric rings (such as O-rings and rectangular rings) which are assembled in grooves with an interference fit. This imparts a squeeze or preload pressure providing sealing in the static condition (they may also be used as purely static seals). Under fluid pressure acting on one side of the seal through the clearance gap the elastomeric section is deformed, increasing the interface pressure by an amount equal to the fluid pressure. Thus if the preload pressure is P and the fluid pressure is P, the effective interface pressure under `working' conditions is P+Po - Fig.2. Since this is greater than the actual fluid pressure (P), sealing is maintained. This holds goods as long as the seal does not extrude into the clearance gap. Seals of this type may be double-acting, ie. capable of sealing in either direction with reciprocating motions.

The other category of pressure energized seal employs a `hallow' section with a flexible lip (or lips) - Fig. 3. Again it is assembled with an interference fit giving a preload pressure P. Fluid pressure (P) acting on the section then further increases the interface pressure to P+P. Ring seals may be asymmetric in the sense that they have only one `working' side, eg. they will work only as a rod seal or a piston seal, and may be referred to as such. These are sometimes referredto as internal or external seals respectively - Fig. 4.

23 EXTERANAL SEALS

24

INTERNAL SEALS

Yet another type of dynamic (rotary) seal is the narrow lip seal encircled by a garter coil spring. Again it is assembled with an interference fit, preload pressure being produced in this case by stretching the spring. This type of seal has low friction (because of the narrow lip size) and relatively limited pressure sealing capability (increasing the preload pressure via a stronger garter spring would cause excessive wear of the narrow lip). It is used exclusively as an oil seal for rotating shafts. Commonly called a radial lip seal. O-RING The O-ring is one of the simplest and most vertasile type of seal with a wide range of applications for both static and dynamic sealing satisfactory performance, however, depends on the material characteristics, suitable matching groove geometry with close tolerances and smooth surface finish on mating surfaces. Basically an O-ring seal comprises a moulded elastomeric circular section ring nipped in a cavity in which the ring is located. Such seal can be made completely leakproof for static seals upto extremely high pressures; and satisfactorily leakproof for dynamic application and fluid pressures upto 350 bar. It does not necessary follow that because an O-ring is suitable for a particular application its performance will be superior to that of an alternative type of seal. Under actual working condition the usual clearance gap involved may be modified by expansion or contraction of the elements involved under change of temperature or of pressure. Over looking this factor can lead to extrusion troubles. Thus for operating at low temperature, it may be necessary to reduce the groove depth to allow for contraction of the ring and provide the required squeeze on the contracted size. Similarly, for high temperature working it may be advisable to increase the groove depth slightly to avoid excessive squeeze on the expanded ring at the working temperature. Groove Geometry The ideal groove form is purely rectangular although a taper of not more than 5o is permissible for easy of machining. A radius of 0.50 to 0.75 mm (0.020 - 0.030 in) is normally specified

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at the internal recesses and a top edge radius of 0.12 to 0.25 mm (0.005 to 0.0010 in) to eliminate a cutting edge. This radius must be kept small as otherwise it will assist extrusion.

III A

Groove radial depth

Surface finish Groove finish is important as it affects the wear and life of the seal, although the requirements are not to onerous. A finish of better than 0.75 mm (37 inch) is recommended.An ultra-fine finish is not necessary but obviously burrs, scares or definite machining marks should be removed. The finish of the surface over which the O-ring rubs in dynamic application (eg) a rod or cylinder bore must be of a high order, preferably better than 0.4 m (16 in) Ra. The surface must also be free from longitudinal scratch or machining marks and chatter marks. Circumferential marks may be acceptable, but polishing or hard chrome plating are recommended finishes for maximum O-ring life in dynamic applications. In the case of static applications a very much rougher sur-face finish (eg) 0.75 to 1.25 m (30-50 in.) Ra is acceptable although the lower figure is desirable for high pressure working. It is one of the advantage of the O-ring used as a static seal that is effective with a much rougher and there-fore cheaper, surface finish than is required for gaskets. The exception is the solid PTFE ring, whilst this can be fitted in standard grooves, it is more effective located in a rounded groove - Fig. 7.

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Material Nitric rubber Acrylate ester Buttyl rubber Polyurethane Ethylene propyline Fulorocarbon Silicons Chioroprene

Work temp. range o c -40 to +100 -10 to +150 -35 to +100 -50 to +90 -55 to +150 -40 to +230 -40 to +230 -40 to +100

Remarks Suitable for the majority of applications . Better heat resistance than nitrile , other wise similar Resistance to synthetic fluids High resistance to abrasive wear Resistant to synthetic fluids (not resistant to mineral oils ) Excellent resistant to heat and most fluids High temp . applications (static seals only ) Good resistance to low temperatures ,ozone and acids

O-Ring Swell Compatibility between the O-ring material and the fluid with which it is in contact is a major factor affecting selection, but a point of some significance is that even when the Oring material is accepted as compatible it may still be subject to a volume change when immersed in the fluid. This can affect the effective squeeze. Lubrication is a further factor of same significance. In many dynamic applications the O-ring is lubricated by the fluid with which it is in contact and may also be lubricated with the same

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fluid to assist initial assembly. In other cases where the fluid concerned lacks lubricity, definite lubrication of the O-ring is necessary as wear on dry seal will be high. The same applies to initial assembly. All metal parts which will contact the seal, and the O-ring itself should be lubricated before assembly. This applies both to static and dynamic seals. O-ring Material Nitrile rubber Service Fuel , oil or hydraulic systems pneumatics , general high pressure , high speed pneumatic vacuum systems Vacuum systems High temparture hydraulics High temparture pneumatics Lubricant System fluid barium grease silicone oil Castor oil or cellulose ester System fluid Silicone grease

Silicone fluoroeleastomer

Felt Seals Felt is a fabric composed of interlocking fibers of wool used alone or combined with animal, vegetable and synthetic fibers. It is a material which has long been used for sealing duties because of numerous favourable characteristics, notably its oil wicking and oil absorption properties, effectiveness as a fine filter and resilience. The latter enables a felt seal to maintain constant sealing pressure under adverse operating condition, or wear, with wear, too, the surface of a felt seal remain unchanged - ie. it does not glaze like many other materials. Felt seals are used mainly as oil or grease seals on shaftsfor retaining lubricant. They are cut from felt sheet in a variety of ring shapes for installation in grooves or glands, or in casings for catridge assembly, cupped or flanged felt seals are also produced. Ball bearing seals are cut to fit a machined housing. Felt seal rings are usually presaturated with lubricants of slightly creates viscosity than that used in the bearing. Felt seal preventing dust or dirt from entering the sealed systems. Felt seals properly cut and properly installed are effective over a variety of operating conditions and a wide range of speeds. Normal maximum rubbing speed is 10 m/sec. (2000 ft/min) but can be as high as 20 m/sec (4000 ft/min) where shafts are hard and smooth and ample lubricants its present in the seal. Felt seals are replaced when a machine is overhauled, regardless of condition, it overhaul periods are frequent, the designer of the seal housing should allow for easy replacement where long periods are specified between overhauls felt seals may require replacement at more frequent intervals. Specific points applying design and installation of the felt seals are :

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.i) Avoid excessive stretching when mounting. ii) The felt seal must not be fitted too tightly to the shaft and the retainer should not exert an excessive compressive force on the felt. iii)In the usual installation, the height of the felt ring section should be greater than its width. This proportion minimize seals distortion and permits film clamping of the felt in its groove. iv)When ring felt seals are not practical due to design or size, strip felts seals can be economical and effective, if properly installed. However, when a strip seal is used the joints should be leveled at an angle of 30o so that the compression of felt in the carries groove fills any gap. Temperature limits for felt seals are normally -50 to +120o C (-60o to +250o F).

Oil Seals A more or less standard form of lip seal has been developed for shaft oil seals, intended for sealing low pressures of the order of 0.3 bars (51 b/in2). Further developed forms are available for sealing high pressures and some types may also be used for reciprocating seals on rods or movements having a very short stroke. Sealing performance depends largely on a suitable unit load being maintained at the seal-shaft interface. This may be achieved by preloaded when assembled (ie. the free inner diameter of the seal is an interference fit) or more usually by a certain degree of preloaded together with mechanical pressure applied by a garter spring. The complete section either in the form of a metal shell casing by which the flexible member is encased (or to which it is bonded) or combining a metal insert moulded integral with the -elastomeric ring. .

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Typical form of oil seal and nomenclature 1. Deep rim affords perfect spring retention. 2. Large face angle brings sealing edge well below spring 3. Knife edge contact at sealing point 4. Sealing point stiffened against local deformation by large included angle 5. Shaft angle gives adequate clearance 6. This section stiffened to prevent deformation under load 7. Flexible web 8. Gaco skin affords better fluid tight fit in housing Sealing is provided by the surface tension of the hydrodynamic oil film between the seal lip and shaft - Fig. 2. Optimum oil film thickness is of the order of 25 m (0.001 in). Any greater film thickness tends to promote leakage. Any less film thickness increases friction and wear. The continued presence of a consistent oil film is thus most important in providing lubrication for the seal.General recommendation is that the shaft surface finish should be of the order of 0.25 - 0.50 m (10-20 in), with a surface pattern that promotes retension of oil. Almost all seals of this type depend on a suitable garter spring pressure to provide adequate radial loading on the sealing edge. The spring normally employed is a simple closed-coil tension type, specifically proportioned to provide adequate radial loading on the sealing edge. The spring normally employed is a simple closed-coil tension type, specifically roportioned to provide the required or design load when extended to its normal working length - ie. its actual length when the seal is assembled. The normal method of installation of oil seals is with the open or exposed spring side facing the volume to be sealed although there are exceptions. When initially assembled with a diametrical interference the sealing edge will be in intimate contact with the shaft and possibly slightly distorted if a true knife edge. Initial rotation of shaft will therefore produce a period of wear until the sealing edge beds down to a definite contact strip. At the same time an oil film will be established under the lip and on which the lip rides. Bedding down will normally be accomplished in quite a short period. Limits are normally given for the peripheral speed of a particular type or series of seal and it can be accepted that any rubbing speed upto this limit is acceptable. Typically this is of the 18 m/sec (3500 ft/min). In this respect it should be appreciated that with smaller sizes of

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shafts the actual rev/min should be considered as well as peripheral speed and it is normally ndesirable to exceed the following rev/min figs with standard oil seals. Shaft under 30 mm (1 1/4 in) diameter - 7000 - 8000 rev/minShaft diameter 60-70 mm (2 1/2-3 in) 3000 - 4000 rev/min Nominal limits for intermediate values of shaft diameter can be estimated by interpolation. For shaft above 75 mm (3 in) diameter the rev/min limit can be estimated purely on peripheral speed. For slow and medium speed applications a some what modified form of a seal may be preferred with a broader lip. This will have a lower maximum permissible peripheral speed. A similar lower speed limit will also normally apply to lip seal designed to resist higher internal pressures than the 0.3 - 0.75 bar (5-10 lb/in2) nominal characteristics of conventional oil seals. Housing Permissible tolerance on bore diameter for the machined housing is normally of the order of .025 mm ( 0.001 in) for bore diameters 100-177 mm (4-7 in) and +- 0.051 mm (+-0.002 in) for bore diameters over 177 mm (7 inch). Note, however, that with some types of seals with rigid metal casings or inserts the housing may have to be finished undersize relative to the specified bore diameter of the seal to accommodate a desired amount of press-fit interference. It is important that the bore be finished smooth and free from longitudinal scratches. Double Lip Seals Some oil seal sections are designed with double lips invarious configurations. These range from the use of the second lip as a secondary dust seal to back-to-back sections are duplex seals to provide equal sealing efficiency in either axial direction. The advantage of a single seal in duplex form for this duty is that it can be made more compact than two single lip seals mounted back-to-back. Fitting Seals The most common cause of failure of oil seals is damage caused to the seal during handling, storage or more usually fitting. It cannot be emphasized too strongly that oil seals should always be handled with extreme care. They should be stored in clean, dry atmosphere preferably in air tight containers and never in random heaps where the sealing lips could get damaged. Before fitting individual seals should be examined thoroughly to ensure that the lip is not scratched or damaged, that the garter spring is correctly located and that the seal is clean and dust free. The lip can then be coated with clean grease immediately prior to assembly.

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The actual method of assembly will depend on whether the seal has to be assembled over the shaft first and then pressed into the housing or pressed into the housing first and the shaft then entered. The former method is to be preferred, where possible. The use of a tapered fitting sleeve or bullet is recommended for fitting the seal over a shaft and is virtually essential if the seal it to be passed over a splined shaft and or key way Fig. progress of the seal will be assisted by a slight rotary motion.

Housing and shaft chambers L (minimum) = 0.047 in per dias. upto 5 in. (housing) = 0.062 in per dias. over 5 in. L (min) shaft upto 1 in dia - 0.188 2 in - 4 in dia - 0.250 1 in - 2 in dia - 0.218 4 in - 6 in dia - 0.313 For pressing into the housing a bell piece used, slightlysmaller in diameter than the seal diameter, with firm uniform pressure applied, preferably by an arbor press the outside of the seal can be lightly greased to assist entry, facilitated also by the leading edge chamfer on the housing. Liquid Sealant Liquid sealant fall broadly into 3 categories : 1. Mastic or joint sealant (general purpose sealant) 2. Liquid gaskets 3. Thread sealants and thread lacking compounds. Mastics Mastics are used by building trade for bedding sealing frames, joints, etc. The majority may be classified as general purpose sealants.

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Table-1 : Types of joint sealant Chemical type Oleo-Resins Base Drying and non drying oils , resins &fillers Pretreatment Require primers to give adhesion to porous surface Remarks Best suited to lap joint but can be tamped into butt joints . Available in strip from or for knife or gun application Cold pouresd (set by solvent action) or hotpoured . Very wide range of compositions from soft, sticky compounds to hard rubber strips Wide range of compositions from soft elastic materials to hard rubbers . available in a wide range of colours usual base of caulking compounds Remain fully elastic . Available in a range of colours Remain fully elastic Plastic in nature

Rubber Bitumen Butyl

Polysulphide

Natural or synthetic rubber compounded with bitumenor pitch Butyl rubbers or degraded butyl rubbers , used alone or in combination with solvents , oils , extenders , etc. Single or two part mixtures based on poly-sulphide poly mers two part mixtures cure by chemical reaction fast Single part chemically curing silicone elastomer Two part self curing mixtures based on polyure than polymers Mixture of acrylic polyment

Movement accomdation of the order of 10% Can be skin forming , non skinning , nor drying or curing (curing types cure by solvent evepration ) Preimers required on most porous & friable surfaces

Silicone Polyurethane Acrylic Liquid Gaskets

Require primers on most porous and friable surface Primers required on most surface for adequate adhesion -

Liquid gaskets are also sealants but specifically formulated to contain fluids under pressure and provide an alternative to gaskets or static seals . They fall into three general categories non hardening , semi hardening and hardening compounds . Non hardening compounds are really mastics with limited adhesive properties . They remain soft or wet in the sense that they contain plasticizers which continually come to the surface . Semi hardening and herdning compounds are both curing or setting adhesive , the difference being that the joints is either flexible or rigid respectively . Table II details typical categories and type of sealing compounds and their application . Sealing compounds can also be classified under 5 further headings . 1. General jointing compounds 2. Specialized gasket or static seal replacement compounds 3. Retaining compounds
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4. 5.

Hot melt adhesive Film adhesives 6. Threads sealing adhesives The chief property required of a thread-sealing adhesive is gap-filling ability to provide a gasor liquid - tight seal. At the same time it will usually provide a varying degree of thread locking depending on the type of adhesive used. It is more important however that the property of the adhesive be tailered so that it could not extrude and block the pipe when assembled or extrude or disintegrate under pressure. It must also be fully compatible with the type of fluid carried by the pipe. Thread sealants for general pipe sealing applications are usually medium strength, medium viscosity adhesive. Thread-locking adhesives Thread adhesive are formulated primarily with the necessary strength to provide the required break-out torque on a screwed assembly. Their gap-filling properties, and thus sealing properties are largely governed by the viscosity of the adhesive used. Low strength adhesives are normally used for locking screws and nut where the components must be removable. Gap-filling requirement are met by using an adhesive with a low viscosity for small screws and nuts, eg. 6 mm (1/4 in) or less and a medium viscosity for large size. lternatively since a slightly greater degree of gap-filling is required for locking female (nut) thread than male (screw) threads of same size, individual manufacturers may specify different viscosity adhesives for screws and nuts. Higher strength adhesive are require for locking studs, and here again a medium viscosity is usually used for optimum gap-filling properties high strength adhesive are used for Permanent locking of threads (eg. nuts and screws) Adhesive types used may be i)One part selfcuring containing solvent ii)One part anaerobic iii) Two part, curing by the admixture of catalyst or accelerator iv)`Passivated' pre-applied adhesive Curing or setting time depends on the size and nature of the joint and the temperature. Setting time in the case of self-setting and anaerobic adhesives may be accelerated by the application of a catalyst, either as an additive or directly to the surface to be coated prior to the Application of an anaerobic adhesive. FLEXIBLE LIP SEALS The U-ring is one of the earliest designs of pressure-energized lip seals, primarily intended for dynamic applications where low friction is required and/or generous tolerances

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are desirable, eg. as piston head or gland seals in hydraulic and pneumatic cylinders. Homogeneous rubber Urings are particularly effective for sealing at low to moderate pressures. U-ring designed for pressures in excess of 175 bar (2500 lb/in2) or where the extrusion gap exceeds 0.65 mm (0.025 in) can incorporate anti-extrusion heels in a semi-flexible or rigid material or use them in combination with headers and/or back-up rings. They are used only as reciprocating seals. The heel of the section is a vulnerable point, since this is where the section is subject to maximum stress, which makes the material more prone to abrasive wear or cutting. It is also the point at which extrusion can occur. Damage to the heel can also effect the proper functioning of the flexible lip by modifying the stress distribution throughout the section . Resistance to nibbling and wear can be increased by using a rounded heel section, although some designs specifically incorporate a square base for use in conjunction with a back-up ring. Other basic variations are the use of either chamfered or squared off lips. V-RINGS V-rings, also known as chevron seals, have a more robust section than U-rings and can better withstand both axial and radial loading. Their pressure rating and low pressure sealing capability can both be increased by using two or more rings in a set, together with female and male adapters or headers (Fig. 3). This, in fact, is the normal employment of V-rings (ie. in sets rather than individual rings). Headers may be solid or vented and in some casesspring loaded headers may be used for automatic compensation for wear. V-ring may be made of leather, homogeneous rubber or rubber impregnated fabric. V-ring sections are normally similar, regardless of the material used, although there are some variations in the form of moulded rubber V-rings. Headers are usually metal, but may be rubber impregnated fabric, glass-filled nylon, acetal resin and sometimes hard rubber.V-rings sets may include rubber rings interposed with fabric rings, the greater elasticity of the rubber ring(s) improving sealing under static conditions or under low pressures. On smaller diameter seals rubber rings may alternate with fabric rings, but with larger diameters the number of rubber rings is usually restricted. ***********

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