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    10 views14 pages

    Ionizantes

    Uploaded by

    Tania Reyes

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    of 14
    CHAPTER lonizing Detection Units OUTLINE Leaming Objectives Introduction Photoionization Detectors Flame lonization Detectors Corona Discharge lonization Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry In Summary Key Terms Review Questions LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion ofthis chapter, you should be abe to: Describe the ionization process Describe the various types of ionization detection devices . 1m Identify the uses for ionization detection devices 1 Compare the various types of ionization detection types and their use in emergengy response Hazardous Materials Alarm The hazardous materials unit was called for mutual aid to an adjacent county to assist with a fire in an apartment building that had been burning for some time but had no known hazardous materials. What was known was that two firefighters were in critical condition at shock trauma, one in respiratory arrest. They were being sent to the hyper. baric chamber for treatment of some unknown respiratory problem, When we arrived, it was determined that about 30 other firefighters were experiencing some problems as well. The fire was stil burning, but there was no report of any materials that had been found that may have been the source. Some air monitoring on the scene was done without much success. On a whim, we decided to check the air bottle of one of the downed firefighters. When the photoionization detector (PID) was put into the air stream, it provided a hit. We set up some apparatus to test the air in the self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) bottles. We found that the air in the SCBA was providing readings ‘on the PID and that in the colorimetric testing we found some questionable contaminants and carbon monoxide in excess of 70 ppm. These problems were found in many of the bottles we had confiscated. At 3 a.m., we contacted ‘ur local lab, and with split samples, we headed to the lab. We would drop the other samples off at the state lab in the morning. That morning the lab came back with the test results from a gas chromatoaraph/mass spectrometer and reported that the air had components of gasoline in it. We identified the source as a compressor unit that hac compressed on the scene; the engine was not running well, and there were some concerns with the location of the air intake hose. The PID followed up by colorimetrics was essential to solving this problem. The firefighters recoverec and were released a few days later. 1. Normal air does not contain toxic vapors; how does one detect toxic vapors? 2. What is the dangerous level of any vapor called? another detector with the ability to detect potentially Introduction , ; “ toxic materials in the air. Both devices use a form of Tonization is a common sensing technology and is used ina variety of detection devices. This chapter focuses on ionizing devices used for hazardous materials re- sponse, while Chapter 11 focuses on ionizing devices used for the detection of potential weapons of mass destruction (WMD) materials. The most common detector of general toxic risks is the photoionization detector (PID), which may bea separate detection device or incorporated into a multigas detection device with other sensors. The flame ionization detector (FID) is ionization, which is the creation of charged ions that canbe read bya sensor. The use of an ionizing detection device is common in the scientific community. There are several methods for providing ionizing energy through ionization. First and most common in the field is PID, which uses an ultraviolet lamp, while the FID uses a hydrogen-fed flame. Another method of ionization is the use of corona discharge, which will be described later. Some devices may use a radiation source to perform the ionization. IONIZATION Itis important to understand the process of ionization as it ap- plies in this chapter as well as Chapter 11. Gases and vapors are comprised of various atoms, which under normal condition do not cany a charge and are neutral Its possible during some conditions that an atom could gain or lose electrons, which would change the electrical makeup ofthe atom. When they become charged, they ate known as ions and cary an electrical charge, ether positive or negative. lonization is possible when electrons are lost or gained. tonizing devices ae setup in two methods one that quantifies the amount of material preset based in comparison to the calibration 42s and/or one that dents the material Both require a form of ionization, while the method that identifies adds software and a method to analyze the results of the ionization. When a sample 2s enters 2 device its ionized, and it enters the sensing chamber where the positive or negative charged ions are detected. The term ions" means an atom has a charge and isthe key to how ionization ‘The method of ionization may vary, but the end result, is the same. The resulting change in electrical activity is measured against that of a known gas, which is the calibration gas. The PID, FID, and the corona discharge sensors use ionization to detect a variety of gases, but the mechanism to complete that ionization differs. As can be seen in TABLE 7-1, the lower explosive limit (LEL) sensor does not detect at a low enough level to protect responders against toxic risks. For hazardous materials teams, a PID is an essential device, one whose Known Informa Values Actua spilled chemical Phenol Le 18% OSHA PEL 5 ppm NIOSH REL 5 ppm tou 250 ppm Reading from Catalytic | Bead LEL Sensor Parts Per Mi Calibrated to Phenol (%) _in Air Equivalent 100 18,000 50 9000 25 4500 10 (meter alarms) 1800 3 540 m 180 (0.8 (meter would show 0) 141 (© Jones & Batt Leaning CHAPTER 7 lonizing Detection Units 841 identities a material. A simple ionization device (PID) merely detects the electrical change within the sensor housing, nd move complex | systems have a sensing tube and track he time it takes the ions to travel down the tube, measuring the activity tthe end of the tube. lons havea unique travel time and, in combination withthe ident fication of the electrical charge, help identify the molecule For more explanation on how ionization works with devices that identify ma teal, see Chapter 11. value cannot be overstated. Departments without a PID are taking a serious risk, as they do not have an easy method of detecting common potentially toxic materials. The PID, FID, and the corona discharge sensors use ionization to detec a variety of gases. These detectors identi the potential tox risk that chemicals present. The ion mobility spectrometry (OMS) devices the only one that can potential identify the material Photoionization Detectors Sometimes referred to asa total vapor survey instrument, PID can detect organic and some inorganic gases, in- cluding ammonia, arsine, phosphine, hydrogen sulfide, bromine, and iodine. Because of its ability to detect a ‘wide variety of gases in small amounts, it is an essential tool of response teams. The PID does not indicate what materials are present; it just identifies that something {sin the air. Some units are stand-alone units or can be included in a multigas unit (FIGURES 7-1 and 7-2). Used asa general survey instrument, the PID can alert responders to potential areas of concern and possible leaks/contamination. The original PIDs were designed for the petroleum refining and storage industry and are widely used during underground storage tank (UST) removals. Because of their sensitive nature, they can detect small amounts of hydrocarbons in the soil. Odor complaints (sick building) calls are on the increase, and the PID is a valuable tool in identifying possible hot spots within the building. PIDs even have a valuable use in possible terrorism events because all the chemical agents can be detected by a PID. The PD does nt indicate what materials ae present it just iden- ties that something isin the ai 82 Hazardous Materials: Monitoring and Detection Devices asi aS FIGURE 7-1 A stand-alone PID. phy FIGURE 7-2 A multigas PID. lr 8 ae ering tp Ean, ‘The biggest advantage that a PID hasis its sensitivity, as most standard devices start to read at 0.1 ppm. Most, PID monitors can read up to 2000 ppm, and several monitors read to 10,000 ppm. This reading in parts per million is for the calibrated gas, which is usually isobutylene. RAE Systems by Honeywell has a PID that, reads into the parts per billion (ppb), a very sensitive instrument (FIGURE 7-3). ‘When the gas is unknown, we call the reading meter units. A reading of 135 on a PID that reads 0.1-2000 ppm for an unidentified gas would be called 135 meter units, which means the meter moved 135 units out of a scale of 2000. Chemicals with a permissible exposure limit (PEL) or threshold limit value (TLV) of less than ‘500 ppm are considered toxic, so the PID is useful in identifying these levels. The problem with using the LEL, sensors, except for the metal oxide sensor (MOS), is the fact that they require high levels to begin to read. Except for the MOS, LEL sensors do not begin reading unless the levels exceed 50 ppm. We can convert the readings found on an LEL monitor to parts per million by using FIGURE 7-3 A ppb PID. he ae Lain Meta Gn an, Be sonia Baader Percentage of Volume Equivalent ppm 1 10,000 2 20,000 5 50,000 10 100, 000 20 200,000 30 300,000 40 400,000 50 500,000 60 600,000 70 700,000, 80 800,000 90 900,000, 100 1,000,000 (© ones 8 Banet Leaning the formula found in TABLE 7-2. Some conversions are provided in Table 6-1. _ Itiseasy to see that one could bein significant trouble in regard to toxicity when an LEL sensor would not even indicate a problem. The PID is used to look for small concentrations in air, and LEL sensors are for the larger problems, most specifically the fire risk. TABLE 7-3 presents another example as to how it is easy to be fooled into thinking the atmosphere is safe. Suppose that you are responding to a reported odor of gas in an apartment building. Upon arrival you take your four-gas air monitor into the building. When responding to a reported gas odor, at what point do you don your facepiece? What meter reading (LEL sensor) would make you put your facepiece on? Do citizens always know natural gas from other chemical odors? Think about these answers before you read the table. ‘The table shows that at 0.8 percent of the LEL there are 141 ppm of phenol in the air. The LEL sensor at 0.8 percent would be reading 0, as it requires at least, 1 percent to indicate. At 1.6 percent, the meter would read 1, as it only reads whole numbers. If you just used. the LEL sensor, you could be in an environment that is more than half the immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH) without the monitor indicating any level. ‘Many responders use 10 percent or 25 percent of the foxicity Versus Fir | Known Information Values i © Ac piled ceil Phenol ut 18% OSHA PEL 5 ppm NIOSH REL Ibu Reading from Catalytic | Bead LEL Sensor Calibrated | to Phenol (%) Air Equivalent — 100 18,000 50 ‘9000 25 4500 10 meter alarms 1800 3 540, 1 180 0.8 (meter would show 0) 141 © Jones & Batt Learning CHAPTER 7 lonizing Detection Units 83 LELin which to put thei facepieces on or to take action, which would be 1688 and 4500 ppm, respectively. At these levels, there isa severe toxic risk to an unprotected responder. However, a PID with an 11.7 electron volt (eV) lamp would pick up this material at 0.1 ppm, a level that would offer far greater safety. VIFAFAMAAMAZAAAABATN SAFETY TIP Departments without a PID are taking a serious risk, as they do ‘not have an easy method of detecting common potentially toxic materials The PID uses an ultraviolet (UV) lamp to ionize contaminants in the air. The gas being sampled is composed of various molecules, and each molecule is made up of a variety of atoms, and each atom is made up of neutrons (neutral), electrons (negative), and pro- tons (positive). Ionization occurs when an electron is removed or added, resulting in a charged particle (an ion) being formed. The sensor detects the energy cre- ated with the electrons and the positively charged Because the sensor is calibrated with known quantities of gas, it can equate the change in electrical activity in the sensor to a reading. Once the gas is read by the sen- sors at the end of the sampling tube, the gas regains an electron and becomes whole again. A stand-alone PID is a nondestructive test, and one can collect a sample from the discharge end of the PID. The lamps for the photoionization detectors have varying strengths, just, as regular light bulbs have varying wattages. The PID lamps come in varying strengths and materials, the most common being a krypton-filled lamp with a magne- sium fluoride window (FIGURE 7-4). The strength of the lamp is 10.6 eV, the most common lamp sold to ‘emergency responders. The lamp strength is the indi- cation of the materials the PID will detect, as shown in TABLE 7-4. To be read by a PID, the vapor or gas to FIGURE 7-4 PID 10.6 eV ultraviolet lamps. Con ol Cnet, eee a 4 34 Hazardous Materials: Monitoring and Detection Devices be sampled must be able to be ionized, which is called Nel ee ieee CUCM R TCL od lonization potential (IP). The unit of measurement of eeu an IP is electron volts (eV). There are various types of UV lamps available; the most common are a 9.8, 10.2, } Detected Detected 106, and 11.7 eV. To read a vapor or a gas with a PID, lonization by 10.6 bya the gas must have an IP less than the eV rating on the Potential eV 117 ev lamp. The lamp strength varies according to the gas Chemical (eV) Lamp Lamp. inside the lamp and the material used to construct the lamp window. The 10.6 eV lamp is the most stable lamp econ eee i ts and lasts for more than a year. The 11.7 eV lamp has Acetylene Na x a window constructed of lithium fluoride lamps and typically lasts 6 months. RAE Systems by Honeywell ‘Ammonia 10.18 x x provides an 11.7 eV lamp ina sealed container. If you need the 11.7 eV lamp, take the 10.6 eV lamp out of Siete 23 z x the PID, unseal the 11.7 eV lamp, and install it in the Formaldehyde 10.88 x PID. At that point, the active life span clock begins. The 11,7 eV lamp is affected by water moisture and starts Freon 112 1130 x to degrade once in the open ait. x Hydrazine 8.93 x Hydrogen 13.60 ha onide The lamp swengt the indication ofthe materials the PID wil dete. Hydrogen 15 fluoride For example, to sample benzene, which has an IP of. Hydrogen 10.54 x x 9.2 eV, we must use a lamp of at least 9.2 eV or above. peroxide The standard 10.6 eV lamp would be acceptable to read arooen Ane: 7 x benzene. In most cases, gases that have IPs above the sulfide lamp strength cannot be read, although there is some carryover. Some common IPs are provided in Table 6-3. Methane 13.0 ‘Vapors in excess of the lamp strength will read in some fashion, but its nowhere near an accurate reading. Keep Matty, 10.84 as in mind that the PID is calibrated to a specific material, usually using isobutylene as the calibrating gas, so cor- Methyl ethyl a0 : x rection factors apply here as they did with LEL sensors. ane ‘The LEL sensors have low response factors, but the PIDs have some large numbers for correction factors. Some Nitrous 1289 examples are shown in TABLE 7-5. PIDs can pick up oxide readings from toxic substances but also can detect baby oil, motor oil, gasoline, and many other hydrocarbons. Phenol SS: im is Many liquid pesticides are 0.5 percent to 50 percent ene aise x solution mixed with xylene, trimethyl benzene, and ‘emulsifiers that are easily detected by the PID. Most Propane 11.07 x drum dumps spill waste oil, fuel oil, and the like, so the a aan PID isa valuable resource in protecting responders and abk z the public from toxic materials, One confusing issue with the PIDs is what is consid- ea on 7 x ered to be a toxic reading for unidentified gases when using a PID. Many agencies use the general rule of Tiethylamine 75 x x thumb for an occupancy that has chemicals in use that a reading of less than 50 ppm is acceptable. There is no Xylene 8.56 x zt easy answer when trying to determine what constitutes © Jones & Baler Lesing ‘toxic environment when using a PID a¢ many ther er Kecnetunz sry Lagi) 98eV 10.6eV11.7eV Chemical Lamp CF LampCF Lamp CF ‘Ammonia NR 109 57 Ethanol - 96 3 Ethylene = B 35 oxide Ethyl 0.60 0.56 - rmercaptan Phosphine 28 39 1 Propylene 18 42 16 lycol Exceed from RAE Spstens by Honeynel TN 106, factors come into play in answering that question. The two primary considerations are location or occupancy and biological indicators. There are certain occupan- cies, such as print shops, gas stations, paint, and auto parts stores, to name a few, in which a PID will read the vapors in the air. The determination of whether that atmosphere is toxic is based on the predominant ma- terial in the air and what that chemical’s PEL is, It can be anticipated that in a paint store, where throughout the day containers have been opened and spills ae likely to have occurred, vapors may escape their containers. This mixture in the air would be considered normal and probably would not exceed the PEL. You could anticipate readings of 20-300 meter units in this type of occupancy. However, in a home, other than in the «garage or the basement, there should not be any toxic vapors in the ait, so the PID should read close to the background level. If the PID is used in the garage, it could be anticipated that some readings might be ob- tained in the area where chemicals may be stored, but you would have to be fairly close to the containers, and the readings should be low. As another example, in a bedroom nothing should cause the meter to go above background. If you do find readings, then there is a problem in that house that needs to be corrected. That does not mean that the problem is toxic or life threat- ening, only that there are vapors in the air that should not be there and should be investigated to determine ifthey are hazardous. The biological indicators (humans) are also crucial toan investigation. Ifthe occupants of the building have CHAPTER 7 lonizing Detection Units BES any signs or symptoms and you are reasonably certain that they are real, then any reading above background ona PID should be considered. Such a reading means that there is something in the air in tiny amounts that is causing people problems. Encountering dead people and getting a PID reading of 1 meter unit means that something extremely toxic isin the ar, in tiny amounts, and at those levels has killed some people. The best way to really learn how to use a PID and to be able to inter- pret any readings is to use the PID all,the time. When doing inspections or facility tours, take the PID with you. Use the meter in “normal” situations to learn what ‘ets it off and what anticipated readings you may find. The best way to really learn how to se a PID and tobe able to interpret any reacings i to use the PID all the time. Following is a list of some problems with PIDs: The biggest factor in the use of a PID is that humidity plays.a role in the reading. Some ‘manufacturers have automatic humidity ‘adjustments for their instruments. Some manufacturers provide correction factors for humidity, and other instruments electronically correct for humidity. Humidity can affect PIDs in ‘two ways: First, ifa PID has a dirty lamp anda dirty sensing area, the water vapor may create a short, which causes a meter reading. The second and ‘more common effect is the quenching problem. If there is humidity around the lamp, much as fog absorbs the energy of headlights, the meter readings for the chemical of interest are depressed. For all devices, its best to calibrate your device in conditions as cose as you can tothe conditions you will be using the device in. This is important with a PID, depending on the calibration gas mixture. = The lamps are affected by dirt and dust and require cleaning. Environments that have diesel exhaust and other particulate matter such as mown grass may affect the meter. Saltwater or hard water environments may affect the lamp as ‘well. Some devices require hands-on cleaning, while others have a lamp-cleaning mode. The lamp-

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